JAVA Tutotial

JAVA Tutorial For Beginners
01. Java Introduction:
What is Java?
Java is a popular programming language, created in 1995.

It is owned by Oracle, and more than 3 billion devices run Java.
It is used for:
 Mobile applications (specially Android apps)

 Desktop applications
 Web applications
 Web servers and application servers
 Games
 Database connection
And much, much more!
Why Use Java?
 Java works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
 It is one of the most popular programming languages in the world
 It has a large demand in the current job market
 It is easy to learn and simple to use
 It is open-source and free
 It is secure, fast and powerful
 It has a huge community support (tens of millions of developers)
 Java is an object oriented language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to
be reused, lowering development costs
 As Java is close to C++ and C#, it makes it easy for programmers to switch to Java or vice versa
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02. Java Quickstart
In Java, every application begins with a class name, and that class must match the filename.
Let's create our first Java file, called Main.java, which can be done in any text editor (like Notepad).
The file should contain a "Hello World" message, which is written with the following code:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}
Save the code in Notepad as "Main.java". Open Command Prompt (cmd.exe), navigate to the directory
where you saved your file, and type "javac Main.java":
This will compile your code. If there are no errors in the code, the command prompt will take you to the
next line. Now, type "java Main" to run the file.
The output should read: Hello World
Congratulations! You have written and executed your first Java program.
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03. Java Syntax
In the previous chapter, we created a Java file called Main.java, and we used the following code to print
"Hello World" to the screen:
public class Main {

}
}
Example explained
Every line of code that runs in Java must be inside a class. In our example, we named the class Main.
A class should always start with an uppercase first letter.
Note: Java is case-sensitive: "MyClass" and "myclass" has different meaning.
The name of the java file must match the class name. When saving the file, save it using the class name
and add ".java" to the end of the filename.
The main Method

The main() method is required and you will see it in every Java program:
public static void main(String[] args)
Any code inside the main() method will be executed.
System.out.println()
Inside the main() method, we can use the println() method to print a line of text to the screen:

}
Note: The curly braces {} marks the beginning and the end of a block of code.
System is a built-in Java class that contains useful members, such as out, which is short for "output".
The println() method, short for "print line", is used to print a value to the screen (or a file).
Don't worry too much about System, out and println(). Just know that you need them together to print
stuff to the screen. You should also note that each code statement must end with a semicolon (;).
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04. Java Output / Print
Print Text
You learned from the previous chapter that you can use the println() method to output values or print
text in Java:
System.out.println("Hello World!");
You can add as many println() methods as you want. Note that it will add a new line for each method:
Example
System.out.println("I am learning Java.");
System.out.println("It is awesome!");
Double Quotes
When you are working with text, it must be wrapped inside double quotations marks "".
If you forget the double quotes, an error occurs:
Example
System.out.println("This sentence will work!");
System.out.println(This sentence will produce an error);
The Print() Method

There is also a print() method, which is similar to println().
The only difference is that it does not insert a new line at the end of the output:
Example
System.out.print("Hello World! ");
System.out.print("I will print on the same line.");
Note that we add an extra space (after "Hello World!" in the example above), for better readability.
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Java Output Numbers
Print Numbers
You can also use the println() method to print numbers.
However, unlike text, we don't put numbers inside double quotes:
Example
System.out.println(3);
You can also perform mathematical calculations inside the println() method:
Example
System.out.println(3 + 3);
Example
System.out.println(2 * 5);
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05. Java Comments
Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also be used to
prevent execution when testing alternative code.
Single-line Comments
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).
This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:
Example
// This is a comment
This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:
Example
System.out.println("Hello World"); // This is a comment
Java Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.
This example uses a multi-line comment (a comment block) to explain the code:
Example
/* The code below will print the words Hello World
to the screen, and it is amazing */
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06. Java Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:
String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double quotes
Int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
Float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
boolean - stores values with two states: true or false
Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:
Syntax
type variableName = value;
Where type is one of Java's types (such as int or String), and variableName is the name of the variable
(such as x or name). The equal sign is used to assign values to the variable.
To create a variable that should store text, look at the following example:
Create a variable called name of type String and assign it the value "John":
String name = "John";

System.out.println(name);
To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:
int myNum = 15;

System.out.println(myNum);
You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:
Example
int myNum;
myNum = 15;
Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value:
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Example
Change the value of myNum from 15 to 20:
int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // myNum is now 20
Final Variables
If you don't want others (or yourself) to overwrite existing values, use the final keyword (this will declare
the variable as "final" or "constant", which means unchangeable and read-only):
Example
final int myNum = 15;
myNum = 20; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
Other Types
A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:
Example
int myNum = 5;
float myFloatNum = 5.99f;
char myLetter = 'D';
boolean myBool = true;
String myText = "Hello";
Java Print Variables
Display Variables
The println() method is often used to display variables.
To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:
Example
String name = "John";
System.out.println("Hello " + name);
You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example
String firstName = "John ";
String lastName = "Doe";
String fullName = firstName + lastName;
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System.out.println(fullName);
For numeric values, the + character works as a mathematical operator (notice that we use int (integer)
variables here):
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
System.out.println(x + y); // Print the value of x + y
From the example above, you can expect:
 x stores the value 5

 y stores the value 6
 Then we use the println() method to display the value of x + y, which is 11
Java Declare Multiple Variables

Declare Many Variables
To declare more than one variable of the same type, you can use a comma-separated list:
Example
Instead of writing:
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);
You can simply write:
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
One Value to Multiple Variables

You can also assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 50;
Java Identifiers
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Identifiers
All Java variables must be identified with unique names.
These unique names are called identifiers.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).
Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create understandable and maintainable
code:
Example
// Good
int minutesPerHour = 60;
// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;
The general rules for naming variables are:
 Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

 Names must begin with a letter
 Names should start with a lowercase letter and it cannot contain whitespace
 Names can also begin with $ and _ (but we will not use it in this tutorial)
 Names are case sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
 Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or boolean) cannot be used as names
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07. Java Data Types
As explained in the previous chapter, a variable in Java must be a specified data type:
Example
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)
float myFloatNum = 5.99f; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
boolean myBool = true; // Boolean
String myText = "Hello"; // String
Data types are divided into two groups:
 Primitive data types - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
 Non-primitive data types - such as String, Arrays and Classes (you will learn more about these in
a later chapter)
Primitive Data Types

A primitive data type specifies the size and type of variable values, and it has no additional methods.
There are eight primitive data types in Java:
Data Type Size Description
byte 1 byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127

short 2 bytes Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767
int 4 bytes Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long 8 bytes Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal digits
double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits
boolean 1 bit Stores true or false values
char 2 bytes Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values
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Numbers
Primitive number types are divided into two groups:
Integer types stores whole numbers, positive or negative (such as 123 or -456), without decimals. Valid
types are byte, short, int and long. Which type you should use, depends on the numeric value.
Floating point types represents numbers with a fractional part, containing one or more decimals. There
are two types: float and double.
Even though there are many numeric types in Java, the most used for numbers are int (for whole
numbers) and double (for floating point numbers). However, we will describe them all as you continue
to read.
Integer Types
Byte
The byte data type can store whole numbers from -128 to 127. This can be used instead of int or other
integer types to save memory when you are certain that the value will be within -128 and 127:
Example
byte myNum = 100;
Short
The short data type can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767:
Example
short myNum = 5000;
Int
The int data type can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647. In general, and in our
tutorial, the int data type is the preferred data type when we create variables with a numeric value.
Example
int myNum = 100000;
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Long
The long data type can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807.
This is used when int is not large enough to store the value. Note that you should end the value with an
"L":
Example
long myNum = 15000000000L;
Floating Point Types
You should use a floating point type whenever you need a number with a decimal, such as 9.99 or
3.14515.
The float and double data types can store fractional numbers. Note that you should end the value with
an "f" for floats and "d" for doubles:
Float Example
float myNum = 5.75f;
Double Example
double myNum = 19.99d;
Use float or double?
The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value can have after the decimal
point. The precision of float is only six or seven decimal digits, while double variables have a precision of
about 15 digits. Therefore it is safer to use double for most calculations.
Scientific Numbers
A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to indicate the power of 10:
Example
float f1 = 35e3f;
double d1 = 12E4d;
System.out.println(f1);
System.out.println(d1);
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Boolean Types
Very often in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:
YES / NO
ON / OFF
TRUE / FALSE
For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can only take the values true or false:
Example
boolean isJavaFun = true;
boolean isFishTasty = false;
System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true
System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false
Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing.
Characters
The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be surrounded by single
quotes, like 'A' or 'c':
Example
char myGrade = 'B';
System.out.println(myGrade);
Alternatively, if you are familiar with ASCII values, you can use those to display certain characters:
Example
char myVar1 = 65, myVar2 = 66, myVar3 = 67;
System.out.println(myVar1);
Strings
The String data type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). String values must be surrounded
by double quotes:
Example
String greeting = "Hello World";
System.out.println(greeting);
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A String in Java is actually a non-primitive data type, because it refers to an object. The String object has
methods that are used to perform certain operations on strings
Non-Primitive Data Types
Non-primitive data types are called reference types because they refer to objects.
The main difference between primitive and non-primitive data types are:
 Primitive types are predefined (already defined) in Java. Non-primitive types are created by the
programmer and is not defined by Java (except for String).
 Non-primitive types can be used to call methods to perform certain operations, while primitive
types cannot.
 A primitive type has always a value, while non-primitive types can be null.
 A primitive type starts with a lowercase letter, while non-primitive types starts with an
uppercase letter.
 The size of a primitive type depends on the data type, while non-primitive types have all the
same size.
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08. Java Type Casting
Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type. In Java, there are
two types of casting:
Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size
byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double
Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type
double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte
Widening Casting
Widening casting is done automatically when passing a smaller size type to a larger size type:
Example
public class Main {

int myInt = 9;
double myDouble = myInt; // Automatic casting: int to double
System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9
System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.0
}
}
Narrowing Casting
Narrowing casting must be done manually by placing the type in parentheses in front of the value:
Example
public class Main {

double myDouble = 9.78d;
int myInt = (int) myDouble; // Manual casting: double to int
System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.78

System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9
}
}
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09. Java Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example
int x = 100 + 50;
Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the example above, it can
also be used to add together a variable and a value, or a variable and another variable:
Example
int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)
int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)
Java divides the operators into the following groups:
Arithmetic operators
Assignment operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators
Bitwise operators
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.
Operator Name Description Example

+ Addition Adds together two values x+y
- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x-y
* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y
/ Division Divides one value by another x/y
% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y
++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x
-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x
Java Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
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In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable called
x:
Example
int x = 10;
The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:
Example
int x = 10;
x += 5;
A list of all assignment operators:
Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
Java Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values. This is important in programming, because
it helps us to find answers and make decisions.
The return value of a comparison is either true or false. These values are known as Boolean values,
and you will learn more about them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter.
In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if 5 is greater than 3:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 3;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 5 is higher than 3
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Operator Name Example
== Equal to x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x > y
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
Java Logical Operators

You can also test for true or false values with logical operators.
Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:
Operator Name Description Example

&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are true x < 5 && x < 10
|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true x < 5 || x < 4
! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true
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10. Java Strings
Strings are used for storing text.

A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes:
Example
Create a variable of type String and assign it a value:
String greeting = "Hello";
String Length
A String in Java is actually an object, which contain methods that can perform certain operations on
strings. For example, the length of a string can be found with the length() method:
Example
String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
System.out.println("The length of the txt string is: " + txt.length());
More String Methods

There are many string methods available, for example toUpperCase() and toLowerCase():
Example
String txt = "Hello World";
System.out.println(txt.toUpperCase()); // Outputs "HELLO WORLD"
System.out.println(txt.toLowerCase()); // Outputs "hello world"
Finding a Character in a String

The indexOf() method returns the index (the position) of the first occurrence of a specified text in a
string (including whitespace):
Example
String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";
System.out.println(txt.indexOf("locate")); // Outputs 7
Java counts positions from zero.

0 is the first position in a string, 1 is the second, 2 is the third ...
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String Concatenation
The + operator can be used between strings to combine them. This is called concatenation:
Example
String firstName = "John";
System.out.println(firstName + " " + lastName);
Note that we have added an empty text (" ") to create a space between firstName and lastName on
print.
You can also use the concat() method to concatenate two strings:
Example
String firstName = "John ";
System.out.println(firstName.concat(lastName));
Adding Numbers and Strings

WARNING!
Java uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.
Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.
If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer/number)
If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:
Example
String x = "10";
String y = "20";
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)
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If you add a number and a string, the result will be a string concatenation:
Example
String x = "10";
int y = 20;
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)
Strings - Special Characters

Because strings must be written within quotes, Java will misunderstand this string, and generate an
error:
String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";
The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape character.
The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string characters:
Escape character Result Description

\' ' Single quote
\" " Double quote
\\ \ Backslash
The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:
Example
String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";
The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:
Example
String txt = "It\'s alright.";
The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:
Example
String txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";
Other common escape sequences that are valid in Java are:
Code Result
\n New Line
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\b Backspace
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\f Form Feed
11. Math
The Java Math has many methods that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on numbers.
Math.max(x,y)
The Math.max(x,y) method can be used to find the highest value of x and y:
Example
Math.max(5, 10);
Math.min(x,y)
The Math.min(x,y) method can be used to find the lowest value of x and y:
Example
Math.min(5, 10);
Math.sqrt(x)
The Math.sqrt(x) method returns the square root of x:
Example
Math.sqrt(64);
Math.abs(x)
The Math.abs(x) method returns the absolute (positive) value of x:
Example
Math.abs(-4.7);
Random Numbers
Math.random() returns a random number between 0.0 (inclusive), and 1.0 (exclusive):
Example
Math.random();
To get more control over the random number, for example, if you only want a random number
between 0 and 100, you can use the following formula:
Example
int randomNum = (int)(Math.random() * 101); // 0 to 100
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12. Java Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:
YES / NO
ON / OFF
TRUE / FALSE
For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can store true or false values.
Boolean Values
A boolean type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the values true or false:
Example
boolean isJavaFun = true;
boolean isFishTasty = false;
System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true
System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false
However, it is more common to return boolean values from boolean expressions, for conditional
testing (see below).
Boolean Expression
A Boolean expression is a Java expression that returns a Boolean value: true or false.
This is useful when we want to compare values to find answers.
For example, you can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator, to find out if
an expression (or a variable) is true:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 9;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9
Or even easier:
Example
System.out.println(10 > 9); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9
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In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:
Example
int x = 10;
System.out.println(x == 10); // returns true, because the value of x is equal to 10
Example
System.out.println(10 == 15); // returns false, because 10 is not equal to 15
Real Life Example

Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is old enough to vote.
In the example below, we use the >= comparison operator to find out if the age (25) is greater than
OR equal to the voting age limit, which is set to 18:
Example
int myAge = 25;
int votingAge = 18;
System.out.println(myAge >= votingAge);
The Boolean value of an expression is the basis for all Java comparisons and conditions.
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13. Java Conditions and If Statements
Java supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

Less than: a < b
Less than or equal to: a <= b
Greater than: a > b
Greater than or equal to: a >= b
Equal to a == b
Not Equal to: a != b
You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.
Java has the following conditional statements:
Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true

Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed
The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of Java code to be executed if a condition is true.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}
Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition is true,
print some text:
Example
if (20 > 18) {
System.out.println("20 is greater than 18");
}
We can also test variables:
Example
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int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
System.out.println("x is greater than y");
}
Example explained
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater than y (using the >
operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen that
"x is greater than y".
The else Statement

Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day.");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
Example explained
In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Because of this, we
move on to the else condition and print to the screen "Good evening". If the time was less than 18,
the program would print "Good day".
The else if Statement

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.
Syntax
if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true
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} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false
}
Example
int time = 22;
if (time < 10) {
System.out.println("Good morning.");
} else if (time < 20) {
} else {
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
Example explained
In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false. The next condition,
in the else if statement, is also false, so we move on to the else condition since condition1 and
condition2 is both false - and print to the screen "Good evening".
However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."
Short Hand If...Else

There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of three
operands.
It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a single line, and is most often used to replace
simple if else statements:
Syntax
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;
Instead of writing:
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
} else {
You can simply write:
Example
28
int time = 20;
String result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";
System.out.println(result);
14. Java Switch Statements
Instead of writing many if..else statements, you can use the switch statement.
The switch statement selects one of many code blocks to be executed:
Syntax
switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}
This is how it works:
The switch expression is evaluated once.

The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter
The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
System.out.println("Monday");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Tuesday");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("Wednesday");
break;
29
case 4:
System.out.println("Thursday");
break;
case 5:
System.out.println("Friday");
break;
case 6:
System.out.println("Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Sunday");
break;
}
// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)
The break Keyword

When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no need for more testing.
A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all the rest of the code
in the switch block.
The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 6:
System.out.println("Today is Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Today is Sunday");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Looking forward to the Weekend");
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"
30
Note that if the default statement is used as the last statement in a switch block, it does not need
a break.
15. Loops
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.
Java While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:
Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}
In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable (i) is
less than 5:
Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never
end!
The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once, before
checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is true.
Syntax
do {
}
while (condition);
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The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least once, even if the
condition is false, because the code block is executed before the condition is tested:
Example
int i = 0;
do {
i++;
}
while (i < 5);
Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!
Java For Loop

When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for loop
instead of a while loop:
Syntax
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
}
Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.
Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.
Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.
The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
}
Example explained
Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).
Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If the condition is true,
the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop will end.
Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been executed.
32
Another Example
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:
Example
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {
}
For-Each Loop
There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in an array:
Syntax
for (type variableName : arrayName) {
}
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:
Example
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
for (String i : cars) {
}
33
16. Java Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this tutorial. It was used to
"jump out" of a switch statement.
The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
This example stops the loop when i is equal to 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}
Java Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and
continues with the next iteration in the loop.
This example skips the value of 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
}
Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:
34
Break Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
i++;
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}
Continue Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
i++;
}
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17. Java Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate variables
for each value.
To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:
String[] cars;
We have now declared a variable that holds an array of strings. To insert values to it, you can place
the values in a comma-separated list, inside curly braces:

To create an array of integers, you could write:
int[] myNum = {10, 20, 30, 40};

Access the Elements of an Array
You can access an array element by referring to the index number.
This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:
Example
System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Outputs Volvo
Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
Example
cars[0] = "Opel";
Example
36
cars[0] = "Opel";
System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo
Array Length
To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:
Example
System.out.println(cars.length);
// Outputs 4
Loop Through an Array

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop, and use the length property to specify
how many times the loop should run.
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < cars.length; i++) {
System.out.println(cars[i]);
}
Loop Through an Array with For-Each

There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in arrays:
Syntax
for (type variable : arrayname) {
...
}
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:
Example
}
37
The example above can be read like this: for each String element (called i - as in index) in cars, print
out the value of i.
If you compare the for loop and for-each loop, you will see that the for-each method is easier to
write, it does not require a counter (using the length property), and it is more readable.
Multidimensional Arrays
A multidimensional array is an array of arrays.
To create a two-dimensional array, add each array within its own set of curly braces:
Example
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
myNumbers is now an array with two arrays as its elements.
To access the elements of the myNumbers array, specify two indexes: one for the array, and one for
the element inside that array. This example accesses the third element (2) in the second array (1) of
myNumbers:
Example
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
int x = myNumbers[1][2];
System.out.println(x); // Outputs 7
We can also use a for loop inside another for loop to get the elements of a two-dimensional array
(we still have to point to the two indexes):
Example
public class Main {
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
for (int i = 0; i < myNumbers.length; ++i) {
for(int j = 0; j < myNumbers[i].length; ++j) {
System.out.println(myNumbers[i][j]);
}
}
}
}
38
JAVA Methods
A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.
Why use methods? To reuse code: define the code once, and use it many times.
Create a Method
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method, followed by
parentheses (). Java provides some pre-defined methods, such as System.out.println(), but you can
also create your own methods to perform certain actions:
Example
Create a method inside Main:
public class Main {

static void myMethod() {
// code to be executed
}
}
Example Explained
myMethod() is the name of the method
static means that the method belongs to the Main class and not an object of the Main class.
void means that this method does not have a return value.
Call a Method
To call a method in Java, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a semicolon;
In the following example, myMethod() is used to print a text (the action), when it is called:
Example
39
Inside main, call the myMethod() method:
public class Main {

System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

myMethod();
}
}
// Outputs "I just got executed!"
A method can also be called multiple times:
Example
public class Main {
System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

myMethod();
myMethod();
myMethod();
}
}
// I just got executed!

Java Parameters and Arguments
Information can be passed to methods as parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the method.
Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.
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The following example has a method that takes a String called fname as parameter. When the
method is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the method to print the full name:
Example
public class Main {
static void myMethod(String fname) {
System.out.println(fname + " Refsnes");
}

myMethod("Liam");
myMethod("Jenny");
myMethod("Anja");
}
}
// Liam Refsnes
// Jenny Refsnes
// Anja Refsnes
When a parameter is passed to the method, it is called an argument. So, from the example above:
fname is a parameter, while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.
Multiple Parameters
You can have as many parameters as you like:
Example
public class Main {
static void myMethod(String fname, int age) {
System.out.println(fname + " is " + age);
}

myMethod("Liam", 5);
myMethod("Jenny", 8);
myMethod("Anja", 31);
}
}
// Liam is 5
// Jenny is 8
// Anja is 31
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Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the method call must have the same
number of arguments as there are parameters, and the arguments must be passed in the same
order.
Return Values
The void keyword, used in the examples above, indicates that the method should not return a value.
If you want the method to return a value, you can use a primitive data type (such as int, char, etc.)
instead of void, and use the return keyword inside the method:
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}

System.out.println(myMethod(3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
This example returns the sum of a method's two parameters:
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

System.out.println(myMethod(5, 3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
You can also store the result in a variable (recommended, as it is easier to read and maintain):
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
42
int z = myMethod(5, 3);
System.out.println(z);
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
A Method with If...Else

It is common to use if...else statements inside methods:
Example
public class Main {
// Create a checkAge() method with an integer variable called age

static void checkAge(int age) {
// If age is less than 18, print "access denied"

if (age < 18) {
System.out.println("Access denied - You are not old enough!");
// If age is greater than, or equal to, 18, print "access granted"

} else {
System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}

checkAge(20); // Call the checkAge method and pass along an age of 20
}
}
// Outputs "Access granted - You are old enough!"
Method Overloading
With method overloading, multiple methods can have the same name with different parameters:
Example
int myMethod(int x)
43
float myMethod(float x)
double myMethod(double x, double y)
Consider the following example, which has two methods that add numbers of different type:
Example
static int plusMethodInt(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
static double plusMethodDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

int myNum1 = plusMethodInt(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethodDouble(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
}
Instead of defining two methods that should do the same thing, it is better to overload one.
In the example below, we overload the plusMethod method to work for both int and double:
Example
static int plusMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
static double plusMethod(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

int myNum1 = plusMethod(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethod(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
Note: Multiple methods can have the same name as long as the number and/or type of parameters
are different.
44
Java Scope
In Java, variables are only accessible inside the region they are created. This is called scope.
Method Scope
Variables declared directly inside a method are available anywhere in the method following the line
of code in which they were declared:
Example
public class Main {
// Code here CANNOT use x
int x = 100;
// Code here can use x

System.out.println(x);
}
}
Block Scope
A block of code refers to all of the code between curly braces {}.
Variables declared inside blocks of code are only accessible by the code between the curly braces,
which follows the line in which the variable was declared:
Example
public class Main {
{ // This is a block
int x = 100;
// Code here CAN use x

System.out.println(x);
} // The block ends here
45
}
}
A block of code may exist on its own or it can belong to an if, while or for statement. In the case of
for statements, variables declared in the statement itself are also available inside the block's scope.
Java Recursion
Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique provides a way to break
complicated problems down into simple problems which are easier to solve.
Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out how it works is to
experiment with it.
Recursion Example
Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is more complicated. In
the following example, recursion is used to add a range of numbers together by breaking it down
into the simple task of adding two numbers:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers up to 10.
public class Main {

int result = sum(10);
}
public static int sum(int k) {
if (k > 0) {
return k + sum(k - 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}
}
Example Explained
46
When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all numbers smaller than k and
returns the result. When k becomes 0, the function just returns 0. When running, the program
follows these steps:
10 + sum(9)
10 + ( 9 + sum(8) )
10 + ( 9 + ( 8 + sum(7) ) )
...
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + sum(0)
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0
Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops there and returns the result.
Halting Condition
Just as loops can run into the problem of infinite looping, recursive functions can run into the
problem of infinite recursion. Infinite recursion is when the function never stops calling itself. Every
recursive function should have a halting condition, which is the condition where the function stops
calling itself. In the previous example, the halting condition is when the parameter k becomes 0.
It is helpful to see a variety of different examples to better understand the concept. In this example,
the function adds a range of numbers between a start and an end. The halting condition for this
recursive function is when end is not greater than start:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers between 5 to 10.
public class Main {

int result = sum(5, 10);
}
public static int sum(int start, int end) {
if (end > start) {
return end + sum(start, end - 1);
} else {
return end;
}
}
}
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing a
function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor power.
47
However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant
approach to programming.
Java Classes
Java - What is OOP?
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.
Procedural programming is about writing procedures or methods that perform operations on the
data, while object-oriented programming is about creating objects that contain both data and
methods.
Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural programming:
OOP is faster and easier to execute

OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to
maintain, modify and debug
OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development
time
Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the repetition of code. You should
extract out the codes that are common for the application, and place them at a single place and
reuse them instead of repeating it.
Java - What are Classes and Objects?

Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented programming.
Look at the following illustration to see the difference between class and objects:
class
Fruit
objects
48
Apple
Banana
Mango
Another example:
class
Car
objects
Volvo
Audi
Toyota
So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class.
When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the variables and methods from the class.
You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapter.
Java Classes/Objects
Java is an object-oriented programming language.
Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods. For
example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and
methods, such as drive and brake.
A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.
Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:
Main.java
Create a class named "Main" with a variable x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;
49
}
Remember from the Java Syntax chapter that a class should always start with an uppercase first
letter, and that the name of the java file should match the class name.
Create an Object
In Java, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class named Main, so now we
can use this to create objects.
To create an object of Main, specify the class name, followed by the object name, and use the
keyword new:
Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

Main myObj = new Main();
System.out.println(myObj.x);
}
}
Multiple Objects
You can create multiple objects of one class:
Example
Create two objects of Main:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

Main myObj1 = new Main(); // Object 1
System.out.println(myObj1.x);
System.out.println(myObj2.x);
}
}
Using Multiple Classes
50
You can also create an object of a class and access it in another class. This is often used for better
organization of classes (one class has all the attributes and methods, while the other class holds the
main() method (code to be executed)).
Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have
created two files in the same directory/folder:
Main.java
Second.java
Main.java
public class Main {
int x = 5;
}
Second.java
class Second {
}
}
When both files have been compiled:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java
Run the Second.java file:
C:\Users\Your Name>java Second

And the output will be:
You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapters.
Java Class Attributes

In the previous chapter, we used the term "variable" for x in the example (as shown below). It is
actually an attribute of the class. Or you could say that class attributes are variables within a class:
Example
Create a class called "Main" with two attributes: x and y:
public class Main {

int x = 5;
51
int y = 3;
}
Another term for class attributes is fields.
Accessing Attributes
You can access attributes by creating an object of the class, and by using the dot syntax (.):
The following example will create an object of the Main class, with the name myObj. We use the x
attribute on the object to print its value:
Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

}
}
Modify Attributes
You can also modify attribute values:
Example
Set the value of x to 40:
public class Main {

int x;

myObj.x = 40;
}
}
Or override existing values:
Example
Change the value of x to 25:
52
public class Main {
int x = 10;

myObj.x = 25; // x is now 25
}
}
If you don't want the ability to override existing values, declare the attribute as final:
Example
public class Main {
final int x = 10;

myObj.x = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
}
}
The final keyword is useful when you want a variable to always store the same value, like PI
(3.14159...).
The final keyword is called a "modifier". You will learn more about these in the Java Modifiers
Chapter.
Multiple Objects
If you create multiple objects of one class, you can change the attribute values in one object,
without affecting the attribute values in the other:
Example
Change the value of x to 25 in myObj2, and leave x in myObj1 unchanged:
public class Main {

int x = 5;
53
myObj2.x = 25;
System.out.println(myObj1.x); // Outputs 5
System.out.println(myObj2.x); // Outputs 25
}
}
Multiple Attributes
You can specify as many attributes as you want:
Example
public class Main {
String fname = "John";
String lname = "Doe";
int age = 24;

System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname + " " + myObj.lname);
System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);
}
}
The next chapter will teach you how to create class methods and how to access them with objects.
Java Class Methods

You learned from the Java Methods chapter that methods are declared within a class, and that they
are used to perform certain actions:
Example
Create a method named myMethod() in Main:
public class Main {

}
}
myMethod() prints a text (the action), when it is called. To call a method, write the method's name
followed by two parentheses () and a semicolon;
54
Example
Inside main, call myMethod():
public class Main {

}

myMethod();
}
}
// Outputs "Hello World!"
Static vs. Public

You will often see Java programs that have either static or public attributes and methods.
In the example above, we created a static method, which means that it can be accessed without
creating an object of the class, unlike public, which can only be accessed by objects:
Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:
public class Main {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating objects");
}
// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}
// Main method
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would compile an error
Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main
55
myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method on the object
}
}
Note: You will learn more about these keywords (called modifiers) in the Java Modifiers chapter.
Access Methods With an Object

Example
Create a Car object named myCar. Call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar object,
and run the program:
// Create a Main class

public class Main {
// Create a fullThrottle() method

public void fullThrottle() {
System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}
// Create a speed() method and add a parameter

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {
System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}
// Inside main, call the methods on the myCar object

Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object
myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method
myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method
}
}
// The car is going as fast as it can!

// Max speed is: 200
Example explained
1) We created a custom Main class with the class keyword.
2) We created the fullThrottle() and speed() methods in the Main class.
56
3) The fullThrottle() method and the speed() method will print out some text, when they are called.
4) The speed() method accepts an int parameter called maxSpeed - we will use this in 8).
5) In order to use the Main class and its methods, we need to create an object of the Main Class.
6) Then, go to the main() method, which you know by now is a built-in Java method that runs your
program (any code inside main is executed).
7) By using the new keyword we created an object with the name myCar.
8) Then, we call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar object, and run the program
using the name of the object (myCar), followed by a dot (.), followed by the name of the method
(fullThrottle(); and speed(200);). Notice that we add an int parameter of 200 inside the speed()
method.
Remember that..
The dot (.) is used to access the object's attributes and methods.
To call a method in Java, write the method name followed by a set of parentheses (), followed by a
semicolon (;).
A class must have a matching filename (Main and Main.java).
Using Multiple Classes

Like we specified in the Classes chapter, it is a good practice to create an object of a class and access
it in another class.
Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have
created two files in the same directory:
Main.java
Second.java
Main.java
public class Main {
public void fullThrottle() {
System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}
public void speed(int maxSpeed) {

System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}
57
}
Second.java
class Second {
Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object
myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method
myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method
}
}
When both files have been compiled:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java
Run the Second.java file:
C:\Users\Your Name>java Second

And the output will be:
The car is going as fast as it can!

Max speed is: 200
Java Constructors
A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize objects. The constructor is called
when an object of a class is created. It can be used to set initial values for object attributes:
Example
Create a constructor:
// Create a Main class

public class Main {
int x; // Create a class attribute
// Create a class constructor for the Main class

public Main() {
x = 5; // Set the initial value for the class attribute x
}

Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of class Main (This will call the constructor)
System.out.println(myObj.x); // Print the value of x
}
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}
// Outputs 5
Note that the constructor name must match the class name, and it cannot have a return type (like
void).
Also note that the constructor is called when the object is created.
All classes have constructors by default: if you do not create a class constructor yourself, Java
creates one for you. However, then you are not able to set initial values for object attributes.
Constructor Parameters
Constructors can also take parameters, which is used to initialize attributes.
The following example adds an int y parameter to the constructor. Inside the constructor we set x to
y (x=y). When we call the constructor, we pass a parameter to the constructor (5), which will set the
value of x to 5:
Example
public class Main {
int x;
public Main(int y) {
x = y;
}

Main myObj = new Main(5);
}
}
// Outputs 5
You can have as many parameters as you want:
Example
public class Main {
int modelYear;
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String modelName;
public Main(int year, String name) {

modelYear = year;
modelName = name;
}

Main myCar = new Main(1969, "Mustang");
System.out.println(myCar.modelYear + " " + myCar.modelName);
}
}
// Outputs 1969 Mustang
Modifiers
By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in almost all of our examples:
public class Main

The public keyword is an access modifier, meaning that it is used to set the access level for classes,
attributes, methods and constructors.
We divide modifiers into two groups:
Access Modifiers - controls the access level

Non-Access Modifiers - do not control access level, but provides other functionality
Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either public or default:
Modifier Description
public The class is accessible by any other class
default The class is only accessible by classes in the same package. This is used when you don't
specify a modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages chapter
For attributes, methods and constructors, you can use the one of the following:
public The code is accessible for all classes
private The code is only accessible within the declared class
default The code is only accessible in the same package. This is used when you don't specify a
modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages chapter
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protected The code is accessible in the same package and subclasses. You will learn more about
subclasses and superclasses in the Inheritance chapter
Non-Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either final or abstract:
final The class cannot be inherited by other classes (You will learn more about inheritance in
the Inheritance chapter)
abstract The class cannot be used to create objects (To access an abstract class, it must be
inherited from another class. You will learn more about inheritance and abstraction in the
Inheritance and Abstraction chapters)
For attributes and methods, you can use the one of the following:
final Attributes and methods cannot be overridden/modified
static Attributes and methods belongs to the class, rather than an object
abstract Can only be used in an abstract class, and can only be used on methods. The method
does not have a body, for example abstract void run();. The body is provided by the subclass
(inherited from). You will learn more about inheritance and abstraction in the Inheritance and
Abstraction chapters
transient Attributes and methods are skipped when serializing the object containing them
synchronized Methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time
volatile The value of an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the "main
memory"
Final
If you don't want the ability to override existing attribute values, declare attributes as final:
Example
public class Main {
final int x = 10;
final double PI = 3.14;

myObj.x = 50; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
myObj.PI = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
}
}
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Static
A static method means that it can be accessed without creating an object of the class, unlike public:
Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:
public class Main {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating objects");
}
// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}
// Main method
public static void main(String[ ] args) {
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would output an error
Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main

myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method
}
}
Abstract
An abstract method belongs to an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided
by the subclass:
Example
// Code from filename: Main.java
// abstract class
abstract class Main {
public String fname = "John";
public int age = 24;
public abstract void study(); // abstract method
}
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// Subclass (inherit from Main)
class Student extends Main {
public int graduationYear = 2018;
public void study() { // the body of the abstract method is provided here
System.out.println("Studying all day long");
}
}
// End code from filename: Main.java
// Code from filename: Second.java

class Second {
// create an object of the Student class (which inherits attributes and methods from Main)
Student myObj = new Student();
System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname);

System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);
System.out.println("Graduation Year: " + myObj.graduationYear);
myObj.study(); // call abstract method
}
}
Java Encapsulation
The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden from users. To achieve
this, you must:
declare class variables/attributes as private

provide public get and set methods to access and update the value of a private variable
Get and Set
You learned from the previous chapter that private variables can only be accessed within the same
class (an outside class has no access to it). However, it is possible to access them if we provide public
get and set methods.
The get method returns the variable value, and the set method sets the value.
Syntax for both is that they start with either get or set, followed by the name of the variable, with
the first letter in upper case:
Example
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public class Person {
private String name; // private = restricted access
// Getter
public String getName() {
return name;
}
// Setter
public void setName(String newName) {
this.name = newName;
}
}
Example explained
The get method returns the value of the variable name.
The set method takes a parameter (newName) and assigns it to the name variable. The this keyword
is used to refer to the current object.
However, as the name variable is declared as private, we cannot access it from outside this class:
Example
public class Main {
Person myObj = new Person();
myObj.name = "John"; // error
System.out.println(myObj.name); // error
}
}
If the variable was declared as public, we would expect the following output:
John
However, as we try to access a private variable, we get an error:
MyClass.java:4: error: name has private access in Person

myObj.name = "John";
^
MyClass.java:5: error: name has private access in Person
System.out.println(myObj.name);
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^
2 errors
Instead, we use the getName() and setName() methods to access and update the variable:
Example
public class Main {
Person myObj = new Person();
myObj.setName("John"); // Set the value of the name variable to "John"
System.out.println(myObj.getName());
}
}
// Outputs "John"
Why Encapsulation?
Better control of class attributes and methods
Class attributes can be made read-only (if you only use the get method), or write-only (if you only
use the set method)
Flexible: the programmer can change one part of the code without affecting other parts
Increased security of data
Java Packages & API

A package in Java is used to group related classes. Think of it as a folder in a file directory. We use
packages to avoid name conflicts, and to write a better maintainable code. Packages are divided into
two categories:
Built-in Packages (packages from the Java API)

User-defined Packages (create your own packages)
Built-in Packages
The Java API is a library of prewritten classes, that are free to use, included in the Java Development
Environment.
The library contains components for managing input, database programming, and much much more.
The complete list can be found at Oracles website: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/.
The library is divided into packages and classes. Meaning you can either import a single class (along
with its methods and attributes), or a whole package that contain all the classes that belong to the
specified package.
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To use a class or a package from the library, you need to use the import keyword:
Syntax
import package.name.Class; // Import a single class
import package.name.*; // Import the whole package
Import a Class
If you find a class you want to use, for example, the Scanner class, which is used to get user input,
write the following code:
Example
import java.util.Scanner;
In the example above, java.util is a package, while Scanner is a class of the java.util package.
To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods found in
the Scanner class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used
to read a complete line:
Example
Using the Scanner class to get user input:
class MyClass {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter username");
String userName = myObj.nextLine();

System.out.println("Username is: " + userName);
}
}
Import a Package
There are many packages to choose from. In the previous example, we used the Scanner class from
the java.util package. This package also contains date and time facilities, random-number generator
and other utility classes.
To import a whole package, end the sentence with an asterisk sign (*). The following example will
import ALL the classes in the java.util package:
Example
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import java.util.*;
User-defined Packages
To create your own package, you need to understand that Java uses a file system directory to store
them. Just like folders on your computer:
Example
└── root
└── mypack
└── MyPackageClass.java
To create a package, use the package keyword:
MyPackageClass.java
package mypack;
class MyPackageClass {
System.out.println("This is my package!");
}
}
Save the file as MyPackageClass.java, and compile it:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac MyPackageClass.java

Then compile the package:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac -d . MyPackageClass.java

This forces the compiler to create the "mypack" package.
The -d keyword specifies the destination for where to save the class file. You can use any directory
name, like c:/user (windows), or, if you want to keep the package within the same directory, you can
use the dot sign ".", like in the example above.
Note: The package name should be written in lower case to avoid conflict with class names.
When we compiled the package in the example above, a new folder was created, called "mypack".
To run the MyPackageClass.java file, write the following:
C:\Users\Your Name>java mypack.MyPackageClass

The output will be:
This is my package!
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Java Inheritance (Subclass and Superclass)
In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the
"inheritance concept" into two categories:
subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class

superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from
To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.
In the example below, the Car class (subclass) inherits the attributes and methods from the Vehicle
class (superclass):
Example
class Vehicle {
protected String brand = "Ford"; // Vehicle attribute
public void honk() { // Vehicle method
System.out.println("Tuut, tuut!");
}
}
class Car extends Vehicle {

private String modelName = "Mustang"; // Car attribute
// Create a myCar object

Car myCar = new Car();
// Call the honk() method (from the Vehicle class) on the myCar object
myCar.honk();
// Display the value of the brand attribute (from the Vehicle class) and the value of the
modelName from the Car class
System.out.println(myCar.brand + " " + myCar.modelName);
}
}
Did you notice the protected modifier in Vehicle?
We set the brand attribute in Vehicle to a protected access modifier. If it was set to private, the Car
class would not be able to access it.
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Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a
new class.
Tip: Also take a look at the next chapter, Polymorphism, which uses inherited methods to perform
different tasks.
The final Keyword

If you don't want other classes to inherit from a class, use the final keyword:
If you try to access a final class, Java will generate an error:
final class Vehicle {

...
}
class Car extends Vehicle {

...
}
The output will be something like this:
Main.java:9: error: cannot inherit from final Vehicle

class Main extends Vehicle {
^
1 error)
Java Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to
each other by inheritance.
Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes and methods from
another class. Polymorphism uses those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to
perform a single action in different ways.
For example, think of a superclass called Animal that has a method called animalSound(). Subclasses
of Animals could be Pigs, Cats, Dogs, Birds - And they also have their own implementation of an
animal sound (the pig oinks, and the cat meows, etc.):
Example
class Animal {
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public void animalSound() {
System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");
}
}
class Pig extends Animal {

System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");
}
}
class Dog extends Animal {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}
Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.
Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and call the animalSound() method on both of them:
Example
class Animal {
System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");
}
}

}
}
class Dog extends Animal {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}
class Main {
Animal myAnimal = new Animal(); // Create a Animal object
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Animal myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
Animal myDog = new Dog(); // Create a Dog object
myAnimal.animalSound();
myPig.animalSound();
myDog.animalSound();
}
}
Why And When To Use "Inheritance" and "Polymorphism"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a
new class.
Java Inner Classes

In Java, it is also possible to nest classes (a class within a class). The purpose of nested classes is to
group classes that belong together, which makes your code more readable and maintainable.
To access the inner class, create an object of the outer class, and then create an object of the inner
class:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
class InnerClass {
int y = 5;
}
}
public class Main {

OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();
OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();
System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}
// Outputs 15 (5 + 10)
Private Inner Class

Unlike a "regular" class, an inner class can be private or protected. If you don't want outside objects
to access the inner class, declare the class as private:
71
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
private class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
}
public class Main {

System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}
If you try to access a private inner class from an outside class, an error occurs:
Main.java:13: error: OuterClass.InnerClass has private access in OuterClass

Static Inner Class

An inner class can also be static, which means that you can access it without creating an object of
the outer class:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
static class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
}
public class Main {

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = new OuterClass.InnerClass();
System.out.println(myInner.y);
}
}
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// Outputs 5
Note: just like static attributes and methods, a static inner class does not have access to members of
the outer class.
Access Outer Class From Inner Class

One advantage of inner classes, is that they can access attributes and methods of the outer class:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
class InnerClass {
public int myInnerMethod() {
return x;
}
}
}
public class Main {

System.out.println(myInner.myInnerMethod());
}
}
// Outputs 10
Abstract Classes and Methods

Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain details and showing only essential information to
the user.
Abstraction can be achieved with either abstract classes or interfaces (which you will learn more
about in the next chapter).
The abstract keyword is a non-access modifier, used for classes and methods:
Abstract class: is a restricted class that cannot be used to create objects (to access it, it must be
inherited from another class).
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Abstract method: can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is
provided by the subclass (inherited from).
An abstract class can have both abstract and regular methods:
abstract class Animal {

public abstract void animalSound();
public void sleep() {
System.out.println("Zzz");
}
}
From the example above, it is not possible to create an object of the Animal class:
Animal myObj = new Animal(); // will generate an error

To access the abstract class, it must be inherited from another class. Let's convert the Animal class
we used in the Polymorphism chapter to an abstract class:
Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.
Example
// Abstract class
abstract class Animal {
// Abstract method (does not have a body)
public abstract void animalSound();
// Regular method
}
}
// Subclass (inherit from Animal)

// The body of animalSound() is provided here
}
}
class Main {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
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myPig.sleep();
}
}
Why And When To Use Abstract Classes and Methods?

To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object.
Note: Abstraction can also be achieved with Interfaces, which you will learn more about in the next
chapter.
Interfaces
Another way to achieve abstraction in Java, is with interfaces.
An interface is a completely "abstract class" that is used to group related methods with empty
bodies:
Example
// interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
public void run(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}
To access the interface methods, the interface must be "implemented" (kinda like inherited) by
another class with the implements keyword (instead of extends). The body of the interface method
is provided by the "implement" class:
Example
// Interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
public void sleep(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}
// Pig "implements" the Animal interface

class Pig implements Animal {
// The body of animalSound() is provided here
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}
// The body of sleep() is provided here
}
}
class Main {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
myPig.sleep();
}
}
Notes on Interfaces:
Like abstract classes, interfaces cannot be used to create objects (in the example above, it is not
possible to create an "Animal" object in the MyMainClass)
Interface methods do not have a body - the body is provided by the "implement" class
On implementation of an interface, you must override all of its methods
Interface methods are by default abstract and public
Interface attributes are by default public, static and final
An interface cannot contain a constructor (as it cannot be used to create objects)
Why And When To Use Interfaces?
1) To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object
(interface).
2) Java does not support "multiple inheritance" (a class can only inherit from one superclass).
However, it can be achieved with interfaces, because the class can implement multiple interfaces.
Note: To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma (see example below).
Multiple Interfaces
To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma:
Example
interface FirstInterface {
public void myMethod(); // interface method
}
interface SecondInterface {
public void myOtherMethod(); // interface method
}
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class DemoClass implements FirstInterface, SecondInterface {
public void myMethod() {
System.out.println("Some text..");
}
public void myOtherMethod() {
System.out.println("Some other text...");
}
}
class Main {
DemoClass myObj = new DemoClass();
myObj.myMethod();
myObj.myOtherMethod();
}
}
Enums
An enum is a special "class" that represents a group of constants (unchangeable variables, like final
variables).
To create an enum, use the enum keyword (instead of class or interface), and separate the
constants with a comma. Note that they should be in uppercase letters:
Example
enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}
You can access enum constants with the dot syntax:
Level myVar = Level.MEDIUM;

Enum is short for "enumerations", which means "specifically listed".
Enum inside a Class

You can also have an enum inside a class:
Example
public class Main {
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enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}

System.out.println(myVar);
}
}
The output will be:
MEDIUM
Enum in a Switch Statement
Enums are often used in switch statements to check for corresponding values:
Example
enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}
public class Main {

switch(myVar) {
case LOW:
System.out.println("Low level");
break;
case MEDIUM:
System.out.println("Medium level");
break;
case HIGH:
System.out.println("High level");
break;
}
}
}
The output will be:
78
Medium level
Loop Through an Enum

The enum type has a values() method, which returns an array of all enum constants. This method is
useful when you want to loop through the constants of an enum:
Example
for (Level myVar : Level.values()) {
System.out.println(myVar);
}
The output will be:
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
Difference between Enums and Classes
An enum can, just like a class, have attributes and methods. The only difference is that enum
constants are public, static and final (unchangeable - cannot be overridden).
An enum cannot be used to create objects, and it cannot extend other classes (but it can implement
interfaces).
Why And When To Use Enums?

Use enums when you have values that you know aren't going to change, like month days, days,
colors, deck of cards, etc.
Java User Input

The Scanner class is used to get user input, and it is found in the java.util package.
To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods found in
the Scanner class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used
to read Strings:
Example
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class
class Main {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object
System.out.println("Enter username");
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String userName = myObj.nextLine(); // Read user input
System.out.println("Username is: " + userName); // Output user input
}
}
If you don't know what a package is, read our Java Packages Tutorial.
Input Types
In the example above, we used the nextLine() method, which is used to read Strings. To read other
types, look at the table below:
Method Description
nextBoolean() Reads a boolean value from the user
nextByte() Reads a byte value from the user
nextDouble() Reads a double value from the user
nextFloat() Reads a float value from the user
nextInt() Reads a int value from the user
nextLine() Reads a String value from the user
nextLong() Reads a long value from the user
nextShort() Reads a short value from the user
In the example below, we use different methods to read data of various types:
Example
class Main {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter name, age and salary:");
// String input
String name = myObj.nextLine();
// Numerical input
int age = myObj.nextInt();
double salary = myObj.nextDouble();
// Output input by user

System.out.println("Name: " + name);
System.out.println("Age: " + age);
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System.out.println("Salary: " + salary);
}
}
Note: If you enter wrong input (e.g. text in a numerical input), you will get an exception/error
message (like "InputMismatchException").
You can read more about exceptions and how to handle errors in the Exceptions chapter.
Java Dates
Java does not have a built-in Date class, but we can import the java.time package to work with the
date and time API. The package includes many date and time classes. For example:
Class Description
LocalDate Represents a date (year, month, day (yyyy-MM-dd))
LocalTime Represents a time (hour, minute, second and nanoseconds (HH-mm-ss-ns))
LocalDateTime Represents both a date and a time (yyyy-MM-dd-HH-mm-ss-ns)
DateTimeFormatter Formatter for displaying and parsing date-time objects
Display Current Date

To display the current date, import the java.time.LocalDate class, and use its now() method:
Example
import java.time.LocalDate; // import the LocalDate class
public class Main {

LocalDate myObj = LocalDate.now(); // Create a date object
System.out.println(myObj); // Display the current date
}
}
The output will be:
2022-11-16
Display Current Time
To display the current time (hour, minute, second, and nanoseconds), import the
java.time.LocalTime class, and use its now() method:
Example
import java.time.LocalTime; // import the LocalTime class
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public class Main {
LocalTime myObj = LocalTime.now();
System.out.println(myObj);
}
}
The output will be:
18:36:56.194137
Display Current Date and Time

To display the current date and time, import the java.time.LocalDateTime class, and use its now()
method:
Example
import java.time.LocalDateTime; // import the LocalDateTime class
public class Main {

LocalDateTime myObj = LocalDateTime.now();
System.out.println(myObj);
}
}
The output will be:
2022-11-16T18:36:56.195654
Formatting Date and Time
The "T" in the example above is used to separate the date from the time. You can use the
DateTimeFormatter class with the ofPattern() method in the same package to format or parse date-
time objects. The following example will remove both the "T" and nanoseconds from the date-time:
Example
import java.time.LocalDateTime; // Import the LocalDateTime class
import java.time.format.DateTimeFormatter; // Import the DateTimeFormatter class
public class Main {

LocalDateTime myDateObj = LocalDateTime.now();
System.out.println("Before formatting: " + myDateObj);
DateTimeFormatter myFormatObj = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("dd-MM-yyyy HH:mm:ss");
String formattedDate = myDateObj.format(myFormatObj);
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System.out.println("After formatting: " + formattedDate);
}
}
The output will be:
Before Formatting: 2022-11-16T18:36:56.195287

After Formatting: 16-11-2022 18:36:56
The ofPattern() method accepts all sorts of values, if you want to display the date and time in a
different format. For example:
Value Example
yyyy-MM-dd "1988-09-29"
dd/MM/yyyy "29/09/1988"
dd-MMM-yyyy "29-Sep-1988"
E, MMM dd yyyy "Thu, Sep 29 1988"
Java ArrayList
The ArrayList class is a resizable array, which can be found in the java.util package.
The difference between a built-in array and an ArrayList in Java, is that the size of an array cannot be
modified (if you want to add or remove elements to/from an array, you have to create a new one).
While elements can be added and removed from an ArrayList whenever you want. The syntax is also
slightly different:
Example
Create an ArrayList object called cars that will store strings:
import java.util.ArrayList; // import the ArrayList class
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>(); // Create an ArrayList object

Add Items
The ArrayList class has many useful methods. For example, to add elements to the ArrayList, use the
add() method:
Example
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class Main {

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ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
System.out.println(cars);
}
}
Access an Item
To access an element in the ArrayList, use the get() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.get(0);
Remember: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change an Item
To modify an element, use the set() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.set(0, "Opel");
Remove an Item
To remove an element, use the remove() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.remove(0);
To remove all the elements in the ArrayList, use the clear() method:
Example
cars.clear();
ArrayList Size
To find out how many elements an ArrayList have, use the size method:
Example
cars.size();
Loop Through an ArrayList
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Loop through the elements of an ArrayList with a for loop, and use the size() method to specify how
many times the loop should run:
Example
public class Main {
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
for (int i = 0; i < cars.size(); i++) {
System.out.println(cars.get(i));
}
}
}
You can also loop through an ArrayList with the for-each loop:
Example
public class Main {
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
}
}
}
Other Types
Elements in an ArrayList are actually objects. In the examples above, we created elements (objects)
of type "String". Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To use other
types, such as int, you must specify an equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other primitive types,
use: Boolean for boolean, Character for char, Double for double, etc:
Example
Create an ArrayList to store numbers (add elements of type Integer):
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public class Main {

ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
myNumbers.add(10);
myNumbers.add(15);
myNumbers.add(20);
myNumbers.add(25);
for (int i : myNumbers) {
}
}
}
Sort an ArrayList
Another useful class in the java.util package is the Collections class, which include the sort() method
for sorting lists alphabetically or numerically:
Example
Sort an ArrayList of Strings:
import java.util.Collections; // Import the Collections class
public class Main {

cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
Collections.sort(cars); // Sort cars
}
}
}
Example
Sort an ArrayList of Integers:
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import java.util.Collections; // Import the Collections class
public class Main {

ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
myNumbers.add(33);
myNumbers.add(15);
myNumbers.add(20);
myNumbers.add(34);
myNumbers.add(8);
myNumbers.add(12);
Collections.sort(myNumbers); // Sort myNumbers
for (int i : myNumbers) {

}
}
}
Java LinkedList
In the previous chapter, you learned about the ArrayList class. The LinkedList class is almost identical
to the ArrayList:
Example
// Import the LinkedList class
import java.util.LinkedList;
public class Main {

LinkedList<String> cars = new LinkedList<String>();
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
}
}
ArrayList vs. LinkedList
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The LinkedList class is a collection which can contain many objects of the same type, just like the
ArrayList.
The LinkedList class has all of the same methods as the ArrayList class because they both implement
the List interface. This means that you can add items, change items, remove items and clear the list
in the same way.
However, while the ArrayList class and the LinkedList class can be used in the same way, they are
built very differently.
How the ArrayList works

The ArrayList class has a regular array inside it. When an element is added, it is placed into the array.
If the array is not big enough, a new, larger array is created to replace the old one and the old one is
removed.
How the LinkedList works

The LinkedList stores its items in "containers." The list has a link to the first container and each
container has a link to the next container in the list. To add an element to the list, the element is
placed into a new container and that container is linked to one of the other containers in the list.
When To Use
Use an ArrayList for storing and accessing data, and LinkedList to manipulate data.
LinkedList Methods
For many cases, the ArrayList is more efficient as it is common to need access to random items in
the list, but the LinkedList provides several methods to do certain operations more efficiently:
Method Description
addFirst() Adds an item to the beginning of the list.
addLast() Add an item to the end of the list
removeFirst() Remove an item from the beginning of the list.
removeLast() Remove an item from the end of the list
getFirst() Get the item at the beginning of the list
getLast() Get the item at the end of the list
Java HashMap
In the ArrayList chapter, you learned that Arrays store items as an ordered collection, and you have
to access them with an index number (int type). A HashMap however, store items in "key/value"
pairs, and you can access them by an index of another type (e.g. a String).
One object is used as a key (index) to another object (value). It can store different types: String keys
and Integer values, or the same type, like: String keys and String values:
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Example
Create a HashMap object called capitalCities that will store String keys and String values:
import java.util.HashMap; // import the HashMap class
HashMap<String, String> capitalCities = new HashMap<String, String>();

Add Items
The HashMap class has many useful methods. For example, to add items to it, use the put() method:
Example
// Import the HashMap class
import java.util.HashMap;
public class Main {

// Create a HashMap object called capitalCities
HashMap<String, String> capitalCities = new HashMap<String, String>();
// Add keys and values (Country, City)

capitalCities.put("England", "London");
capitalCities.put("Germany", "Berlin");
capitalCities.put("Norway", "Oslo");
capitalCities.put("USA", "Washington DC");
System.out.println(capitalCities);
}
}
Access an Item
To access a value in the HashMap, use the get() method and refer to its key:
Example
capitalCities.get("England");
Remove an Item
To remove an item, use the remove() method and refer to the key:
Example
capitalCities.remove("England");
To remove all items, use the clear() method:
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Example
capitalCities.clear();
HashMap Size
To find out how many items there are, use the size() method:
Example
capitalCities.size();
Loop Through a HashMap

Loop through the items of a HashMap with a for-each loop.
Note: Use the keySet() method if you only want the keys, and use the values() method if you only
want the values:
Example
// Print keys
for (String i : capitalCities.keySet()) {
}
Example
// Print values
for (String i : capitalCities.values()) {
}
Example
// Print keys and values
for (String i : capitalCities.keySet()) {
System.out.println("key: " + i + " value: " + capitalCities.get(i));
}
Other Types
Keys and values in a HashMap are actually objects. In the examples above, we used objects of type
"String". Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To use other types, such
as int, you must specify an equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other primitive types, use: Boolean
for boolean, Character for char, Double for double, etc:
Example
Create a HashMap object called people that will store String keys and Integer values:
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// Import the HashMap class
import java.util.HashMap;
public class Main {

// Create a HashMap object called people

HashMap<String, Integer> people = new HashMap<String, Integer>();
// Add keys and values (Name, Age)

people.put("John", 32);
people.put("Steve", 30);
people.put("Angie", 33);
for (String i : people.keySet()) {

System.out.println("key: " + i + " value: " + people.get(i));
}
}
}
Java HashSet
A HashSet is a collection of items where every item is unique, and it is found in the java.util package:
Example
Create a HashSet object called cars that will store strings:
import java.util.HashSet; // Import the HashSet class
HashSet<String> cars = new HashSet<String>();

Add Items
The HashSet class has many useful methods. For example, to add items to it, use the add() method:
Example
// Import the HashSet class
import java.util.HashSet;
public class Main {

HashSet<String> cars = new HashSet<String>();
cars.add("Volvo");
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cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Mazda");
}
}
Note: In the example above, even though BMW is added twice it only appears once in the set
because every item in a set has to be unique.
Check If an Item Exists

To check whether an item exists in a HashSet, use the contains() method:
Example
cars.contains("Mazda");
Remove an Item
To remove an item, use the remove() method:
Example
cars.remove("Volvo");
To remove all items, use the clear() method:
Example
cars.clear();
HashSet Size
To find out how many items there are, use the size method:
Example
cars.size();
Loop Through a HashSet

Loop through the items of an HashSet with a for-each loop:
Example
}
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Other Types
Items in an HashSet are actually objects. In the examples above, we created items (objects) of type
"String". Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To use other types, such
as int, you must specify an equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other primitive types, use: Boolean
for boolean, Character for char, Double for double, etc:
Example
Use a HashSet that stores Integer objects:
import java.util.HashSet;
public class Main {

// Create a HashSet object called numbers

HashSet<Integer> numbers = new HashSet<Integer>();
// Add values to the set

numbers.add(4);
numbers.add(7);
numbers.add(8);
// Show which numbers between 1 and 10 are in the set

for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
if(numbers.contains(i)) {
System.out.println(i + " was found in the set.");
} else {
System.out.println(i + " was not found in the set.");
}
}
}
}
Java Iterator
An Iterator is an object that can be used to loop through collections, like ArrayList and HashSet. It is
called an "iterator" because "iterating" is the technical term for looping.
To use an Iterator, you must import it from the java.util package.
Getting an Iterator
The iterator() method can be used to get an Iterator for any collection:
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Example
// Import the ArrayList class and the Iterator class
import java.util.Iterator;
public class Main {

// Make a collection
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
// Get the iterator

Iterator<String> it = cars.iterator();
// Print the first item

System.out.println(it.next());
}
}
Looping Through a Collection

To loop through a collection, use the hasNext() and next() methods of the Iterator:
Example
while(it.hasNext()) {
System.out.println(it.next());
}
Removing Items from a Collection

Iterators are designed to easily change the collections that they loop through. The remove() method
can remove items from a collection while looping.
Example
Use an iterator to remove numbers less than 10 from a collection:
import java.util.Iterator;
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public class Main {
ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
numbers.add(12);
numbers.add(8);
numbers.add(2);
numbers.add(23);
Iterator<Integer> it = numbers.iterator();
while(it.hasNext()) {
Integer i = it.next();
if(i < 10) {
it.remove();
}
}
System.out.println(numbers);
}
}
Note: Trying to remove items using a for loop or a for-each loop would not work correctly because
the collection is changing size at the same time that the code is trying to loop.
Java Wrapper Classes

Wrapper classes provide a way to use primitive data types (int, boolean, etc..) as objects.
The table below shows the primitive type and the equivalent wrapper class:
Primitive Data Type Wrapper Class

byte Byte
short Short
int Integer
long Long
float Float
double Double
boolean Boolean
char Character
Sometimes you must use wrapper classes, for example when working with Collection objects, such
as ArrayList, where primitive types cannot be used (the list can only store objects):
Example
ArrayList<int> myNumbers = new ArrayList<int>(); // Invalid
ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>(); // Valid
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Creating Wrapper Objects
To create a wrapper object, use the wrapper class instead of the primitive type. To get the value,
you can just print the object:
Example
public class Main {
Integer myInt = 5;
Double myDouble = 5.99;
Character myChar = 'A';
System.out.println(myInt);
System.out.println(myDouble);
System.out.println(myChar);
}
}
Since you're now working with objects, you can use certain methods to get information about the
specific object.
For example, the following methods are used to get the value associated with the corresponding
wrapper object: intValue(), byteValue(), shortValue(), longValue(), floatValue(), doubleValue(),
charValue(), booleanValue().
This example will output the same result as the example above:
Example
public class Main {
Integer myInt = 5;
Double myDouble = 5.99;
Character myChar = 'A';
System.out.println(myInt.intValue());
System.out.println(myDouble.doubleValue());
System.out.println(myChar.charValue());
}
}
Another useful method is the toString() method, which is used to convert wrapper objects to strings.
In the following example, we convert an Integer to a String, and use the length() method of the
String class to output the length of the "string":
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Example
public class Main {
Integer myInt = 100;
String myString = myInt.toString();
System.out.println(myString.length());
}
}
Java Exceptions
When executing Java code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the programmer,
errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.
When an error occurs, Java will normally stop and generate an error message. The technical term for
this is: Java will throw an exception (throw an error).
Java try and catch

The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors while it is being
executed.
The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an error occurs in the try
block.
The try and catch keywords come in pairs:
Syntax
try {
// Block of code to try
}
catch(Exception e) {
// Block of code to handle errors
}
Consider the following example:
This will generate an error, because myNumbers[10] does not exist.
public class Main {

int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};
System.out.println(myNumbers[10]); // error!
}
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}
The output will be something like this:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 10

at Main.main(Main.java:4)
If an error occurs, we can use try...catch to catch the error and execute some code to handle it:
Example
public class Main {
try {
System.out.println(myNumbers[10]);
} catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Something went wrong.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
Something went wrong.

Finally
The finally statement lets you execute code, after try...catch, regardless of the result:
Example
public class Main {
try {
System.out.println(myNumbers[10]);
} catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println("Something went wrong.");
} finally {
System.out.println("The 'try catch' is finished.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
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Something went wrong.
The 'try catch' is finished.
The throw keyword

The throw statement allows you to create a custom error.
The throw statement is used together with an exception type. There are many exception types
available in Java: ArithmeticException, FileNotFoundException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException,
SecurityException, etc:
Example
Throw an exception if age is below 18 (print "Access denied"). If age is 18 or older, print "Access
granted":
public class Main {

static void checkAge(int age) {
if (age < 18) {
throw new ArithmeticException("Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.");
}
else {
System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}
}

checkAge(15); // Set age to 15 (which is below 18...)
}
}
The output will be:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArithmeticException: Access denied - You must be at least 18

years old.
at Main.checkAge(Main.java:4)
at Main.main(Main.java:12)
If age was 20, you would not get an exception:
Example
checkAge(20);
The output will be:
Access granted - You are old enough!
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What is a Regular Expression?
A regular expression is a sequence of characters that forms a search pattern. When you search for
data in a text, you can use this search pattern to describe what you are searching for.
A regular expression can be a single character, or a more complicated pattern.
Regular expressions can be used to perform all types of text search and text replace operations.
Java does not have a built-in Regular Expression class, but we can import the java.util.regex package
to work with regular expressions. The package includes the following classes:
Pattern Class - Defines a pattern (to be used in a search)

Matcher Class - Used to search for the pattern
PatternSyntaxException Class - Indicates syntax error in a regular expression pattern
Example
Find out if there are any occurrences of the word "w3schools" in a sentence:
import java.util.regex.Matcher;
import java.util.regex.Pattern;
public class Main {

Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("w3schools", Pattern.CASE_INSENSITIVE);
Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher("Visit W3Schools!");
boolean matchFound = matcher.find();
if(matchFound) {
System.out.println("Match found");
} else {
System.out.println("Match not found");
}
}
}
// Outputs Match found
Example Explained
In this example, The word "w3schools" is being searched for in a sentence.
First, the pattern is created using the Pattern.compile() method. The first parameter indicates which
pattern is being searched for and the second parameter has a flag to indicates that the search
should be case-insensitive. The second parameter is optional.
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The matcher() method is used to search for the pattern in a string. It returns a Matcher object which
contains information about the search that was performed.
The find() method returns true if the pattern was found in the string and false if it was not found.
Flags
Flags in the compile() method change how the search is performed. Here are a few of them:
Pattern.CASE_INSENSITIVE - The case of letters will be ignored when performing a search.

Pattern.LITERAL - Special characters in the pattern will not have any special meaning and will be
treated as ordinary characters when performing a search.
Pattern.UNICODE_CASE - Use it together with the CASE_INSENSITIVE flag to also ignore the case of
letters outside of the English alphabet
Regular Expression Patterns
The first parameter of the Pattern.compile() method is the pattern. It describes what is being
searched for.
Brackets are used to find a range of characters:
Expression Description
[abc] Find one character from the options between the brackets
[^abc] Find one character NOT between the brackets
[0-9] Find one character from the range 0 to 9
Metacharacters
Metacharacters are characters with a special meaning:
Metacharacter Description
| Find a match for any one of the patterns separated by | as in: cat|dog|fish
. Find just one instance of any character
^ Finds a match as the beginning of a string as in: ^Hello
$ Finds a match at the end of the string as in: World$
\d Find a digit
\s Find a whitespace character
\b Find a match at the beginning of a word like this: \bWORD, or at the end of a word like this:
WORD\b
\uxxxx Find the Unicode character specified by the hexadecimal number xxxx
Quantifiers
Quantifiers define quantities:
Quantifier Description
n+ Matches any string that contains at least one n
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n* Matches any string that contains zero or more occurrences of n
n? Matches any string that contains zero or one occurrences of n
n{x}Matches any string that contains a sequence of X n's
n{x,y} Matches any string that contains a sequence of X to Y n's
n{x,} Matches any string that contains a sequence of at least X n's
Java Threads
Threads allows a program to operate more efficiently by doing multiple things at the same time.
Threads can be used to perform complicated tasks in the background without interrupting the main
program.
Creating a Thread
There are two ways to create a thread.
It can be created by extending the Thread class and overriding its run() method:
Extend Syntax
public class Main extends Thread {
public void run() {
System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");
}
}
Another way to create a thread is to implement the Runnable interface:
Implement Syntax
public class Main implements Runnable {
public void run() {
}
}
Running Threads
If the class extends the Thread class, the thread can be run by creating an instance of the class and
call its start() method:
Extend Example
Main thread = new Main();
thread.start();
System.out.println("This code is outside of the thread");
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}
public void run() {
}
}
If the class implements the Runnable interface, the thread can be run by passing an instance of the
class to a Thread object's constructor and then calling the thread's start() method:
Implement Example
public class Main implements Runnable {
Main obj = new Main();
Thread thread = new Thread(obj);
thread.start();
System.out.println("This code is outside of the thread");
}
public void run() {
}
}
Differences between "extending" and "implementing" Threads
The major difference is that when a class extends the Thread class, you cannot extend any other
class, but by implementing the Runnable interface, it is possible to extend from another class as
well, like: class MyClass extends OtherClass implements Runnable.
Concurrency Problems
Because threads run at the same time as other parts of the program, there is no way to know in
which order the code will run. When the threads and main program are reading and writing the
same variables, the values are unpredictable. The problems that result from this are called
concurrency problems.
Example
A code example where the value of the variable amount is unpredictable:

public static int amount = 0;

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thread.start();
System.out.println(amount);
amount++;
System.out.println(amount);
}
public void run() {

amount++;
}
}
To avoid concurrency problems, it is best to share as few attributes between threads as possible. If
attributes need to be shared, one possible solution is to use the isAlive() method of the thread to
check whether the thread has finished running before using any attributes that the thread can
change.
Example
Use isAlive() to prevent concurrency problems:

public static int amount = 0;

thread.start();
// Wait for the thread to finish
while(thread.isAlive()) {
System.out.println("Waiting...");
}
// Update amount and print its value
System.out.println("Main: " + amount);
amount++;
System.out.println("Main: " + amount);
}
public void run() {
amount++;
}
}
Java Lambda Expressions

Lambda Expressions were added in Java 8.
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A lambda expression is a short block of code which takes in parameters and returns a value. Lambda
expressions are similar to methods, but they do not need a name and they can be implemented
right in the body of a method.
Syntax
The simplest lambda expression contains a single parameter and an expression:
parameter -> expression

To use more than one parameter, wrap them in parentheses:
(parameter1, parameter2) -> expression

Expressions are limited. They have to immediately return a value, and they cannot contain variables,
assignments or statements such as if or for. In order to do more complex operations, a code block
can be used with curly braces. If the lambda expression needs to return a value, then the code block
should have a return statement.
(parameter1, parameter2) -> { code block }

ADVERTISEMENT
Using Lambda Expressions

Lambda expressions are usually passed as parameters to a function:
Example
Use a lambda expression in the ArrayList's forEach() method to print every item in the list:
public class Main {

numbers.add(5);
numbers.add(9);
numbers.add(8);
numbers.add(1);
numbers.forEach( (n) -> { System.out.println(n); } );
}
}
Lambda expressions can be stored in variables if the variable's type is an interface which has only
one method. The lambda expression should have the same number of parameters and the same
return type as that method. Java has many of these kinds of interfaces built in, such as the
Consumer interface (found in the java.util package) used by lists.
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Example
Use Java's Consumer interface to store a lambda expression in a variable:
import java.util.function.Consumer;
public class Main {

numbers.add(5);
numbers.add(9);
numbers.add(8);
numbers.add(1);
Consumer<Integer> method = (n) -> { System.out.println(n); };
numbers.forEach( method );
}
}
To use a lambda expression in a method, the method should have a parameter with a single-method
interface as its type. Calling the interface's method will run the lambda expression:
Example
Create a method which takes a lambda expression as a parameter:
interface StringFunction {
String run(String str);
}
public class Main {

StringFunction exclaim = (s) -> s + "!";
StringFunction ask = (s) -> s + "?";
printFormatted("Hello", exclaim);
printFormatted("Hello", ask);
}
public static void printFormatted(String str, StringFunction format) {
String result = format.run(str);
}
}
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Java File Handling
File handling is an important part of any application.
Java has several methods for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.
Java File Handling

The File class from the java.io package, allows us to work with files.
To use the File class, create an object of the class, and specify the filename or directory name:
Example
import java.io.File; // Import the File class
File myObj = new File("filename.txt"); // Specify the filename

The File class has many useful methods for creating and getting information about files. For
example:
Method Type Description

canRead() Boolean Tests whether the file is readable or not
canWrite() Boolean Tests whether the file is writable or not
createNewFile() Boolean Creates an empty file
delete() Boolean Deletes a file
exists() Boolean Tests whether the file exists
getName() String Returns the name of the file
getAbsolutePath() String Returns the absolute pathname of the file
length() Long Returns the size of the file in bytes
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list() String[] Returns an array of the files in the directory
mkdir() Boolean Creates a directory
You will learn how to create, write, read and delete files in the next chapters:
Create a File
To create a file in Java, you can use the createNewFile() method. This method returns a boolean
value: true if the file was successfully created, and false if the file already exists. Note that the
method is enclosed in a try...catch block. This is necessary because it throws an IOException if an
error occurs (if the file cannot be created for some reason):
Example
import java.io.IOException; // Import the IOException class to handle errors
public class CreateFile {

try {
File myObj = new File("filename.txt");
if (myObj.createNewFile()) {
System.out.println("File created: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("File already exists.");
}
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("An error occurred.");
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
}
The output will be:
File created: filename.txt

To create a file in a specific directory (requires permission), specify the path of the file and use
double backslashes to escape the "\" character (for Windows). On Mac and Linux you can just write
the path, like: /Users/name/filename.txt
Example
File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\filename.txt");
Write To a File
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In the following example, we use the FileWriter class together with its write() method to write some
text to the file we created in the example above. Note that when you are done writing to the file,
you should close it with the close() method:
Example
import java.io.FileWriter; // Import the FileWriter class
import java.io.IOException; // Import the IOException class to handle errors
public class WriteToFile {

try {
FileWriter myWriter = new FileWriter("filename.txt");
myWriter.write("Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!");
myWriter.close();
System.out.println("Successfully wrote to the file.");
} catch (IOException e) {
}
}
}
The output will be:
Successfully wrote to the file.
Read a File
In the previous chapter, you learned how to create and write to a file.
In the following example, we use the Scanner class to read the contents of the text file we created in
the previous chapter:
Example
import java.io.FileNotFoundException; // Import this class to handle errors
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class to read text files
public class ReadFile {

try {
Scanner myReader = new Scanner(myObj);
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while (myReader.hasNextLine()) {
String data = myReader.nextLine();
System.out.println(data);
}
myReader.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
}
}
}
The output will be:
Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!

Get File Information
To get more information about a file, use any of the File methods:
Example
public class GetFileInfo {

if (myObj.exists()) {
System.out.println("File name: " + myObj.getName());
System.out.println("Absolute path: " + myObj.getAbsolutePath());
System.out.println("Writeable: " + myObj.canWrite());
System.out.println("Readable " + myObj.canRead());
System.out.println("File size in bytes " + myObj.length());
} else {
System.out.println("The file does not exist.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
File name: filename.txt

Absolute path: C:\Users\MyName\filename.txt
Writeable: true
Readable: true
File size in bytes: 0
110
Note: There are many available classes in the Java API that can be used to read and write files in
Java: FileReader, BufferedReader, Files, Scanner, FileInputStream, FileWriter, BufferedWriter,
FileOutputStream, etc. Which one to use depends on the Java version you're working with and
whether you need to read bytes or characters, and the size of the file/lines etc.
Tip: To delete a file, read our Java Delete Files chapter.
Delete a File
To delete a file in Java, use the delete() method:
Example
public class DeleteFile {

if (myObj.delete()) {
System.out.println("Deleted the file: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("Failed to delete the file.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
Deleted the file: filename.txt
Delete a Folder
You can also delete a folder. However, it must be empty:
Example
import java.io.File;
public class DeleteFolder {

File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\Test");
if (myObj.delete()) {
System.out.println("Deleted the folder: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("Failed to delete the folder.");
}
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}
}
The output will be:
Deleted the folder: Test
Java How To Add Two Numbers
Add Two Numbers

Learn how to add two numbers in Java:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int sum = x + y;
System.out.println(sum); // Print the sum of x + y
Add Two Numbers with User Input
Learn how to add two numbers with user input:
Example
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class
class MyClass {
int x, y, sum;
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object
System.out.println("Type a number:");
x = myObj.nextInt(); // Read user input
System.out.println("Type another number:");

y = myObj.nextInt(); // Read user input
sum = x + y; // Calculate the sum of x + y

System.out.println("Sum is: " + sum); // Print the sum
}
}
Count Number of Words in a String

You can easily count the number of words in a string with the following example:
112
Example
String words = "One Two Three Four";
int countWords = words.split("\\s").length;
System.out.println(countWords);
Java Reserved Keywords

Java has a set of keywords that are reserved words that cannot be used as variables, methods,
classes, or any other identifiers:
Keyword Description
abstract A non-access modifier. Used for classes and methods: An abstract class cannot be used
to create objects (to access it, it must be inherited from another class). An abstract method can only
be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided by the subclass
(inherited from)
assert For debugging
boolean A data type that can only store true and false values
break Breaks out of a loop or a switch block
byte A data type that can store whole numbers from -128 and 127
case Marks a block of code in switch statements
catch Catches exceptions generated by try statements
char A data type that is used to store a single character
class Defines a class
continue Continues to the next iteration of a loop
const Defines a constant. Not in use - use final instead
default Specifies the default block of code in a switch statement
do Used together with while to create a do-while loop
double A data type that can store whole numbers from 1.7e−308 to 1.7e+308
elseUsed in conditional statements
enum Declares an enumerated (unchangeable) type
exports Exports a package with a module. New in Java 9
extends Extends a class (indicates that a class is inherited from another class)
final A non-access modifier used for classes, attributes and methods, which makes them non-
changeable (impossible to inherit or override)
finally Used with exceptions, a block of code that will be executed no matter if there is an
exception or not
float A data type that can store whole numbers from 3.4e−038 to 3.4e+038
for Create a for loop
goto Not in use, and has no function
if Makes a conditional statement
implementsImplements an interface
import Used to import a package, class or interface
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instanceof Checks whether an object is an instance of a specific class or an interface
int A data type that can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647
interface Used to declare a special type of class that only contains abstract methods
long A data type that can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775808
module Declares a module. New in Java 9
native Specifies that a method is not implemented in the same Java source file (but in another
language)
new Creates new objects
package Declares a package
private An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them only
accessible within the declared class
protected An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them
accessible in the same package and subclasses
public An access modifier used for classes, attributes, methods and constructors, making them
accessible by any other class
requires Specifies required libraries inside a module. New in Java 9
return Finished the execution of a method, and can be used to return a value from a method
short A data type that can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767
static A non-access modifier used for methods and attributes. Static methods/attributes can
be accessed without creating an object of a class
strictfp Restrict the precision and rounding of floating point calculations
super Refers to superclass (parent) objects
switch Selects one of many code blocks to be executed
synchronized A non-access modifier, which specifies that methods can only be accessed by
one thread at a time
this Refers to the current object in a method or constructor
throw Creates a custom error
throws Indicates what exceptions may be thrown by a method
transient A non-accesss modifier, which specifies that an attribute is not part of an object's
persistent state
try Creates a try...catch statement
var Declares a variable. New in Java 10
void Specifies that a method should not have a return value
volatile Indicates that an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the
"main memory"
while Creates a while loop
Note: true, false, and null are not keywords, but they are literals and reserved words that cannot
be used as identifiers.
114
All String Methods
The String class has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Method Description Return Type

charAt() Returns the character at the specified index (position) char
codePointAt() Returns the Unicode of the character at the specified index int
codePointBefore() Returns the Unicode of the character before the specified index int
codePointCount() Returns the number of Unicode values found in a string. int
compareTo() Compares two strings lexicographically int
compareToIgnoreCase() Compares two strings lexicographically, ignoring case differences
int
concat() Appends a string to the end of another string String
contains() Checks whether a string contains a sequence of characters boolean
contentEquals() Checks whether a string contains the exact same sequence of characters of the
specified CharSequence or StringBuffer boolean
copyValueOf() Returns a String that represents the characters of the character array String
endsWith() Checks whether a string ends with the specified character(s) boolean
equals() Compares two strings. Returns true if the strings are equal, and false if not
boolean
equalsIgnoreCase() Compares two strings, ignoring case considerations boolean
format() Returns a formatted string using the specified locale, format string, and arguments
String
getBytes() Encodes this String into a sequence of bytes using the named charset, storing the result
into a new byte array byte[]
getChars() Copies characters from a string to an array of chars void
hashCode() Returns the hash code of a string int
indexOf() Returns the position of the first found occurrence of specified characters in a string
int
intern() Returns the canonical representation for the string object String
isEmpty() Checks whether a string is empty or not boolean
lastIndexOf() Returns the position of the last found occurrence of specified characters in a
string int
length() Returns the length of a specified string int
matches() Searches a string for a match against a regular expression, and returns the matches
boolean
offsetByCodePoints() Returns the index within this String that is offset from the given index by
codePointOffset code points int
regionMatches() Tests if two string regions are equal boolean
replace() Searches a string for a specified value, and returns a new string where the specified
values are replaced String
replaceFirst() Replaces the first occurrence of a substring that matches the given regular
expression with the given replacement String
115
replaceAll() Replaces each substring of this string that matches the given regular expression with the
given replacement String
split() Splits a string into an array of substrings String[]
startsWith()Checks whether a string starts with specified characters boolean
subSequence() Returns a new character sequence that is a subsequence of this sequence
CharSequence
substring() Returns a new string which is the substring of a specified string String
toCharArray() Converts this string to a new character array char[]
toLowerCase() Converts a string to lower case letters String
toString() Returns the value of a String object String
toUpperCase() Converts a string to upper case letters String
trim() Removes whitespace from both ends of a string String
valueOf() Returns the string representation of the specified value String
All Java Math Methods
A list of all Math methods can be found in the table below:
Method Description Return Type

abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x double|float|int|long
acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x, in radians double
asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x, in radians double
atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x as a numeric value between -PI/2 and PI/2 radians double
atan2(y,x) Returns the angle theta from the conversion of rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar
coordinates (r, theta). double
cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x double
ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer double
copySign(x, y) Returns the first floating point x with the sign of the second floating point y
double
cos(x) Returns the cosine of x (x is in radians) double
cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a double value double
exp(x) Returns the value of Ex double
expm1(x) Returns ex -1 double
floor(x) Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer double
getExponent(x) Returns the unbiased exponent used in x int
hypot(x, y) Returns sqrt(x2 +y2) without intermediate overflow or underflow double
IEEEremainder(x, y) Computes the remainder operation on x and y as prescribed by the IEEE 754
standard double
log(x) Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of x double
log10(x) Returns the base 10 logarithm of x double
log1p(x) Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of the sum of x and 1 double
max(x, y) Returns the number with the highest value double|float|int|long
min(x, y) Returns the number with the lowest value double|float|int|long
116
nextAfter(x, y) Returns the floating point number adjacent to x in the direction of y
double|float
nextUp(x) Returns the floating point value adjacent to x in the direction of positive infinity
double|float
pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y double
random() Returns a random number between 0 and 1 double
round(x) Returns the value of x rounded to its nearest integer int
rint(x) Returns the double value that is closest to x and equal to a mathematical integerdouble
signum(x) Returns the sign of x double
sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians) double
sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value double
sqrt(x) Returns the square root of x double
tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle double
tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value double
toDegrees(x) Converts an angle measured in radians to an approx. equivalent angle measured
in degrees double
toRadians(x) Converts an angle measured in degrees to an approx. angle measured in radians
double
ulp(x) Returns the size of the unit of least precision (ulp) of x double|float
Note: All Math methods are static.
117

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JAVA Tutorial For Beginners

01. Java Introduction:

Java is a popular programming language, created in 1995.

 Mobile applications (specially Android apps)

And much, much more!

Why Use Java?

public class Main {

The output should read: Hello World

public class Main {

Note: Java is case-sensitive: "MyClass" and "myclass" has different meaning.

The main Method

public static void main(String[] args)

Any code inside the main() method will be executed.

public static void main(String[] args) {

The Print() Method

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Java Multi-line Comments

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.

Variables are containers for storing data values.

Declaring (Creating) Variables

String name = "John";

int myNum = 15;

int myNum = 15;

Java Print Variables

To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:

From the example above, you can expect:

 x stores the value 5

Java Declare Multiple Variables

One Value to Multiple Variables

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

The general rules for naming variables are:

 Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

Data types are divided into two groups:

Primitive Data Types

There are eight primitive data types in Java:

Data Type Size Description

byte 1 byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127

Primitive number types are divided into two groups:

Floating Point Types

Use float or double?

Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing.

Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size

Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type

public class Main {

public class Main {

System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.78

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

Java divides the operators into the following groups:

Operator Name Description Example

Java Assignment Operators

The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:

A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As

Java Comparison Operators

Java Logical Operators

Operator Name Description Example

Strings are used for storing text.

String greeting = "Hello";