WHAT IS A SYSTEM: DEFINITION

An array of components designed to accomplish a particular objective according to plan. Many sub-
systems many be designed which later on are combined together to form a system which is intended to
achieve a specific objective which may be set by the Project manager.
A system is an organized collection of parts (or subsystems) that are highly integrated to accomplish an
overall goal. The system has various inputs, which go through certain processes to produce certain
outputs, which together, accomplish the overall desired goal for the system.
A system is usually made up of many smaller systems, or subsystems. If one part of the system is
changed, the nature of the overall system is changed, as well. Systems range from simple to complex.

There are numerous types of systems. For example, there are:

 Biological systems (for example, the heart)

 Mechanical systems (for example, a thermostat)
 Human/mechanical systems (for example, riding a bicycle)
 Ecological systems (for example, predator/prey)
 Social systems (for example, groups, supply and demand and also friendship).

Complex systems, such as social systems, are comprised of numerous subsystems, as well. These
subsystems are arranged in hierarchies, and integrated to accomplish the overall goal of the overall
system. Each subsystem has its own boundaries of sorts, and includes various inputs, processes, outputs
and outcomes geared to accomplish an overall goal for the subsystem.

Complex systems usually interact with their environments and are, thus, open systems. A high-
functioning system continually exchanges feedback among its various parts to ensure that they remain
closely aligned and focused on achieving the goal of the system. If any of the parts or activities in the
system seems weakened or misaligned, the system makes necessary adjustments to more effectively
achieve its goals. Consequently, a system is systematic.

A pile of sand is not a system. If you remove a sand particle, you have still got a pile of sand. However, a
functioning car is a system. Remove the carburetor and you have no longer got a working car.

MAJOR ATTRIBUTES OF SYSTEM

 Qualities
 Capabilities

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM
1. Organization (order): It implies structure and order. Arrangement of components that help to
achieve objectives.
2. Interaction: Refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of the
system.
3. Interdependence: Means that parts of the organization or computer system depend on one other.
They are coordinated and linked together according to plan. One subsystem depends on the output of
another subsystem for proper functioning.
4. Integration: It refers to the holism of systems. It is concerned with how a system is tied together.
5. Central Objective: A system should have a central objective. Objectives may be real or stated.
Although a stated objective may be the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state
one objective and operate to achieve another. The important point is that users must know the central
objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.

MISSION-CRITICAL SYSTEM
Is one that is vital to a company’s operations. Example: Order processing system – is mission-critical
because the company cannot do business without it.

HORIZONTAL SYSTEM VS VERTICAL SYSTEM

Horizontal System: that can be adopted for use in many different types of companies. Is a system such
as an inventory or payroll systems.

Vertical System: is designed to meet the unique requirements of specific business or industry such as
Web-based retail.

WHAT IS SYSTEM THINKING: DEFINITION

 Is a way of understanding an entity in terms of its purpose.

 Is a holistic approach to analysis that focuses on the way that a system's constituent parts
interrelate and how systems work over time and within the context of larger systems.
 Systems thinking expands the range of choices available for solving a problem by broadening our
thinking and helping us articulate problems in new and different ways.

The three major steps followed in systems thinking:

1. Identify a containing whole (system), of which the thing to be explained is a part.
2. Explain the behavior or properties of the containing whole.

3. Explain the behavior or properties of the thing to be explained in terms of its role(s) or function(s)
within its containing whole (Ackoff, 1981).

Why use System Thinking?

Systems thinking expands the range of choices available for solving a problem by broadening our
thinking and helping us articulate problems in new and different ways.
When Should We Use Systems Thinking?

 The issue is important.

 The problem is chronic, not a one-time event.
 The problem is familiar and has a known history.
 People have unsuccessfully tried to solve the problem before.

System Thinking: Where Should We Start?

When you begin to address an issue, avoid assigning blame. Instead, focus on items that people seem to
be glossing over and try to arouse the group’s curiosity about the problem under discussion. To focus
the conversation, ask, “What is it about this problem that we don’t understand?”

SYSTEM INTEGRATION: DEFINITIONBG

 Is the combination of inter-related elements to achieve a common objective (s).

 System integration is defined in engineering as the process of bringing together the component
sub-systems into one system (an aggregation of subsystems cooperating so that the system is
able to deliver the overarching functionality) and ensuring that the subsystems function
together as a system, and in information technology as the process of linking together different
computing systems and software applications physically or functionally to act as a coordinated
whole.
 The system integrator integrates discrete systems utilizing a variety of techniques such as
computer networking, enterprise application integration, business process management or
manual programming.
 System integration involves integrating existing, often disparate systems in such a way"that
focuses on increasing value to the customer" (e.g., improved product quality and performance)
while at the same time providing value to the company (e.g., reducing operational costs and
improving response time). In the modern world connected by Internet, the role of system
integration engineers is important: more and more systems are designed to connect, both
within the system under construction and to systems that are already deployed.

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE: DEFINITION

The architecture of a system defines its high-level structure, exposing its gross organization as a
collection of interacting components.
Elements needed to model a software architecture include:

 Components
  Connectors
 Systems
 Properties
 Styles

INTEGRATION ARCHITECTURE: DEFINITION

Integration architecture is a software architecture that facilitates the integration of multiple IT
components. This architecture changes with the advances in cross-platform utility and other
development paradigms for new kinds of digital operations.

SYSTEM INTEGRATION ARCHITECTURE: DEFINITION

The Systems Integration Architecture provides a bridge between the heterogeneous operational
applications and platforms. This architecture ties together the mix of platforms, operating systems,
transports, and applications.
The Systems Integration Architecture (SIA) was designed to integrate heterogeneous functional modules
and systems with a minimum of effort, thus allowing the definition and execution of processes that use
multiple application modules in an agile fashion.

The Systems Integration Architecture provides three high level services which allow FTA's to be defined,
combined into diverse networks which provide transformations of aspects in a manner transparent to
the user and executed under a variety of control algorithms in a heterogeneous, de-centralized
environment.

METHODS OF INTEGRATION

1. Vertical Integration: Is the process of integrating subsystems according to their functionality by

creating functional entities also referred to as silos (as opposed to "horizontal integration"). The benefit
of this method is that the integration is performed quickly and involves only the necessary vendors,
therefore, this method is cheaper in the short term. On the other hand, cost-of-ownership can be
substantially higher than seen in other methods, since in case of new or enhanced functionality, the only
possible way to implement (scale the system) would be by implementing another silo. Reusing
subsystems to create another functionality is not possible.
2. Star or Spaghetti integration: Is a process of systems integration where each system is
interconnected to each of the remaining subsystems. When observed from the perspective of the
subsystem which is being integrated, the connections are reminiscent of a star, but when the overall
diagram of the system is presented, the connections look like spaghetti, hence the name of this method.
The cost varies because of the interfaces that subsystems are exporting. In a case where the subsystems
are exporting heterogeneous or proprietary interfaces, the integration cost can substantially rise. Time
and costs needed to integrate the systems increase exponentially when adding additional subsystems.
From the feature perspective, this method often seems preferable, due to the extreme flexibility of the
reuse of functionality.

3. Horizontal integration/ Enterprise Service Bus (ESB): Is an integration method in which a specialized
subsystem is dedicated to communication between other subsystems. This allows cutting the number of
connections (interfaces) to only one per subsystem which will connect directly to the ESB. The ESB is
capable of translating the interface into another interface. This allows cutting the costs of integration
and provides extreme flexibility. With systems integrated using this method, it is possible to completely
replace one subsystem with another subsystem which provides similar functionality but exports
different interfaces, all this completely transparent for the rest of the subsystems. The only action
required is to implement the new interface between the ESB and the new subsystem. The horizontal
scheme can be misleading, however, if it is thought that the cost of intermediate data transformation or
the cost of shifting responsibility over business logic can be avoided.

4. Common Data Format: Is an integration method to avoid every adapter having to convert data
to/from every other applications' formats, Enterprise application integration (EAI) systems usually
stipulate an application-independent (or common) data format. The EAI system usually provides a data
transformation service as well to help convert between application-specific and common formats. This is
done in two steps: the adapter converts information from the application's format to the bus' common
format. Then, semantic transformations are applied on this (converting zip codes to city names,
splitting/merging objects from one application into objects in the other applications, and so on).

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF INTEGRATION ARCHITECT?

The Application Integration (AI) Architect's role is to plan, coordinate, architect, and supervise all
activities related to the integration of software programs, applications, and thirdparty solutions as
required to meet the business requirements of the organization.
Challenges of Integration
System integration can be challenging for organizations and these challenges can diminish their overall
return on investment after implementing new software solutions. Some of these challenging include lack
of trust and willing to share data with other companies, unwillingness to outsource various operations
to a third party, lack of clear communication and responsibilities, disagreement from partners on where
functionality should reside, high cost of integration, and difficulty finding good talents. These challenges
result in creating hurdles that “prevent or slow down business systems integration within and among
companies”. Clear communication and simplified information exchange are key elements in building
long term system integrations that can support business requirements.

PROJECT: DEFINITION
  A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to accomplish a unique product or service.
 Projects cannot be run in isolation
 Project must operate in a broad organizational environment.
 Project managers need to use system thinking: taking a holistic view of carrying out projects
within the context of the organization.
 Senior managers must make sure projects continue to support current business needs.

Attributes of projects

 Unique purpose
 Temporary
 Require resources, often from various areas
 Should have a primary sponsor and/or customer
 Involve uncertainty

WHERE DO INFORMATION SYSTEMS PROJECTS ORIGINATE (SOURCES OF PROJECTS)?

New or changed IS development projects come from problems, opportunities, and directives and are
always subject to one or more constraints.
1. Problems: may either be current, suspected, or anticipated. Problems are undesirable situations that
prevent the business from fully achieving its purpose, goals, and objectives.
2. Opportunity: is a chance to improve the business even in the absence of specific problems. This
means that the business is hoping to create a system that will help it with increasing its revenue, profit,
or services, or decreasing its costs.
3. Directive: is a new requirement that is imposed by management, government, or some external
influence i.e. are mandates that come from either an internal or external source of the business.

STAKEHOLDERS

Stakeholders are the people involved in or affected by project activities.

 Project sponsor and project team

 Support staff
 Customers
 Users
 Suppliers
 Opponents to the project

Importance of Stakeholders
  Project managers must take time to identify, understand, and manage relationships with all
project stakeholders.
 Using the four frames of organizations can help meet stakeholder needs and expectations.
 Senior executives are very important stakeholders.

WHAT HELPS PROJECTS SUCCEED?

 Executive support
 User involvement
 Experienced project manager
 Clear business objectives
 Minimized scope
 Standard software infrastructure
 Firm basic requirements
 Formal methodology
 Reliable estimates

UNDERSTANDING THE ORGANIZATIONS

1. Structural frame: Focuses on roles and responsibilities, coordination and control. Organizational
charts help define this frame.
2. Human resources frame: Focuses on providing harmony between needs of the organization and
needs of people.
3. Political frame: Assumes organizations are coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest
groups. Conflict and power are key issues.

4. Symbolic frame: Focuses on symbols and meanings related to events. Culture is important.
Many Organizations Focus on the Structural Frame

 Most people understand what organizational charts are.

 Many new managers try to change organizational structure when other changes are needed.

3 BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

 Functional
 Project
 Matrix

Organizational Structures
An organizational structure is defined as “a system used to define a hierarchy within an organization. It
identifies each job, its function and where it reports to within the organization.” A structure is then
developed to establish how the organization operates to execute its goals.
There are many types of organizational structures. Each organizational structure comes with different
advantages and disadvantages and may only work for companies or organizations in certain situations or
at certain points in their life cycles.
Basic Organizational Structures

 Organizational structure depends on the company and/or the project.

 The structure helps define the roles and responsibilities of the members of the department,
work group, or organization.
 It is generally a system of tasks and reporting policies in place to give members of the group a
direction when completing projects.
 A good organizational structure will allow people and groups to work effectively together while
developing hard work ethics and attitudes.
 The four general types of organizational structure are functional, divisional, matrix and project-
based.

1. Functional Structure: People who do similar tasks, have similar skills and/or jobs in an organization
are grouped into a functional structure. The advantages of this kind of structure include quick decision
making because the group members are able to communicate easily with each other. People in
functional structures can learn from each other easier because they already possess similar skill sets and
interests.
2. Divisional Structure: In a divisional structure, the company will coordinate intergroup relationships to
create a work team that can readily meet the needs of a certain customer or group of customers. The
division of labor in this kind of structure will ensure greater output of varieties of similar products. An
example of a divisional structure is geographical, where divisions are set up in regions to work with each
other to produce similar products that meet the needs of the individual regions.
3. Matrix Structure: Matrix structures are more complex in that they group people in two different
ways: by the function they perform and by the product team they are working with. In a matrix structure
the team members are given more autonomy and expected to take more responsibility for their work.
This increases the productivity of the team, fosters greater innovation and creativity, and allows
managers to cooperatively solve decision-making problems through group interaction.
4. Project Organization Structure: In a project-organizational structure, the teams are put together
based on the number of members needed to produce the product or complete the project. The number
of significantly different kinds of tasks are taken into account when structuring a project in this manner,
assuring that the right members are chosen to participate in the project.
PROJECT PHASES AND THE PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
A project life cycle is a collection of project phases. Project phases vary by project or industry, but some
general phases include:

 Concept
 Development
 Implementation
 Support

Phases of the Project Life Cycle

Produ
ct Life Cycles

 Products also have life cycles.

 The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a framework for describing the phases involved in
developing and maintaining information systems.

Systems development projects can follow:

 Predictive models: The scope of the project can be clearly articulated and the schedule and cost
can be predicted.
 Adaptive models: Projects are mission driven and component based, using timebased cycles to
meet target dates.

Predictive Life Cycle Models

  Waterfall model has well-defined, linear stages of systems development and support.
 Spiral model shows that software is developed using an iterative or spiral approach rather than
a linear approach.
 Incremental release model provides for progressive development of operational software.
 Prototyping model is used for developing prototypes to clarify user requirements.
 RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is used to produce systems quickly without
sacrificing quality.

Adaptive Life Cycle Models

 Extreme Programming (XP): Developers program in pairs and must write the tests for their own
code. XP teams include developers, managers, and users.
 Scrum: Repetitions of iterative development are referred to as sprints, which normally last thirty
days. Teams often meet every day for a short meeting, called a scrum, to decide what to
accomplish that day. Works best for object-oriented technology projects and requires strong
leadership to coordinate the work.

DISTINGUISHING PROJECT LIFE CYCLES AND PRODUCT LIFE CYCLES

 The project life cycle applies to all projects, regardless of the products being produced.
 Product life cycle models vary considerably based on the nature of the product.
 Most large IT systems are developed as a series of projects.
 Project management is done in all of the product life cycle phases.

WHY HAVE PROJECT PHASES AND MANAGEMENT REVIEWS?

 A project should successfully pass through each of the project phases in order to continue on to
the next.
 Management reviews (also called phase exits or kill points) should occur after each phase to
evaluate the project’s progress, likely success, and continued compatibility with organizational
goals.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

1. Identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives: The purpose of this phase is to perform a
preliminary investigation to identify the nature and scope of the business opportunity or problem. In
this first phase of the systems development life cycle, the analyst is concerned with identifying
problems, opportunities, and objectives. This stage is critical to the success of the rest of the project,
because the outcome will affect the entire development process and no one wants to waste subsequent
time addressing the wrong problem.
2. Determining information requirements: The next phase that the analyst enters is that of determining
information requirements for the particular users involved by investigating business processes and
document what the new system must do. The purpose of this phase is to build a logical model of the
new system. Among the tools used to define information requirements in the business and to
understand the system in general are:

 Sampling
 Investigating hard data/document review
 Interviewing
 Surveys
 Questionnaires
 Observing decision maker’s behavior and office environments (observe operations)
 Prototyping

3. Analyzing System Needs: The next phase that the system analysts undertakes involves analyzing
system needs. Again, special tools and techniques help the analyst make requirement determinations.
One such tool is the use of data flow diagrams to chart the input, processes, and output of the business's
functions in a structured graphical form. From the data-flow diagrams, a data dictionary is developed
that lists all the data items used in the system, as well as their specifications: whether they are
alphanumeric or text and how much space they take up when printed.

4. Designing the Recommended System: In the design phase of the systems development life cycle, the
systems analyst uses the information collected earlier to accomplish the logical design of the
information system. The analyst designs accurate data-entry procedures so that data going into the
information system are correct. In addition, the analyst provides for effective input to the information
system by using techniques of good form and screen design.

5. Developing and Documenting Software: In the fifth phase of the systems development life cycle, the
analyst works with programmers to develop any original software that is needed. Some of the
structured techniques for designing and documenting software include structure charts, Nassi-
Shneiderman charts, and pseudocode. The systems analyst uses one or more of these devices to
communicate to the programmer what needs to be programmed.

6. Testing and Maintaining the System: Before the information system can be used, it must be tested. It
is much less costly to catch problems before the system is signed over to users. Some of the testing is
completed by programmers alone, some of it by systems analyst in conjunctions with programmers. A
series of tests to pinpoint problems is run first with sample data and eventually with actual data from
the current system.
7. Implementing and evaluating the system: In this last phase of system development, the analyst helps
implement the information system. This phase involves training users to handle the system. Some
training is done by vendors, but oversight of training is the responsibility of the systems analyst. In
addition, the analyst needs to plan for a smooth conversion from the old system to the new one. This
process includes converting files from old formats to new ones or building a database, installing
equipment, and bringing the new system into production.