Railway engineering

CREEP OF RAILS

Definition:
 
Creep of rails can be defined as the longitudinal movement of rails with respect to sleepers in a track. Rails
have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. Creep is common to all railway
tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from place to place; the rail may move by several
centimetres in a month at few places, while at other locations the movement may be almost
negligible.
 
Theories for the development of creep: 
Various theories have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of creep and its causes, but none of
them have proved to be satisfactory. The important theories are briefly discussed in the following
subsections.
 
Wave Motion Theory:
 
According to wave motion theory, wave motion is set up in the resilient track because of moving loads,
causing a deflection in the rail under the load. The portion of the rail immediately under the wheel
gets slightly depressed due to the wheel load. Therefore, the rails generally have a wavy formation.
 
Percussion Theory:
 
According to percussion theory, creep is developed due to the impact of wheels at the rail end ahead of a
joint. As the wheels of the moving train leave the trailing rail at the joint, the rail gets pushed
forward causing it to move longitudinally in the direction of traffic, and that is how creep develops.
Though the impact of a single wheel may be nominal, the continuous movement of several wheels
passing over the joint pushes the facing or landing rail forward, thereby causing creep.
Drag Theory:
 
According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the driving wheels of a locomotive
has the tendency to push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the other wheels
of the locomotive and trailing wagons pushes the rail in the direction in which the
locomotive is moving. This results in the longitudinal movement of the rail in the
direction of traffic, thereby causing creep.
Causes of Creep:
The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows.
 
Ironing effect of the wheel: The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves
formed in the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic,
resulting in creep.
 
Starting and stopping operations When a train starts or accelerates, the
backward thrust of its wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly,
when the train slows down or comes to a halt, the effect of the applied brakes
tends to push the rail forward. This in turn causes creep in one direction or the
other.
 
Changes in temperature Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature resulting in the
expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot weather conditions.

 Unbalanced traffic In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e., each track is
unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-line section,
even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of traffic in each direction is
normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of predominant traffic.

 Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to poor maintenance of the
track, also contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows:

Improper securing of rails to sleepers

Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement of
sleepers
Improper expansion gaps
Badly maintained rail joints
Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track
Rails too light for the traffic carried on them
Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels
Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven spacing of
sleepers
Prevention of Creep:
The remedies of creep are as follows:
Pulling back the rails
Provision of anchors or anti creepers
Use of steel sleepers

Pulling back the rails:

When creep is in excess of 150 mm resulting in maintenance problems, the same should be adjusted by
pulling the rails back. The various steps involved in the adjustment of creep are as follows:

◦ A careful survey of the expansion gaps and of the current position of rail joints is carried out.
◦ The total creep that has been proposed to be adjusted and the correct expansion gap that is to be
kept are decided in advance.
◦ The fish plates at one end are loosened and those at the other end are removed. Sleeper fittings, i.e.,
spikes or keys, are also loosened or removed.
◦ The rails are then pulled back one by one with the help of a rope attached to a hook. The pulling
back should be regulated in such a way that the rail joints remain central and suspended on the
joint sleepers.
The pulling back of rails is a slow process since only one rail is dealt with at a time and can be done only
for short isolated lengths of a track. Normally, about 40-50 men are required per kilometre for
adjusting creep. When creep is required to be adjusted for longer lengths, five rail lengths are tackled
at a time. The procedure is almost the same as the preceding steps except that instead of pulling the
rails with a rope, a blow is given to them using a cut rail piece of a length of about 5 m.
Provision of Anchors and anti creepers:
 
Creep anchors can effectively reduce the creep in a track. At least eight of these creep anchors must be
provided per panel. Out of the large number of creep anchors tried on Indian Railways, the 'fair T' and
'fair V anchors, have been standardized for use. The fair V anchor is most popular. The creep anchor
should fit snugly against the sleeper for it to be fully effective.
Use of steel sleepers:
Sleepers should be of such a type & such fittings that they effectively prevent the rails from creeping on
them. The sleepers must have a good grip with the ballast to resist the movement of the sleepers in
the ballast. And steel sleepers are the best for this purpose. Increase in no of steel sleepers will help in
the prevention of creep.
HAULING CAPACITY AND TRACTIVE EFFORT

HAULING CAPACITY AND TRACTIVE EFFORT

The tractive effort of a locomotive is the force that the locomotive can generate for hauling the load.
The tractive effort of a locomotive should be enough for it to haul a train at the maximum permissible
speed. There are various tractive effort. Curves available for different locomotives for different speeds,
which enable the computation of the value of tractive effort. Tractive effort is generally equal to or a
little greater than the hauling capacity of the locomotive. If the tractive effort:-much greater than
what is required to haul the train, the wheels of the locomotive may slip.
A rough assessment of the tractive effort of different types of locomotive.-provided in the following
sections.
Steam Locomotive
The tractive effort of a steam locomotive can be calculated by
equating the total power generated by the steam engine to
the work done by the driving wheels.
WEAR AND FAILURE IN RAILS
RAIL WEAR

Due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the rail and the wheel, the rail head gets
worn out in the course of service. The impact of moving loads, the effect of the forces of
acceleration, deceleration, and braking of wheels, the abrasion due to rail-wheel interaction, the
effects of weather conditions such as changes in temperature, snow, and rains, the presence of
materials such as sand, the standard of maintenance of the track, and such allied factors cause
considerable wear and tear of the vertical and lateral planes of the rail head. Lateral wear occurs
more on curves because of the lateral thrust exerted on the outer rail by centrifugal force. A lot of
the metal of the rail head gets worn out, causing the weight of the rail to decrease. This loss of
weight of the rail section should not be such that the stresses exceed their permissible values. When
such a stage is reached, rail renewal is called for.
In addition, the rail head should not wear to such an extent that there is the possibility of a worn
flange of the wheel hitting the fish plate.
 Types of Wear on Rails
A rail may face wear and tear in the following positions:
a) On top of the rail head (vertical wear)
b) On the sides of the rail head (lateral wear)
c) On the ends of the rail (battering of rail ends)
Wear is more prominent at some special locations of the track. These locations are normally
the following:
a) On sharp curves, due to centrifugal forces
b) On steep gradients, due to the extra force applied by the engine
c) On approaches to railway stations, possibly due to acceleration and deceleration
d) In tunnels and coastal areas, due to humidity and weather effects
Measurement of Wear
Wear on rails can be measured using any of the following methods:
a. By weighing the rail
b. By profiling the rail section with the help of lead strips
c. By profiling the rail section with the help of needles
d. By using special instruments designed to measure the profile of the rail and record it simultaneously on
graph paper
Methods to Reduce Wear
Based on field experience, some of the methods adopted to reduce vertical wear and lateral wear on
straight paths and curves are as follows-
a. Better maintenance of the track to ensure good packing as well as proper alignment and use of the
correct gauge
b. Reduction in the number of joints by welding
c. Use of heavier and higher UTS rails, which are more wear resistant
d. Use of bearing plates and proper adzing in case of wooden sleepers
e. Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in case of curves
f. Providing check rails in the case of sharp curves
g. Interchanging the inner and outer rails
h. Changing the rail by carrying out track renewal
Rail End Batter
The hammering action of moving loads on rail joints batters the rail ends in due course of time. Due to the
impact of the blows, the contact surfaces between the rails and sleepers also get worn out, the
ballast at places where the sleepers are joined gets shaken up, the fish bolts become loose, and all
these factors further worsen the situation, thereby increasing rail end batter.
Rail end batter is measured as the difference between the height of the rail at the end and at a point
30 cm away from the end. If the batter is up to 2 mm, it is classified 'average', and if it is between 2
and 3 mm, it is classified as 'severe'. When rail end batter is excessive and the rail is otherwise alright,
the ends can be cropped and the rail reused.
OTHER DEFECTS IN RAILS
Rail wear and battering of rail ends are the two major defects in rails. However some other types of
defects may also develop in a rail and necessitate its removal in extreme cases. These are as follows:
Hogging of rails
Rail ends get hogged due to poor maintenance of the rail joint, yielding format, loose and faulty
fastenings, and other such reasons. Hogging of rails causes the quality of the track to deteriorate. This
defect can be remedied by measured she packing.
Scabbing of rails
The scabbing of rails occurs due to the falling of patches or chunks of metal from the rail table. Scabbing is
generally seen in the shape of an elliptical depression; whose surface reveals a progressive fracture with
numerous cracks around it.
Wheel burns
Wheel burns are caused by the slipping of the driving wheel of locomotives on the rail surface. As a
consequence, extra heat is generated and the surface of the rail gets affected, resulting n a depression
on the rail table. Wheel burns are generally noticed on steep gradients or where there are heavy
incidences of braking or near water columns.
Shelling and black spots
Shelling is the progressive horizontal separation of metal that occurs on the gauge side, generally at the
upper gauge corner. It is primarily caused by heavy bearing pressure on a small area of contact, which
produces heavy internal shear stress.
Corrugation of rail:
Corrugation consists of minute depressions on the surface of rails, varying in shape and size and occurring it
irregular intervals. The exact cause of corrugation is not yet known, though many theories have been
put forward. The factors which help in the formation of rail corrugation, however, are briefly
enumerated here,
 a) Metallurgy and age of rails
I. High nitrogen content of the rails
II. Effect of oscillation at the time of rolling and straightening of rails
b) Physical and environment conditions of track
(i) Steep gradients (ii) Yielding formation (iii) Long tunnels (iv) Electrified sections
c) Train operations
(i) High speeds and high axle loads (ii) Starting locations of trains (iii) Locations where brakes are applied
to stop the train
d) Atmospheric effects
(i) High moisture content in the air particularly in coastal areas (ii) Presence of sand
 RAIL FAILURE
A rail is said to have failed if it is considered necessary to remove it immediately from the track on
account of the defects noticed on it. The majority of rail failures originate from the fatigue cracks
caused due to alternating stresses created in the rail section on account of the passage of loads. A rail
section is normally designed to take a certain minimum GMT of traffic, but sometimes due to reasons
such as an inherent defect in the metal, the section becomes weak at a particular point and leads to
premature failure of the rail.
b) Physical and environment conditions of track
(i) Steep gradients (ii) Yielding formation (iii) Long tunnels (iv) Electrified sections
c) Train operations
(i) High speeds and high axle loads (ii) Starting locations of trains (iii) Locations where brakes are
applied to stop the train
d) Atmospheric effects
(i) High moisture content in the air particularly in coastal areas (ii) Presence of sand
The corrugation of rails is quite an undesirable feature. When vehicles pass over corrugated rails, a
roaring sound is produced, possibly due to the locking of air in the corrugation. This phenomenon is
sometimes called 'Roaring of rails'. This unpleasant and excessive noise causes great inconvenience to
the passengers. Corrugation also results in the rapid oscillation of rails, which in turn loosens the keys,
causes excessive wear to fittings, and disturbs the packing.
 Causes of Rail Failures
The main causes of failure of rails are as follows:
Inherent defects in the rail These are due to manufacturing defects in the rail, such as faulty chemical
composition, harmful segregation, piping, seams, laps, and guide marks.
Defects due to fault of the rolling stock and abnormal traffic effects Flat soots in tvres, engine burns,
skidding of wheels, severe braking, etc.
Excessive corrosion of rails This generally takes place due to weather conditions, the presence of
corrosive salts such as chlorides and constant exposure of the rails to moisture and humidity in
locations near water columns, ashpits, tunnels, etc. Corrosion normally leads to the development of
cracks in regions with a high concentration of stresses.
Badly maintained joints Poor maintenance of joints such as improper packing of joint sleepers and loose
fittings.
Defects in welding of joints These defects arise either because of improper composition of the thermit
weld metal or because of a defective welding technique.
Improper maintenance of track Ineffective or careless maintenance of the track or delayed renewal
of the track.
Derailments The rails are damaged during derailment.