Biomolecules

Biochemistry

A living system grows, sustains,

& reproduces itself. Living systems are made up of
various complex biomolecules
like carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleic acids, lipids, etc.
Amazing thing about a living
system is that it is composed of
non-living atoms and molecules.
 Biochemistry

These biomolecules interact with each other and constitute the

molecular logic of life processes.

The pursuit of knowledge

of what goes on chemically
within a living system falls in
the domain of biochemistry.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are primarily
produced by plants.
 Carbohydrates

The group of compounds known as

carbohydrates received their general
name because of early observations
that they often have the formula Example
Cx(H2O)y.
The molecular formula of
glucose (C6H12O6) fits into
this general formula, Cx(H2O)y.
They appeared to be
“hydrates of carbon”.
 Carbohydrates

Example

Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into

1 this general formula, C2(H2O)2
but is not a carbohydrate.
All the compounds that fit
into this formula may not be
classified as carbohydrates.

Rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate

2
but does not fit in this formula.
 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are usually defined as

polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones
or substances that hydrolyse to yield
polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
 Note

Almost all carbohydrates are

chiral and optically active.
An exception of this is
1,3-dihydroxypropanone.
 Classification of
Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Based on
number of
hydrolysed Oligosaccharides
products

Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides

Examples

The simplest 1 Glucose

carbohydrates,
that cannot
be hydrolysed
into simpler 2 Fructose
carbohydrates.

3 Ribose
 Oligosaccharides

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates that undergo

hydrolysis to produce only
2 molecules of monosaccharide.
Carbohydrates that
hydrolyse to produce
2–10 molecules of Trisaccharides
monosaccharide.
Carbohydrates that undergo
hydrolysis to produce only
3 molecules of
monosaccharide..
 Oligosaccharides

Examples

One molecule of sucrose on

hydrolysis gives one molecule of
glucose and one molecule of
fructose.

Maltose on hydrolysis gives two

molecules of only glucose.
 Oligosaccharides

1 mol of maltose 2 mol of glucose

(Disaccharide) (Monosaccharide)

1 mol of sucrose 1 mol of glucose 1 mol of fructose

(Disaccharide) (Monosaccharides)
 Polysaccharides

Examples

1 Starch
Carbohydrates that
produce a large
number
of molecules of
monosaccharides (>10) 2 Cellulose
on hydrolysis.

3 Glycogen
 Polysaccharides

1 mol of starch or Many moles of

1 mol of cellulose glucose
(Polysaccharide) (Monosaccharides)
 Summary

Number of units
Carbohydrate produced on Examples
hydrolysis

Glucose,
Monosaccharides 1 Fructose,
Galactose

Sucrose, Maltose,
Oligosaccharides 2 - 10 units
Lactose

Starch,
Polysaccharides Many units (>10)
Cellulose
 The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of
disaccharide may be:

a) Same b) Different

c) Both a) and b) d) None of these

Solution
The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of disaccharide
may be same or different.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Monosaccharides
Number of carbon atoms
present in the molecule
Classification of
monosaccharides Number of
Monosaccharides
according to ‘C’ atoms

3 Triose

4 Tetrose
Number of
Functional 5 Pentose
carbon atoms
group present
present in the 6 Hexose
in the molecule
molecule
7 Heptose
 Monosaccharides
Functional group present
in the molecule

Aldehyde
1 group Aldose

Monosaccharide
containing

Keto
2 Ketose
group
 Monosaccharides

Classification of
monosaccharides
according to

Number of
Functional
carbon atoms
group present in
present in the
the molecule
molecule

These two classifications

are frequently combined.
 Monosaccharides

No. of ‘C’ atoms General term Aldehyde Ketone

3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose

4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose

5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose

6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose

7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

 Monosaccharides

Classification of Carbohydrates
4 C aldose is called an
Example aldotetrose, 5 C ketose
is called a ketopentose.
Based on the ability to
reduce Tollens’ &
Fehling’s reagent

Reducing Non-reducing
sugar sugar

An aldotetrose A ketopentose
 Reducing & Non-reducing Sugars

Non-reducing Non-reducing
Reducing sugar Reducing sugar
sugar sugar

Should have
Don’t reduce
Reduces at least one
Tollens’ & Should have
Tollens’ & hemiacetal or
Fehling’s acetal linkage.
Fehling’s reagent hemiketal
reagent.
functional group.
 Reducing & Non-reducing
Sugars

Reducing sugar Non-reducing sugar

Alkyl group or Non-reducing

another sugar Reducing sugar
sugar

Example:
All Example:
monosaccharides All
and polysaccharides
oligosaccharides and sucrose
Hemiacetal Acetal except sucrose
(R′ = H or CH2OH) (R′ = H or CH2OH)
 Which of the following pairs give positive Tollen's Test?

a) Glucose, sucrose b) Glucose, fructose

c) Hexanol, acetophenone d) Fructose, sucrose

Solution

Since all monosaccharides and disaccharides except sucrose are reducing

sugar, hence glucose and fructose are correct answers.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 First member of aldose sugar is:

a) Aldohexose b) Aldotetrose

c) Aldopentose d) Aldotriose

Solution

First member of aldose sugar must contain at least three

carbon atoms.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Given structure is:
a) Aldopentose

b) Ketohexose

c) Ketoheptose

d) Aldohexose

Solution

Since the given structure contain six carbon atom with ketone group. Hence,
option (b) is the correct answer.
 Glucose

1 It is the most common It acts as a reducing agent

monosaccharide. 3 (reduces both Fehling’s
and Tollens' reagent).

It is known as dextrose
because it occurs in nature
2 principally as the optically Sources of glucose are ripe
active dextrorotatory 4 grapes, honey, cane sugar,
isomers. starch, & cellulose.
 Preparation of Glucose

From sucrose (Cane sugar)

Preparation of glucose
By acid hydrolysis of
cane sugar (a disaccharide)

From sucrose
From starch
(Cane sugar)
If sucrose is boiled with
dil. HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic
solution then glucose & fructose
are obtained in equal amount.
 Preparation of Glucose

H2O/H+
C12H22O11 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
 Preparation of Glucose

From starch

Glucose is obtained by
By enzymatic action hydrolysis of starch by
over starch boiling it with dil. H2SO4
at 393 K under pressure.

Diastase Maltase
Starch Maltose Glucose
(Polysaccharides) (Disaccharides) (Monosaccharides)
(C6H10O5)n (C12H22O11) (C6H12O6)
 On hydrolysis sucrose will give:

a) One molecule of glucose

b) Two molecules of glucose

c) One molecule of glucose and fructose

d) One molecule of glucose and maltose

Solution

On hydrolysis, sucrose will give one molecule of glucose and fructose.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following is correct regarding glucose?

a) The molecular formula of glucose is C6H8O6

b) It can be obtained by acid hydrolysis of cane sugar

c) It is a disaccharide
d) It acts as an oxidising agent

Solution

The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 and it is a monosaccharide

and a reducing agent. It is obtained by acid hydrolysis of acne sugar.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Starch is changed into disaccharide in presence of?

a) Diastase b) Maltase

c) Lactase d) Zymase

Solution

Diastase
Starch Maltose
(Polysaccharides) (Disaccharides)
(C6H10O5)n (C12H22O11)

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

 Carbohydrates have not been classified on the basis of:

a) Sugars and non-sugars

b) Reducing character

c) Optical activity

d) Hydrolysis (complexity of
Solution structure)

Carbohydrates have not been classified on the basis of optical activity.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Allose, given monosaccharide is a/an?

a) Aldopentose b) Aldohexose

c) Ketopentose d) Aldoheptose
Solution

Since the given structure contain six carbon atom with aldehyde group.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 The two functional groups present in a typical
carbohydrate are:

a) -CHO and -COOH b) >C=O and –NH2

c) -OH and -CHO d) -OH and -COOH

Solution

The two functional groups present in a typical carbohydrate are -OH and -CHO​.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 "Carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give
simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone." Name the
type of carbohydrates.

a) Monosaccharide b) Oligosaccharide

c) Polysaccharide d) All of these

Solution

Carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed further to give a simpler unit of

polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone are known as monosaccharide.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Structure of Glucose

How was this

structure
derived?
 Structure of Glucose

1
Molecular formula: C6H12O6

On prolonged heating with red P & HI, it forms

2 n-Hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon
atoms are linked in a straight chain.
Structure of Glucose

Red P + HI
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
𝚫
n-Hexane
 Structure of Glucose

Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to

3 form an oxime and adds a molecule of
hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin.

These reactions confirm

the presence of a carbonyl
group (>C = O) in glucose.
 Structure of Glucose

NH2OH HCN

Glucose Gluco oxime

 Structure of Glucose

Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon

carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)
4 Br2 water
on reaction with a mild oxidising
agent like bromine water.

Glucose Gluconic acid

This indicates that the
carbonyl group is present
as an aldehydic group.
 Structure of Glucose

Acetylation of glucose with

acetic anhydride gives glucose
5
pentaacetate which confirms the
presence of five –OH groups.

Since it exists as a stable compound,

five –OH groups should be attached
to different carbon atoms.
 Structure of Glucose

(CH3CO)2O

Glucose
Glucose
Pentaacetate
 Structure of Glucose

On oxidation with dil. nitric acid, glucose

6 as well as, gluconic acid, both yield a
dicarboxylic acid i.e., saccharic acid.

This indicates the presence

of a primary alcoholic (–OH)
group in glucose.
 Structure of Glucose

Oxidation Oxidation

Glucose Saccharic acid Gluconic

acid
 Remember

Dilute nitric acid

It is a stronger oxidising agent than

bromine water, oxidises both the -CHO
group and the terminal -CH2OH group
of an aldose to -COOH groups, forming
dicarboxylic acids.
 Structure of Glucose

Emil Fischer was able to establish

the stereochemical configuration
of the glucose, the most
abundant monosaccharide.

Fischer projection
Wedge-dash formula
formula
Gluconic and Saccharic Acids

Gluconic acid Saccharic acid

 D and L Designations

Glyceraldehyde exists in two

The simplest optically active
enantiomeric forms that are known
monosaccharides is glyceraldehyde.
to have the absolute configurations.

(+)-Glyceraldehyde (−)-Glyceraldehyde
D and L Designations

(+)-Glyceraldehyde is designated
D-(+)-glyceraldehyde and
(-)-glyceraldehyde is designated
L-(-)-glyceraldehyde.

These two compounds serve

as configurational standards
for all monosaccharides.
 D and L Designations

A monosaccharide whose highest numbered

chiral centre (the penultimate carbon) has the
same configuration as D-(+)-glyceraldehyde is
designated as a D sugar.

By convention, acyclic forms

of monosaccharides are drawn
vertically with the most oxidised
carbon at or nearest the top. One whose highest numbered chiral
centre has the same configuration as
L-(-)-glyceraldehyde is designated as a L sugar.
 Remember

D sugars have the -OH on their

penultimate carbon on the right.

L sugars have the -OH on their

penultimate carbon on the left.
 D and L Designations

1
1

* 2
2 *
* 3
3
*
* 4
4 *
Highest numbered 5
5 chiral centre 6

D-aldopentose L-ketohexose
 Note

The D and L designations

are not necessarily related
to the optical rotations
of the sugars.
 Cyclic Structure of Glucose

1
Despite having aldehyde group,
glucose does not give Schiff’s test &
it does not form the hydrogen sulphite
(bisulphite) addition product with NaHSO3.
 Note

Schiff’s reagent is a dilute solution of

rosaniline hydrochloride whose pink
colour has been discharged by passing SO2.

Aldehyde restores pink colour

when treated with Schiff’s reagent
(Magenta solution in H2SO3).
 Cyclic Structure of Glucose

2
The pentaacetate of glucose does not
react with hydroxylamine indicating
the absence of free –CHO group.

These behaviour couldn’t be

explained by open chain structure.
It was proposed that one of
–OH group may add to –CHO group
to form a cyclic structure.
 𝝰-Form 𝛃-Form

1
2

⇌ 3
⇌
4

5
6

𝝰-D-Glucose D-Glucose 𝛃-D-Glucose

Cyclic Structure of Glucose

In carbohydrate chemistry, diastereomers

differing only at the hemiacetal or acetal
carbon are called anomers, and the
hemiacetal or acetal carbon atom is
called the anomeric carbon atom.

𝛼-form & 𝛽-form, are

called anomers.
 Note

𝛽-D-glucose
is more
stable than
𝛼-D-Glucose.
 Haworth Projection

The six membered cyclic structure of

glucose is called pyranose structure
(𝛼- or 𝛽-form), in analogy with pyran.
Pyran

Groups on the right in a Fischer projection are

down in a Haworth projection
Groups on the left in a Fischer projection are
up in a Haworth projection
Haworth Projection

1
2 6
5
3 1
4
4
3 2
5

6
Haworth Projection

⇌ ⇌
 Haworth Projection

6 6
5 Anomeric 5
carbon Anomeric
1 1 carbon
4 4

3 2 2
3

𝝰-D-Glucose
𝛃-D-Glucose
𝛂-D-glucopyranose
𝛃-D-glucopyranose
The correct statement about the sugars given above are:

I II III

a) I and II are L-Sugars b) II and III are L-Sugar

c) I and III are D-sugars d) I is a L-sugar

 Solution

If -OH in the second last carbon (last stereogenic centre) is on left, then “L”
and if on right then its “D”.
I is “L”
II is “D”
III is “D”

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

D-(+)-glucose reacts with hydroxyl amine and yields an
oxime. The structure of the oxime would be:

a) b)
D-(+)-glucose reacts with hydroxyl amine and yields an
oxime. The structure of the oxime would be:

c) d)
 Solution

D-(+)-glucose on reaction with hydroxylamine an oxime. The structure of the

oxime is

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

 Which of the following indicates the presence of five -OH
groups in glucose?

a) Penta-acetyl derivative of glucose

b) Cyanohydrin formation of glucose

c) Reaction with Fehling's solution

d) Reaction with Tollens' reagent

Solution

Penta-acetyl derivative indicates the presence of five –OH groups in glucose.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Fructose

Fructose is an important ketohexose.

It is obtained along with glucose by the Molecular formula: C6H12O6.
hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose.

It is a natural monosaccharide found

It belongs to D-series and is
in fruits, honey, and vegetables. In its
a laevorotatory compound.
pure form, it is used as a sweetener.
Structure of Fructose

D-(‒)-Fructose
 Structure of Fructose

𝝰-Form 𝛃-Form
1
It also exists in
two cyclic 2
forms that are
3
obtained by the
addition of
⇌ ⇌
4
–OH at C5 to
the (>C=O) 5

:
group.
6

𝛂-D-Fructose D-Fructose 𝛃-D-Fructose

Structure of Fructose

The five membered cyclic structure

of monosaccharides is called
furanose structure (𝛼- or 𝛽-form)
in analogy with furan.

Furan
 Structure of Fructose

6
6
1
Anomeric Anomeric
carbon carbon
5 5
2 2

4 4 3
3
1

𝝰-Fructose 𝛃-Fructose
𝛂-Fructofuranose 𝛃-Fructofuranose
 Disaccharides

Condensation of two molecules

of either the same or different
monosaccharides produces
disaccharides.

Sucrose, maltose,
Examples
lactose, cellobiose
 Sucrose

1 Molecular formula: C12H22O11

Sucrose is a white crystalline

2
solid, soluble in water.

3 Sucrose is dextrorotatory.
 Sucrose

On hydrolysis with dilute acids sucrose

4 yields an equimolar mixture of
D-(+)-glucose and D-(–)-fructose

HCl
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O+
6 C6H12O6

D-(+)-glucose D-(-)-fructose
(+ 52.5o) (- 92.4o)
 Invert Sugar

Since the laevorotation of

Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after fructose (–92.4°) is more than
hydrolysis, it gives dextrorotatory dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°),
glucose and laevorotatory fructose. the mixture is laevorotatory.

Inversion of cane-sugar
or inversion of sucrose

Mixture of glucose and fructose

(1:1) is called invert sugar.
 Sucrose
6

1
5

In sucrose, condensation 4 1 2 5
reaction takes place between
C-1 of 𝛼-D-glucose and
3 4
C-2 of β-D-fructose. 3 2 6

⍺-D-Glucose β-D-Fructose
Condensation
reaction
 Sucrose

1
5

4 1 2 5

3 4 6
3 2

Glycosidic linkage
 Sucrose

1
5

4 1 2 5

3 4 6
3 2

These are
not
carbons
 Glycosidic Linkage

The two monosaccharides are joined

together by an oxide linkage formed
by loss of water molecule. Such
linkage through oxygen atom is
called glycosidic linkage.

Sucrose is not a reducing sugar

i.e., it will not reduce Fehling’s
or Tollens’ reagent.

Hemiacetal group is absent.

 Which one of the following sets of monosaccharides forms sucrose?

a) α-D-galactopyranose and α-D-glucopyranose

b) α-D-glucopyranose and ꞵ -D-fructofuranose

c) ꞵ -D-glucopyranose and α -D-fructofuranose

d) α-D-glucopyranose and ꞵ -D-fructopyranose.

Solution

Sucrose is formed from α-D-glucopyranose and ꞵ -D-fructofuranose.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
Assertion: Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Reason: It has glycosidic linkage.

a) If both assertion & reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.

b) If both assertion & reason are correct but the reason is not a correct
explanation of the assertion.

c) If the assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.

d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.

 Solution

1. All polysaccharides, disaccharides and monosaccharides has glycosidic

linkage. Therefore, glucose has glycosidic linkage.
2. Sugar is non-reducing sugar because of the absence of hemiacetal group and
not because of the glycosidic linkage.
Therefore, assertion and reason are correct, but the reason is not a correct
explanation of the assertion.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

 The α–D-glucose and β–D-glucose differ from each other due to the
difference in carbon atom with respect to its:

a) Number of -OH groups

b) Size of hemiacetal ring

c) Conformation

d) Configuration

Solution

The two pyranose form of glucose, i.e., α–D-glucose and β–D-glucose differs in
its configuration.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Number of chiral carbons in β-D-(+) glucose is:

a) Five

b) Six

c) Three

d) Four

Solution

Total number of chiral carbons is 5.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following statement is not true about glucose?

a) It is an aldohexose.

b) It contains five hydroxyl groups.

c) It is a reducing sugar.

d) It is an aldopentose.

Solution

It is an aldohexose and not aldopentose.

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 α -D-(+)-glucose and β-D-(+)-glucose are:

a) Conformers b) Epimers

c) Anomers d) Enantiomers

Solution

α-D-(+)-glucose and β-D-(+)-glucose differ at one carbon in their configuration,

so they are epimers. But the difference comes at first carbon, thus they are
anomers.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Assertion: Hydrolysis of sucrose is known as inversion of
cane sugar.
Reason: Sucrose is a disaccharide.

a) If both assertion & reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.

b) If both assertion & reason are correct but the reason is not a correct
explanation of the assertion.
c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.

d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.

Solution
Both the assertion & reason are correct, but the reason is not a correct explanation of
the assertion.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following reactions could not be explained on the basis
of the open chain structure of glucose?

a) Pentaacetate of glucose does not react with NH2OH.

b) Glucose on prolonged heating with HI gives n-hexane.

c) Glucose on oxidation with bromine water forms gluconic acid.

d) With acetic anhydride glucose gives pentaacetate.

Solution

Penta-acetate of open chain structure of glucose does not react with NH2OH.
All other reactions i.e., heating with HI, oxidation with bromine water and With
acetic anhydride, is possible.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
The incorrect statements about above structure of glucose are:

a) It is a pyranose form

b) It is a furanose form

c) It is a β-anomer

d) It is a D-sugar
 Maltose: (Malt Sugar)

H3O+
Maltose (C12H22O11) is produced C12H22O11 2C6H12O6
by the action of malt (which contains (𝛼-D glucose)
the enzyme diastase) on starch.

When it is hydrolysed with

dilute acids or by the enzyme
Diastase
Starch Maltose maltase, maltose yields two
molecules of D-(+)-glucose.
 Maltose: (Malt Sugar)

6 6

5 5

4 1 4 1
In maltose, glycosidic linkage
is between C1 of 𝛼-D-glucose
and C4 of 𝛼-D-glucose.
3 2 3 2

𝝰-D-glucose 𝝰-D-glucose
Unit I Unit II
Condensation
reaction
 Maltose: (Malt Sugar)
6 6

5 5
Maltose is a reducing sugar
1
i.e., it reduces Fehling’s or
4 1 4
Tollens' reagent.

3 2 3 2

At least one hemiacetal group

Glycosidic (of the two glucose molecules)
bond is present.
Non reducing Reducing
ring ring
 Maltose: (Malt Sugar)

6 6

5 5

4 1 4 1

3 2 3 2

These are
not
carbons
Lactose (Milk Sugar)

Lactose (C12H22O11) is a disaccharide

present in the milk of humans, cows,
and almost all other mammals.
 Lactose (Milk Sugar)

It is hydrolysed by dilute acids or by the

enzyme lactase, to give an equimolar mixture
of D-(+)-glucose and D-(+)-galactose.

H3O+
Lactose β-D-galactose + β-D-glucose
 Lactose (Milk Sugar)

6
6

5
5

In lactose, glycosidic 4 1 4 1
linkage is between C1 of β-
D-galactose and C4 of β-
D-glucose. 2
3 3 2

β-D-Galactose β-D-Glucose
Condensation
reaction
 Lactose (Milk Sugar)
6 6

5
5

4 1
4 1

Lactose is a
3
2
2 reducing sugar,
3
Glycosidic i.e., it reduces Fehling’s
bond or Tollens’ reagent.

Non reducing Reducing

ring ring
 Lactose (Milk Sugar)
6 6

5
5

4 1
4 1

2
3 3 2

These are
not
carbons
 Summary

Disaccharide Sucrose

Structure

Monomeric
C1 𝛼-D-glucose + C2 β-D-fructose
unit linkage
 Summary

Disaccharide Maltose

Structure

Monomeric
C1 𝛼-D-glucose + C4 𝛼-D-glucose
unit linkage
 Summary

Disaccharide Lactose

Structure

Monomeric
C1 β-D-galactose + C4 β-D glucose
unit linkage
 Summary

Maltose O

Sucrose O

O
Lactose
Assertion: Maltose is a reducing sugar which gives two moles of D-
glucose on hydrolysis.
Reason: Maltose has 1,4-β-glycosidic linkage.

a) If both assertion and reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.

b) If both assertion and reason are correct but the reason is not a
correct explanation of the assertion.

c) If the assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.

d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.

 Solution

Assertion, i.e., Maltose is a reducing sugar which gives two moles of D-glucose
on hydrolysis is a true statement, but Maltose do not have β-glycosidic linkage.
So, the reason is wrong.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.

 Polysaccharides

It contains large number of

monosaccharide units joined
together by glycosidic linkage.
They mainly act as the food storage
or structural materials.

Examples

Starch, cellulose, glycogen

 Starch (C6H10O5)n

Starch is the main storage

polysaccharide in plants.
 Starch (C6H10O5)n

It is the most important dietary source for human beings.

 Starch (C6H10O5)n

Starch Composition

Amylose Amylopectin
(15-20%) (80-85%)

Water soluble Water insoluble

 Amylose

𝛼-D-glucose units joined by

glycosidic linkages between 
C1 of one glucose unit and
C4 of the next glucose unit. 

D-glucose
200 - 1000
units
 Amylose

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 1 4 1 4 1

3 2 3 2 3 2
n

C1 ‒ C4 glycosidic C1 ‒ C4 glycosidic
linkage linkage
 Amylopectin

Amylopectin has a branched-chain structure.

It is composed of chains of 25 to 30
𝛼-D-glucose units joined by glycosidic
linkages between C1 of one glucose unit and
C6 of the other glucose unit.

Glycosidic linkages between C1 of one glucose unit

and C4 of the next glucose unit also exist. 
Amylopectin

C1 - C6 glycosidic
linkage
6

1 4 1 4

C1 - C4 glycosidic
linkage
 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n

The food of termites is mainly
cellulose, which is obtained from
wood, grass, leaves, humus,
manure of herbivorous animals,
and materials of vegetative origin
(e.g., paper, cardboard, cotton).
 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n

Linear chain natural polymers

Cellulose occurs exclusively in
1 of 𝛽-D-glucose units joined by
plants.
1,4-glycosidic linkage.

It is a predominant constituent
2
of cell wall of plant cells.
Natural linear polymers
 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n
6

1,4 glycosidic linkage 5

of β-D-Glucose
4 1
6

5 3 2

6 4 1

5 3 2

4 1

3 2
 Glycogen (Animal Starch)

The carbohydrates are stored in Structure is similar to amylopectin,

an animal body as glycogen. but branching takes place after
every 5-6 glucose units.

When the body needs glucose,

enzymes break the glycogen
Highly branched
down to glucose.
 Cellulose on hydrolysis yields: 

a) β-D-Fructose b) 𝛼-D-Glucose

c) β-D-Glucose d) 𝛼-D-Fructose 

Solution

Cellulose on hydrolysis yields  β-D-Glucose.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 On hydrolysis of starch, we finally get:

a) Glucose b) Fructose

c) Both (a) & (b) d) Sucrose

Solution

On hydrolysis of starch, we get amylose and amylopectin which are formed

from the polymerisation of glucose.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Proteins
 Proteins

Each living cell is made

up of thousands of
different proteins.

Proteins are high molecular

mass complex, biopolymers of
amino acids.
 Amino Acids

The amino acids contain

amino as well as
carboxylic acid group.

Amine

Carboxylic
acid group
 Amino Acids

R is alkyl, aryl group or

any other group, but
never contain unstable,
strained cycles or
functional groups.
 Amino Acids

On the basis of position of

amino group in the chain, ⍺-amino acids
these are classified as 𝛼,
β, 𝛾, and so on.  β ⍺

β-amino acids
Amino Acids

There are around

20 amino acids in
the living system.
 Amino Acids

Neutral amino acid

Name Three One 

of the letter  letter  Side chain (R)
amino acid symbol code

Glycine Gly G -H

Alanine Ala A -CH3

Valine Val V -CH(CH3)2

Leucine Leu L -CH2-CH-(CH3)2

 Amino Acids
Neutral amino acid

Three One
Name of the
letter letter Side chain (R)
amino acid
symbol code

Isoleucine Ile I

Phenylalanine Phe F -CH2-C6H5

Cysteine Cys C -CH2-SH

 Amino Acids

Neutral amino acid

Name One
Three letter
of the letter Side chain (R)
symbol
amino acid code

Methionine Met M -CH2-CH2-S-CH3

Tryptophan Trp W

Serine Ser S -CH2-OH

 Amino Acids
Neutral amino acid

Name Three One

of the letter letter Side chain (R)
amino acid symbol code

Asparagine Asn N -CH2-CO-NH2

Glutamine Gln Q -CH2-CH2-CO-NH2

Threonine Thr T
 Amino Acids

Neutral amino acid

Name Three One

of the letter letter Side chain (R)
amino acid symbol code

Tyrosine Tyr Y

Proline Pro P

(Complete structure)
 Amino Acids

Acidic amino acid

Three One
Name of the
letter letter Side chain (R)
amino acid
symbol code

Aspartic acid Asp D -CH2-COOH

Glutamic acid Glu E -CH2-CH2-COOH

 Amino Acids

Basic amino acid

Name Three One

of the letter letter Side chain (R)
amino acid symbol code

Arginine Arg R

Histidine His H

Lysine Lys K -CH2-(CH2)3-NH2

 Amino Acids

Almost all the naturally

occurring amino acids
have the L configuration
at the 𝛂 carbon,
except glycine.

Glycine is achiral.
 Classification of Amino Acids

Based on Functional
Groups Present

Neutral Acidic Basic

amino acids amino acids amino acids
Neutral Amino Acids

If equal number of – NH2 and

– COOH groups are present.

Examples

Glycine Alanine
Acidic Amino Acids

If more number of -COOH groups are

present as compared to -NH2 groups.

Examples

Aspartic acid Glutamic acid

 Basic Amino Acids

If more number of -NH2 groups are

present as compared to –COOH groups.

Examples

Lysine

Arginine
Amino Acids
Amino Acids
Amino Acids
Amino Acids
 Note

Almost all the naturally

occurring amino acids
have the L configuration
at the 𝛂 carbon,
except glycine.

Glycine is achiral
Classification of Amino Acids

Based on Synthesis

Essential Non-essential
amino acids amino acids
Essential Amino Acids

10 amino acids that should

necessarily be present in our diet.
 Trick to Remember

PVT-TIM-HALL

Essential amino acids:

Phe, Val ,Thr, Trp, Ile,
Met, His, Arg, Leu, Lys,
Non-Essential Amino Acids

10 amino acids that are

synthesised in our body.
 Trick to Remember

CAAATS-GGGP

Non-essential amino acids:

Cys, Asn, Ala, Asp, Tyr,
Ser, Gln, Gly, Glu, Pro,
 Note

In a neutral amino acid solution, the

–COOH loses a proton and the –NH2 of
the same molecule picks up the proton.

The resulting ion is dipolar,

charged but overall electrically
neutral, is called Zwitter ion.
 Zwitter Ion

- H+
+ H+

Zwitter ion

Amino acids are

amphoteric in nature
 A substance forms zwitter ion. It can have functional
group:
a) –NH2, – COOH b) –NH2, –SO3H

c) Both d) None of these

Solution

One acidic and one basic group is required in a molecule to form a zwitter ion.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Assertion: Alpha (α)-amino acids exist as internal salt in
solution as they have amino and carboxylic acid groups in
near vicinity.
Reason: H+ ion given by carboxylic group (–COOH) is
captured by amino group (–NH2) having lone pair of
electrons.

a) If both assertion and reason are correct and the

reason is a correct explanation of the assertion.

b) If both assertion and reason are correct but the reason

is not a correct explanation of the assertion.

c) If the assertion is correct but the reason is incorrect.

d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.

 Solution

Alpha (α)-amino acids exist as internal salt in solution as they have amino and
carboxylic acid groups in near vicinity because H+ ion given by carboxylic group
(–COOH) is captured by amino group (–NH2) having lone pair of electrons.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 The incorrect statement (s) about starch:

a) It is a pure single compound.

b) It is a mixture of two polysaccharides of glucose.

c) It involves the (C1 – C4) glycosidic linkage between

two α-D glucose units.

d) It involves branching by (C1 – C6) glycosidic linkage.

Solution
Starch is a mixture of two components - a water soluble component called
Amylose​(15-20%) and​ water insoluble component called Amylopectin​ (80-85%).
Therefor, it is not a pure compound.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Which one of the following statements is correct?

a) All amino acids except lysine are optically active.

b) All amino acids are optically active.

c) All amino acids except glycine are optically active.

d) All amino acids except glutamic acids are optically active.

Solution

All amino acids except glycine are optically active, as glycine does not
contain a chiral carbon.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Amongst the following, the incorrect statement is:

a) Cellulose and amylose has b) Lactose contains β-D-galactose

1,4-glycosidic linkage. and β-D-glucose.

c) Maltose and lactose has d) Sucrose and amylose has

1,4-glycosidic linkage. 1,2-glycosidic linkage.

Solution
𝛼-D-glucose units are joined by ​glycosidic linkages between ​C1 of one glucose
unit and ​C4 of the next glucose unit in amylose. Thus, amylose have 1,4-
glycosidic linkage.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 α-Amino acids are:

a) Acidic due to – COOH group and basic due to –NH2 group.

b) Acidic due to –NH3+ group and basic due to –COO– group.

c) Neither acidic nor basic.

d) None is true.

Solution

They can either accept or donate H+, so actually they are amphoteric in nature.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Peptides

Compounds formed by condensation

of amino group of one molecule of
𝛼-amino acid with the carboxyl group
Amino acids are of the other molecule of same or different
bifunctional molecules 𝛼–amino acid by elimination of water.
with –NH2 group at
one end and –COOH
at the other.

Amide linkages joining amino

acids are called peptide bonds or
peptide linkages.
 Peptides

Peptides that contain 2, 3, a few

(3–10), or many amino acids are called
dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides,
and polypeptides, respectively.
 Dipeptide

Amino acid
+
The amino acids may be –H2O
same or different.

Dipeptide
Peptide
linkage
 Peptides

The amino acid unit having free –NH2

groups is called N-terminal end
whereas, the amino acid unit with free
–COOH group is called C-terminal end.

The structure is written with

N-terminal end to the left and
C-terminal end to the right.
 Peptides

n
N-terminal C-terminal
residue residue
 Peptides

At N-terminal or C-terminal further bond

formation takes place and tri, tetra,
pentapeptides are formed.

More than 10 amino acids joined 

together are called polypeptides.
 Naming of Polypeptides

Example:
Starts from –N-terminal residue.
Glycine Glycyl

Suffix -ine of amino acids is Alanine Alanyl

replaced by -yl for all except
amino acid of C-terminal residue.
Lysine Lysyl
 Naming of Polypeptides

Alanylglycylphenylalanine
means Ala-Gly-Phe or
A-G-F.
 Proteins

Generally, a polypeptide with more

Molecular mass > 10,000
than 100 amino acid residues.

Example
Some polypeptides with lesser
number of amino acids are Insulin has 51 amino acids.
also known as proteins.
 Proteins

Proteins on partial hydrolysis give peptides of

varying molecular masses which upon complete
hydrolysis give 𝛂-amino acids.

Natural Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

Peptides 𝛂-amino acids
proteins
Classification of Proteins

Based on Molecular
Structure

Fibrous Globular
proteins proteins
 Fibrous Proteins

When polypeptide chain

runs parallel to each other and In fibrous protein, chains are
has a fibre like structure. held together by hydrogen &
disulphide bond.

Examples

Keratin(present in hair, wool, These are insoluble in water.

silk), myosin(present in
muscles)
 Globular Proteins

A folded polypeptide chain

when forms a spheroidal shape
is called a globular protein.

Structure and shape

of proteins can be studied
Soluble in water at four different levels,
i.e., primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary.
Examples

Insulin and albumins

 Primary Structure of Proteins

Each polypeptide in a protein has amino

acids linked with each other in a specific
sequence known as the primary structure.

Any change in this primary structure

i.e., sequence of amino acids creates a
different protein.
Primary Structure of Proteins

Normal haemoglobin

-Val-His-Leu-Thr-Pro-Glu-Lys-

Sickle cell anemia haemoglobin

-Val-His-Leu-Thr-Pro-Val-Lys-
Secondary Structure of Proteins

The shape in which a long

polypeptide chain can exist
is called secondary structure.

Secondary Structure

𝛂-helix 𝝱-pleated
structure sheet structure
 𝛂-Helix Structure

In this structure, a polypeptide chain forms

all possible H–bonds by twisting into a
right-handed screw helix.

–NH– group of each amino acid

residue forms H–bond with the
>C=O of an adjacent turn of helix.
 𝝱-Pleated Sheet Structure

In this structure, all peptide chains

are stretched out to a nearly maximum The polypeptide chains can
extension and then laid side by side link together in parallel and
that are held together antiparallel sequence.
by intermolecular H-bond.
 Tertiary Structure of Proteins

It gives rise to two major

It represents overall folding of molecular shapes
the polypeptide chains i.e.,
further folding of the secondary
structure producing a 3D
structure.
Fibrous Globular
Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Some of the proteins are composed

of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units.

The spatial arrangement of these

subunits with respect to each other
is known as quaternary structure.
Structure of Proteins
 Denaturation of Proteins

When protein in native form is subjected

to a physical change like temperature or
pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed.  

As a result, globules get unfold 

and helices get uncoiled therefore,
proteins lose its activity.
 Denaturation of Proteins

During denaturation 2° and 3°

structures get destroyed but 1°
structure remains the same.

Example of denaturation:

Coagulation of egg Curdling of milk caused by

1 2
while on boiling. bacteria present in milk.
 Denaturation of Proteins

Native protein i.e., folded

structure of protein when
heat is applied or some sort
of temperature change take
place then hydrogen bond
present in protein get
distrubed because of which
folded structure become
single chain of amino acid Denaturation
(this protein structure after
unfolding is called as
denatured protein).
 Assertion: Disruption of the natural structure of a protein is called
denaturation. 
Reason: The change in colour and appearance of the egg during
cooking is due to denaturation.

(a) If both assertion and reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are correct but the reason is not a
correct explanation of the assertion. 
(c) If the assertion is correct but the reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.
 Solution

Assertion and reason statement is true, but when you add because after assertion
(i.e., disruption of the natural structure of a protein is called denaturation, because
The change in colour and appearance of the egg during cooking is due to
denaturation.) Then reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The force of attraction between the neighboring peptide chains is:

(a) van der Waals’ force

(b) Covalent bond
(c) Hydrogen bond
(d) Peptide linkage

Solution

Here, quaternary structure is being discussed and in quaternary structure largely

van der Waals’ force of attraction is observed. In primary structure peptide linkage
is observed, in secondary structure its hydrogen bonding, in tertiary structure
almost every type of linkage contributes.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 The name of the given dipeptide is: 

(a) Gly-Gly (b) Gly-Ala (c) Ala-Ala (d) Ala-Gly

Solution

–H2O
+

Alanine
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer. 
 Enzymes

Almost all the enzymes

are globular proteins.

Reactions of cellular
metabolism are mediated Enzymes are very specific
by remarkable biological for a particular reaction and
catalysts called enzymes. for a particular substrate.

The ending of the name

of an enzyme is -ase.
 Enzyme

Maltose Oxidoreductase Enzymes

The enzyme that catalyses

hydrolysis of maltose into
glucose is named as maltase. The enzymes that catalyse
the oxidation of one substrate
with simultaneous reduction
of another substrate.
Maltase
C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6
Maltose Glucose
 Mechanism of Enzyme Action

In an enzyme-catalysed reaction, the enzyme

and the substrate combine to
form an enzyme–substrate complex.

Binding of the substrate can cause 

certain of its bonds to become strained, 
and therefore, more easily broken. 
Mechanism of Enzyme Action

The product of the reaction usually has

a different shape from the substrate.

This altered shape, or in some instances,

 the intervention of another molecule
causes the complex to dissociate.

The enzyme can then accept another

molecule of the substrate, and
the whole process is repeated.
 Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Thus, the enzyme-catalysed reactions may be considered to proceed

in two steps.

Step 1: Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex.

E+S ES#
Step 2: Decomposition of the activated complex to form product.
ES# E+P
 Enzymes take part in a reaction and:

(a) Decrease the rate of a chemical (b) Increase the rate of a chemical
reaction reaction  

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these.

Solution
Enzymes takes part in a reaction to decrease or increase the rate of a
chemical reaction.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The function of enzymes in the living system is to:

(a) Catalyse biochemical reactions

(b) Provide energy
(c) Transport oxygen
(d) Provide immunity

Solution

The function of enzymes in the living system is to catalyse biochemical reactions.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Vitamins

Most of the vitamins cannot

Organic compounds required in the be synthesised in our body.
diet in small amounts to perform
specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth
and health of the organism.
All the vitamins are generally 
available in our diet.
Vitamins
 Classification of Vitamins

Based on solubility
in water or fat

Fat soluble Water soluble

vitamins vitamins
 Vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

These are soluble in fat and  These are insoluble in fat and
oil but insoluble in water. oil but soluble in water.

   Examples: Vitamin A, D, E, and K Examples: B group vitamins and

vitamin C

Exception:
Biotin (Vitamin H) is neither soluble in fat nor in water.
Some Important Vitamins,
Their Sources and Their
Deficiency Diseases
Some Important Vitamins, Their Sources

Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Xerophthalmia
Fish liver oil,
(hardening of eye
Vitamin A  carrots, butter,
cornea), night
and milk.
blindness.
Yeast, milk, Beri beri 
Vitamin B1
green vegetables, (loss of appetite and
(Thiamine)
and cereals. retarded growth).
Some Important Vitamins, Their Sources

Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Cheilosis (fissuring 
at corners of mouth and
Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, lips), digestive
(Riboflavin) liver, and kidney. disorders, and burning
sensation
of the skin.
Yeast, milk, egg
Vitamin B6
yolk, cereals, and Convulsions
(Pyridoxine)
grams.
 Some Important Vitamins, Their Sources
Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Pernicious anaemia (RBC

Milk, fish, egg, and
Vitamin B12 deficient in
curd.
haemoglobin).
Citrus fruits,
amla, and Scurvy 
Vitamin C
green leafy (bleeding gums).
(Ascorbic acid)
vegetables.

Rickets 
Exposure to sunlight,
(bone deformities in children)
Vitamin D fish,
and osteomalacia (soft bones
and egg yolk.
and joint pain in adults).
Some Important Vitamins, Their Sources

Vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Vegetable oils like Increased fragility of
Vitamin E wheat germ oil, RBCs and muscular
sunflower oil. weakness.
Green leafy Increased blood
Vitamin K
vegetables. clotting time.
 Deficiency of which vitamin causes osteomalacia?

(a) Vitamin A
(b) Vitamin D
(c) Vitamin K
(d) Vitamin E 

Solution

Deficiency of vitamin D causes osteomalacia.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes the disease:

(a) Convulsions
(b) Beri-Beri
(c) Cheilosis
(d) Sterility

Solution
Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes Beri-Beri (loss of appetite, retarded growth).
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Assertion: Vitamin D cannot be stored in our body.
Reason: Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin and is excreted
from the body in urine.

(a) If both assertion and reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are correct but the reason is not a
correct explanation of the assertion. 
(c) If the assertion is correct but the reason is incorrect. 
(d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.
 Solution

Vitamin D can be stored in our body. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin and but it is
not excreted from the body in urine. So, the assertion and reason are incorrect.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 In a protein molecule, various amino acids are linked together
by:

(a) Peptide bond

(b) Dative bond
(c) α-glycosidic bond
(d) 𝝱-glycosidic bond

Solution
Proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids and they are connected to each
other by peptide bond or peptide linkage.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 The helical structure of protein is stabilised by:

(a) Dipeptide bonds

(b) Hydrogen bonds
(c) Ether bonds
(d) Peptide bonds

Solution
The helical structure of protein is stabilised by hydrogen bonds.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleus of a living cell is responsible

for this transmission of inherent
characters, also called heredity.

They are made up of 

The particles in nucleus of the
proteins and another
cell, responsible for heredity,
type of biomolecules
are called chromosomes.
called nucleic acids.
Nucleic Acids

Chromosomes carry the
basic genetic material
DNA which is responsible
to provide hereditary
characteristics and genetic
information to the various
cells.
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides
Types of
nucleic acids
Monomeric units
of nucleic acids.

Deoxyribonucleic Ribonucleic
acid (DNA) acid (RNA) Nucleic acids are long chain
polymers of nucleotides, so
they are also called
polynucleotides.
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleotide

Five-carbon
monosaccharide
+
A heterocyclic (nitrogen
containing) base
+
Phosphate ion
 Nucleic Acids

DNA RNA

The sugar moiety is The sugar moiety

𝝱-D-2-deoxyribose. is 𝝱-D-ribose.

𝝱-D-2-deoxyribose 𝝱-D-ribose
 Nucleic Acids

Four bases of DNA Four bases of RNA

Adenine (A) Adenine (A)

Guanine (G) Guanine (G)

Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)

Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

 Nucleic Acids

Bases

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

 Nucleic Acids

Bases

Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

 Nucleic Acids

Trick to remember bases:

(a) For DNA:
(i) Adenine (A) = Arrey
(ii) Guanine (G) = Gussa
(iii) Cytosine (C) = C(k)arega
(iv) Thymine (T) = Tu ; so together you can call it (A)rrey (G)ussa (C)karega (T)u
(b) For RNA:
(i) Adenine (A) = Arrey
(ii) Guanine (G) = Gussa
(iii) Cytosine (C) = C(k)arega
(iv) Uracil (U) = U; so together you can call it (A)rrey (G)ussa (C)karega (U)
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleoside

5′
A unit formed by the attachment
of a base to 1′ position of sugar
is known as nucleoside. 4′ 1′

3′ 2′

In nucleosides, the sugar carbons 

are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, etc., in order Nucleoside
to distinguish these from the bases.
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleotide

When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5′-position of sugar moiety, we

get a nucleotide.

5′

4′ 1′

3′ 2′

Nucleotide
 Structure of Nucleic Acids
5′ end of chain
Formation of a dinucleotide
5′

Nucleotides are joined sugar

together by sugar
3′
phosphodiester linkage
between 5′ and 3′ carbon Phosphodiester
atoms of the pentose + linkage
sugar. 
sugar 5′
sugar
3′

3′ end of chain
 Nucleic Acids

Structure of nucleic acid

Simplified version of nucleic acid chain

 Nucleic Acid

Information regarding the

Nucleic acids are long sequence of nucleotides in the
chain polymers of chain of a nucleic acid
nucleotides, so they is called its primary structure.
are also called Nucleic
polynucleotides. acids have a secondary structure
also.

Nucleotides Monomeric units

of nucleic acids
 DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick gave

a double strand helix structure for DNA.

Two nucleic acid chains are wound about

each other and held together by hydrogen
bonds between pairs of bases. 
 DNA

The two strands are complementary

 to each other because the hydrogen
bonds are formed between specific
 pairs of bases.

Adenine (A) forms hydrogen bonds with 

thymine (T) whereas, cytosine (C) forms 
hydrogen bonds with guanine (G).
 DNA

Base pairs

Helix of
sugar-phosphate
 RNA

Nitrogenous
In secondary structure of RNA, Bases
helices are present which are
only single stranded. Sometimes Sugar-phosphate
they fold back on themselves backbone
to form a double helix structure.
 RNA

RNA are of
three types

1 3
Messenger RNA Transfer RNA
(m-RNA) (t-RNA)

2
Ribosomal RNA
(r-RNA)
 Note

An important function of nucleic

acids is the protein synthesis in the
cell.

The proteins are synthesised by

various RNA molecules in the cell but
the message for the synthesis of a
particular protein is present in DNA.
DNA Fingerprinting
 DNA Fingerprinting

It is known that every individual

has unique fingerprints.

These occur at the tips of the fingers and

have been used for identification for a long
time, but these can be altered by
surgery.
 DNA Fingerprinting

 A sequence of bases on DNA is unique for a

person, and information regarding this is called
DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell &
cannot be altered by any known treatment. DNA
fingerprinting is now used:

Identify the dead bodies in

Forensic laboratories for  c any accident by comparing the
a
identification of criminals. DNA’s of parents or children.

Determine paternity  Identify racial groups to

b d
of an individual. rewrite biological evolution.
 DNA Fingerprinting

Crime scene sample collection Sample collected will go for DNA

analysis and then criminals are
identified with help of this.
 The correct statement regarding RNA and DNA, respectively is:

(a) The sugar component in RNA is arabinose and the sugar

component in DNA is ribose.
(b) The sugar component in RNA is 2′-deoxyribose and the sugar
component in DNA is arabinose.
(c) The sugar component in RNA is arabinose and the sugar
component in DNA is 2′-deoxyribose.
(d) The sugar component in RNA is ribose and the sugar
component in DNA is 2′-deoxyribose.
Solution
In DNA molecules, the sugar moiety (carbohydrate part) is 𝝱-D-2-deoxyribose and in
RNA, the sugar moiety is 𝝱-D-ribose.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Hormones

Hormone is derived from Greek language which means “that which sets in motion”.

Hormones are molecules that act

as intra-cellular messengers.

These are produced by endocrine

glands in the body and are poured
directly in the bloodstream which
transports them to the site of action.
 Hormones

Chemical nature Examples

Estrogens
Steroids
and androgens

Insulin and
Poly peptides
endorphins

Amino acid Epinephrine and

derivatives norepinephrine
 Functions of Hormones

Hormones have several functions in the body. They help to maintain the
balance of biological activities in the body.

Insulin & glucagon together regulate

the glucose level in the blood

Insulin keeps Glucagon tends

the blood to increase
glucose level the glucose
within the level in the
narrow limit. blood.
Functions of Hormones

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

mediate responses to external stimuli.

Growth hormones and sex hormones

play role in growth and development.
 Functions of Hormones

Thyroxine is an iodinated derivative of amino acid

tyrosine which is produced in the thyroid gland.

Hypothyroidism
Abnormally
low level

Thyroxine

Increased
level
Hyperthyroidism Tyrosine
 Functions of Hormones

Low level of iodine in the diet may

lead to hypothyroidism and Hypothyroidism is largely
enlargement of the thyroid gland. being controlled by
adding sodium iodide
(NaI)
to commercial table
salt (“iodised” salt).
Hypothyroidism is characterised
by lethargyness and obesity.
 Steroid Hormones

Steroid hormones 
are produced by

Adrenal cortex Gonads

 Steroid Hormones

Hormone released by adrenal

Function
cortex
Controls the carbohydrate
metabolism, modulate
Glucocorticoids inflammatory reactions,
and are involved in reactions to
stress.
Control the level of excretion of
Mineralocorticoids water 
and salt by the kidney.
 Steroid Hormones

Did You Know?

If adrenal cortex does not function

properly then one of the results
may be Addison’s disease.

It is characterised by 
hypoglycemia, weakness, and 
increased susceptibility to stress.
 Steroid Hormones

Hormone released by
Function
gonads
Responsible for development of secondary
Testosterone
male characteristics (deep voice, facial
(Male)
hair, general physical constitution).

Responsible for development

Estradiol of secondary female characteristics and
(Female) participates in the control of menstrual
cycle.

Responsible for preparing the uterus for

Progesterone
implantation of fertilised egg.
 Insulin production and its action in human body are
responsible for the level of diabetes. This compound belongs
to which of the following categories?
(a) A co-enzyme
(b) A hormone
(c) An enzyme
(d) An antibiotic

Solution
Insulin is a hormone. Its production and its action in human body are responsible
for the level of diabetes.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 In DNA, the linkages between different nitrogenous bases
are:
(a) Phosphate linkage
(b) H-bonding
(c) Glycosidic linkage
(d) Peptide linkage

Solution

In DNA, the linkages between different nitrogenous bases is hydrogen bonding.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following hormones contains iodine?

(a) Testosterone
(b) Adrenaline
(c) Thyroxine
(d) Insulin

Solution

Thyroxine hormone contains iodine.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 In DNA, the complimentary bases are:

(a) Adenine and guanine; thymine and cytosine

(b) Uracil and adenine; cytosine and guanine
(c) Adenine and thymine; guanine and cytosine
(d) Adenine and thymine; guanine and uracil.

Solution

In DNA, the complimentary bases are adenine and thymine; guanine and cytosine.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 RNA and DNA are chiral molecules, their chirality is due to:

(a) Chiral bases

(b) Chiral phosphate ester units
(c) D-sugar component
(d) L-sugar component

Solution

RNA and DNA are chiral molecules, their chirality is due to D-sugar component.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The couplings between base units of DNA is through:

(a) Hydrogen bonding

(b) Electrostatic bonding
(c) Covalent bonding
(d) van der Waals forces

Solution

The couplings between base units of DNA is through hydrogen bonding.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 The sugar present in DNA is:

(a) Glucose
(b) Deoxyribose
(c) Ribose
(d) Fructose C-16

Solution

In DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is 𝛃-D-2-deoxyribose.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 The pentose sugar in DNA and RNA has the:

(a) Open chain structure

(b) Pyranose structure
(c) Furanose structure
(d) None of the above

Solution

The pentose sugar in DNA and RNA has the furanose structure.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 In both DNA and RNA, heterocyclic base and phosphate ester
linkages are at: 

(a) C5′ and C2′ respectively of the sugar molecule

(b) C2′ and C5′ respectively of the sugar molecule
(c) C1′ and C5′ respectively of the sugar molecule
(d) C5′ and C1′ respectively of the sugar molecule

Solution

In both DNA and RNA, heterocyclic base and phosphate ester linkages are at
C1′ and C5′ respectively of the sugar molecule.  
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
Which of the statements about denaturation given below are
correct? 

(A) Denaturation of proteins causes loss of secondary and tertiary

structure of protein.
(B) Denaturation leads to the conversion of double strand of DNA to
single strand.
(C) Denaturation affects primary structure which gets distorted.
(a) (B) and (c)
(b) (A) and (c)
(c) (A) and (B)
(d) (A), (B) and (C)
 Solution

During denaturation of proteins only the loss of secondary and tertiary structure
takes place, since formation of double strand in DNA is secondary structure it also
gets opened.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
Practice Questions
 Amongst the following amino acids, number of essential
amino acids are: 
Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Cysteine, Leucine, Isoleucine,
Serine, Threonine

(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 4 (d) 3

Solution

Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by our body. They include

Isoleucine, histidine, lysine, leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, methionine,
threonine, and valine.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following is a basic amino acid?

(a) Alanine
(b) Glycine
(c) Arginine
(d) Glutamine

Solution

Arginine, Lysine and Histidine are basic amino acids.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The common disaccharide has the molecular formula:

(a) C10H18O9
(b) C10H20O11
(c) C18H22O11
(d) C12H22O11

Solution

Sucrose (C12H22O11) is the most common disaccharide.

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Glucose on prolonged heating with HI gives:

(a) Hexanoic acid

(b) 6-Iodohexanal
(c) Hex-1-ene
(d) n-Hexane

Solution

On prolonged heating glucose with HI,

it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all HI, Δ
the size carbon atoms are linked in a n-Hexane
straight chain.

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.

Glucose
 Haworth's projection of 𝛂-D-glucose is:

(a) (b) (c) Both (d) None of these

Solution

Haworth's projection of 𝛂-D-glucose is:

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.

 During acetylation of glucose, it needs x moles of acetic
anhydride. The value of x would be: 

(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 1

Solution

Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which

confirms the presence of five –OH groups. So, 5 moles of acetic anhydride will
be required.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following is D-glyceraldehyde?

(a) CHO (b)

CHO

(c) (d) Both a and b

CHO
Solution
Structure given in option (c) is D-glyceraldehyde.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Which reagent is used to convert glucose into saccharic acid?

(a) Br2/H2O
(b) Nitric acid
(c) Alkaline solution of iodine
(d) Ammonium hydroxide

Solution

On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid.
This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
 HNO3
Oxidation

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

Predict the product of the following reaction:

Br2/ H2O
 Solution

Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with
a mild oxidising agent like bromine water.

Br2/ H2O
 How many C-atoms are there in a pyranose ring?

(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7

Solution

There are 5 C-atoms in a pyranose ring. 5

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

4 1

3 2
 Which of the following statements is false about the given
structure?

I II

(a) These are the isomers of glyceraldehyde.

(b) Both contain one chiral carbon atom.
(c) Both are enantiomer of each other
(d) I-(-)-glyceraldehyde said to have L configuration
II-(+)-glyceraldehyde said to have D configuration
 Solution

D-glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory (+) and L-glyceraldehyde is laevorotatory (-). If

the -OH group is on the right side it is D configuration otherwise it is L configuration.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Which of the following is the structure of D-glucose?

(a) (b) (c) (d) None of

these
 Solution

The structure of D-glucose is:

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

D-glucose
Which of the following structures represents the peptide
chain?

(a)

(b)  
Which of the following structures represents the peptide
chain?

(c)

(d)
 Solution

In peptide it contains amide linkage with one side end with N-terminal and other
side end with C-terminal.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 Denaturation of proteins leads to a loss of its biological
activity by:

(a) Formation of amino acids

(b) Loss of primary structure
(c) Loss of both primary and secondary structures
(d) Loss of both secondary and tertiary structures 

Solution

Denaturation of proteins leads to a loss of its biological activity by loss of both

secondary and tertiary structures.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Assertion: Proteins on hydrolysis produce amino acids. 
Reason: Amino acids contain –NH2 and –COOH groups.

(a) If both assertion and reason are correct and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are correct but the reason is not a
correct explanation of the assertion. 
(c) If the assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the assertion and reason are incorrect.

Solution

Amino acids contain the smallest unit as amino acid.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 A decapeptide (Mol. wt. = 796 u) on complete hydrolysis
gives glycine (Mol. wt. = 75 u), alanine and phenylalanine.
Glycine contributes 47.0% to the total weight of the
hydrolysed products. The number of glycine units present in
the decapeptide is:

(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 3

Solution
For the hydrolysis of decapeptide we need 9 molecules of H2O. After hydrolysis,
a mass of 9H2O will be added to the mass of decapeptide.
Total mass after hydrolysis = Mass of decapeptide + Mass 9 H2O molecules
= 796 + 162 = 958 u
 47
Mass of glycine = (Total mass after hydrolysis) ×
100
= 958 x 0.47
= 450.26 u
Mass of glycine
Number of unit of glycine =
Molecular mass of glycine
450.26
Number of unit of glycine =
75
Number of unit of glycine = 6
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 A tetrapeptide has −COOH group on alanine. This produces
glycine (Gly), valine (Val), phenylalanine (Phe) and alanine
(Ala), on complete hydrolysis. For this tetrapeptide, the
number of possible sequences (primary structures) with
−NH2 group attached to a chiral center is:

(a) 24 (b) 4 (c) 16 (d) 18

Solution

While formation of tetrapeptide we have to write −COOH group on the right

terminal i.e., alanine will always be on the right terminal. Since, we need −NH2
group on chiral carbon => glycine can not be on left terminal (because glycine is
optically inactive).
 Solution

So the possible sequence we are left with:

● Val-Phe-Gly-Ala
● Val-Gly-Phe-Ala
● Phe-Val-Gly-Ala
● Phe-Gly-Val-Ala
 Which base is present in RNA but not in DNA?

(a) Uracil (b) Cytosine

(c) Guanine (d) Thymine

Solution

DNA contains four bases viz. Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine
(T). RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are same as in DNA but the
fourth one is Uracil (U).
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 The term anomers of glucose refers to:

(a) A mixture of (D)-glucose and (L)-glucose

(b) Enantiomers of glucose
(c) Isomers of glucose that differ in configuration at carbon one (C-1)
(d) Isomers of glucose that differ in configurations at carbons one &
four (C-1 and C-4)

Solution
Anomers of glucose refers to isomers of glucose that differ in configuration at
carbon one (C-1).
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The secondary structure of protein refers to:

(a) 𝛂-helical backbone

(b) Hydrophobic interactions
(c) Sequence of 𝛂-amino acids
(d) Fixed configuration of the polypeptide backbone

Solution

The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long

polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in two different types of
structures viz. 𝛂-helix and 𝛃-pleated sheet structure.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 𝛂-D-(+)-glucose and 𝛃-D-(+)-glucose are:

(a) Functional isomers

(b) Anomers
(c) Enantiomers
(d) Conformers

Solution

C-1 configuration in both are different (position of –OH). Hence they are anomers.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 The presence or absence of hydroxy (–OH) group on which
carbon atom of sugar differentiates RNA and DNA:

(a) 1st
(b) 2nd
(c) 3rd
(d) 4th

Solution

2nd carbon will differentiate between RNA and DNA because of presence and
absence of –OH group.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Which one of the following bases is not present in DNA?

(a) Quinoline
(b) Adenine
(c) Cytosine
(d) Thymine

Solution

DNA contains four bases viz. Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T).
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Which of the vitamins given below is water soluble?

(a) Vitamin C
(b) Vitamin D
(c) Vitamin E
(d) Vitamin K

Solution
Vitamin C is soluble in water while vitamins A, D, E, and K are soluble in fat and oils.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Thiol group is present in:

(a) Cystine
(b) Cysteine
(c) Methionine
(d) Cytosine

Solution

Thiol group is present in cysteine.

Thiol group

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.

 The reason for double helical structure of DNA is the
operation of:

(a) Electrostatic attractions

(b) van der Waals forces
(c) Dipole-Dipole interactions
(d) Hydrogen bonding 

Solution

Hydrogen bonding is responsible for double helical structure of DNA.

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Complex hydrolysis of starch gives:

(a) Glucose only

(b) Glucose and fructose in equimolar amounts
(c) Galactose and fructose in equimolar amounts
(d) Glucose and galactose in equimolar amounts

Solution

Starch on hydrolysis gives only and only glucose.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Accumulation of which of the following molecules in the
muscles occurs as a result of vigorous exercise?

(a) Glycogen
(b) Glucose
(c) Pyruvic acid
(d) L-lactic acid

Solution
L-lactic acid is responsible for cramps in muscles as a result of vigorous exercise.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Among the following, the essential amino acid is:

(a) Valine
(b) Aspartic acid
(c) Serine
(d) Alanine

Solution

Valine comes in essential amino acid.

Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
For the structure, total number of chiral centre are:

(a) 12 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 3

 Solution

Chiral centres are carbon whose all 4

valency is satisfied by different groups. In
this case there are 3 carbon whose all 4
valency is satisfied by different groups.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 A hexapeptide with the composition Arg, Gly, Leu, Pro has
proline at both C-terminal and N-terminal position. The
partial hydrolysis of the hexapeptide gives 
Gly–Pro–Arg, Arg–Pro, Pro–Leu–Gly
(a) Pro–Gly–Leu–Pro–Arg–Pro
(b) Pro–Leu–Gly–Pro–Arg–Pro
(c) Pro–Leu–Gly–Arg–Pro–Pro
(d) Pro–Arg–Pro–Leu–Gly–Pro

Solution
According to the arrangement given there will be 3 Pro in which 2 Pro will be on
the ends. So option (b) satisfies the given arrangement in the question.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 In a protein molecule various amino acids are linked together
by:
(a) Dative bond
(b) 𝛂-glycosidic bond
(c) 𝛃-glycosidic bond
(d) Peptide bond

Solution

Amino acids are linked together by peptide bind to each other in protein
molecules.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 Formation of peptide bond is accompanied by release of one
molecule of:

(a) Oxygen
(b) Hydrogen
(c) Water
(d) None of these

Solution

Formation of peptide bond is accompanied by release of one molecule of water.

Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
 The simplest carbohydrate capable of exhibiting optical
isomerism is:

(a) Glucose
(b) Fructose
(c) Sucrose
(d) Glyceraldehyde

Solution

Glyceraldehyde is smallest of all and can exhibit optical isomerism.

Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 In a nucleoside, nitrogen base is linked to pentose sugar by:

(a) Peptide linkage

(b) N-glycosidic linkage
(c) Phosphodiester bond
(d) H-bonds

Solution

In a nucleoside, nitrogen base is linked to pentose sugar by N-glycosidic linkage.

Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 Ten DNA molecules undergo replication 2 times. The total
number DNA molecules produced are:

(a) 10 (b) 20

(c) 30 (d) 40

Solution
1 DNA molecule if replicated 2 times it gives 4 molecules. So, 10 molecules will
give 40 molecules.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
 In animals, the stored carbohydrates is:

(a) Starch
(b) Glycogen
(c) Fructan
(d) Sucrose

Solution
In animals, the stored carbohydrates is glycogen.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
 The sugars that are produced on hydrolysis of DNA and RNA
are:

(a) Anomers
(b) Two different sugars
(c) Positional isomers
(d) Diastereomers
Solution
Two different sugars are produced on hydrolysis of DNA and RNA.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.