Revised General Principles Methods and Strategies in Teaching With Educ Tech and Theories of Learning

BOARD LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS
Refresher Course
Prepared by Grace Ann E. Sorosoro
GENERAL PRINCIPLES, METHODS, and STRATEGIES IN TEACHING with

Educ. Tech. and ICT Skills for Teachers
Professional Education
LET Competencies:
1. Select activities, teaching methods, classroom management techniques appropriate for chosen subject area;
2. Choose appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of traditional and alternative teaching strategies; and
3. Apply appropriate approaches to lesson planning
Teaching –
1. As a profession, is taken as a mission to nurture the young. It is also referred to as an occupation for a living;
2. As an educational endeavor, refers to the vital role of teachers in engaging students in activities that will enable them to
acquire knowledge and skills, at the same time develop worthwhile values and attitudes.
Methods –
- It is a systematic plan to achieve a learning objective. It is a procedure that must be followed “strictly” to attain a goal. It
refers to a series of related and progressive acts performed by the teacher and students to achieve the objectives of a
lesson.
- It is a “pattern or manner of treating people, objects and events, that is directed purposely toward the achievement of an
instructional goal.
Strategy –
- Originated from the military, it stands for a carefully devised plan of action to achieve an objective in the battlefield. It
denotes a “clever” and cunning design to achieve one end.
- It suggests a teacher’s unique way of presenting a topic to the learners, characterized by adeptness in performing the
steps with utmost care to insure the attainment of a learning objective.
Techniques –
- This refers to the art, style or manner of a teacher’s performance in following a procedure. It includes one’s ability or
expertise in carrying out a task in a cautious and “watchful” way.
OBJECTIVE SUBJECT MATTER

(Knowledge, Skills, Values) (Nature and Scope)
CRITERIA FOR
CONDUCIVE LEARNING STUDENT’S ABILITIES
METHOD
ENVIRONMENT (Interests, Needs and
SELECTION
(Lab, Room, Garden) Experiences)
ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY TEACHER’S COMPETENCE
(Appropriate Instructional FACTORS THAT AFFECT DECISION (Professional Skills and
Materials and Devices) ON METHOD TO BE USED Personal Traits)
Classifying Methods:
1. Where suitably undertaken:
a. In the Laboratory room – Experimenting, Problem Solving, Discovery, Student Research
b. In the Field/ Community – Field Study, Exploring community resources, collections, educational tours
c. Classroom- Based/ Out of Classroom – Discussion, Demonstration, Interest Learning Centers, Field Study
2. Focused Participants: Individual or Group
Ex. Inviting specialists, lecture, team- teaching, cooperative learning, writing journals, peer-tutoring, team teaching,
independent study
3. Action-Based
Ex. Role playing, sociodrama, simulation games, projects, direct instruction
4. Technology-Based
Ex. Using audiovisual media, Experiential teaching approach, microteaching
5. According to Goals
a. Cognitive – Research, Special Reports, Lectures, Reading
b. Affective- Writing Journals, Narrative, Cooperative Learning, Creative Writing
c. Psychomotor – Experimenting, Projects, Simulation, Collection
6. According to Time Available
a. Class Period – Demonstration, Inviting Specialist
b. 2 or 3 days – field Trip, Exploring Community Resources, Research, Reading
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD METHOD
1. It considers the principles of learning
2. It utilizes the principles of “learning by doing”
3. It provides for growth and development
032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0
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4. It liberates the learners
5. It stimulates thinking and reasoning
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS

TRADITIONAL METHODS PROGRESSIVE METHODS
1. Objectives
Student – centered – goal is to gain knowledge, develop skills
Subject – centered – goal is mastery of content and instill values
2. Teachers
They are subject matter experts and dominate lesson objectives Facilitates, guides and encourages more student participation
3. Content
Use teacher-organized content and sequencing is strictly to be Content is flexible and may include related subjects as in an
followed integrated teaching.
4. Implementation
Step-by-step procedures in lesson activities is strictly followed Allows substitution of materials during the activities if needed.
and teacher-directed Alternative steps are undertaken to avoid misdirection or delay
5. Evaluation Uses qualitative assessment tools such as informal observations,
Uses objective tests and other Quantitative measures. interviews and discussions.
A. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Horne and Pine (1990) identified the following principles of learning to guide teachers on how to teach:
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner – Only the learner can learn for
himself. It is wise to make him/her do the learning activity himself/herself.
2. Learning is the discovery of personal meaning and relevance of ideas – Learning is discovering the meaning and relevance of
ideas. Let’s relate what we teach to the life experiences and needs of the learners.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience – Learning (behavioral change) comes as a result of
experience. Let us make learners go through the experience of learning, if feasible. If not, learning from other people’s
experiences as recorded in history will suffice.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process – Cooperation and collaborative learning are enabling, Let us use more
collaborative and cooperative approaches in the classroom.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process – Like the process of evolution, learning is gradual. Let us be patient. Learning takes
time.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process – Learning poses inconvenience, discomfort, giving up our old ways of thinking and
doing things because something new is far better.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself – Very much forgotten is the fact that the learner is one of the
richest resources of learning. Consult him/her.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual – Learning is not only a cerebral process. It is not only thinking
but also feeling. It involves the heart. In fact learning takes place best when our hearts are stricken.
9. The process of problem solving and learning is highly unique and individual – No two individuals learn in the same way. Each
person has a unique way of learning. Let us not impose our way of learning on others. Let us give considerations to multiple
intelligences and varied learning styles.
Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Learning Objectives
1. “Begin with the end in mind”. This means we must begin our lesson with a clearly defined lesson objective. With a specific
objective, our lesson becomes more focused.
2. Share lesson objective with students. Lesson objectives when shared and possessed by our students will become their
personal target. This will make them more self-motivated.
3. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains – knowledge (cognitive), skill (psychomotor) and values
(affective). The lesson we teach should be holistic and complete. It is necessary that our lesson gets direction from
objectives in the two or three domains with the affective domain always present.
4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives. The level of their self-motivation all the more increases when our
lesson objective is relevant to their daily life, hence, significant.
5. Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine Constitution and other laws
and in the vision – mission statements of the educational institution of which you are a part. We have something to do
with the attainment of our broad aims of education. We can contribute very much to the realization of our school’s vision
and mission statements.
6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking. If we want to contribute to the development of citizens who are
critical and creative thinkers, the type of citizens needed to make democracy, then we should include in our scope of
questions higher-level, divergent, or open-ended questions.
7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART, i.e., Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented
and Relevant, Time-bound and Terminal. With SMART objective we depart from the unsound practice of teaching that is so
spread out that in the end we find ourselves unclear on what test we are going to give to assess learning.
Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content
1. Observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of content:
a. Validity – this means teaching the content that we ought to teach according to national standards in order to realize
the goals and objectives of the course as laid down in the curriculum.
b. Significance – what we teach should respond to the needs and interests of the learners.
c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and values. No topic must be extensively discussed at the
expense of other topics.
d. Self-sufficiency – essentials should be sufficiently covered and are treated in depth.

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e. Interest – teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental stages and cultural and ethnic
background.
f. Utility – what is learned has a function even after examinations are over.
g. Feasibility – the essential content can be covered in the amount of time available for instruction.
2. Be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and by working
out a process of conceptual understanding. This can be done by: 1) Providing opportunities for experimentation; 2)
Presenting ideas of others; and 3) Emphasizing conceptual understanding.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements. Subject matter is an integration of facts,
concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (Howard Gardner)
1. Linguistic intelligence the capacity to use language to express what’s on your mind and to understand other people.
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence the ability to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system
3. Musical intelligence the capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them and perhaps manipulate
them.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence the capacity to use your whole or parts of your body to solve problem, make something or
put on a production.
5. Spatial intelligence the ability to present the spatial world internally in your mind.
6. Interpersonal intelligence The ability to understand other people
7. Intrapersonal intelligence Having an understanding of yourself, of knowing who you are, what you can do, etc.
8. Naturalist intelligence enables the ability to discriminate among living things as well as sensitivity to other features of the
natural world.
9. Existential intelligence to exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death and ultimate realities
B.BRAIN-COMPATIBLE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving.
2. Using Projects to Increase Meaning and Motivation.
3. Simulations and Role plays as Meaning Makers
4. Classroom Strategies Using Visual Processing
5. Songs, jingles and raps – Content can be more easily learned when they give it a tune or make it into rhyme through their
personally composed songs, jingles and raps.
6. Literature-Based Instruction - Literature-based instruction is the type of instruction in which authors' original narrative and
expository works are used as the core for experiences to support children in developing literacy.
7. Mnemonic Strategies – These assist students in recalling important information
8. Writing Strategies – Make students write their own problems and make them ask their classmates to solve them.
9. Peer teaching – Make students teach each other in a “Pair, Think, Share” manner.
10. Active review – Instead of teachers conducting the review students are given their turn. This technique strengthens
synapses.
11. Hands-on-activities – Concrete experiences is one of the best ways to make long-lasting neural connections.
C. APPROACHES IN INSTRUCTION
DIRECT INSTRUCTION INDIRECT INSTRUCTION
Comparison of Basic Concepts
 Synonymous to expository or didactic teaching.  Synonymous to exploratory or experiential learning
 An approach in which the teacher is the major provider of  An approach in which it seeks a high level of student
information focusing exclusively on the acquisition of facts, involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences
rules and action sequence. from data, or forming hypothesis.
 Teacher-centered  Student-centered
 Teacher-controlled  Learner-controlled
 Direct transmission of information from the teacher to the  Search of information by the student guided by the teacher
students  Flexibly organized content
 Highly structured contents  Experience-oriented
 Content-oriented
Comparison of Teacher’s Role
 Pass on facts, rules and procedures in the most direct way  Leads, facilitates and guides learner in the process of
usually through lectures, explanation r set of teacher- generalization, discrimination, search and discovery
student interaction involving samples, questions and
answers and practice.
Comparison of Learner’s Role
 Remember and retain facts, rules or procedures  Acquire information by transforming stimulus material into
a response different from previous stimulus.
 Go beyond facts and rules by creating and synthesizing  Acquire concepts, pattern and abstraction through the
 Less student involvement process of generalization and discrimination
 Passive Active  Active interactive
Comparison of Teaching Function

 Teacher begins with a review of the previous day’s lesson  Teacher begins with advance organizers that provide an
 Teacher presents new content in small steps with overall picture that allow for concept expansion
explanations and discussions  Focuses student response during induction and/or
 Provides an opportunity for guided practice on a small deduction to refine and focus generalizations
number of sample problems  Presents examples and non examples of the generalization;
 Teacher provides feedback and corrections identifying attributes
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 Teacher provide independent practice and seatwork  Draws additional examples from student’s own
 Teacher provides weekly and monthly review and re- experiences, interests and problems
teaches unlearned content  Uses questions to guide discovery and articulation of
generalization
 Involves students in evaluating their own responses
 Promotes and moderates discussion to firm up and extend
generalizations when necessary.
When Appropriate to Use
 The purpose is to disseminate information not readily  The purpose is to develop concepts, patterns and
available in books abstractions
 The textbook material is to be into more digestible form  When textbook material is to be transformed into a
 The learner needs emphasized knowledge and response different from the stimulus
comprehension  When the learner needs emphasized analysis, synthesis and
 When information must be applied to future work or world evaluation
events  When to make sense of information and theory in many
 The mastery of content and overlearning of fundamental different learning situations
facts and rules, and action sequences are essential  When interpretations of prior learning and discovery of
 Less delivery time new understanding are essential
 When introducing new area  More delivery time
 When teaching specific procedure or arbitrary system  The learner has initial familiarity with the information
 When students are experiencing similar difficulties  When teaching procedure is not fixed or arbitrary
 When transmitting large information  When students need different skills at different levels
 When developing skills to process information
When Not Appropriate to Use
 When presenting complex materials involving analysis,  When materials are generally factual involving only
synthesis and evaluation knowledge and low level comprehension
 When students are above average in intelligence and  When students are generally below average and lack high
achievement order thinking skills
 When students are already well-versed in the content to be  When students do not have the necessary background
taught information
 When desired outcome is concepts, principles, social and  When desired outcome is factual information
interpersonal skills, attitudes and values
 When learning environment differs  When learning environments are similar
 When information is not available  When information is directly available
METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR DIRECT INSTRUCTION

EXPOSITORY METHOD DEMONSTRATION DEDUCTIVE
Basic Concepts
 Telling method  Tell and show  Present concept/rule and test by
 Teacher presents facts, defines  Teacher performs and talks about a examples
concepts, interprets generalization process, presents the concept and  Teacher presents concept/ rules/
 Learner receives information shows the principles examples
 Learner observes and records events
When to Use
 When an idea can be learned only by  When process is significant and  When generalizations and rules are
explanation materials/ apparatus are limited, accessible to the learner
 When there is an immediate need sophisticated or dangerous  Content-oriented lesson
for information  Time for experimentation is limited  When time is limited
 When source material is not  Expertise and skillful know-how is
accessible to the pupils required
When Not to Use
 When the objective is critical  Process requires investigative time  Learners are capable of deduction, or
thinking  Preparation time is limited  When learners are hyperactive
 Learning can be done by discussion
 Large number of students are to be
instructed
METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

INDUCTIVE LABORATORY INQUIRY
Basic Concepts
 A discovery begins with study of  Learning by doing  Active pursuit of meaning and
instances or cases, compared and  First hand experiences regarding involving thought processes that
common elements discovered and materials and equipment change experience to lists of
generalized  Introduces investigation, knowledge
 End up to the formation of a experimentation, observation and  Learners are confronted with a
conclusion/ definition/ rule application puzzling situation and are led to
enter into investigative work to solve
problems
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When to Use
 Unrestricted time  When lessons can only be learned  When learners are capable of high
via actual hands-on experience order thinking skills
 When learners are capable of  When there is unlimited time
arriving at experimental solution  When sources of data are accessible
 When time is unlimited  When learners are interested
 When materials and resources are  When classes are small
accessible.
When Not to Use
 Learners are incapable of  Lesson requires sophisticated  When resources needed are not
generalization equipment available
 When learners are not capable of  When time is restricted
handling and manipulating  When learners are passive
laboratory equipment
 When laboratory facilities are
limited
D. OTHER APPROACHES
1. Metacognitive Approach – an approach that goes beyond cognition. It is an approach that makes students think about
their thinking.
a. Sub-vocalizing includes constantly re-stating the situation, rechecking progress and evaluating whether one’s
thinking is moving in an appropriate discussion.
b. Having students describe what is going on their minds.
c. Having students identify what is known in a situation or problem.
d. Self-Questioning or Heuristics Strategy
e. Polya’s Strategy for Solving Mathematical Problems
1) Understanding the Problem 3) Carrying out the Plan
2) Devising the Plan 4) Looking Back
f. SQ4R Method of Strategy
1) Survey 3) Read 5) Recite
2) Question 4) Reflect 6) Review
g. IDEAL Strategy
1) Identify the problem
2) Define what it is by representing it in some way
3) Explore possible strategies
4) Act on selected strategies
5) Look back over solution and evaluate it
2. Constructivist Approach
- The process of constructing meaning is based on one’s accumulated experiences and understanding.
- Revisiting previously accumulated experiences and understanding and reconstructing or recreating new concepts as they
interact daily with the environment.
- Learning by interacting their environment as active agents who build or construct, personal understanding of their
experiences.
Roles of the Learner and the Teacher

- Learners are reflective, inquisitive, critical and creative discoverers
- Teachers as pathfinders of the pupil’s prior knowledge and as bridges over which they invite their students to cross and
joyfully collapse, to allow them to create bridges of their own.
- Teachers are partners in learning
Constructivist Based Activities

 Problem-Based Learning Approach – A type of project-based learning approach which starts with a problem, a query or a
puzzle that the learner wishes to solve.
 Inductive or Discovery Learning – the child learns chiefly through his own activity. Students observe the cases, compare
them, analyze them and then draw on generalizations.
 Laboratory or Experimental Method – uses experimentation with apparatus and materials to discover or verify facts and to
study scientific relationships
 Scaffolding – a support or teacher assistance at critical points in their learning that is gradually removed when it is no longer
needed.
3. Reflective Teaching – It is anchored on the ability of the teacher to guide students to reflect on their own experiences
in order to arrive at new understandings and meanings. Schulman (1990) cites three key characteristics of reflective
teaching: 1) an ethic of caring, 2) a constructivist approach, and 3) tactful problem solving. Through reflection, the
student’s experience requires meaning, hence s/he is able to formulate his/her own concepts that can be applied to
new learning situations. The following are the strategies:
 Self-Analysis – reflecting on why s/he succeeded or failed at some task.
 Writing journals – A journal reveals feelings about the days activities including what could have enhanced or
inhibited their learning
– very personal document which includes frank, honest and on-the-spot account of experiences

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 Portfolio – collection of students’ outputs
 Observation of student’s responses
 Questions at the very end of the lesson
4. Cooperative Learning – This makes use of a classroom organization where students work in groups or teams to help
each other learn. Concepts from small group theory and group dynamics serve as the basis upon which skills in
democratic procedures and collaborations are developed.
Advantages of Cooperative Learning

1. Positive Interdependence
2. Promotive, face-to-face interaction
3. Individual accountability
4. Social skills
5. Group processing
Selected Structures of Cooperative Learning:

1. Team Building  Round robin – Each student in turn shares something with his or her teammates.
 Corners – Each student moves to a corner of the room representing a teacher-determined
2. Class Building alternative. Students discuss within corners, then listen to and paraphrase ideas from other
corners
3. Communication  Match Mine – Students attempt to match the arrangement of object on a grid of another
Building student using oral communication only.
 Numbered Heads Together – The teacher asks a question, students consult to make sure
everyone knows the answer, then one student is called upon to answer.
4. Mastery  Pairs Check – Students work in pairs within groups of four. Within pairs student alternate – one
solves a problem while the other coaches. After every two problems the pair checks to see if
they have the same answers as the other pair.
 Three-Step Interview – Students interview each other in pairs, first one way, then the other.
Students each share with the group information they learned in the interview.
5. Concept  Think-Pair-Share – Students think to themselves on a topic provided by the teacher; they pair
Development up with another student to discuss it; they then share their thoughts with the class.
 Team Word-Webbing – Students write simultaneously on a piece of chart paper, drawing main
concepts, supporting elements and bridges representing the relation of ideas in a concept.
 Roundtable – Each student in turn writes one answer as a paper and a pencil are passed around
the group. With Simultaneous Roundtable more than one pencil and paper are used at once.
 Inside-Outside Circle – Students stand in pairs in two concentric circles. The inside circle faces
out; the outside circle faces in. Students use flash cards or respond to teacher questions as they
6. Multifunctional rotate to each new partner.
 Jigsaw – Each student on the team becomes an “expert” on one topic by working with
members from other teams assigned the corresponding expert topic. Upon returning to their
teams, each one in turn teaches the group; and students are all assessed on all aspects of the
topic.
5. Peer Tutoring/ Peer Teaching – It is commonly employed when the teacher requests the older, brighter and more
cooperative member of the class to tutor (coach, teach, instruct) other classmates. This is based on the rationale that
the former is better equipped than the others. This is due to their closeness in age, skills, study habits and even
learning styles. Tutoring arrangements may be as follows:
a. Instructional Tutoring – Older students help younger ones on a one-to-one or one-to-a group basis.
b. Same age tutoring – works well with children who can act as interactive pairs, i.e., more able ones to assist the less
able.
c. Monitorial tutoring – The class may be divided into groups and monitors are assigned to lead each group.
d. Structural tutoring – Highly structured tutoring is administered by trained tutors
e. Semi-structured tutoring – a combination of unstructured and structured where the tutor guides his/her tutee
through a carefully-planned learning guide but is free to modify it according to the tutee’s own interests and skills.
6. Partner Learning – Learning with a partner. A student chooses partner among his/her classmates. It can be employed
when you get your students rehearse what they have learned and explore their understanding of content with a
partner. This may also mean assigning “study buddy”.
E. OTHER METHODS
1. Individualized Instruction
 a teaching methodology that is to be used for a specific purpose and an identified client.
 It involves pre-assessment of an individual’s backgrounds, needs and interests.
 It is tailor-planned, the opposite of a class-oriented instruction.
2. a. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
 the teacher gives new information to students for a week. Each member tries to learn the materials and then help each
other master the materials through tutoring, testing one another or carrying on group discussions. Individually students
take weekly quizzes on the academic materials. The team with the highest scores and high improvement scores are
recognized.
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b. Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT)
 the same as STAD, instead games are used
3. Phillips 66
 Participants first define the topic of discussion. The facilitator selects six people and allows them six minutes for discussion.
4. Socio – drama
 It is an excellent device to make students “gain emphatic awareness” of situations involving conflict.
 It refers to a “group problem-solving of real-life situations through spontaneous enactment followed by guided discussion.
 It emphasizes spontaneity and unknown solution to the problem
5. Microteaching
 It consists of teaching a brief lesson to a small group of students in an actual classroom.
 It is often resorted to during student-teachers’ practicum before going out for off-campus teaching.
 Beginning teachers likewise undertake this learning activity by teaching their peers.
 It also provides opportunity to observe ones own performance for purpose of analyzing and evaluating teaching knowledge
and skills is considered of great value.
6. Discussion
 Interchangeably termed discourse
 Refers to a free communication of ideas between the teacher and the pupils and among the pupils as well.
 It is employed for the purpose of clarifying some points during a learning task or as a check at the end to find out if the
objective of the lesson has been achieved.
7. Interest Learning Centers
 The entire area is divided into several academic learning centers such as math center, language arts, science and social
science centers.
 Each is further divided according to the unit being undertaken during the month.
 Each center contains the instructional materials, tools, kits and equipment that might be needed during an investigation
8. Team Teaching
 It consists of tapping the expertise of two or more teachers in planning, teaching and evaluating the students’ learning.
 The choice of the members would depend on their expertise in content and skill in employing corresponding teaching
techniques.
 They collaboratively plan the learning activities, the instructional materials to be used and the assessment measures to be
undertaken.
9. Field Trip
 It is an out-of-the-classroom activity whereby children study things in their natural setting.
 Concepts about nature or organisms in their habitat are best learned by on-the-spot observations rather than by
discussions in the classroom.
 Children must be exposed to the real situations rather than to the artificial atmosphere of the classroom, whenever a study
of the locale is needed.
F. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
1. Purpose:
a. To motivate – questions stir ones emotions or arouse a strong inclination. Teachers can tactfully persuade or influence
the students’ thinking by asking motivating questions.
b. To instruct – questions are used to highlight the need for useful information. The right procedures and directions are
guided by appropriate questions.
c. To evaluate – questions are used during a lesson primarily to find out if learning or understanding is being achieved.
The level of the lesson’s objectives

1) Low Level Questions – require responses of the simple recall or memory type of answers.
2) High Level Questions – calls for analysis, synthesis, evaluation and problem solving ability
2. Guiding How to Respond

a. Divergent: elicits numerous responses
b. Convergent: elicits a single response
c. Probing: helps to get under the surface of an initial answer
d. Hypothetical: sets up a possible situation or problem and asks the student for a possible course of action
e. Leading: suggests the expected answer
f. Rhetorical: asked merely for effect with no answer expected.
3. Improving One’s Questioning Technique

a. Provide sufficient wait time. Wait time refers to the pause needed by the teacher after asking a question.
Waiting 5-10 seconds will increase the number of students who volunteer to answer and will lead to longer, more
complex answers. If students do not volunteer before 5 seconds have passed, refrain from answering your own
question, which will only communicate to students that if they do not answer, you will do their thinking for them. If the
students are unable to answer after sufficient time for thinking has passed, rephrase the question.
b. Do not interrupt students’ answers. You may find yourself wanting to interrupt because you think you know what the
student is going to say, or simply because you are passionate about the material. Resist this temptation. Hearing the
students’ full responses will allow you to give them credit for their ideas and to determine when they have not yet
understood the material.

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c. Show that you are interested in students’ answers, whether right or wrong. Encourage students when they are
offering answers by nodding, looking at them, and using facial expressions that show you are listening and engaged. Do
not look down at your notes while they are speaking.
d. In class discussions, do not ask more than one question at once. When you ask more than one question, students
often do not respond because they are unsure which question you want them to answer.
G. INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
Instructional Plan is a magical elixir that will reinforce greater learning. The basic components are the following: (1) objective,
(2) topic or subject matter, (3) materials, (4) procedure or lesson development, (5) evaluation and (6) assignment.
Terminal or Performance Objectives – A Terminal or Performance Objective is developed for each of the tasks selected in the
learning program. A terminal objective is at the highest level of learning (KSA) appropriate to the human performance
requirements a student will accomplish.
Enabling or Learning Objectives – These supporting objectives allow the Terminal Objective to be broken down into smaller,
more manageable objectives. Each enabling learning objective measures an element of the terminal performance objective.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN TAXONOMY

 Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
 Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
 Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.
 Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure
or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
 Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
 Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or
structure through generating, planning, or producing.
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 67-68)
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN TAXONOMY

 Receiving – being aware of or attending to something in the environment
 Responding – Showing some new behaviors as a result of experience
 Valuing – Showing some definite involvement or commitment
 Organization – Integrating a new value into one’s general set of values, giving it some ranking among one’s general priorities
 Characterization – acting consistently with the new value
(Krathwohl et al., 1964)
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN TAXONOMY

 Reflex Movements – are actions elicited without learning in response to some stimuli
 Fundamental movements - are inherent movement patterns which are formed by combining of reflex movements and are the
basis for complex skilled movements.
 Perpetual abilities - refers to interpretation of various stimuli that enable one to make adjustments to the environment.
 Physical Activities - require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility which produces a sound, efficiently functioning body.
 Skilled Movements - are the result of the acquisition of a degree of efficiency when performing a complex task.
 Nondiscursive communication - is communication through bodily movements ranging from facial expressions through
sophisticated choreographics
MAGER’S APPROACH IN WRITING OBJECTIVES

For Mager, a lesson objective has three elements, namely: (1) performance, (2) the condition(s) under which the behavior is to
occur, and (3) the criterion of success.
1. The performance is the behavior that the learner displays if he learned what was intended for him to learn.
2. The condition/s refer/s to the circumstances under which the learner is able to perform or exhibit the learned behavior.
3. The criterion of success is the standard against which the learner’s performance is evaluated for us to be able to tell
whether or not the learner’s objective has been attained.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
TYPES OF POWER/AUTHORITY
1. Coercive power is gained through the fear of learners. A coercive teacher uses threats and punishments to coerce his
students to carry out tasks. While coercive power may be effective, at least temporarily, this type of power is typically
unhealthy and inappropriate. It commonly results in fearful learners, an uncomfortable learning environment, and low
morale.
2. Expert power is gained through a teacher’s particular knowledge, experience and skills. An expert teacher uses her
expertise, credibility, decisiveness and confidence to solve challenging problems, help students stay on track with tasks, and
lead them to success. Expert power is beneficial for building a positive reputation. Credibility is an important part of expert
power, and students tend to not follow a teacher who doesn't have it.
3. Legitimate power is inherent in the position of being “the teacher”. A teacher with legitimate power uses his position to
convince his students of his right to lead and control. While legitimate power is effective, this type of power is more of an
illusion, as students will only follow the teacher while he is in present. The power is not with the individual, but with the
position he holds.

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4. Referent power is gained by trust, respect, admiration, charm and appeal. A teacher with referent power is extremely
likeable. This type of teacher uses her appeal to influence her students. However, referent power is somewhat unstable as
the power is dependent on the personal feelings of students. These feelings are subject to change, causing the power to be
taken away quickly.
5. Reward power is gained by the ability to reward favorable work. A teacher with reward power uses his ability to reward
students to encourage the completion of tasks. He not only rewards through gifts, but also by privately or publically praising
students for successful work. While reward power is effective and positive, teachers face the obstacle of not being able to
use rewards long-term. The rewards also must meet the expectation of the students or the power eventually fades.
PRINCIPLES IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
1. Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom management. Being proactive in approach means
preventing unnecessary disciplinary problems from cropping up. To be consistent, we apply at all times established rules
and policies to all pupils/ students regardless of creed, color, economic status, academic standing in class. We “walk our
talk”.
2. Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs. Routinized collection of assignments, passing of papers and preparation for
experiments saves us a lot of time and effort. Routinization makes classroom activities less susceptible to breakdowns and
interruptions because students know the normal sequence of events and what is expected of them.
3. Orchestrate smooth transitions and continuity of momentum throughout the day. Smooth transitions and continuity of
momentum throughout the day ensure us that every instructional moment is made use of wisely. No unnecessary lull is
created that will breed classroom restlessness, which is the father of disciplinary problems.
4. Strike a balance between variety and challenge in students’ activities. A variety of student activities will ensure that
students’ multiple intelligences and varied learning styles are considered in the conduct of student activities. It is the golden
mean the extremes of easy and difficult that will keep our students reasonably occupied.
5. As classroom manager, be aware of all actions and activities in the classroom. Kounin’s with-it-ness explains the teacher’s
heightened awareness of everything that is happening on one’s classroom while the teacher’s back faces them when
writing on the board. The “eyes on the back of the head” will make the students feel that the teacher knows what they are
doing.
6. Resolve minor inattention and disruption before they become major disruptions. The old adage, “a stitch on time saves
nine” aptly applies here. We have not to wait until our class is out of control. Misdemeanor has a “ripple effect” if not
checked early. Conflagration begins with a spark. Put out the spark early enough to avoid conflagration. We ought to
respond to inappropriate behavior promptly.
7. Reinforce positive behavior. Be generous with genuine praise. For our praise to be genuine it must be given according to
merit. It is our way of appreciating and recognizing hard work and good behavior.
8. Treat minor disturbance calmly. “Do not make a mountain out of a mole”. If a stern look or gesture can kill the
inappropriate behavior so be it. That’s the end period! Let us not make a fuss about it.
9. Work out a physical arrangement of chairs that facilitates an interactive teaching-learning process. External environment
affects the learning of students. The most common arrangements of tables and chair in the classroom is one where the
teachers’ table and chairs are in front and the student’s desk or chairs are arranged in rows facing the teacher. Work for a
flexible seating arrangement where we can re-arrange seats to suit one learning needs and conditions.
MANAGING SURFACE BEHAVIOR (Adapted from: “Conflict in the Classroom.” Long, Morse and Newman. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth (3rd Ed.), 1976. Pp. 308-316)
Non-verbal techniques for isolated problems

1. Planned ignoring - Much child behavior carries its own limited power and will soon exhaust itself if it is not replenished
(especially if the behavior is done to “get the teachers goat”). Assuming the behavior will not spread to others, it might be
possible for the teacher to ignore the behavior and thus extinguish it.
2. Signal interference - Teachers have a variety of signals that communicate to the child a feeling of disapproval and control.
These nonverbal techniques include such things as eye contact, hand gestures, tapping or snapping fingers, coughing or
clearing one’s throat, facial frowns, and body postures. These techniques seem most effective at the beginning stages of
misbehavior.
3. Proximity control - Every teacher knows how effective it is to stand near a child who is having difficulty. The teacher is a
source of protection, strength, and identification and helps the child control his impulses by her proximity.
Using Interpersonal Relationship

4. Interest boosting - If a student’s interest in his work is declining, and he is showing signs of boredom or restlessness, it may
be helpful for the teacher to show an interest in the student. The teacher may engage the student in a conversation on a
topic that is of interest to him. Stimulating the child’s interest may motivate him to continue his work, and/or help him view
the teacher as a person to please.
5. Direct appeal to values - A teacher can often appeal to a child’s values when intervening in a
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problem situation. He might a) appeal to the relationship of the teacher with the child, for
example, “You seem angry with me. Have I been unfair with you?” b) appeal to reality
consequences, for example, “I know you’re angry, but if you break that aquarium, the fish
will all die, and you’ll have to replace it with your own money.” c) appeal to a child’s need
for peer approval, for example, “Your classmates will be pretty angry if you continue to interrupt them and correct them.”
d) appeal to the child’s sense of the teacher’s power of
authority, for example, tell him that as a teacher you cannot allow his behavior to continue,
but that you still care about him. e) appeal to the child’s self-respect, for example, “I know
you’ll be mad with yourself if you tear up that paper you worked on all period.”
6. Support through humor (Tension decontamination through humor) - Most of us are aware of
how a funny comment is able to defuse a tense situation. It makes everyone feel more comfortable.
Supportive Techniques
7. Support from routine - We all need structure. Some children need more than others before they feel comfortable and
secure. Some become anxious without a set routine. To help these children, a daily schedule should be provided to help allay
some of their feelings of anxiety. They know what is expected of them and can prepare for the activity.
8. Restructuring the classroom program - How much can a teacher deviate from his scheduled
program and still feel he is meeting his teaching responsibilities? Some teachers feel compelled to follow their class schedule
rigidly. They feel students should learn discipline and self control. Other teachers feel it is necessary to be flexible and
sensitive to the students’ needs and concerns. Some middle ground seems most sensible. Discipline and structure are
valuable, but not when they fly in the face of a general class need. Moderate restructuring
based on affective as well as academic goals can be a very effective technique. Restructuring is appropriate when it is
necessary to drain off high tension or emotion in the classroom. The technique is, as its name implies, simply a change of
plan, format, task, or location based. on a perceived need to drain off tension or high emotion in the total class.
9. Removing seductive objects - It is difficult for the teacher to compete with certain objects, such as squirt guns and balloons
and other similar seductive objects. Sometimes removing
seductive objects leads to power struggles. Take a strong interest in the object and politely
ask .to see it or handle it. Once in your hand, you have the option of returning it with a
request for it to disappear for the remainder of the period, or to keep it with a promise to
return it at the end of the period. This technique is most effective if you have a relationship
with the student.
10. Supportive Removal - When a child’s behavior has reached a point where the teacher
questions whether or not the child will respond to verbal controls, it is best to ask the child to
leave the room for a few minutes - perhaps to get a drink, wash up, or deliver a message. In
supportive removal, there is no intent of punishing the child, but simply to protect and help
him and/or the group to get over their feelings of anger, disappointment, uncontrollable
laughter, hiccups, etc. Unfortunately, many schools do not have a place to which the
classroom teacher can send a child that the child will not think of as a punishment.
Emergencies – Use only in extreme cases

11. Physical restraint - Once in a while, a child will lose complete control and threaten to injure himself and others. In such
emergencies, the child needs to be restrained physically. He should be held, firmly but not roughly, with no indication of
punishment - only concern. Such techniques as shaking, hitting, or spanking make it harder for him to believe the teacher
really wants to help him.
ICT SKILLS and EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
LET Competencies:
1. Manifest mastery of fundamental concepts, principles and operations of ICT;
2. Identify varied and appropriate use of technology;
3. Select instructional materials and technology appropriate for teaching; and
4. Choose appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and non-conventional technology
tools.
4. ICT FOR TEACHERS

A. The Computer System
Computer – is an electronic device used to process data, converting the data into information that is useful to people. Any
computer – regardless of its type – is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it
what to do. A complete computer consists of four parts:
1. Hardware – the mechanical devices that make up the computer or the parts that one can touch. It is consists of
interconnected electronic devices that can be used to control the computer’s operation, input and output.
2. Software – is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known as programs) that make the
computer perform tasks. It tells the computer what to do.
3. People – are the computer operators, also known as users. Even if a computer can do its job without a person sitting in
front of it, people still design, build, program and repair computer systems.
4. Data – consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers. The computer manipulates
data according to the instructions contained in the software and then forwards it for use by people or another
computer. Data can consists of letters, numbers, sounds or images.
Files – is simply a set of data or program instructions that has been given a name
Document – a file that the user can open and use. A computer document can include many kinds of data
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B. Looking Inside the Machine
Processing – the procedure that transforms raw data into useful information. To perform this transformation, the computer
uses two components: the processor and memory.
1. Processor (CPU) – is like the brain of the computer in the way it organizes and carries out instructions that come from
either the user or the software. To process data, the computer passes electricity through the circuits to complete an
instruction.
2. Memory – is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer. When you launch a program, it is loaded into and run
from memory. The most common type of memory is called random access memory (RAM)
C. Input and Output Devices

1. Input Devices – accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system
a. Keyboard – used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer commands. These
special keys are called command or function keys.
b. Pointing Device – move some object on the screen and can do some action.
i. Mouse – functions as a pointing device by detecting 2D motion relative to its supporting surface
ii. Trackball – operates with a rotating metal ball inset in a small, boxlike device and does not require a desktop
iii. Touchpad – pressure-sensitive pad that is smaller, more accurate, thinner and less expensive to build than the
trackball.
iv. Trackpad – a small, sensitive pad, usually a couple of inches square, which acts as an alternative to a mouse on
some notebook/palmtop computers. It works by sensing fingertip pressure.
v. Joystick – a manual control consisting of a vertical handle that can move freely in two directions.
vi. Touch Screen - a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the screen.
vii. Light Pen – utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.
viii. Digitizing Tablet - it enables on to enter drawings and sketches into a computer. It consists of an electronic
tablet and a cursor or a pen
ix. Stylus – a device shaped like a pen
c. Bar Code Reader – used to scan a pattern of lines using optical sensing techniques. The line pattern is coded
information about the item to which it relates.
d. Scanner – allows scanning documents, pictures or graphics and viewing them on the computer. It converts an
image into dots that the computer can understand.
e. Digital Camera – used to take electronic pictures of an object.
f. Microphone – need sound recording software
g. CD-ROM/ DVD-ROM – can be used to put both sound and images into a computer
h. Video Capture Card – used to put video into a computer. It needs a video source, either a video cam or video
recorder
i. Handheld Electronic Organizers – a small mobile computer that accepts input through a pen like instrument called
stylus that is used to write on the computer’s screen
j. Web Camera – a camera that is in some way connected to WWW or internet
k. Sensor – a device, which responds to an input quantity by generating a functionally related output usually in the
form of an electrical or optical signal
2. Output Devices – return processed data back to the user or to another computer system.
a. Monitors and Displays – show the processed information on a screen. It produces a soft copy.
b. Printers – (printout) produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used when the device is
off.
c. Speakers – used to output sound.
d. Plotter – a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer. It differs from printers in
that they draw lines using a pen
3. Input/Output Devices – a piece of hardware that is used for both providing information to the computer and receiving
information.
a. Disk Drive – computer hardware that holds and spins a magnetic or optical disk and reads and writes information
on it.
b. Hard Disk Drive – a rigid magnetic disk mounted permanently in a drive unit.
c. Optical Disc - a direct access disk, has information recorded on it with a laser beam that burns pits into its surface
d. Modem – modulates the computer output to an acceptable signal for transmission and then demodulates the
signal back for computer input.
4. System Unit – the main part of a personal computer. It includes the chassis, microprocessor, main memory, bus and
ports, but does not include the keyboard or monitor or any peripheral devices.
5. Software – also called programs. It provides instruction that tell the computer how to operate. The types are as follows
a. System Software – consists of programs designed to facilitate the use of the computer by the user.
 Operating System – a asset of program designed to efficiently manage the resources of the computer
system.
 Language Translator – is a system program that converts the English-like instructions used by computer
programmers into the machine-readable code used by the hardware.
 Utility Program – perform such standard tasks as organizing and maintaining data files, translating
programs written in various languages to a language acceptable to a computer.

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b. Application Software – is a type of program that solves specific user-oriented processing problems
 Word Processing – program accepts words typed into a computer and processes them to produce edited
text.
 Desktop-Publishing System – system allows you to use different typefaces, specify various margins and
justifications, and embed illustrations and graphs directly into the text.
 Spreadsheets – are computer programs that let people electronically create and manipulate spreadsheets
(tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined to relationships to each other). These are
used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on.
 Database Management – a set of programs is necessary to facilitate adding new data as well as modifying
and retrieving of existing data within a database
 Electronic Games – interactive hardware or software played for entertainment, challenge or educational
purposes
 Graphic Packages – are computer programs that enable users to create highly stylized images for slide
presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various types of charts and graphs.
 Communication Program – a software program that enables a computer to connect with another
computer.
D. Networks and Data Communications

Networks – it is a way to connect computers so that they can communicate, exchange information and share resources in
real time. It enables multiple users to access shared data and programs instantly
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) – network of computers located relatively near each other and connected in a way that
enables them to communicate with one another (by a cable, an infrared link, or a small radio transmitter). Any network
that exists within a single building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is considered a LAN.
2. Wide Area Networks (WANs) – two or more LANs connected together, generally across a wide geographical area. Each
site needs resources, data and programs locally, but it also needs to share data with the other site
3. Peer-to-Peer Networks – (sometimes called workgroups), all nodes (individual computers) on the network have equal
relationships to all others, and all have similar types of software that support the sharing of resources.
E. Internet Basics
1. The World Wide Web or Wed or WWW – is one of the services provided to users on the Internet
2. E-mail – a system of exchanging written messages through a network
5. Educational Technology
A. Definition of Concepts
1. Technology – a planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes – a process not a product.
Technology is the applied side of scientific development (Dale, 1969 in Corpuz & Lucido, 2008).
 Refers to all the ways people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs and desires.
2. Educational Technology – refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their educational needs
and desires, i.e. learning
 It is the application of scientific findings in our method, process or procedure of working in the field of
education in order to affect learning. It embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning environment,
theories of teaching-learning. It is also a field study and a profession. It is the use of all human inventions for
teachers to realize their mission to teach in order that students learn.
3. Technology in Education – the application of technology to any of those processes involved in operating the
institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the application of technology to food, health, finance,
scheduling, grade, reporting and other processes which support education within institutions (Jonassen et.al., 1999)
4. Instructional Technology – is a part of educational technology. This refers to those aspects of educational technology
that are concerned with instruction as contrasted to designs and operations of educational institutions. It is a
systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific
objectives (Lucido and Borabo, 1997).
5. Technology integration – means using learning technologies to introduce, reinforce, supplement and extend skills
(Williams,ed. 2000). Technology integration is part and parcel of instructional technology, which in turn is a part of
educational technology.
6. Educational media – are channels or avenues or instruments of communication. Examples are books, magazines,
newspapers, radio, television and Internet.
B. Technology: Its Roles

TRADITIONAL VIEW CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW
 Delivery vehicle for instructional lessons  Partner in the learning process
 The learner learns from the technology and the technology  Technology helps the learner build more meaningful
serves as a teacher. personal interpretations of life in his/her world.
 Technology is seen as productivity tool  Technology is a learning tool to learn with, not from.
 It makes the learner gather, think, analyze, synthesize
information and construct meaning with what technology
presents

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C. The Cone of Experience
The Cone of Experience is a visual model, a pictorial device that presents bands of experience arranged according to degree
of abstraction and not degree of difficulty.
 The farther you go from the bottom of the cone, the more abstract the experience becomes
 The individual bands of the Cone of Experience stand for experiences that are fluid, extensive and continually interact. (Dale,
1969).
 One kind of sensory experience is not necessarily more educationally useful than another. These experiences are mixed and
interrelated
 Too much reliance on concrete experience may actually obstruct the process of meaningful generalization. The best will be
striking a balance between concrete and abstract, direct participation and symbolic expression for the learning that will
continue throughout life.
 The least effective method at the top, involves learning from the information presented through verbal symbols. The most
effective methods at the bottom involves direct, purposeful experiences.
 The further you progress down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is likely to be retained.
The Bands of Experiences

1. Direct Purposeful Experiences – first hand experiences which serve as the foundation of our learning. We build up our
reservoir of meaningful information and ideas through empirical experiences. It is learning by doing.
2. Contrived experiences – we make use of a representative models or mock ups of reality for practical reasons and so that
we can make the real-life accessible to the student’s perceptions and understanding.
3. Dramatized experiences – By dramatization, we can participate in a reconstructed experience, even though the original
event is far removed from us in time.
4. Demonstrations – it is visualized explanation of an important fact, idea or process by the use of photographs, drawings,
films, displays or guided motions. It is showing how things are done.
5. Study trips – these are excursions and visits conducted to observe an event that is unavailable within the classroom.
6. Exhibits – these are displays to be seen by spectators. They may consist of working models arranged meaningfully or
photographs with models, charts and posters. Sometimes exhibits are “for your eyes only”.
7. Television and motion pictures – It can reconstruct the reality of the past so effectively that we are made to feel we are
there.
8. Still pictures , recordings, radio - these are visual and auditory devices may be used by an individual or a group. Still
pictures lack the sound and motion of a sound film. The radio broadcast of an actual event may often be likened to a
televised broadcast minus its visual dimension.
D. The Cognitive Representations of the World (Jerome Bruner)

1. Enactive Mode. One is using some known aspects of reality without using words or imagination. It involves
representing the past events and through making motor responses. It involves mainly in knowing how to do something;
it involves series of actions that are right for achieving some results.
2. Iconic Mode. This mode deals with the internal imagery, were the knowledge is characterized by a set of images that
stand for the concept. The iconic representation depends on visual or other sensory association and is principally
defined by perceptual organization and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the
individual.
3. Symbolic Mode. This representation is based upon an abstract, discretionary and flexible thought. It allows one to deal
with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking. This mode is illustrative of a person’s
competence to consider propositions rather than objects, to give ideas a hierarchical structure and to consider
alternative possibilities in a combinatorial fashion, (Spencer.K.,1991, p.185-187).
E. General Principles in the Use of Instructional Materials (IMs)

1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
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4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.
F. Criteria for Selecting Instructional Materials

1. Relevance of the lesson – the materials must help carry out the objectives of the lesson. They must suit the purpose of
the lesson and motivate the students into positive reactions.
2. Appropriateness – the materials should be suited to the students’ age level, background knowledge, skills developed
and level of maturity.
3. Quality of materials – the media should be well-designed and of high technical quality. They must be the latest edition,
durable and pleasant to look at.
4. Objectivity – selection must be free from bias and advertising propaganda. Consult experts who know the equipment
and how they can be operated efficiently.
5. Availability – check in advance to see that the equipment and materials are available when you need them.
G. Teaching with Media

1. Audio Recordings – include tapes, records and compact discs. Tapes may be in the form of teacher-recorded, student-
recorded or ready-made tapes that are commercially produced. These may be used by teachers in connection with
speech rehearsals, drama, musical presentation and radio and television broadcasting.
2. Overhead Transparencies – by using an overhead projector, a transparency can show pictures, diagrams and sketches
at a time when needed in a discussion. Step-by-step instructions, enumerations or any sequenced illustrations can
easily be presented through transparencies.
3. Bulletin Boards – is usually stationary on a wall or it can be movable. The surface is made of cork or soft wall boards for
easy attachment of display items. Its contents may be used for the duration of a unit being studied. The learning
materials may be pictures, newspaper clippings, real objects or drawings.
4. Chalkboard – this includes not only those with flat and wide surfaces but also the portable types which can be moved
or even serve as dividers. Using chalk, it is a convenient writing area where the illustrations can instantly be drawn even
during a discussion. An eraser can easily keep it clean and ready for continuous use.
5. Charts – may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and cut-outs. They may be pre-prepared graphic devices or
posters.
6. Video Tapes/ Films – come in the form of 8mm and 16 m type. They can be purchased or rented.
7. Models – are scaled replicas of real objects. When the real things cannot be used due to its size either too large or too
small, replicas are used. Ex. Globes, model cars, airplanes or houses and furnitures
8. Pictures – this includes flat, opaque and still pictures. Photographs or picture clipped from newspapers and magazines
are also used. The concepts to be taught could be introduced through pictures.
9. Books – textbooks and all kinds of books are also classified as media or sub-strategies. They contain information,
pictures and graphics.
10. Computers – could be used in presenting the day’s lesson, solving problems and providing educational games.
H. Contrived Experiences – these are edited copies of reality and are used as substitutes for real things when it is not practical
or not possible to bring or do the real thing in the classroom.
1. Model – is a reproduction of a real thing in a small scale, or large scale, or exact size – but made of synthetic materials.
2. Mock up – is an arrangement of a real device or associated device, displayed in such a way that representation of
reality is created. Usually, it is prepared substitute for a real thing. It is a special model where the parts of a model are
singled out, heightened and magnified in order to focus on that part or process under study.
3. Replica – a copy that is relatively distinguishable from the original
4. Realia – these are objects from real life used in classroom instruction by educators to improve students’ understanding
of other cultures and real life situation.
5. Specimen – is any individual or item considered typical of a group, class or whole.
6. Objects – may also include artifacts displayed in a museum or objects displayed in exhibits or preserved insect
specimens in science.
7. Simulation – a representation of a manageable real event in which the learner is an active participant engaged in a
learning a behavior or in applying previously acquired skills or knowledge.
8. Games – used for any of these purposes: 1) to practice and/or to refine knowledge/skills already acquired, 2) to identify
gaps or weaknesses in knowledge/ skills, 3) to serve as a summation or review, and 4) to develop new relationships
among concepts and principles.
I. Dramatized experiences
1. Plays depict life, character, or culture or a combination of all three. They offer excellent opportunities to portray vividly
important ideas about life.
2. Pageants are usually community dramas that are based on local history, presented by local actors.
3. Pantomime – is the art of conveying a story through bodily movements only. Its effect on the audience depends on the
movements of the actors.
4. Tableau – is a picture-like scene composed of people against a background
5. Puppet – can present ideas with extreme simplicity – without elaborate scenery or costume- yet effectively
6. Role-playing – is an unrehearsed, unprepared and spontaneous dramatization of a “let’s pretend” situation where
assigned participants are absorbed by their own roles in the situation described by the teachers.
J. Teaching with Visual Symbols

1. Drawings – may not be the real thing but better to have a concrete visual aid than nothing. To avoid confusion, it is
good that our drawing correctly represents the real thing.

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2. Cartoons – A first-rate cartoon tells its story metaphorically. The perfect cartoon needs no caption. The less the artist
depends on words, the more effective the symbolism. The symbolism conveys the message.
3. Strip Drawings – (comic strips) this can serve as motivation and a starter of the lesson. It can also be given as an
activity for students to express insights gained at the conclusion of the lesson.
4. Diagram – any line drawing that shows arrangement and relations as of parts to the whole, relative values, origins and
development, chronological fluctuations, distribution, etc.
i. Affinity Diagram – used to cluster complex apparently unrelated data into natural and meaningful groups.
ii. Tree Diagram – used to chart out, in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be accomplished to
complete a project or achieve a specific objective.
iii. Fishbone diagram/ Ishikawa diagram – also called cause-and-effect diagram. It is a structured form of
brainstorming that graphically shows the relationship of possible causes and subcauses directly related to an
identified effect/ problem.
5. Chart – is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals within an organization.
i. Time chart – is a tabular time chart that presents data in ordinal sequence
ii. Tree or stream chart – depicts development, growth and change by beginning with a single course (the trunk)
which spreads out into many branches; or by beginning with the many tributaries which then converge into a
single channel.
iii. Flow chart – is a visual way of charting or showing a process from beginning to end. It is a mens of analyzing a
process. By outlining every step in a process, you can begin to find inefficiencies or problems.
iv. Organizational chart – shows how one part of the organization relates to other parts of the organization.
v. Comparison and Contrast Chart/Matrix – used to show similarities and differences between two things
vi. Pareto chart – is a type of bar chart, prioritized in descending order of magnitude or importance from left to
right. It shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.
vii. Gannt chart – is an activity time chart
6. Graphs
i. Pie or circle graph – recommended for showing parts of whole.
ii. Bar graph – used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at different ties or seeing relative sizes of the
parts of a whole.
iii. Pictorial graph – makes use of picture symbols
iv. Histogram – is a graphic display of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles. It is used to plot density
of data, and often for density estimation
7. Graphic Organizers
i. KWL Chart – a group instruction activity developed by Donna Ogle (1986) that serves as a model for active
thinking during reading. K stands for what is known; W is for want to know and L for learned.
ii. Anticipation/ Reaction Guide – is used to assess a class’s knowledge before they begin a lesson.
iii. Spider Map – used to describe a central idea: a thing, process, concept or proposition with support
iv. Series of Events Chain – used to describe the stages of something; the steps in a linear procedure; a sequence
of events; or the goals, actions and outcomes of a historical figure or character in a novel
v. Continuum Scale – used for time lines showing historical events or ages, degrees of something, shades of
meaning, or rating scales.
vi. Problem/Solution Outline – used to represent a problem, attempted solutions, and results.
vii. Network tree – used to show causal information, a hierarchy or branching procedures
viii. Human Interaction Outline – used to show the nature of an interaction between persons or groups
ix. Concept Map – a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and sharing
information. It consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and links. The links are
labeled and denote direction with an arrow symbol
x. Venn Diagram – used to describe and compare attributes and characteristics of items
xi. Attribute Wheel – an example of semantic mapping that helps the students use what they already know and
build on that knowledge to gain understanding.
xii. Cluster Map / Word Web – used to elaborate on a central idea by adding details to the central idea.
xiii. Story Map – outlines the elements of the story – character, setting, story problem, events and solutions
xiv. Time Line – a kind of graphic design showing a long bar labeled with dates alongside itself and events labeled
on points where they would have happened.
xv. Sequence Chart – lists steps or events in time order.
xvi. Maps – is a representation of the surface of the earth or some part of it
Levels of Technology Integration into the Curriculum

(from the Arizona Technology Integration Matrix (TIM) for K-12 students)
1. Entry – Teacher uses technology to deliver curriculum content to the students
2. Adoption – Teacher directs students in the conventional use of tool-based software
3. Adaptation – Teacher encourages adaptation of tool-based software by allowing students to select and modify a tool to
accomplish a task at hand
4. Infusion – Teacher consistently provides the infusion of technology tools with understanding, applying, analyzing, and
evaluating learning tasks
5. Transformation – Teacher cultivates a rich learning environment, where blending choice of technology tools with student-
initiated investigations, discussions, compositions, or projects across any content area is promoted
THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. CONNECTIONISM

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- formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike. It assumes that human activities are based on the association or connection between
stimulus and response. It is the belief that all human mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired
connections between the situations and response. It includes the three fundamental laws:
a. Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or act, allowing him to do so is satisfying,
preventing him would be annoying.
b. Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse
of a response weakens it.
c. Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it is weakened if it leads to vexation or
annoyance.
2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING
A. Classical Conditioning – based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog conducted by Ivan Pavlov, who postulated
that conditioning consists of eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.
Principle under Classical Conditioning

 Adhesive principle – a response is attached to every stimulus. For every stimulus there is a corresponding
response.
 Excitation – law of acquisition. Occurs when a previously neutral stimulus gains the ability of eliciting the response.
 Extinction – also known as the unlearning and occurs when the conditioned response is no longer elicited by the
conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is frequently presented without the paired stimulus.
 Stimulus generalization – happens when the conditional response is also elicited by other stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus.
 Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which does not appear for sometime but re-occurs
without need of further conditioning.
B. Operant Conditioning – (Reward and Punishment) a theory based on the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner on a
hungry rat. He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the time of reinforcement,
one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or punishment as a consequence of his actions.
Principles under Operant Conditioning

 Principle of Consequences – behavior changes according to its immediate consequences; pleasurable
consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it
 Principle of Reinforcement – any action taken following a response that increases the likelihood that the response
will occur again
 Premack Principle or “Grandma Rule” – less desired activities can be increased by linking them to more desired
activities
 Principle of Extinction – when reinforcement for a previously learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior fades
away
C. Social Learning Theory – Based on the studies of Richard Wallace and Albert Bandura – where in children learn from
social interaction which involves modeling, observation and imitation.
Importance of Models
a. Observer may acquire new responses
b. Observation of models may strengthen or weaken existing responses
c. Observation of models may cause the reappearance of responses that were apparently forgotten
Classifications of models
a. Real life – exemplified by teachers and parents
b. Symbolic – presented through oral or written symbols
c. Representational – presented through audio-visual means
Components of Successful Modelling
a. Attention – makes sure students are observing and thinking about what is being done
b. Retention – provide mechanism to help students remember the behavior
c. Motor Reproduction – students must be capable to do the action and must demonstrate the behavior as
soon as possible
d. Motivation – students should know have a reason to demonstrate the behavior of the model
3. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY – describes how a person gains understanding of himself and his world in a situation where his
self and his environment compose a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. The types of this theory are:
PROPONENT THEORY DESCRIPTION

Page 16 of 18
Insight Learning – chimpanzee The insights of a person are not equated with
experimentation. Can be brought by his consciousness or awareness of his ability to
Wolfgang Kohler
intuition (Spinoza’s highest describe them verbally; their essence is a sense
knowledge) of, or feeling for a pattern in a life situation.
Vector (a quantity that has Individuals exist on a field of forces within his
magnitude and direction) and environment that move, change and give him a
Topological (concerned with the degree of stability and substance or define his
Kurt Lewin
properties of geometric behavior. The behavior of an individual is a
configuration which are unaltered by result of forces operating simultaneously within
elastic deformations)Theory his environment and life space.
The whole is more than its sum of its parts and
Gestalt Learning – gestalt –a the whole gets its meaning from its parts.
German term which means a Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge,
structure, configuration or pattern of skills, attitudes, values or beliefs and may or
physical, biological or psychological may not have anything to do with the change in
phenomena so integrated as it overt behavior. One does not learn by doing;
constitute a functional unit with for learning to occur, doing must be
properties not derivable by accompanied by realization of consequences.
summation of its parts. Learning occurs as a result of or through
experiences.
Jerome Bruner – Learning is
thinking and thinking is the Acquisition of whatever form of knowledge is
process whereby one makes always a dynamic and interactive process
sense out of various and Instrumental Conceptualism / because the learner purposively participates in
somehow unrelated facts Discovery Learning Theory the process of knowledge acquisition who
through a process called selects, structures, retains and transforms
conceptualization or information.
categorization.
4. COGNITIVE THEORIES
- Cognitive theorists interpret learning as the organization or reorganization of the subject’s perceptual system into
meaningful patterns.
- Emphasis is on cognition and insight in the perception of new meanings in a new situation.
 Meaningful Reception Theory (David Ausubel)

- An individual learns by relating newly acquired information to what she already knows.
- He defined meaningful learning as the acquisition of new meaning. (1) It implies that the material to be learned is
potentially meaningful; (2) the acquisition of new meaning refers to the process by which students turn potentially
meaningful material into actual meaningfulness
- The most important idea for teachers is the use of “advance organizers” - a term for an abstract, general overview of
new information before actual learning is experienced
 Discovery Learning Theory (Jerome Bruner)

- Focused on the problem of what people do with information to achieve generalized insights or understanding
- The acquisition of knowledge is an interactive process.
- Learning is a cognitive process, with 3 simultaneous processes:
1. Acquisition – process of obtaining new information that can either replace or refine something previously
known
2. Transformation – manipulation of information to fit new situations
3. Evaluation – checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately
 Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

- The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs operation on it, stores the
information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).
- Sequence of Information Processing

1. Sensory registers – receive the large amounts of information from the senses and holds it for a very short time for
initial processing for transfer to the short-term memory
2. Short term or working memory – holds the limited amount of information paid attention to, organizes it for
storage or for discarding and connecting to other information
3. Long-term memory – keeps information for long period of time and integrates it through rehearsal, elaboration
and organization with information that is already known
 Cumulative Learning Theory (Robert Gagne)

- Learning occurs as the individual develops higher level skills that build successively on lower skills

Page 17 of 18
- Basic Concepts in Cumulative Learning Theory:
 Signal Learning
Occurs when two stimuli are nearly simultaneously presented and the response previously elicited only by the
unconditioned stimulus is also elicited by the newly conditioned stimulus.
Illustration: Hand command for “sit down”
 Stimulus-Response Learning
Response to specific stimuli that has been discriminated from other stimuli.
Illustration: Verbal command for “sit down”
 Motor chains / Verbal chains learning
Two or more separate motor / verbal responses may be combined or chained to develop a more complex skill.
Illustration: Writing the letters of the alphabet.
 Discrimination Learning
Discriminating a specific stimulus from the other stimuli.
Illustration: Recognizing sound of a fire engine discriminated from other siren sounds.
 Concept Learning
Making a common response to stimuli that are different or dissimilar in various ways.
Illustration: Concept of “triangle”
Discriminate triangle from other shapes and deduce commonality
among different shapes
 Rule Learning
Learning two or more concepts.
Illustration: Making a correct response to information contained in this
statement “Equilateral triangles are similar in shape.”
 Problem Solving
Learning to recall and apply rules.
Illustration: Solving mathematical problems using given formula.
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (Howard Gardner)

-There are nine different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential:
1. Linguistic – word smart
2. Logical-mathematical – number/reasoning smart
3. Spatial – picture smart
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic – Body smart
5. Musical – music smart
6. Interpersonal – people smart
7. Intrapersonal – self smart
8. Naturalist – nature smart
9. Existential – why smart
MOTIVATION
- The stimulation of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no attraction toward that
goal.
- It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest.
TYPES:
 Intrinsic – inherent or internal stimulus of the individual to learn.
 Extrinsic – based on incentives which are artificial devices which are employed to evoke attitude conducive to
learning.
 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

1. Physiological needs- hunger, thirst, breathing
2. Safety and security needs – protection from injury, pain, extremes of heat and cold
3. Belonging and affection needs – giving and receiving of love, warmth and affection
4. Esteem and self-respect needs – feeling adequate, competent, being appreciated
5. Self-actualization needs – self-fulfillment by using one’s talents and potentials.

Page 18 of 18

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BOARD LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

GENERAL PRINCIPLES, METHODS, and STRATEGIES IN TEACHING with

OBJECTIVE SUBJECT MATTER

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

Comparison of Teaching Function

METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR DIRECT INSTRUCTION

METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

Roles of the Learner and the Teacher

Constructivist Based Activities

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

Advantages of Cooperative Learning

Selected Structures of Cooperative Learning:

The level of the lesson’s objectives

2. Guiding How to Respond

3. Improving One’s Questioning Technique

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

COGNITIVE DOMAIN TAXONOMY

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN TAXONOMY

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN TAXONOMY

MAGER’S APPROACH IN WRITING OBJECTIVES

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

PRINCIPLES IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Non-verbal techniques for isolated problems

Using Interpersonal Relationship

Emergencies – Use only in extreme cases

ICT SKILLS and EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

4. ICT FOR TEACHERS

C. Input and Output Devices

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

D. Networks and Data Communications

B. Technology: Its Roles

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

The Bands of Experiences

D. The Cognitive Representations of the World (Jerome Bruner)

E. General Principles in the Use of Instructional Materials (IMs)

F. Criteria for Selecting Instructional Materials

G. Teaching with Media

J. Teaching with Visual Symbols

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

Levels of Technology Integration into the Curriculum

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

Principle under Classical Conditioning

Principles under Operant Conditioning

PROPONENT THEORY DESCRIPTION

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

 Meaningful Reception Theory (David Ausubel)

 Discovery Learning Theory (Jerome Bruner)

 Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

- Sequence of Information Processing

 Cumulative Learning Theory (Robert Gagne)

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (Howard Gardner)

 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

032018FUB | ST. LOUIS REVIEW CENTER, INC. – CALABARZON0

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