CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

The present day electrical power system ac i.e. electric power is

generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of Alternating Current. The
electric power is produced at power station which is located at favorable places,
generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumer
through a large network of transmission and distribution. At many place in the
line of power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some
characteristics (e.g. Voltage, ac-dc, frequency, power factor etc) of electric
supply. This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called Sub-Station. For
example, generation voltage (11KV or 6.6KV)at the power station is stepped
upto high voltage (say 220KV to 132KV)for transmission of electric power .
Similarly near the consumer localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down
to utilization level. This job is again accomplished by suitable apparatus called
Sub-Station.

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 CHAPTER -2
SUB-STATION
2.1 Definition
The substation is the medium of transferring the power from generating unit to the consumer
end. It consists different types of equipment like transformer, generator, power cable which helps in
the power transmission. The generation, transmission and distribution are the main work of the
substation.

The substation which generates the power is known as the generating substation. Similarly,
the transmission substation transmits the power, and the distributing substations distribute the power
to the load. The subcategories of the electrical substations are explained below.

2.2 Classification of Sub-Station

2.2.1 Classification of Substations by Nature of Duties

The classification of the substation by nature of functions is explained below in details.

Step-up or Primary Substations: Such types of substations generate low voltage like 3.3, 6.6, 11, or
33kV. This voltage is stepped up by the help of a step-up transformer for transmitting the power over
large distances. It is located near the generating substation

Primary Grid Substations: This substation lowered the value of primary stepped up voltages. The
output of the primary grid substation acts as the input of the secondary substations. The secondary
substation is used for stepping down the input voltage to more lowered for further transmission.

Step-down or Distribution Substations: This substation is placed near the load centre where the
primary distribution is stepped down for sub-transmission. The secondary distribution transformer
feeds the consumer through the service line

2.2.2 Classification of Substations by Service Rendered

Transformer substations: In such type of substation transformers are installed for transforming the
power from one voltage level to another level as per need.

Switching Substations: The substations use for switching the power line without disturbing the
voltage is known as the switching substations. This type of substations is placed between the
transmission lines.

Converting Substations: In such types of substations, AC power converting into DC power or vice
versa or it can convert high frequency to lower frequency or vice versa

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2.2.3 Classification of Substations by Operating Voltage

The substations, according to operating voltage, may be categorized as

High Voltage Substations (HV Substations): Involving voltages between 11 KV and 66 KV.

Extra High Voltage Substations: Involving voltages between 132 kV and 400 KV.

Ultra High Voltage: Operating voltage above 400 KV.

2.2.4 Classifications of Substation by Importance

Grid Substations: This substation is used for transferring the bulk power from one point to another.
If any fault occurs on the substation, then the continuity of whole of the supply is affected by it.

Town Substations: These substations step down the voltage at 33/11 kV for more distribution in the
towns. If there is any fault occurs in this substation, then the supply of the whole town is blocked.

2.2.5 Classification of Substations by Design

Indoor Type Substations: In such type of substations, the apparatus is installed within the substation
building. Such type of substations is usually for the voltage up to 11 KV but can be raised for the 33
KV or 66 KV when the surrounding air is polluted by dust, fumes or gasses, etc.

Outdoor Substations: These substations are further subdivided into two categories

Pole Mounted Substations: Such Substations are erected for distributions of power in the localities.
Single stout pole or H-pole and 4-pole structures with relevant platforms are operating for
transformers of capacity up to 25 KVA, 125 KVA, and above 125KVA.

Foundation Mounted Substations: Such types of substations are used for mounting the transformers
having capacity 33,000 volts or above.

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 CHAPTER-3
132/33KV SS TURKAYAMJAL

The following are the details of 132/33KV SS Turkayamjal

Incoming feeders(2) : 132KV Chandrayangutta PTR-1, 132KV Ibrahimpatnam PTR-2

Transformers : 31.5MVA Power Transformer-1 (INDO TECH)

50MVA Power Transformer-2 (TRANSFORMER AND RECTIFIER INDIA L.T.D)

Outgoing feeders(9) : 33KV Peddaamberpet-l

 33KV Vanasthalipuram-l

 33KV Mangalpally

 33KV Turkayamjal

 33KV Nadargul

 33KV Sahebnagar

 33KV VanasthaliPuram-ll

 33KV Peddaamberpet-ll

 33KV Tata

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 CHAPTER-4
LAYOUT OF 132/33KV SUB STATION TURKAYAMJAL

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 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 132KV SUBSTATION TURKAYAMJAL

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 CHAPTER-5

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTS AND ITS FUNCTION

1. Power Transformer:
To step up or step down the voltage from one level of A.C Voltage to another level of voltage
without changing its frequency.
2. Circuit Breaker:
Automatic switching during normal or abnormal condition.
3. Current Transformer:
To step down the current for Measurement/Protection.
4. Potential Transformer:
To step down the voltage for Measurement/Protection.
5. Isolator:
Disconnection of circuit under no load condition.
6. Earthing Switch:
To discharge the voltage on deadlines to earth.
7. Bus Section:
For connecting two buses
8. CVT:
To step down the voltage for Measurement/Protection
9. Relay:
To trip the circuit breaker so as to disconnect a particular feeder from abnormal conditions
(over load, under voltage, unbalance current, short circuit)
10. Lightning Arrester:
To discharge lightning & switching over voltages to earth
11. Battery Bank:
To maintain the D.C Supply continuously during A.C supply failure for keeping equipment in
operation for normal & abnormal conditions.
12. Station Transformer:
To supply A.C auxiliary consumption and for battery charger unit.

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 CHAPTER-6
LIGHTNING ARRESTER
6.1 Brief Description about Lightning Arrester:
Lightning arrester gives protection to substation equipments by discharging lightning &
switching over voltages to earth. It consists of a series of spark gaps and several non-linear resistances
like thyrite, metrosil, etc. A non-linear resistor is one whose resistance is not constant but inversely
proportional toapplied voltage, it decreases rapidly as the voltage across it is increased, i.e. it has an
extremely low value when the high surge voltage appears & allows the flow of heavy currents of the
order of thousands of amperes & dissipates energy quickly & recovers again, presents a high
resistance value to the normal line voltage as soon as surge has disappeared, so that any tendency of
the arc to continue is immediately suppressed.
In a system which has its neutral solidly earthed, the rated voltage of the arrester is usually
taken as 80% of its maximum line to line voltage. In an unearthed system it is taken as 100% of line-
to-line voltage since under fault conditions when one line is earthed, the arrester connected to the
other two lines would be subjected to full line-to-line potential.

Fig 1.1 a: LIGHTNING ARRESTER Fig 1.1 b SURGE MONITOR

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6.2 Types of Lightning Arresters
1. Road Gap Arrester
2. Sphere Gap Arrester
3. Horn Gap Arrester
4. Multiple-Gap Arrester
5. Impulse Protective Gap
6. Electrolytic Arrester
7. Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester
8. Valve Type Lightning Arresters
9. Thyrite Lightning Arrester
10. Auto valve Arrester
11. Oxide Film Arrester
12. Metal Oxide Lightning Arresters

6.2.1 Rod Gap Arrester

It is one of the simplest forms of the arrester. In such type of arrester, there is an air gap
between the ends of two rods. The one end of the arrester is connected to the line and the second end
of the rod is connected to the ground. The gap setting of the arrester should be such that it should
break before the damage. When the high voltage occurs on the line, the gap sparks and the fault
current passes to the earth. Hence the equipment is protected from damage.

Fig 1.1c ROD GAP ARRESTER

The difficulty with the rod arrester is that once the spark having taken place it may continue
for some time even at low voltages. To avoid it a current limiting reactor in series with the rod is used.
The resistance limits the current to such an extent that it is sufficient to maintain the arc. Another
difficulty with the road gap is that the rod gap is liable to be damaged due to the high temperature of
the arc which may cause the rod to melt.

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6.2.2. Sphere Gap Arrester
In such type of devices, the air gap is provided between two different spheres. One of the
spheres is connected to the line, and the other sphere is connected to the ground. The spacing between
the two spheres is very small. A choking coil is inserted between the phase winding of the transformer
and spheres is connected to the line.

Fig 1.1d SPHERE GAP ARRESTER

The air gap between the arrester is set in such a way so that the discharge must not take place at
normal operating condition.The arc will travel up the sphere as the heated air near the arc tend to rise
upward and lengthening till it is interrupted automatically.

6.2.3. Horn Gap Arrester

It consists of two horns shaded piece of metal separated by a small air gap and connected in
shunt between each conductor and earth. The distance between the two electrodes is such that the
normal voltage between the line and earth is insufficient to jump the gap. But the abnormal high
voltage will break the gap and so find a path to earth.

Fig 1.1e HORN GAP ARRESTER

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6.2.4. Multiple- Gap Arrester
The multiple gap arrester consists a series of small metal cylinder insulated from one another
and separated by an air gap. The first and the last of the series is connected to ground. The number of
gaps required depends on the line voltage.

Fig 1.1f MULTIPLE GAP ARRESTER

6.2.5. Impulse Protective Gap

The protective impulse gap is designed to have a low voltage impulse ratio, even less than one
and to extinguish the arc. Their working principle is very simple as shown in the figure below. It
consists of two sphere electrode S1 and S2 which are connected respectively to the line and the
arrester.

Fig 1.1g IMPULSIVE PROTECTIVE GAP ARRESTER

The auxiliary needle is placed between the mid of two sphere S1 and S2. At normal frequency,
the impedance of the capacitance C1 is quite large as compared to the impedance of resistor R. If
C1 and C2 are equal the potential of the auxiliary electrode will be midway between those of the
S1 and S2 and the electrode has no effect on the flash over between them.
When the transient occurs the impedance of capacitor C1 and C2 decrease and the impedance of the
resistor now become effective. Due to this, the whole of the voltage is concentrated across the gap
between E and S1. The gap at once breakdown, the rest of the length between E and S 2 immediately
follow.

6.2.6. Electrolyte Arrester

In such type of arrester have high a large discharge capacity. It operates on the fact that the thin film
of aluminium hydroxide deposits on the aluminium plates immersed in the electrolyte. The plate acts
as a high resistance to a low value but a low resistance to a voltage above a critical value.

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Voltage more than 400 volts causes a puncture and a free flow of current to earth. When the voltage
remains its normal value of 440 volts, the arrester again offers a high resistance in the path and
leakage stops.

6.2.7. Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester

Expulsion type arrester is an improvement over the rod gap in that it seals the flow of power
frequency follows the current. This arrester consists of a tube made up of fibre which is very effective,
isolating spark gap and an interrupting spark gap inside the fibre tube.

Fig 1.1hEXPULSION TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

During operation, the arc due to the impulse spark over inside the fibrous tube causes some fibrous
material of the tube to volatile in the form of the gas, which is expelled through a vent from the
bottom of the tube. Thus, extinguishing the arc just like in circuit breakers.

6.2.8. Valve Type Lightning Arrester

Such type of resistor is called nonlinear diverter. It essentially consists a divided spark gap in
series with a resistance element having the nonlinear characteristic.

Fig 1.1hVALVE TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

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The divided spark gap consists of some identical elements coupled in series. Each of them consists
two electrodes with the pre-ionization device. Between each element, a grading resistor of high ohmic
value is connected in parallel.

During the slow voltage variations, there is no sparks-over across the gap. But when the rapid
change in voltage occurs, the potential is no longer evenly graded across the series gap. The influence
of unbalancing capacitance between the sparks gaps and the ground prevails over the grounded
resistance. The impulse voltage is mainly concentrated on the upper spark gap which in spark over
cause the complete arrester to spark over to.

6.2.9. Thyrite Lightning Arrester

Such type of arrester is most commonly used for the protection against dangerous high
voltage. It consists the thyrite which is an inorganic compound of ceramic material. The resistance of
such material decreases rapidly from high value to low value and for current from a low value to high
value.It consists a disc whose both the side is sprayed so as to give the electric contact between the
consecutive disc. The disc is assembled inside the glazed porcelain container. It is used in conjunction
with the container.When the lightning takes place, the voltage is raised, and breakdowns of the gaps
occur, the resistance falls to a very low value, and the wave is discharged to earth. After the surge has
passed the thyrite again come back to its original position.

6.2.10 Autovalve Arrester

Such type of arrester consists some flat discs of a porous material stacked one above the other
and separated by the thin mica rings. The disc material is not homogenous and conducting material
also has been added. Therefore the glow discharge occurs in the capillaries of the material and voltage
drop to about 350 volts per unit. The discs are arranged in such a way that normal voltage may not
cause a discharge to occur.

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6.2.11. Oxide Film Arrester
It consists of pellets of lead peroxide with a thin, porous coating of litharge arranged in a
column and enclosed in a tube of diameter. Out of the two lead, the upper is connected to the line,
while the lower is connected to the earth. The tube contains a series spark gap.
When an overvoltage occurs an arc passes through the series spark gap and an additional voltage is
applied to the pellet column and a discharge takes place. After the discharge, the resistance of the
pellet gun increases till only very small current flow through it. This small current is finally
interrupted by the series spark gaps.

6.2.12. Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester

Such Types of diverter are also known as gapless surge diverters, or Zinc oxide diverter. The
base material used for manufacturing metal oxide resistor is zinc oxide. It is a semiconducting N-type
material. The material is doped by adding some fine power of insulating oxides. The powder is treated
with some processes and then it is compressed into a disc-shaped. The disc is then enclosed in a
porcelain housing filled with nitrogen gas or SF6.

Fig 1.1iMETAL OXIDE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

This arrester consists a potential barrier at the boundaries of each disc of ZNO. This potential barrier
controls the flow of current. At normal operating condition, the potential barrier does not allow the
current to flow. When an overvoltage occurs, the barrier collapse and sharp transition from insulating
to conducting take place. The current start flowing and the surge is diverted to ground.

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6.3 Location of Lightning Arrester

Lightning Arrestor should be located close to the equipment that it is expected to protect. In
large sub stations arrestors should be installed at take off points of the lines and of terminal apparatus.
Many factors like system voltages, basic impulse insulation level, arrestor rating, station lay out,
number and arrangement of lines, position of isolators, distance between equipments etc. have to be
taken into account in fixing the location of the arrestors.
The length of the arrestor lead should be as low as possible and should not exceed 10M.
Arrestors are installed both on HV and LV side of the transformers. Junction of an OH line and the
cable should be protected by LA. Separate earth should be provided for each LAs. LA ground leads
should not be connected to the station earth bus.

6.4 Lightning Arrester Ratings

The Rating of lightning arrestor are given below,

1. Normal or rated voltage: It is designated by the maximum permissible value of power

frequency voltage which it can support across its line and earth terminal while still carrying
effectively and without the automatic extinction of the follow-up current. The voltage rating of
the arrestors should be greater than the maximum sound phase to ground voltage.
2. Normal Discharge current: It is the surge current which flows through the LA after the spark
over, expressed in crest value (peak value) for a specified wave shape. Example 10, 5, 2.5, 1.5,
1 kA rating.
3. Power frequency spark over voltage: It is the RMS value of the power frequency voltage
applied between the line and earth terminals of the arrestor and earth which causes spark over
of the series gap.

6.5 Selection of Lightning Arrestor

For the protection of substation above 66KV an arrestor of 10kA rating is used.
Voltage rating of LA = Line to line voltage × 1.1 × coefficient of earthing.
Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 ×Voltage rating of LA
(Assuming coefficient of earthing equals 0.8 for effectively earthed system)
For 220KV side:
Voltage rating = 1.1 × 220 × 0.8 = 193.6KV
Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 ×193.6 = 290.4KV
Rated discharge current = 10 kA

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For 110KV side:
Voltage rating = 1.1 × 110×0.8 = 96.8KV
Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 × 96.8 = 145.2KV
Rated discharge current = 10kA
For 66kV Side
Voltage rating = 1.1 × 66×0.8 = 58.08kV
Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 × 58.08 = 87.12kV
Rated discharge current = 10kA
For 11 KV side:
Voltage rating = 1.1× 11×0.8 = 9.68KV
Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5×9.68 = 14.52KV
Nominal discharge current = 5kA

6.6 Testing: -
1) IR Testing between Stack to stack & between each Stack to earth by suitable
megger.
2) Surge Counter Test - Apply 230V AC supply across the counter & check pointer
movement in clockwise direction.

6.7Maintenance: -
1) Insulator cleaning
2) Connections tightness
3) Checking of Earthing connections
4) Reading of leakage current on daily basis to be taken. If current shoots in red
zone, then that particular LA is to be replaced as early as possible.

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 CHAPTER- 7
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
These transformers are minimum oil type & hermetically sealed. They are expected to be
maintenance free during their service life. They transform the high current or high voltage connected
to their primary windings to the standard low values in the secondary that feed the metering and
protection apparatus. It also isolates the secondary circuits from very high voltages of power system.

From the application point of view, these are divided into mainly two categories
1) Metering
2) Protection type.
7.1 Metering Type
The specified performance of CT is to be maintained in the range normally 5% to 120% of the
rated current. The CT cores should be such that it saturate at its instrument security factor (ISF) for
safeguarding the instrument from getting damaged under fault condition. The VT designed for
metering is required to perform as specified within the voltage range near to the rated voltage
normally 80% to 120% of the rated voltage.
7.2 Protection Type
Main requirement of performance of protection class CTs is that its cores should not get
saturated below its Accuracy Limiting Factor (ALF) up to, which the primary current should be
faithfully transformed to the secondary, maintaining the specified accuracy. During fault conditions,
the primary of CT carry very high current and the first few cycles of wave have the D.C. component,
which may sature the core. Behaviour of the cores in such condition should besuch as to avoid getting
magnetized & to come to normalcy (demagnetised stage) soon after clearing fault.

7.2.1TRAFO Protection CT:

Ratio purpose
Core-1: 300/1A Trafo differential protection
Core-2: 300/1A Backup & LBB protection
Core-3: 300/1A Metering
Core-4: 300/1A Spare
Core-5: 300/1A Bus bar protection
7.2.2 Line Protection CT:
Ratio purpose
Core-1: 600/1A Distance protection M-1
Core-2: 600/1A Distance protection M-1
Core-3: 600/1A Metering

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Core-4: 300/1A Spare
Core-5: 800/1A Bus bar protection

7.3 Outdoor Type Instrument Transformer– These are used in Substations and Power stations
where high voltages are employed. While designing for their performance, following factors should
be considered.
A) Effect of atmosphere environment:-Use of porcelain insulators for external isolation between Live
and Ground. These insulators provide outer casing for all the atmospheric conditions like rain, dust,
chemical contamination, wind, sun, etc.
B) The insulation between primary & secondary windings has to be suitable for withstanding the
disturbance in the network system such as switching surges, Lightning surges, temporary over
voltages, fault currents, over load currents, etc.
C) These transformers are normally oil filled with paper hermetically sealed to avoid ingression of
moisture.
Instrument Transformer has the following major components:-
1) Primary Winding
2) Secondary Winding
3) Major Insulation
4) Insulator
5) Transformer Oil
6) Metal Tank

PT

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 CT
CT is connected in series with the supply line & PT is connected across the supply line. The CT
secondary should never be open circuited and no fuse should be inserted. In a PT the secondary
should never be short-circuited and a fuse is used in PT secondary circuit.

7.4 Current Transformer: Types

a) Window CT: - This is constructed with no primary winding and is installed around the primary
conductor.
b) Bushing CT: - This is window CT specially constructed to fit around a bushing and it cannot be
accessed.
c) Bar CT: - It is window CT but has a permanent bar installed as a primary conductor.
d) Wound CT: - This CT has a primary &secondary winding like a normal transformer. This CT is
rare and is used at very low ratios and currents, typically in CT secondary circuits to compensate for
low currents, to match different CT ratios in summing applications, or to isolate different CT circuits.
The type of primary winding depends upon the type of CT insulation i.e. whetherDead tank or Live
tank (Inverted Type) Design.

7.5 Dead Tank: - In this design, the secondary core windings are housed in metallictank, which is
lower part of the CT and solidly earthed. The leads of the primarywinding are brought at top chamber
for termination. The primary winding in theshape of ‘hair pin’ or ‘bolt’ is passed through the
secondary cores and fullinsulation is provided on primary windings.

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7.6 Live Tank (Inverted): - In such design, the secondary cores and the primarywindings are
assembled in the metal tank located at the top of the CurrentTransformer. Here the secondary cores
assembly is insulated fully for high systemvoltage & primary winding is looped through the core
assembly. The primarywinding can be single bar primary or multi-turn primary.

7.7 Accuracy Class: - It is the rated ratio accuracy in percent.

Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF): - It is the ratio of largest value of current to CT
Rated current up to which CT must retain the specified
accuracy. Example: - CT - 5P20, 5 VA, ALF = 20
It means error < 5 % up to 20 times rated current for burden of 5 VA
Accuracy class 1% means max. Ratio error < 1% at rated current & burden.

7.8 CT Testing:
7.8.1 IR Testing
a) Primary to earth by 5 KV megger
b) Secondary each core to earth by 500 V megger
c) Primary to secondary by 5 KV megger
d) Secondary core to core by 500 V megger

7.8.2 Polarity Test

For carrying out this test, we require one 1.5 V cell, DC analogue ammeter.

Fig 7.1a Analogue Ammeter

By making above connection, if there is positive deflection of ammeter, thenpolarity is confirmed.

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7.8.3 Ratio Test
Inject current in primary winding & measure induced secondary current for different current
readings and verify with CT Ratio.

7.8.4 Knee point check for PS class core

Inject 230 V variable AC voltage in secondary core with ammeter in series. At certain stage,
with 10% increase in voltage, current shoots up almost 50%. This is the Knee point voltage. After
performing this test, Voltage is gradually reduced to Zero to demagnetise the CT.

7.8.5 Winding Resistance Test

Measure secondary winding resistance by multimeter.
7.8.6 Tan Delta Measurement

For getting concept of Tan Delta (Tan δ), we consider the insulation of equipment as Capacitor.

If the capacitor is good or perfect, it will pass only capacitive or charging current on application of
voltage. Ideal capacitive current Ic leads voltage by 90°. But in practice, insulation has impurities &
actual charging current vector departs from the ideal Ic vector by a small angle (δ) called the loss
angle.

The loss angle (δ) = 90 – Power factor angle(φ)

Higher tan δ produces high dielectric loss that causes increase in temperature of paper insulation.
Increased value of Tan δ can be due to any of the following: -
a) Moisture in the insulation.
b) Contamination of oil.
c) Internal partial discharge.

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7.9 CT Maintenance:

a) Checking of Oil level & leakage, rectify the same immediately.

b) Checking of Insulation Resistance.
c) Terminal connector tightness.
d) Secondary connection tightness.
e) Cleaning of Bushings / Insulators.
f) Check the proper earthing of Body connection.
g) Check the earthing of CT Secondary core star points.
k) Check the working of stainless steel bellows.
l) Check the nitrogen pressure in case of Nitrogen filled CT.
7.10 Potential Transformer:
` There are two types of PTs as mentioned below:

7.10.1 Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer

Its construction largely depends on the rated primary voltage. Primary & secondary windings
are wound on magnetic core like in usual transformer. For voltages up to 3.3 KV, dry type
transformer with varnish impregnated taped winding is quite satisfactory. For higher voltages, it is a
practice to immerse the core and winding in oil. It is used up to 66 KV level.

7.10.2 Capacitor Voltage Transformer

For voltages above 132 KV, CVT is used. It consists of a capacitive potential divider &
inductive medium voltage circuit. Primary voltage is applied to a series capacitor group. The voltage
across intermediate capacitor is taken to primary of auxiliary voltage transformer. The secondary of
auxiliary voltage transformer is taken for measurement or protection. The inductive part is immersed
in oil and sealed with an air cushion inside a steel tank. Fuses are provided in secondary box. Voltage
Factor of PT is maximum system voltage, PT can withstand & is expressed in % i.e.120% continuous
& 150% for 30 seconds.

7.11 PT Testing:
7.11.1 IR Testing
a) Primary to earth by 5 KV megger
b) Secondary each core to earth by 500 V megger
c) Primary to secondary by 5 KV megger
d) Secondary core to core by 500 V megger.

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7.11.2 Ratio Test
Inject A.C. variable voltage in primary winding & measure induced secondary voltage at
different voltages & verify the same with PTR.

7.11.3Winding Resistance
Measure secondary winding resistance by multi- meter.

7.11.4 Polarity Test

For carrying out this test, we require one 1.5 V cell, DC Analogue ammeter

7.12 PT Maintenance:
a) Checking of oil level & leakage, rectify the same immediately.
b) Checking of Insulation Resistance.
c) Power connection tightness.
d) Secondary connection tightness.
e) Cleaning of Bushings / Insulators.
f) Check the proper earthing of Body connection.
g) Check the secondary fuse condition & replace if required by proper rating.
h) Check the working of stainless steel bellows.
i) Check the nitrogen pressure in case of Nitrogen filled PT.

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 CHAPTER- 8
ISOLATOR AND EARTH SWITCH

Isolator is the device, which makes & breaks circuits in no load condition.

8.1Types of Isolators:
a) Centre Break Rotating Type Isolator.
b) Double Break Rotating Type Isolator.
c) Pantograph Type Isolator.
d) Tandem Isolator.

Earthing Switch is provided for safety purpose to work on Dead Lines and iselectrically &
mechanically interlocked with Isolator.

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8.2 Isolator Testing:
8.2.1 IR Testing
Phase to phase & Phase to earth by 5 KV megger.
8.2.2) Contact Resistance check
Measure contact resistance by suitable micro-ohm meter.

8.3 Isolator Maintenance:

1. Checking of the male / female contacts for good condition and properconnections.
2. Checking proper alignment of male & female contacts & rectify if required.
3. Cleaning of Insulators.
4. Lubrication of all moving parts on regular basis.
5. Tightness of all earthing connections.
6. In case of Isolator with Earth switch, check electrical and mechanical interlocki.e. Isolator can
be closed only when E/switch is in open condition & vice versa.
7. As Isolators are operated on No load, hence check the interlock with Circuit Breaker, if
provided i.e. Isolators can be operated when Breaker is in OFF condition.
8. The motor operating mechanism box, in case of motor operated isolators, should be checked
for inside wiring, terminal connectors, etc.
9. Check the Panel indications i.e. semaphore & bulbs if provided (Isolator and
10. Earth switch - close and open condition) and rectify if required.

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 CHAPTER- 9
CIRCUIT BREAKER

Circuit Breaker is used to close or isolate the circuit in normal and abnormal
Condition and to protect the electrical equipment against the fault. The parts of a circuit breaker
include
1) Poles with interrupter, support porcelain, arc quenching medium, etc.
2) Operating mechanism
3) Support structure
4) Control circuit

Fig 9.1a SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

The part of the breakers assembled in one phase is called a pole. A circuit breaker suitable for
three-phase system is called a triple pole circuit breaker. All the three poles operate simultaneously.
Each pole comprises one or more interrupters or arc quenching chambers. The interrupter is mounted
on support insulators. The interrupter encloses a pair of fixed and moving contact. The moving
contact can be drawn apart by means of the operating mechanism. The operating mechanism gives the
necessary energy for opening and closing of contacts of the breakers. The arc produced by the
separation of current carrying contacts is extinguished by a suitable medium.

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 When a fault occurs in the protected circuit, the relay connected to the CTactuates and closes
its contacts. D.C. current flows from the source in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of the breaker is
energized, the circuit breaker operatingmechanism is actuated & it operates for the opening operation
automatically. The spring in the operating mechanism is charged by electrically or manually. Breaker
auxiliary switches are mechanically attached with the operating mechanism of breaker. The contact
changeover takes place as per breaker operation. Auxiliary contacts are used for breaker operation
circuit, indication circuit, and trip circuit supervision circuit.

9.1 Classification of Circuit Breaker

The Circuit breakers are classified on the basis of arc extinction medium:
(i) Bulk Oil type
(ii) Minimum Oil type
(iii) Air Blast type
(iv) SF6 Gas type
(v) Vacuum type
In short, difference of individual breaker is listed below:
1) Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker : Contacts are separated inside a steel tank filled with transformer oil
used for arc quenching.
2) Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker: Contacts are separated in an insulated housing (interrupter) filled
with transformer oil used for arc quenching. In the case of MOCBs after certain number of tripping,
oil is to be replaced as recommended by the manufacturer. After 2 to 3 times of oil replacement, or
after certain numbers of serious faults, it is necessary to overhaul the complete breaker.
3) Air Blast Circuit Breaker: It utilizes high-pressure compressed air for arc extinction.
4) SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker: Sulphur-Hexa-fluoride gas is used for arc extinction in this breaker. It
is must to monitor the SF6 gas pressure inside the breaker pole and check periodically the contact
resistance of each pole or the travel of each pole. This is helpful to prevent the problem of bursting of
poles. The SF6 breaker has an advantage that the rate of restricting voltage is zero & hence the
burning of male / female contacts is less.
Operating mechanism is of two types: -
i) Movement of contacts is controlled by spring mechanism. (Spring Operated)
ii) Movement of contacts is controlled by air pressure. (Pneumatic operated)
5) Vacuum Circuit Breaker: In this breaker, the contacts are housed inside a permanently sealed
vacuum interrupter. The arc is quenched as the contacts are separated in high vacuum. For VCBs, the
vacuum bottle is hermetically sealed and as such no maintenance is required. However to ascertain the
failure of vacuum bottle, it is necessary to check the contact resistance of each pole or the travel of
each pole as specified by the manufacture. VCBs are generally used up to 33 KV voltage systems.

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9.2 Definition of Some Common Terms related with Circuit Breaker
a) Fault clearing time – It is the time elapsed between the instant of the occurrence of a fault and the
instant of final arc extinction in the circuit breaker. It is the sum of relay time and breaker time.
b) Relay time – It is the time elapsed between the instant of occurrence of fault &the instant of
closure of relay contacts, i.e. closure of trip circuit.
c) Breaker time – It is the time elapsed between the instant of closure of trip circuit and the instant of
final current zero.
d) Anti Pumping of a circuit breaker – It blocks the repeat closing pulse when breaker is already in
closed condition.
e) Auto- reclosing of a circuit breaker: Auto-reclosing is provided to restore the supply after
interrupting a transient fault on overhead lines.
f) Rated short circuit breaking current – It is the highest value of short circuit current, which a
circuit breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of recovery voltage and power
frequency recovery voltage.
g) Rated short circuit making current – It may so happen that circuit breaker may close on existing
fault. The circuit breaker should be able to close without hesitation as contact touch. The rated short
circuit making current should be at least 2.5 times the R.M.S. value of a.c. component of rated
breaking current.
h) Operating sequence of a circuit breaker – The operating sequence denotes the sequence of
opening and closing operations, which the circuit breaker can perform under specified conditions. The
operating mechanism experiences severe mechanical stresses during the auto-reclose duty.
1) O-t-CO-T-CO where O = opening operation, C = closing operation, CO =closing followed by
opening, t = 0.3 second for breaker to be used for rapid autoreclose, T = 3 minute.
2) CO-t’-CO where t’ = 15 seconds for breaker not to be used for rapid autoreclose.

9.3 Maintenance of Circuit Breaker:

a) Tightness of power connections & control wiring connections
b) Cleaning of Insulators & Lubrication of moving parts
c) Checking of contact resistance, close-open timing, Insulation resistance
d) Checking of gas pressure for SF6 circuit breaker (leakages if any)
e) Checking of air pressure for pneumatic operated breaker (leakages if any)
f) Checking of Controls, Interlocks & Protections like checking of pole discrepancy system i.e.
whether all three poles are getting ON – OFF at the same time
g) Cleaning of Auxiliary switches by CTC or CRC spray and checking its operation

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 CHAPTER - 10
POWER TRANSFORMER

Transformer is one of the most important equipments in a power transmission and distribution
system. It does stepping up or stepping down the voltage and transfer power from one A.C. voltage to
another A.C. Voltage at the same frequency. Transformer has Primary & Secondary windings housed
in main tank filled with insulated oil. Oil is used for providing insulation as well as cooling of
windings.
1) The capacity of Transformer is expressed in Volt-ampere (KVA / MVA)
2) The transformation ratio K (constant) = Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
Where Vp, Np denote primary voltage & turns respectively. And Vs, Ns denote
secondary voltage & turns respectively.
If K > 1, then transformer is called step-up transformer
If K < 1, then transformer is called step-down transformer
For an ideal transformer, Input VA = Output VA
i.e. Vp x Ip = Vs x Is or Is/Ip = Vp/Vs = 1/K (where Ip & Is are Primary and secondary current
respectively). Hence currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

To calculate current of Primary & Secondary winding of 220 / 33 KV, 100MVA

Transformer:-
a) Primary Current in amp = Ip = VA / √3 x Vp, where Vp & Ip are primary voltage and current
respectively.
1) Hence Ip = (100 x 10*6) / (√3 x 220 x 10*3) = 262.43Amp
b) Secondary Current = Is = VA / √3 x Vs, where Vs & Is are secondary voltage and current
respectively.
Hence Is = (100 x 10*6) / (√3 x 33 x 10*3) = 1749.59Amp

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 10.1 Main fixtures of Power Transformer and their functions are listed below:

Buchholz Relay- This relay is designed to detect transformer internal fault in the initial stage to
avoid major breakdown. Internal fault in transformer generates gases by decomposition of oil due to
heat & spark inside the tank. These gases pass upward towards the conservator tank, trapped in the
housing of the relay, thereby causing the oil level to fall. The upper float rotates & switches contacts
close & thus giving alarm.
In case of a serious fault, gas generation is more, which causes operation of lower float & trips the
circuit breaker. The gas can be collected from a small valve at thetop of relay for Dissolved Gas
Analysis (DGA).

Checking the floats operation manually: -

a) Close the both valves. (From Transformer and main conservator side)
b) Drain oil from the buchholz relay.
c) Top float makes contact as the oil gets lowered and gives Alarm.

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d) If oil is further drained, bottom float makes contact and gives trip signal. After testing, both valves
must be opened without fail and released the air from relay. Alarm & Trip circuit can also checked by
shorting contacts externally by link.
b) Oil Surge Relay - It is similar to Buchholz relay with some changes. It has only one float &
operates when oil surges reach and strike the float of OSR. It is used with OLTC for detection of any
damage or fault inside the tap changer and prevents tap changer from damages in case of low oil level
in OLTC tank.

Checking the float operation manually: -

This relay can be checked by pressing test switch provided on top side. Here only one contact
is provided which gives trip signal on operation of float. By shorting contact externally by link, trip
circuit can also be checked.
c) Explosion Vent - It consists of a bent pipe with bakelite diaphragm at both ends. A protective wire
mesh is fitted on the opening of transformer to prevent the pieces of ruptured diaphragm from
entering the tank. The wire mesh is also provided at the upper end to protect upper diaphragm from
any mechanical damages. At the lower end, there is a small oil level indicator. When the lower
diaphragm ruptures due to excess internal pressure, the oil level rises in the vent pipe & is visible
through the indicator. In case the internal pressure developed is not reduced to safe value after the
bursting of lower diaphragm, upper diaphragm gives away throwing the gas and oil outside and
prevents further mechanical damages.
d) Pressure Relief Valve- When the pressure in the tank rises above predetermined safe limit, this
valve operates & performs the following functions: -
1) Allows the pressure to drop by instantaneously opening the port.
2) Gives visual indication of valve operation by raising a flag.
3) Operates a micro switch, which gives trip command to breaker.

Checking the PRV operation manually: -

The operation of PRV can be done by lifting the plunger (Plunger operatesswitch). By shorting
contact externally by link, trip circuit can also be checked.
e) Oil Temperature IndicatorIt is dial type thermometer, works on the vapour pressure principle.
The bulb, which is known as ‘Probe’ is exposed to the temperature to be measured, is connected by a
length of flexible tubing to a borden gauge tube, which is known as 'operating bellow'. This bellow is
filled with a volatile liquid. The change in bulb temperature causes change in the vapour pressure of
the liquid & pointer moving on a dial calibrated in degree centigrade indicates the consequent
movement of the operating bellow. It has two pair of contacts, one for Alarm & another for Trip. In
general, oil temperature alarm is set at 80°- 85° C and oil temperature tripping is set at 85°- 90° C.

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Checking the OTI operation manually:
The operation of OTI can be checked by tilting the float position. The first float S1 is used for alarm
and another float S2 is for trip signal. Alarm & Trip circuit can also checked by shorting contacts
externally by link.

f) Winding Temperature Indicator- It is also similar to OTI but has some

changes. It consists of a probe fitted with 2 capillaries. Capillaries are connected with two separate
bellows (operating/compensating). These bellows are connected with temperature indicator. Operating
bellow is surrounded by heater coil, which gets current from one WTI CT, when load on transformer
increases, corresponding current passes to the heater coil mounted on operating bellow. The heater
coil heats the operating bellow, which is filled with volatile liquid.
Due to this heat, vapour pressure of volatile liquid increases hence WTI showsmore temperature as
compared to OTI. There are four mercury switches, 1 contact for Alarm, 2 for Trip circuit and 3 for
cooler control and 4 as a spare. In general, winding temperature alarm is set at 90°- 95° C and
winding Temperature tripping is set at 95°- 100° C. The fan Auto ON operation is set at 70°C and Fan
auto OFF is set at 65° C.
Checking the WTI operation manually: -
The operation of Winding Temperature Indicator can be done by tilting the float position. The first
float S1 is used for alarm and another float S2 is for trip signal. Fan auto operation can also be
checked by float movement. Alarm / Trip circuit can also be checked by shorting contacts externally
by link.
g) Conservator: As expansion and contraction occurs in transformer main tank, consequently the
same phenomena takes place in conservator as it is connected to main tank through a pipe.
Conservator communicates with the atmosphere through a breather, incorporating a dehydrator, which
is connected to the breather pipe. Other end of this pipe opens at the top in the conservator, just below
the conservator upper wall.
h) Breather: This is a special air filter incorporating a dehydrating material,
called, Silica Gel. It is used to prevent the ingress of moisture and contaminated air into conservator.
It consists of an inner metal cylinder filled with silica gel. Both ends of this cylinder are enclosed by
wire mesh screen. This cylinder is enclosed in an outer casing of cast iron. Casing has 2 parts. The
upper part is cover; whereas lower part is attached with an oil seal. When transformer breathes in, the
air enters which passes into the oil seal. The contamination, if any, is observed in this oil. Then air
passes through silica gel, where the moisture, if any, is observed by the silica gel and pure and dry air
goes to conservator tank of transformer. Normal colour of Silica Gel is blue. If it turns to pink, then
Silica Gel is to be reactivated /replaced by fresh Gel.

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i) Oil Level Indicator- It is also known as magnetic oil gauge (MOG). It has a pair of magnet. The
metallic wall of conservator tank separates magnets without any through hole. Magnetic field comes
out and it is used for indication. This eliminates any chances of leakage. The driving magnet rotates
and acquires the position corresponding to height of oil level, as it is linked with a float. The float is
hinged & swings up and down with oil level. This rise or fall rotates driving magnet with the help of
bevel gear and pinion. Follower (Driven) magnet moves accordingly and operates a pointer & a cam.
The pointer reads oil level & cam is set to operate a mercury switch to give low oil alarm as per the
oil position.
Checking the MOG operation manually:
Operation of MOG can be done by tilting the float position which gives alarm signal. Alarm circuit
can also checked by shorting contacts externally by link.
j) Radiators- Small Transformers are provided with welded cooling tubes orpressed sheet steel
radiators. But large transformers are provided with detachable radiators plus valves. For additional
cooling, exhaust fans are provided on radiators. The hot oil in main tank goes up and enters in the
radiators. After cooling in radiators, either by natural air or forced air, oil again goes to main tank
from the lower valve and circulates continuously.
k) Bushings– It comprises a central conductor surrounded by graded insulation. Bushing is
necessary when a conductor is taken out through metallic tank or wall. Oil filled bushing is used for
33 KV applications. For making bushing compact, synthetic resin bonded condenser bushing is used
for 33 and 66 KV applications. For 132 KV & above voltages, oil impregnated paper condenser
bushing is used. It consists of a central conductor surrounded by alternate layers of insulating paper &
tin foil. The capacitor formed by alternate layers of tin foil and paper insulation results in uniform
electric stress distribution between conductor surface and earthed flange. The bushing core is coated
with suitable resin. The assembly is enclosed in hollow porcelain and is provided with support flange
and top hood. The porcelain is filled with oil.
Creepage Distance (CD) – It is the shortest distance between two conductive
parts along the surface of the insulating material. CD requirement depends upon rated phase to ground
voltage and degree of atmospheric pollution.

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l) Tap Changer- As load on the transformer increases, secondary terminalvoltage decreases. To
maintain the secondary voltage, tap changers are used.Tap changers are connected with H.V. winding
(Primary winding).Therefore in tap changers transformer, there are two windings in H.V. side, 1)Main
winding and 2) Tap winding. There are two types of tap changers.

A) Off Load Tap Changer- In this type, before moving the selector, transformer is made OFF
from both ends. Such tap changers have fixed brass contacts, where taps are terminated. The moving
contacts are made of brass in the shape of either roller or segment.
B) On Load Tap Changer- In short we call it as OLTC. In this, taps can be changed manually by
mechanical or electrical operation without making off the transformer. For mechanical operation,
interlocks are provided for non-operation of O.L.T.C. below lowest tap position and above highest tap
position. Similarly for electrical operation, limit switches are provided in circuit for non-operation of
tap change below lowest tap position and above highest tap position. For mechanical operation, one
hand interlock switch is provided in the circuit. As soon as we insert handle, hand interlock switch
opens out the electrical circuit and no one can operate O.L.T.C. electrically. RTCC (Remote tap
change control cubicle) is used for tap changing by manually or automatically through Automatic
Voltage Relay (AVR) which is set +/- 5% of 110 Volt (Reference taken from secondary side PT
voltage). During Auto tapchanging, Bell / Hooter will ring up thus gives information to substation
operator for tap changing.
Transition resistances are used in OLTC for avoiding momentarily interruption of power supply
during tap changing. At the time of tap changing, load currentpasses through the transition resistances
& no power interruption occurs during tap changing.
Transformer Tap: - Tapping is provided in Primary winding. Hence by changing
the tapping, we can change secondary voltage as per requirement.
The transformer equation is: - V2/V1 = N2/N1
i.e. V2 = (N2 x V1)/N1
There is an Inverse relationship exists between secondary voltage & primary turns. When primary
turns are decreased i.e. Tap position is shifted from 3 to 4,secondary voltage gets increased and if
primary turns are increased i.e. Tap position is shifted from 4 to 3, then secondary voltage gets
decreased.

10.2 Site Testing of Transformer:

1) Insulation Resistance Test –
a) Between HV & Earth.
b) Between LV & Earth.

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c) Between HV & LV by suitable range of megger.
2) Voltage Ratio Test–
This test is essential to check the output or the secondary
voltage on each tap position. By virtue of this test the problems in the OLTC can be easily detected. 3
Phase, 440 V LT supply is applied to the primary side of the transformer and the output volts at the
secondary side for each tap position is measured. If any break in voltage reading is observed during
change of tap position, then there is some problem in that particular tap.
3) Magnetic Balance Test- This test is carried out to check the balancing of the
induced voltages in the windings & flux distribution. Transformer is kept on normal tap position and 3
Phase, 440 V LT supply is applied to the primary windings as given below:
1) YNyn0 Transformer: First the voltage is applied between R & N. Voltage will be induced in
between YN and BN. Voltages are noted & will be observed that:
In Primary side: - V RN = V YN + V BN
On Secondary side: - V rn = V yn + V bn
If the voltage readings on secondary are observed as above, then it can be
assumed that the flux distribution is balanced & proper. If the magnetic balance is not correct,
readings will be different and typical noise will be observed. This will indicate that there is some
problem in the core of the transformer. Again apply voltage to YN, the result will be:
In Primary side: - V YN = V BN + V RN
On Secondary side: - V yn = V bn + V rn
Similarly apply voltage to BN, the result will be:
In Primary side: - V BN = V YN + V RN
On Secondary side: - V bn = V yn + V rn
Note: - In case of Dyn11 Transformer, voltage is applied on primary side between first R and Y
terminals (R Phase winding), next Y and B terminals (Y Phase winding), and B and R terminals (B
Phase winding). Result will be same as mentioned above for YNyno Transformer.
4) Vector Group Test- This test is carried out to check correctness of windings connections. The
Phase angle difference arises out of the internal connections of the windings. A star / star transformer
having the similar vector diagram for primary and secondary side can be connected in two different
ways internally.In the first case there is 0° displacement between primary and secondary whereas in
the second case there is 180° displacement. In addition to this, a+30 or − 30° displacement is possible
in a 3 phase transformer when the vector diagram is different i.e. delta/star OR star/delta type.
For parallel operation, secondary’s must have same phase angle displacement with respect to their
primaries so that there may be no phase difference between the terminals of the secondary’s
themselves.
A three-digit vector symbol is adopted to designate the vector group.

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a) First letter in capital represents Primary winding connection - D: Delta & Y: Star
b) Second letter in small represents Secondary winding connection - d: Delta and y: Star
c) Third digit represents the phase displacement between the primary andsecondary. The convention
employed is to describe it by the hour in a clock in which the HT voltage is represented by the minute
hand set to 12 o'clock position, and the LT voltage is represented by the hour hand. Since 12 hours
represents 360°of a full circle, each hour represents a 30° phase difference. Thus ‘0’ represents no
phase difference, ‘1’ stands for minus 30°, ‘6’ for 180° and ‘11’ for plus 30° displacement as referred
to the standard counter clockwise vector rotation.

5) Magnetizing Current Test - When a Power Transformer is charged, it isgenerally presumed that it
is to be charged on NO LOAD condition because it draws magnetizing current containing high
harmonics. Transformer may trip on differential protection if it is not provided harmonic restraint
protection. This current inrush is due to the iron losses of the transformer. This current should be
equal in all three phases so that there would not be any spill current in the relay to trip the primary
circuit breaker of the transformer. The test is carried out at normal tap position.
Apply 3 Phase L.T. Voltage to primary windings through ammeters (mA)
connected in series of windings and keeping secondary winding open. It would be seen that the
current drawn by all the three phases would be same. The current is drawn on account of the
magnetizing of the core. (Iron loss) It can also be called as no load current when the transformer is
charged with rated primary voltage applied across the primary, keeping secondary open.

6) Short Circuit Current Test – Short circuit test is carried out to check thehealthiness of windings.
Apply 3 Phase L.T. voltages to primary windings &secondary windings are shorted through ammeters
of suitable range. If the readings are equal in all three phases, transformer is supposed to be healthy.
Actually here the term “% Impedance" comes into picture. The reduced voltage required to be applied
across the primary of a transformer to cause rated full load current to flow through this winding when
secondary winding is shorted, is known as impedance voltage. It is expressed as a percentage of the
rated voltage of former winding. In this case current flowing through secondary is the full load current
& is indicative of the copper losses.

7) Oil Test- The oil is used as insulation between windings & core and between windings & tank.
Without oil, the paper insulation of the windings could be punctured early which in turn will result in
failure of transformer. The oil facilitates cooling of the windings and magnetic circuits. The oil
protects windings and core of transformer from the absorption of moisture. The test on oil is divided
into two different categories.

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 CHAPTER-11
CONTROL & RELAY PANELS
Control or relay boards are built up by using requisite number of self-contained sheet steel
cubicles, comprising a front panel to carry the control apparatus & the hinged or removable back
cover to give access to interior wiring, cable termination. This type is called as Simplex type panel.
When panels are arranged back to back in corridor formation, and door is then fitted at each end, are
called as Duplex panels. Depending upon the size of the substation the control and relay board may
incorporate the followings:
1) Indicating and metering instruments mounted on front.
2) Relays mounted on the backside in Duplex panel, flush mounting on front in
Simplex panel.
3) A mimic diagram representing main circuit connections is incorporated on the front panel. It is a
single line diagram incorporated on the front side of the control panel. This diagram represents the
actual physical position of various HT electrical equipments in the sub-station yard along with status
of equipments, ON and OFF positions of various breakers and isolators through semaphore indication
or lamp indication.

Fig11.1a RELAY PANEL

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5) Circuit Breaker control switch (TNC switch) is fitted on front. Normally switch is on Normal
(Centre) position. Handle is moved to the right or left to initiate close or trip operations.
6) Indication lamps mounted for various purposes follow a standard colour code.
Red - C.B. or switch CLOSED
Green - C.B. or switch OPEN
White - Trip circuit healthy
Amber - Alarm indication i.e. CBs tripped on fault
7) Annunciation System – It gives alarm in case of any abnormality in the system.
Alarm bell rings and appropriate facia lamp flashes ON & OFF. Substation
operator has to ACCEPT the signal by pressing a button, which silences the bell and causes the lamp
to show a steady light. After taking remedial action, the operator RESETS the alarm circuit by
pressing another push button, the lamp being simultaneously extinguished.

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 CHAPTER- 12
Common Ferrule Numbers used in wirings

A: CT secondary connection for primary protection like Differential, Distance,

REF Relay). Small “a” used for PT secondary connection in PT terminal box.
B: Bus bar Protection (CT secondary connection). B for B phase indication.
C: Back up Protection (CT secondary connection for O/C & E/F Relay).
D: Metering (CT secondary connection).
E: Metering & Protection (PT secondary connection).
H: A.C. supply.
J: D.C. main supply
K: D.C Control cable
L: Indication circuit
M: Motor Supply (spring charging Motor in Circuit Breaker).
N: RTCC (Tap Changer) connection. Also for denoting A.C. Neutral connection.
P: PT primary connection & DC circuit of Bus bar protection scheme.
R: R Phase Indication.
S: CT secondary connection in Terminal Box.
U: Circuit Breaker auxiliary contacts.
X: TB Numbering.
Y: Y Phase Indication

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 CHAPTER-13
STATION TRANSFORMER

This is a small distribution transformer located in the substation premises. It has given
protection through proper rating of D.O.Fuse. Incoming HT supply to the transformer is tapped from
LT bus of substation through Isolator. The output voltage 440 Volt is terminated to ACDB through
LT cables. The main purpose of station transformer in substation is to provide auxiliary supply to
various equipments through A.C. Distribution Board (ACDB) via MCBs or Switch Fuse

units:
1) A.C. supply is used for battery charger, which converts A.C. to D.C. supply for charging the
batteries and parallel provides D.C. source for various controls of substation equipments. In case of
A.C. supply failure, batteries will take care of D.C. supply continuity for equipment’s controls.
2) A.C. supply is used for OLTC for tap changing operation of transformer and
also cooling arrangement of transformer.
3) A.C. supply is used for spring charging mechanism of breakers.
4) A.C. supply is used for Office and Yard Illumination.
5) A.C. supply is used for Oil filtration, some miscellaneous welding work, and
Test supply for carrying out testing of various equipments in switchyard

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 CHAPTER- 14
BATTERIES & BATTERY CHARGER
For controlling various operations of substation equipments, suitable D.C. supply is
required. In battery charger panel, A.C. 1 phase or 3 phases is given, which converts A.C. to
D.C. supply. This D.C. supply is given to various control panels of substation and for
charging the batteries through D.C.Distribution Board. (DCDB) In case of A.C. supply
failure, batteries provide D.C. supply for controlling the operations of substation equipment
in normal or abnormal conditions. Battery capacity is expressed in ‘Ampere Hours’ which is
the useful quantity of electricity that can be taken from a battery at the specified rate of
discharge before its cell voltage falls to the specified value, which is equal to 1.75 volts
multiplied by the number of cells. Ampere hours is equal to the product of the specified
discharge current in amperes multiplied by the number of hours before the battery discharges
to the specified extent.

13.1 Precautions / Maintenance:

- Batteries should be cleaned regularly.
- Cell voltages & Specific gravity is to be recorded as per schedule.
- Batteries should be charged in a well-ventilated place, so that the gases and the acid fumes
are
Blown away
- Do not disturb any connection with charger on, as there is risk of sparking.
- If acid or electrolyte gets spattered into the eyes, wash them immediately with large quantity
of
Clean, cold water.
- Tighten connections periodically. Apply petroleum jelly to terminals to prevent corrosion.
- Maintain level of the electrolyte – Add only the distilled water. Add electrolyte
only if some of the electrolyte spills out.

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 CHAPTER- 15
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Voltmeter: - Voltage in an AC circuit is measured by voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across

the load or winding. For high voltage, voltage transformer is necessary to step down the voltage for
measurement. Voltmeter is connected across the secondary circuit of PT. Voltmeter can be replaced
on line by removing fuses or keeping voltmeter selector switch in OFF position.

Ammeter: - Current in a circuit is measured by ammeter connected in series of current path. If

current is high, suitable current transformer (CT) is necessary to step down current for measurement.
Ammeter is connected in series of secondary circuit of CT. Ammeter can be replaced by shorting CT
secondary wires or keeping ammeter selector switch in OFF position.

Energy Meter: -The Power in electrical circuit is measured by energy meter. Energy is the total
power consumed over a certain period and is measured in kilowatt-hour (KWH). One kilowatt-hour is
equal to the energy consumed when power is utilized at the rate of one kilowatt for one hour. The
term ‘unit’ used for expressing consumption of electrical energy is equal to one kilowatt-hour, and all
tariffs for energy consumption are based on this unit. A registering mechanism in the energy meter
indicates the total energy consumption. Energy meters willrecord correctly, if connections are made
with due care to the polarity and the terminal markings. Energy meters can be changed or replaced
while in service by use of T.T.B. (Test terminal block). In TTB, CT secondary can be shorted during
removal of Meter (avoiding open circuit of CT secondary) & PT supply can be made OFF by
disconnecting type arrangement or by removing fuses. Energy meter records Import / Export energy
parameters.
Import parameters are displayed by arrowin direction and Export parameters in direction.

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 CHAPTER - 16
EARTHING OF EHV SUBSTATION

One of the important aspects in the operation of the protective equipment isproper earthing.
By earthing, it means making a connection to the general mass of the earth. Earthing also increases
the reliability of the supply service as it helps to provide stability of voltage conditions, prevent
excessive voltage peaks during disturbances and also as a means of providing a measure of protection
against lightning. For outdoor substation, a main earthing ring should be provided round the
substation which should be connected to all earth electrodes. The ring should be laid so as to have
shortest connection from transformers, circuit breakers etc.

16.1 Types of Earthing: - It can be divided into Neutral earthing & Equipment earthing.
a) Neutral Earthingdeals with the earthing of system neutral to ensure thatneutral points are held at
earth potential and return path is available to neutral current.
Points to be earthed: Transformer neutral is to be earthed to two separate anddistinct earth
electrodes interconnected with substation earth mat.
b) Equipment Earthingdeals with earthing of non-current carrying parts ofequipments to ensure
safety to personnel & protection against lightning. Points to be earthed: All non-current carrying
metallic parts of equipments, structures, enclosures, overhead shielding wires, flanges of bushings,
cores of transformer, cable sheaths, earthed screens, pipes, portable appliances, fences, doors, screens.

16.2 Common Earth System for Low and High Voltage Systems:
There should be common earth bus for both high and low voltage systems. If the low voltage neutral
is not connected to the common earth system but has a separate earth bus, then there will be a
difference of potential between the high voltage and low voltage neutrals and there can exist a
dangerous potential gradient across earth surface which can endanger life. With a low resistance earth
bus and the neutrals connected to a common earth system, there will be no danger to the low voltage
system and advantages inkeeping everything in the station at a common potential above earth will
outweigh the disadvantages.
a) LA Earthing – The earthing lead for any LA shall not pass through any iron or steel pipe, but
shall be taken as directly as possible from the LA to a separate earth electrode interconnected with
substation earth mat. Individual earth electrodes should be provided for each station type lightning
arrester, while for distribution type lightning arrester, one electrode may be provided for a set of
lightning arresters.

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b) Coupling Capacitors Earthing – A separate earth electrode, generally adriven rod or pipe,
should be provided immediately adjacent to the structuresupporting the coupling capacitors of carrier
current equipment. This earth should be used for the high frequency equipment only.
c) Overhead Lines Earthing – Overhead lines are earthed:
a) to eliminate danger from broken line conductors and insulators by ensuring the operation of the
protective control-gear under such conditions.
b) to discharge lightning strokes to earth.
c) to minimize inductive interference with the communication circuits. One or more earth wires of
G.I. Are run along the power line (above the conductors)
16.3 Some Common Definitions:
a) Earth Electrode: Any plate, pipe or rod embedded in the earth to obtaineffective electrical
connection with general mass of the earth is known as Earth Electrode.
b) Touch Potential:If a person standing on substation floor touches a faultedstructures by raised
fingers, potential between his raised fingers and the feet is called touch potential.
c) Step Potential: If fault current flowing through the ground of the sub-station, a potential between
two steps of a person standing on the ground is called step potential. A person moving in the
switchyard and touching an earthed metallic structure should not get a shock. Hence touch potential
should be below 45 Volt. Also step potential should be below 45 Volt so that a person walking on
substation floor does not get shock due to high step potential.

16.4 Factors to be considered for design of Earth Mat for a Substation: -

1) Soil resistivity: -
Before designing earth mat, it is necessary to determine the soil resistivity of the area in which
substation is to be located. Resistivity of the earth variesconsiderably from 10 to 10,000 Ω-m
depending on the types of the soil. Alsoresistivity varies at different depth depending upon the type of
soil, moisture content and temperature etc., at various depths, which affects the flow of current due to
the fact that the earth fault current is likely to take its path through various layers.

2) Tolerable limits of body current: -

Effect of current passing through vital organs of human body depends onmagnitude, duration and
frequency of current. Current in the range of 1-8 mA are known as 'let go current' because these
currents, though unpleasant, impair the ability of a person, holding an energised object to release it.
Currents in the range of 9-25 mA may be painful and impair the ability to release energised object.
Still higher currents make breathing difficult. However, if the current is less than about 60 mA, the

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effects are not permanent & disappear when current is interrupted. Currents higher than 60 mA may
lead to ventricular fibrillation, injury & death.

3) Fault current: -
As the earthing system has to carry the earth currents, the maximum earth fault current likely to flow
in the system is considered for designing of earthing. A goodearthing system for substation can be
designed using an earth mat which is formed by a grid of horizontally buried conductors which serves
to dissipate the earth fault currents to earth, also as an equipotential bonding conductor system, along
with required number of vertical earth electrodes which are connected to the points of earthing of
various equipment’s, structures and also interconnected with the horizontal earth mat. M.S. Rods are
generally used for the earthing of substation. Total Earth resistance of the station system must be
below 3 ohms for low voltage domestic system, below 0.5 ohms for low voltage and medium voltage
substation, and below 0.1 ohm for 220 KV and 400 KV sub-station and power plants. If value of Earth
Pit resistance is found high, then it is to be treated to bring back the value within the normal range.

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 CHAPTER-17

CONCLUSION

Transmission and Distribution stations exits at a various scale throughout power system.In
general,they represent an interface between different levels or sections of the power system,with
the capability to switch or reconfigure the connections among various transmission and distribution
lines. The major stations include a control room from which operation are coordinated. Smaller
distribution substations follow the same principle of receiving power at higher voltage on one side and
sending out a number off distribution feeders at lower voltage on the other, but they serve a more
limited local area and are generally unstaffed.The Central component of the sub-station is the
transformer,as it provides the effective in enface between the high and low voltage parts of the
system. Other crucial components are circuit breakers and switches. Breaker serve as protective
devices that open automatically in the event of a fault, that is, when a protective realy indicates
excessive current, due to some abnormal condition. Switches are control devices that can be opened or
closed deliberately to establish or break a connection.An important difference between high currents,
whereas regularly switches are designed to be operable under normal currents. Breakers are placed on
both the high and low voltage side of transformers. Finally, substatios may also include capacitor
banks to provide voltage support.

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