Data Book

Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus
1. Design of Shaft
Table 1-1: Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile and Yield strengths for some hot-rolled (HR)
and cold – drawn (CD) steels [The strengths listed area estimates ASTM minimum values in the
size range 18 t0 32 mm. These strengths are suitable for use with the design factor defined in
sec. 1-10, provided the materials conform to ASTM A6 or A586 requirements or are required in
the purchase specifications. Remember that a numbering systems is not
specifications.] Source: 1986 SAE Handbook, p 2.15.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
UNS No. SAE Processing Tensile Yield Elongation Reduction Brinell
and/or Strength, Strength, in 2 in,% in Hardness
AISI No. MPa MPa (kpsi) Area, %
( kpsi)
G10060 1006 HR 300 (43) 170 (24) 30 55 86
CD 330 (48) 280 (41) 20 45 95
G10100 1010 HR 320 (47) 180 (26) 28 50 95
CD 370 (57) 300 (44) 20 40 105
G10150 1015 HR 340 (50) 190 (27.5) 28 50 101
CD 390 (56) 320 (47) 18 40 111
G10180 1018 HR 400 (58) 220 (32) 25 50 116
CD 440 (64) 370 (54) 15 40 126
G10200 1020 HR 380 (55) 210 (30) 25 50 111
CD 470 (68) 390 (57) 15 40 131
G10300 1030 HR 470 (68) 260 (37.5) 20 50 137
CD 520 (76) 440 (64) 12 40 149
G10350 1035 HR 500 (72) 270 (39.5) 18 42 143
CD 550 (80) 460 (67) 12 35 163
G10400 1040 HR 520 (76) 290 (42) 18 40 149
CD 590 (85) 490 (71) 12 35 170
G10450 1045 HR 570 (82) 310 (45) 16 40 163
CD 630 (91) 530 (77) 12 35 179
G10500 1050 HR 620 (90) 340 (49.5) 15 35 179
CD 690 (100) 580 (84) 10 30 197
G10600 1060 HR 680 (98) 370 (54) 12 30 201
G10800 1080 HR 770 (112) 420 (61.5) 10 25 229
G10950 1095 HR 830 (120) 460 (66) 10 23 248
Table 1-2 : First Iteration Estimates for stress concentration factors Kt and Kts. Warning: These
factors are only estimates for use when actual dimensions are not yet determined. Do not use
these once actual dimensions are available.
Bending Torsionsal Axial
Shoulder fillet – sharp (r/d = 0.02) 2.7 2.2 3.0
Shoulder fillet – well rounded (r/d = 0.1) 1.7 1.5 1.9
End milled kyeseat (r/d 0.02) 2.14 3.0 -
Sled runner keyseat 1.7 - -
Retaining ring groove 5.0 3.0 5.0
1
Table 1-3: Parameters for Marin Surface Modification Factor.
Factor a
Surface Finish Exponent b
Sut, kpsi Sut, MPa
Ground 1.34 1.58 -0.085

Machined or cold drawn 2.70 4.51 -0.265
Hot-rolled 14.4 57.7 -0.718
As-forged 39.9 272 -0.995
From C.J. Noll and C.Lipson,"Allowable Working Strsses", Society for Experimental Stress Analysis, vol.3,
no.2,1946 p. 29. Reproduced by O.J. Horger(ed.) Metals Engineering Design ASME Handbook, McGraw-Hill,
New York, Copyright© 1953 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.Reprinted by permission.
Table 1-4: Reliability factors Ke corresponding to 8% standard deviation of the endurance limit.
Reliability%Transformation Variate ZaReliability Factor Ke
50 0 1.000
90 1.288 0.897
95 1.645 0.868
99 2.326 0.814
99.9 3.091 0.753
99.99 3.719 0.702
99.999 4.265 0.659
99.9999 4.753 0.620
Table 1-5: Typical maximum ranges for slopes and transverse deflections.
Slopes
Tapered roller 0.0005 – 0.0012 rad
Cylindrical roller 0.008 – 0.0012 rad
Deep-groove ball 0.001 – 0.003 rad
Spherical ball 0.026 – 0.052 rad
Self-align bal 0.026 – 0.052 rad
Uncrowned spur gear <0.0005 rad
Transverse Deflections
Spur gears with P< 10 teeth/cm 0.25 mm
Spur gears with 11 <P<19 0.125 mm
Spur gears with 20 <P<50 0.075 mm
2
Figure 1-1: Round shaft with shoulder fillet in torsion: τ0 = TC/J, where c = d/2 and J = Лd4/32.
Figure 1-2: Round shaft with shoulder fillet in bending. σ0 = MC/I, where c = d/2 and J =
Лd4/64.
3
Figure 1-3: Round shaft with flat-bottom grove in bending and / or tension. σ0 = 4P/ Лd2 +
32M/Лd3.
Figure 1-4: Round shaft with flat-bottom grove in torsion. τ0 = 16T/Лd3.
4
Figure 1-5: Fatigue strength fraction, f, of Sut at 103 cycles for Se = S'e = 0.5Sut .
Figure 1-6: Notch sensitivity for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminum alloys
subjected to reversed bending or reversed axial loads for large notch radii, use the values of q
corresponding to the t = 4 mm ordinate.
5
Figure 1-7: Notch sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For large notch radii, use
the values of qshear corresponding to t = 4 mm.
6
1. Road maps and important design equations for the stress life method.
1.1 Endurance limit
The important procedures and equations for deterministic stress-life are presented here.
Completely Reversed Simple loading
0.5Sut Sut ≤ 1400MPa
Determine S'e either from test data or S'e = 
700MPa Sut > 1400MPa
1.2 Fatigue life constants a and b.
If Sut ≥ 490 MPa, determine f from Figure 1-5. If Sut < 490 MPa, let f = 0.9.
( f Sut )
2
a=
Se
 ( f Sut ) 
log 
Se 
b=−
3
1.3 Fatigue Strength Sf at N cycles, or N cycles to failure at reversing stress σ rev
Sf = aN b
σ 
1/ b
N =  rev 
 a 
1.4 For finite-life fatigue strength,
σa
Mod-Goodman Srev =
σ 
1−  m 
 Sut 
σa
Gerber Srev = 2
 σm 
1−  
 Sut 
If determining the finite line N with a factor of safety n, substitute Srev/n for σrev, that is,
σ /n
1/b
N =  rev 
 a 
1.5 Endurance limit modifying factor, Marin Equation

Se = k a k b k c k d k e k f S'e
where ka = surface condition modification factor
kb = size modification factor
kc = load modification factor
kd = temperature modification factor
ke = reliability factor
kf = miscellaneous effects odification factor
S'e = rotary beam test specimen endurance limit
Se = endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part in the geometry and
condition of use.
Modify S'e to determine Se .

k a = aSbut , for a and b refer Table 1-5.
7
Rotating shaft: For bending or torsion,
1.24d −0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm
kb =  −0.157
1.51d 51 < d ≤ 254 mm
For axial,
kb = 1
1 bending

k c = 0.85 axial
0.59 torsion

k d = 0.975 + 0.432 (10−3 ) TF − 0.115 (10−5 ) TF2 + 0.104 (10−8 ) TF3 − 0.595 (10−12 ) TF4
1.6 Determine fatigue stress concentration factor Kf or Kfs

First, find Kt or Kts from Table 1-2, Figure 1- 1 to Figure 1-3. For not sensitivity q, use Figure
1-6 or Figure 1-7.
K f = 1 + q ( K t − 1) or K fs = 1 + q ( K ts − 1)
Alternatively, for reversed bending or axial loads,
Kt −1
Kf = 1+
1+ a / r
where a is the Neuber constant and is a material constant.
For Sut in kpsi, and a uint is inch
a = 0.245799 − 0.307794 (10−2 ) Sut + 0.150874 (10−4 ) S2ut − 0.266978 (10−7 ) S3ut
For torsion for low alloy steels,
a = 0.19 − 2.51(10−3 ) Sut + 1.35 (10−5 ) Sut2 − 2.67 (10−8 ) S3ut
1.7 Fluctuating simple load

For Se, Kf or Kfs, refer section 1-3 and section 1-4.
1. Calculate midrange stress σm and alternating stress σa. Apply Kf to both stresses.
σ m = ( σ max + σ min ) / 2 σa = ( σ max − σ min ) / 2
2. Apply to a fatigue failure criterion,
σm ≥ 0
σa σ m 1
Soderburg + =
Se Sy n
σa σ m 1
Mod-Goodman + =
Se Sut n
2
σ  σ 
Gerber n a +n m  =1
Se  Sut 
2 2
 σa   σm  1
ASME-elliptic   +  = 2
 Se   Sut  n
S
σm < 0 , σa = e
n
8
Torsion. Use the same equations as apply for σ m ≥ 0 , except replace σm and σa with τm and τm,
use kc = 0.59 for Se, replace Sut with Ssu = 0.67 Sut, and replace Sy with Ssy = 0.577Sy.
Check for localized yielding.
Sy
σa + σ m =
n
or, for torsion, τa + τm = 0.577Sy / n
1.8 Combination of loading modes

i. Calculate von Mises stresses for alternating and midrange stress states, σ'a and σ 'm . When
determining Se, do not use kc nor divided by Kf or Kfs. Apply Kf and/or Kfs directly to each
specific alternating axial stress. If axial stress is present divide the alternating axial stress by kc
= 0.85. For the special case of combined bending, torsional shear, and axial stresses
1/2
 ( σa )axial   
2
 2
σ =  ( K f )bending ( σa )bending + ( K f )axial
'
a  + 3 ( K fs ) torsion ( τa ) torsion  
  0.85  
{ }
1/2
σ'm = ( K f ) bending ( σ m ) bending + ( K f )axial ( σm )axial  + 3 ( K fs ) torsion ( τm ) torsion 
2 2
 
ii. Apply stresses to gatigue criterion.
iii. Conservative check for localized yielding using von Mises stresses.
Sy
σ'a + σ'm =
n
ii. Shaft stresses
Bending, torsion, and axial stresses may be present in both midrange and alternating
components. For analysis, it is simple enough to combine the different types of stresses into
alternating and midrange von Mises stresses. It is sometimes convenient to customize the
equations specially for shaft applications. Axial loads are usually comparatively very small at
critical locations where bending and torsion dominate, so they will be left out of the following
equations. The fluctuating stresses due to bending and torsion are given by
Mc M c
σa = K f a σm = K f m
I I
Tc T c
τa = K fs a τm = K fs m
J J
where Mm and Ma are the midrange and alternating bending moments, Tm and Ta are the
midrange and alternating torques, and Kf and Kfs are the fatigue stress concentration factors for
bending and torsion, respectively.
Assuming a solid shaft with round cross section, appropriate geometry terms can be
introduced for c, I, and J in
32M a 32M m
σa = K f σm = K f
πd 3
πd 3
16Ta 16Tm
τa = K fs τm = K fs
πd 3
πd 3
Combining these stresses in accordance with the distortion energy failure theory, the
von Mises stresses for rotating round, solid shafts, neglecting axial loads, are given by
9
1/2
 32K f M a  2  16K fs Ta  
2
σ'a = ( σa2 + 3τ )
2 1/2
=   + 3  
 πd  πd  
a 3 3

1/2
 32K f M m  2  16K fs Tm  
2
σ = ( σ + 3τ ) = 
' 2 2 1/2
 + 3  
 πd  πd
m m m 3 3
  
Note that the stress concentration factors are sometimes considered optional for the midrange
components with ductile materials, because of the capacity of the ductile material to yield
locally at the discontinuity.
These equivalent alternating and midrange stresses can be evaluated using an
appropriate failure curve on the modified Goodman diagram. For example, the fatigue failure
criteria for the modified Goodman line as expresses is
1 σ'a σ'm
= +
n Se Sut
Goodman
Substitute of σ'a and σ'm results in
1 16  1  2 1/2 1  2 1/2 
= 3 4 ( K f M a ) + 3 ( K fs Ta )  + 4 ( K f M m ) + 3 ( K fs Tm )  
2 2
n πd  Se   Sut  

For design purpose, it is also desirable to solve the equation for the diameter.
This results in
1/3
 16n  1 1/2 
 4 ( K f M a )2 + 3 ( K fs Ta )2  + 1  4 ( K f M m )2 + 3 ( K fs Tm )2   
1/2
d= 
 π S   Sut   
  e 
Similar expressions can be obtained for any of the common failure criteria by substituting the
von Mises stresses into any of the failure criteria. The resulting equations for several of the
commonly used failure curves are summarized below. The names given to each set of equations
identifies the significant failure theory, followed by a fatigue failure locus name. For example,
DE-Gerber indicates the stresses are combined using the distortion energy ( DE) theory, and the
Gerber criteria is used for the fatigue failure.
DE- Gerber
 2 1/2 
1 8A    2BSe   
= 1 + 1 +    
n πd 3Se    ASut   
   
1/3
   2 1/2  
 
  
d= 
8nA 2BS
+  + e

 πS    AS    
1 1
 e    ut 
  
 
where
A = 4 ( K f M a ) + 3 ( K fs Ta )
2 2
B = 4 ( K f M m ) + 3 ( K fs Tm )
2 2
DE-ASME Elliptic
2 1/2
1 16   K f M a  
2 2 2
 K fs Ta   Kf Mm  K T 
= 3 4  + 3  + 4   + 3  fs m  
n πd   Se   Se   Sy   Sy  
 
10
1/3
  2 1/2 
K fs Tm  
2 2 2
16n   K f M a   K fs Ta   Kf Mm   
d=  + 3  + 4  + 3
  
4

 π   Se   Se   Sy   Sy   
 
DE-Soderberg
1 16  1  2 1/2 1  2 1/2 

= 3 4 ( K f M a ) + 3 ( K fs Ta )  + 4 ( K f M m ) + 3 ( K fs Tm )  
2 2
n πd  Se   Syt   
1/3
 16n  1 2 1/2 1  
2 1/2 
 ( ) ( )  ( ) ( ) 
2 2
d= + + + 
 π  Se    
4 K M 3 K T 4 K M 3 K T
f a fs a
 S  f m fs m
  yt 
For a rotating shaft with constant bending and torsion, the bending stress is completely
reversed and the torsion is steady. At such situations, setting Mm and Ta equal to zero drops out
some of the terms.
Note that in an analysis situation in which the diameter is known and the factor of safety
is desired, as an alternative to using the specialized equations above, it is always still valid to
calculate the alternating and mid-range stresses, and substitute them into one of the equations
for the failure criteria, then solve directly for n using above equations.
It is always necessary to consider the possibility of static failure in the first load cycle.
The Soderberg criteria inherently guards against yielding, as can be seen by noting that its
failure curve is conservatively within the yield (Langer) line. The ASME Elliptic also takes
yielding into account, but is not entirely conservative throughout its entire range. This is evident
by noting that it crosses the yield line. Ther Gerber and modified Goodman criteria do not guard
against yielding, requiring a separate check for yielding. A von Mises maximum stress is
calculated for this purpose.
1
σ'max = ( σ m + σa ) + 3 ( τm + τa ) 
2 2 2
 
1
 32K ( σ + σ )  2  16K fs ( Tm + Ta )  
2 2
σ max = 
' f m a
 + 3  
 πd 3   π d 3
 
To check for yielding, this von Mises maximum stress is compared to the yield strength,
as usual,
S
ny = ' y
σ max
For a quick, conservative, an estimate for σ'max can be obtained by simply adding σ'a and σ'a ,
( σ'a + σ'a ) will always be greater than or equal to σ'max , and will therefore be conservative.
1.9 Deflection considerations

n d ( dy / dx )old
1/4 1/4
n d yold
d new = d old , d new = d old where d is the diameter, yall
yall (slope)all
is allowable deflection, nd is the design factor, (slope)all is the allowable slope.
11
2. Design of bearing
2.1 Rolling – contacts bearings
(a) For 90 % reliability
C10 ( L R n R 60 ) = FD ( L D n D 60 )
1/a 1/a
where,
C10 = catalog rating, kN FD = Desired radial load, kN
LR = rating life in hours LD = desired life, hours
nR = rating speed, rev,min nD = desired speed, rev/min
(b) For reliability greater or equals to 90%, assume a = 3 for ball & angular contact bearing and
a = 10/3 for roller bearing ( cylindrical and tapered roller).
1/a
 xD 
C10 = FD   R ≥ 0.9
 x 0 + ( θ − x 0 )(1 − R D ) 
1/ b
L 60L D n D
and, x D = =
L10 60L R n R
Loads are often non-steady, so that the desired load is multiplied by an application factor af .
The steady load af FD does the same damage as the variable load FD does to the rolling surfaces.
Manufacturer Rating Life, Weibull parameter
Revolution Rating lives
Xo θ b
1 90(106) 0 4.48 1.15
6
2 1(10 ) 0.02 4.459 1.483
Table 2-1: Dimensions and Load Ratings for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove and Angular-
Contact Ball Bearing
Shoulder Loading Rating, kN
Width, Fillet Diameter, mm Deep Groove Angular Contact
Bore, OD, mm Radius,
Mm mm mm C10 C0 C10 C0
ds dH
10 30 9 0.6 12.5 27 5.07 2.24 4.94 2.12
12 32 10 0.6 14.5 28 6.89 3.10 7.02 3.05
15 35 11 0.6 17.5 31 7.80 3.55 8.06 3.65
17 40 12 0.6 19.5 34 9.56 4.50 9.95 4.75
20 47 14 1.0 25 41 12.7 6.20 13.3 6.55
25 52 15 1.0 30 47 14.0 6.95 14.8 7.65
30 62 16 1.0 35 55 19.5 10.0 20.3 11.0
35 72 17 1.0 41 65 25.5 13.7 27.0 15.0
40 80 18 1.0 46 72 30.7 16.6 31.9 18.6
45 85 19 1.0 52 77 33.2 18.6 35.8 21.2
50 90 20 1.0 56 82 35.1 19.6 37.7 22.8
55 100 21 1.5 63 90 43.6 25.0 46.2 28.5
60 110 22 1.5 70 99 47.5 28.0 55.9 35.5
65 120 23 1.5 74 109 55.9 34.0 63.7 41.5
70 125 24 1.5 79 114 61.8 37.5 68.9 45.5
75 130 25 1.5 86 119 66.3 40.5 71.5 49.0
80 140 26 2.0 93 127 70.2 45.0 80.6 55.0
85 150 28 2.0 99 136 83.2 53.0 90.4 63.0
90 160 30 2.0 104 146 95.6 62.0 106 73.5
95 170 32 2.0 110 156 108 69.5 121 85.0
12
Table 2-2: Dimensions and Load Ratings for Cylindrical Roller Bearings.
02- Series 02- Series

Bore, OD, Width, Loading Rating, kN OD, Width, Loading Rating, kN
Mm mm mm mm mm
C10 C0 C10 C0
25 52 15 16.8 8.8 62 17 28.6 15
30 62 16 22.4 12.0 72 19 36.9 20
35 72 17 31.9 17.6 80 21 44.6 27.1
40 80 18 41.8 24.0 90 23 56.1 32.5
45 85 19 44.0 25.5 100 25 72.1 45.4
50 90 20 45.7 27.5 110 27 88.0 52.0
55 100 21 56.1 34.0 120 29 102 67.2
60 110 22 64.4 43.1 130 31 123 76.5
55 120 23 76.5 51.2 140 33 138 85.0
70 125 24 79.2 51.2 150 35 151 102
75 130 25 93.1 63.2 160 37 183 125
80 140 26 106 69.4 170 39 190 125
85 150 28 119 78.3 180 41 212 149
90 160 30 142 100 190 43 242 160
95 170 32 165 112 200 45 264 189
100 180 34 183 125 215 47 303 220
110 200 38 229 167 240 50 391 304
120 215 40 260 183 260 55 457 340
130 230 40 270 193 280 58 539 408
140 250 42 319 240 300 62 682 454
150 270 45 446 260 320 65 781 502
2.2 Combined Radial and Thrust Loading

Equivalent radial load that does the same damage as the combined radial and thrust load
Fe = Xi VFr + Yi Fa
where Fr – radial load, Fa – axial load, inner ring rotating V = 1, outer ring rotating V =1.2
Table 2-3: Equivalent radial load factors for ball bearings.

Fa/(VFr) ≤ e Fa/(VFr) > e
Fa/C0 E X1 Y1 X2 Y2
0.014 0.19 1.00 0 0.56 2.30
0.021 0.21 1.00 0 0.56 2.15
0.028 0.22 1.00 0 0.56 1.99
0.042 0.24 1.00 0 0.56 1.85
0.056 0.26 1.00 0 0.56 1.71
0.070 0.27 1.00 0 0.56 1.63
0.084 0.28 1.00 0 0.56 1.55
0.110 0.30 1.00 0 0.56 1.45
0.17 0.34 1.00 0 0.56 1.31
0.28 0.38 1.00 0 0.56 1.15
0.42 0.42 1.00 0 0.56 1.04
0.56 0.44 1.00 0 0.56 1.00
13
2.3 Tapered roller bearings
0.47Fr
i. Induced thrust load from a radial load, Fi = , K factor is geometry – specific ( 1.5 for
K
a radial bearing and 0.75 for step angle bearing)
ii. Equivalent load, Fe = 0.4Fr + KFa
FeA = 0.4FrA + K A ( FiB + Fae )
iii. If FiA ≤ ( FiB + Fae ) 
FeB = FrB
F = 0.4FrB + K B ( FiA − Fae )
If FiA > ( FiB + Fae )  eB
FeA = FrA
Table 2-4: Single row straight bore roller bearing.
(continued on next page)
14
(continued on next page)
15
16
3. Design of lubrication and journal bearings
Figure 3-1: Chart for minimum film-thickness variable and eccentricity ratio. The left boundary
of the zone defines the optimal h0 for minimum friction; the right boundary is optimum h0 for
load. (Raimondi and Boyd.)
Figure 3-2: Chart for determining the position of the minimum film thickness h0. (Raimondi
and Boyd)
17
Figure 3-3: Chart for determining the maximum film pressure. Note: not for the pressure fed
bearings. (Raimondi and Boyd).
Figure 3-4: A plot of some performance characteristics of the bearings of Exs.12-1 to 12-4 for
radial clearances of 0.0005 to 0.0003 in. The bearing outlet temperature is designated T2. New
bearings should be designed for the shaded zone, because wear will move the operating point to
the right.
18
Figure 3-5: Chart for coefficient of friction variable, note that Petroff’s equation is the
asymptote ( Raymondi and Boyd).
Figure 3-6: Chart for finding the terminating position of the lubricant film and the position of
maximum film pressure. (Raimondi and Body.)
19
Basic design equations
3.1 The nominal bearing pressure ( in projected area of the journal)
W
P=
2rl
W – bearing force (N); r – radius of the shaft; l - length of the bearing
3.2 Sommerfeld number
 r   µN 
2
S=   
c  P 
c- clearance; N – shaft rotation (rev/sec), μ – viscosity

3.3 The friction torque on the journal
T = fWr
f- coefficient of friction
3.4 The power loss, P = 2 Л N T
20
4. Design of flat belts
Table 4-1: Properties of some Flat and Rounded-Belt Materials (Diameter=d, thickness=t,
width=w)
Material SpecificationSize, mm Minimum Allowable Tension per Specific Coefficient of
Pulley unit Width of 3m/s, Weight, Friction
3
Diameter, mm (10 )N/mm KN/m3
Leather 1 ply t=4.5 75 5 9.5-12.2 0.4

t=5 90 6 9.5-12.2 0.4
2 ply t=7 115 7 9.5-12.2 0.4

t=8 150 9 9.5-12.2 0.4
t=9 230 10 9.5-12.2 0.4
PolyamidebF-0c t=0.8 15 1.8 9.5 0.5

F-1c t=1.3 25 6 9.5 0.5
F-2c t=1.8 60 10 13.8 0.5
A-2c t=2.8 60 10 10.0 0.8
A-3c t=3.3 110 18 11.4 0.8
A-4c t=5.0 240 30 10.6 0.8
A-5c t=6.4 340 48 10.6 0.8
Urethaned w=12.7 t=1.6 1.0e 10.3-12.2 0.7

w=19 t=2.0 See Table 4-2 1.7e 10.3-12.2 0.7
w=32 t=2.3 3.3e 10.3-12.2 0.7
Round d=6 1.4e 10.3-12.2 0.7

d=10 3.3e 10.3-12.2 0.7
d=12 See Table 4-2 5.8e 10.3-12.2 0.7
d=20 13e 10.3-12.2 0.7
a
Add 2 in to pulley size for belts 8 in wide or more
b
Source: Habasit Engineering Manual, Habasit Belting, Inc., Chamblee (Atlanta), Ga
c
Friction cover of acrylonitrile –butadiene rubber on both sides
d
Source: Eagle Belting Co. Des Plaines, III
e
At 6% elongation: 12% is maximum allowable value
Table 4-2: Minimum Pulley Sizes for Flat and Round Urethane Belts (Listed are Pulley
Diameters in mm)
Ratio of Pulley Speed to Belt Length, rev/(m.s)
Belt Style Belt Size,mm Up to 14 14 to 27 28-55
Flat 12.7*1.6 9.7 11.2 12.7
19*2.0 12.7 16 19
32*2.3 12.7 16 19
Round 6 38.1 44.5 50.8
10 57.1 66.5 76.2
12 76.2 88.9 101.6
20 127 152 177.8
21
Table 4-3: Pulley Correction Factor Cp for Flat Belts*
Material 40-100 115-200 220-310 355-405 460-800 Over 800
Leather 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
PolyamideF-0 0.95 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
PolyamideF-1 0.70 0.92 0.95 1.0 1.0 1.0
PolyamideF-2 0.73 0.86 0.96 1.0 1.0 1.0
PolyamideA-2 0.73 0.86 0.96 1.0 1.0 1.0
PolyamideA-3 - 0.70 0.87 0.94 0.96 1.0
PolyamideA-4 - - 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.92
PolyamideA-5 - - - 0.72 0.77 0.91
*Average Value of Cp for the given ranges was approximated from curves in Habasit Engineering manual,
Habasit Belting. Inc. Chamblee(Atlanta), Ga.
Table 4-4: Crown Height and ISO Pulley Diameter for Flat Belts*
ISO Crown ISO
Pulley Height, Pulley Crown Height ,in
Diameter, mm mm Diameter, mm W≤250mm W>250
40, 50, 62 0.3 315, 355 0.75 0.75
70, 80 0.3 315, 355 1.0 1.0
90, 100, 115 0.3 570, 635, 710 1.3 1.3
125, 142 0.4 800, 900 1.3 1.5
160, 180 0.5 1015 1.3 1.5
200, 230 0.6 1140, 1270, 1420 1.5 2.0
250,285 0.75 1600, 1800, 2030 1.8 2.5
*crown should be rounded, not angled; maximum roughness is Ra=AA 1500 µmm.
4.1 Design steps:

The steps in analyzing a flat belt drive can include
4.1.1 Find exp( fφ ) from belt-drive geometry and friction.
4.1.2 From belt geometry and speed find Fc.
4.1.3 From T = H nom K s n d / ( 2πn ) find the necessary torque..
4.1.4 From torque T find the necessary ( F1 )a − F2 = 2T / D .
4.1.5 From data book, determine ( F1 )a .
4.1.6 Find F2 from ( F1 )a − ( F1 )a − F2  .
4.1.7 Find the necessary initial tension from, F = F1 + F2 − F .

i c
2
22
1 ( F1 )a − Fc
4.1.8 Check the friction development, f ' < f , with f ' = ln
φ F2 − Fc
4.1.9 Find the factor of safety from n fs = H a / ( H nom K s )
4.1.10 Open-belt drive: contact angles:

D−d
θd = π − 2sin −1
2C
D−d
θD = π + 2sin −1
2C
where D = diameter of large pulley
d = diameter of small pulley
C = center distance
θ = angle of contact
4.1.11 Open-belt drive: Belt length

1/2 1
L =  4C2 − ( D − d )  ( DθD + dθd )
2
+
  2
4.1.12 Cross-belt drive: contact angles , the angle of wrap is the same for both pulleys
D+d
θ = π + 2sin −1
2C
4.1.13 Cross-belt drive: Belt length
1/2 1
L =  4C2 − ( D − d )  (D + d) θ
2
+
  2
4.2 Important formulas::
4.2.1 belt speed, V = Лdn (m/s)
4.2.2 weight w of a meter of belt
4.2.3 w = γbt
4.2.4 γ – weight density ( N/m3); b – belt width; t - belt thickness
4.2.5 centrifugal force , Fc = (wV2)/g
4.2.6 Torque, T = (Hnom Ks nd)/(2Лn)
4.2.7 Hnom – power, Ks – shock factor or service factor; nd – design or safety factor; n –
4.2.8 rpm of driving pulley
4.2.9 (F1)a –F2 = 2T/d
4.2.10 T – torque; d - diameter of driving pulley
4.2.11 F1=(F1)a = b Fa Cp Cv
23
4.2.12 Fa – manufacturer’s allowed tension ( from table 17-2) ; Cp – pulley correction
factor ( Table 17-4); Cv – velocity correction factor.
For polyamide, Cv =1.
4.2.13 F2 = (F1)a – [(F1)a- F2]
4.2.14 F = F1 + F2 − F
i c
2
4.2.15 Allowable power or design power
H a = H nom × K s × n d
4.2.16 check for friction development, f' < f , 1 (F ) − F

f ' = ln 1 a c
φ F2 − Fc
4.2.17 factor safety ; n = Ha

fs
H nom K s
24
5. Design of V belts
Table 5-1: Standard V-Belt Sections
Belt Width a, Thickness b, Minimum sheave KW Range,

Section mm mm Diameter, mm One or More Belts
A 12 8.5 75 0.2-7.5
B 16 11 135 0.7-18.5
C 22 13 230 11-75
D 30 19 325 37-186
E 38 25 540 75 and up
Table 5-2: Inside Circumferences of Standard V Belts.

Section Circumference, mm
650, 775, 825, 875, 950, 1050, 1150, 1200, 1275, 1325, 1375, 1425,
A 1500, 1550, 1600, 1700, 1775, 1875, 1950, 2000, 2125, 2250,
2400, 2625, 2800, 3000, 3200
875, 950, 1050, 1150, 1200, 1275, 1325, 1375, 1425, 1500, 1550,
1600, 1650, 1700, 1775, 1875, 1950, 2000, 2125, 2250, 2400, 2625,
B
2800, 3000, 3200, 3275, 3400, 3450, 3950, 4325, 4500, 4875, 5250,
6000, 6750, 7500
1275, 1500, 1700, 1875, 2025, 2125, 2250, 2400, 2625, 2800, 3000,
C 3200, 3400, 3600, 3950, 4050, 4350, 4500, 4875, 5250, 6000, 6750,
7500, 8250, 9000, 9750, 10500
3000, 3200, 3600, 3950, 4050, 4350, 4500, 4875, 5250, 6000, 6750,
D
7500, 8250, 9000, 9750, 10 500, 12000, 13500, 15000, 16500
4500, 4875, 5250, 6000, 6750, 7500, 8250, 9000, 9750, 10500,
E
12000, 13500, 15000, 16500
Table 5-3: Length Conversion Dimensions (Add the Listed Quantities to the Inside
Circumference to Obtain the Pitch Length in mm)
Belt Section A B C D E
Quantity to be added 32 45 72 82 112
25
Table 5-4: Power (kW) Ratings of Standard V Belts.
Belt Speed (m/s)
Sheave Pitch
Belt Section 5 10 15 20 25
Diameter, mm
65 0.35 0.46 0.40 0.11
75 0.49 0.75 0.84 0.69 0.28
85 0.60 0.98 1.17 1.64 0.84
A 95 0.69 1.16 1.43 1.49 1.28
105 0.77 1.30 1.64 1.78 1.63
115 0.83 1.41 1.82 2.01 1.93
125 and up 0.83 1.51 1.97 2.21 2.16
105 0.80 1.51 1.97 2.21 2.16
115 0.95 1.18 1.25 0.94 0.16
125 1.07 1.48 1.71 1.55 0.92
135 1.19 1.74 2.09 2.06 1.57
B
145 1.28 1.95 2.42 2.49 2.10
155 1.36 2.14 2.69 2.87 2.57
165 1.43 2.31 2.94 3.19 2.98
175 and up 1.50 2.45 3.16 3.48 3.34
150 1.37 1.98 2.03 1.40
175 1.85 2.94 3.46 3.31 2.33
200 2.21 3.66 4.54 4.74 4.12
C 225 2.49 4.21 5.38 5.36 5.51
250 2.72 4.66 6.05 7.16 6.63
275 2.89 5.03 6.59 7.46 7.53
300 and up 3.05 5.33 7.06 8.13 8.28
250 3.09 4.57 4.89 3.80 1.01
275 3.73 5.84 6.80 6.34 4.19
300 4.26 6.91 8.36 8.50 6.85
325 4.71 7.83 9.70 10.30 9.10
D
350 5.09 8.58 10.89 11.79 11.04
375 5.42 9.25 11.86 13.13 12.68
400 5.71 9.85 12.76 14.32 14.17
425 and up 5.98 10.37 13.50 15.37 15.44
400 6.48 10.44 13.06 13.50 11.41
450 7.40 12.46 15.82 17.16 16.04
500 8.13 13.95 18.05 20.07 19.69
E 550 8.73 15.14 19.84 22.53 22.75
600 9.25 16.11 21.34 24.54 25.22
650 9.70 17.01 22.60 26.19 27.38
700 and up 10.00 17.68 23.72 27.68 29.17
26
Table 5-5: Angle of Contact Correction Factor K1 for VV* and V-Flat Drives.
K1
(D-d)/C θ, deg VV V Flat
0.00 180 1.00 0.75
0.10 174.3 0.99 0.76
0.20 166.5 0.97 0.78
0.30 162.7 0.96 0.79
0.40 156.9 0.94 0.80
0.50 151.0 0.93 0.81
0.60 145.1 0.91 0.83
0.70 139.0 0.89 0.84
0.80 132.8 0.87 0.85
0.90 126.5 0.85 0.85
1.00 120.0 0.82 0.82
1.10 113.3 0.80 0.80
1.20 106.3 0.77 0.77
1.30 98.9 0.73 0.73
1.40 91.1 0.70 0.70
1.50 82.8 0.65 0.65
*A curve fit for the VV column in terms of θ is
K1 = 0.143543 + 0.007468θ − 0.000015052θ2
In the range 90° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
Table 5-6: Belt-Length Correction Factor K*2 .

Nominal Belt Length, (m)
Length Factor A Belts B Belts C belts D Belts E Belts

0.85 Up to 0.88 Up to 1.15 Up to 1.88 Up to 3.2
0.9 0.95-1.15 1.2-1.5 2.03-2.4 3.6-4.05 Up to 4.88
0.95 1.2-1.38 1.55-1.88 2.63-3.0 4.33-5.25 5.25-6.0
1 1.5-1.88 1.95-2.43 3.2-3.95 6 6.75-7.5
1.05 1.95-2.25 2.63-3.0 4.05-4.88 6.75-8.25 8.25-9.75
1.1 2.4-2.8 3.2-3.6 5.25-6.0 9.0-10.5 10.5-12.0
1.15 3.0 and up 3.95-4.5 6.75-7.5 12 13.5-15.0
1.2 4.88 and up 8.25 and up 13.5 and up 16.5
Table 5-7: Suggested Service Factors Ks for V-Belt Drives.
Source Of Power
Normal Torque High Or Nonuniform
Driven Machinery Characteristic Torque
Uniform 1.0-1.2 1.1-1.3
Light shock 1.1-1.3 1.2-1.4
Medium shock 1.2-1.4 1.4-1.6
Heavy shock 1.3-1.5 1.5-1.8
27
Table 5-8: Some V-belt parameters*
Belt Section Kb Kc
A 220 0.561
B 576 0.965
C 1600 1.716
D 5680 3.498
E 10850 5.041
3V 230 0.425
5V 1098 1.217
8V 4830 3.288
Table 5-9: Durability Parameters for Some V-Belts Sections

Source: M.E. Spotts, Design of Machine Elements, 6th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1985
Belt Section 108 to 109 Force Peaks 108 to 109 Force Peaks Minimum
Sheave
K b K b Diameter, mm
A 2999 11.089 75
B 5309 10.926 125
C 9069 11.173 215
D 18 726 11.105 325
E 26 791 11.100 540
3V 3240 12.464 4726 10.153 66
5V 7360 12.593 10 653 10.293 177
8V 16 189 12.629 23 376 10.319 312
Design Equations:
5.1 Pitch length , L p = 2C + π ( D + d ) / 2 + ( D − d ) 2 / ( 4C )
 
5.2 Center to center distance, C = 0.25   L − π D + d  +  L − π D + d  − 2 D − d 2 
2
 p ( )   p 2 ( )  ( ) 
 
2

where D = pitch diameter of the large sheave and d = pitch diameter of the small sheave.
5.3. Allowable power , H a = K1K 2 H tab
28
where K1 = angle of wrap correction factor
K2 = belt length correction factor
5.4 F1 − Fc = exp ( 0.5123φ )

F2 − Fc
5.5 Design power, H d = H nom K s n d
where Hnom = nominal power,

Ks = service factor
Nd = design factor
Nb = number of belts ( usually the next higher integer to Hd/Ha)
That is, N ≥ H d N b = 1, 2,3...

b
Ha
Designers work on a per-belt basis:
5.6 Centrifugal tension Fc is given by
2
 V 
Fc = K c  
V in m/s
 2.4 
where Kc is selected from table.
5.7 The power that is transmitted per belt is based on ∆F − F1 − F2 , where
Hd / Nb
∆F =
πnd
5.8 The largest tension, F = F + ∆Fexp ( fφ )

exp ( fφ ) − 1
1 c
5.9 The least tension, F2 = F1 − ∆F
5.10 Initial tension, F = F1 + F2 − F

i c
2
5.11 The factor of safety, n = H a + N b
fs
H nom K s
5.12 Life
Durability ( life) correlations are complicated by the fact that the bending induces flexural
stresses in the belt; the corresponding belt tension that induces the same maximum tensile stress
is Fb1 at the driving heave and Fb2 at the driven pulley. These equivalent tensions are added to
F1 as
In SI units, T = F + ( F ) = F + 4.45 K b
1 1 b 1 1
39.37 d
29
4.45 K b
T2 = F1 + ( Fb )2 = F1 +
39.37 D
where Kb is given in Table. The equation for the tension versus pass trade-off used by the Gates
Rubber Company is of the form
Tb NP = Kb
where Np = the number of passes
b = approximately 11, see Table 5-9.
The Miner rule is used to sum damage incurred by the two tension peaks as
−1
 K  − b  K  − b 
N P =   +   
 T1   T2  
The lifetime in hours , t =

N p LP
3600
The constants K and b have their ranges of validity. If Np > 109, report that Np = 109.
And t >
N p L P without placing confidence in numerical values beyond the validity interval.
3600V
Summary of Design Steps
The analysis of a V-belt drive can consist of the following steps:
Find V, L p ,C, φ and exp(0.5123φ)
Find H d , H a , and N b from H d / H a and round up
Find Fc , ∆F, F1 , F2 , and Fi , and n fs
Find belt life in number of passes, or hours, if possible
30
6. Design of Gears
6.1 Gear train
Pinion and driven gears are represented as
Pinion – 2
Driven gear – 3
The speed of the driven gear is
N2 d
n3 = n2 = 2 n2
N3 d3
where,
n = revolutions or rev/min
N = number of teeth
D = pitch diameter
Train value,
product of driving tooth number
e=
product of driven tooth number
Finally,
n L = en F
where,
nL – the speed of the last gear in the train
nF – the speed of the first.
6.2 Force Analysis – Spur Gearing

6.2.1 Notations: Gears
1- the frame of the machine
2 – input gear or pinion
3, 4, etc – succeeding gears
6.2.2 Notations: Shaft

Using lowercase letters of the alphabet a, b, c, etc.
6.2.3 Notations: Force exerted
F23 – the force exerted by gear 2 against gear 3.
F2a - the force of gear 2 against a shaft ‘a’.
Fa2 - the force of a shaft ‘a’ against gear 2.
6.2.4 Notations: Coordinates

x, y ,z coordinates
31
6.2.5 Notations: radial and tangential direction (Superscripts)
r - radial direction
t - tangential direction
F43t - the tangential component of the force of gear 4 acting against gear 3.
6.2.6 Notations: Torque

Ta 2 - The torque of a shaft ‘a’ against gear 2.
• Pinion mounted on a
shaft ‘a’ rotating
clockwise at n2 rev/min.
• Driving a gear on
shaft b at n3 rev/min.
• The reaction between
the mating teeth occur
along the pressure line.
Figure 6-1: freebody diagrams of the forces and moments acting upon two gears of a simple
gear train
Figure 6-2 : Resolution of gear forces

32
I. Transmitted load,
Wt = F32t
II. Torque
d
T= Wt
2
where, T = Ta2 and d = d2 to obtain a general relation.
III. Power transmitted, H, through a rotating gear can be obtained

 d
H = Tω =  Wt  ω
 2
where, ω is the angular veloticity.
IV. Pitch line velocity at radius of pitch circle

d
v=ω
2
and
πdn
v= (m / s)
60
where, d = gear diameter, m
n = gear speed, rev/min
V. Transmitted load
H
Wt = 60000
πdn
where,
Wt = transmitted load, kN, H = power, kW, d = gear diameter, mm, n = speed, rev/min
6.3 Bending of spur gear

v = πdn ( m / s )
I. Velocity,
= πd p n p ,pinion ( m / s )
= πd G n G ,gear ( m / s )
II. Transmitted load, W t = H = 0.7457 × 1000 × H(hp)

V V
III. Ko, Overload factors

Ko = 1, for uniform loading.
Overload factor Ko is allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load Wt in a particular applications. Eg: variations in torque from the mean value due
to firing of cylinder in an IC engine or reaction to torque variations in a piston pump drive.
33
Table 6-1: Overload Factors, Ko
Driven Machine
Power source Uniform Moderate Shock Heavy shock

Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.75
Light shock 1.25 1.50 2.00
Medium shock 1.50 1.75 2.25
IV. KV, Dynamic factor

Dynamic factors are used to account for inaccuracies in the manufacturer and meshing of gear
teeth in action. Transmission errors is defined as the departure from uniform angular velocity of
the gear pair. Some of the effects that produce transmission error are
• tooth profile: error in tooth spacing, profile lead, and run out.
• Vibration of the tooth during meshing due to the tooth stiffness.
• Magnitude of the pitch line velocity
• Dynamic unbalance of the rotating members
• Wear and permanent deformation of contacting portions of the teeth
• Gearshaft misalignment and the linear and angular deflection of the shaft
• Tooth friction.
B
 A + 200V 
Kv =   v in (m / s)
 A 
where,
A = 50 + 56 (1 − B )
B = 0.25 (12 − Q v )
2/3
Qv ranges from 6 to 12, with lower numbers representing greater accuracy.
V. Ks, Size factor

The size factor reflects non uniformity of material properties due to size. It depends upon
1. tooth size 2. diameter of part 3. ratio of tooth size to diameter of part.
( )
0.0535
K s = 0.904 bm Y
If Ks in above equation is less than 1, use Ks = 1.

For Y, Lewis form factor, use the following table.
34
Table 6-2: Values of the Lewis form factor Y ( these values are for a normal pressure angle
200, full depth teeth , and a diameter pitch of unity in the plane of rotation.
Number of Teeth Y Number of Teeth Y

12 0.245 28 0.353
13 0.261 30 0.359
14 0.277 34 0.371
15 0.290 38 0.384
16 0.296 43 0.397
17 0.303 50 0.409
18 0.309 60 0.422
19 0.314 75 0.435
20 0.322 100 0.447
21 0.328 150 0.460
22 0.331 300 0.472
24 0.337 400 0.480
26 0.346 Rock 0.485
VI. KH – load distribution factor

The load distribution factor modified the stress equations to reflect non uniform
distribution of load across the line of contact.
K H = Cmf = 1 + Cmc (Cpf Cpm + Cma Ce )
where
1 for uncrowned teeth
C mc = 
0.8 for crowned teeth
 b
10d − 0.025 b ≤ 25mm

 b
C pf =  − 0.0375 + 4.92 (10−4 ) b 25 < b ≤ 425mm
 10d
 b
10d − 0.1109 + 8.15 (10 ) b − 3.53 (10 ) b
−4 −7 2
425 < b ≤ 1000mm
1 for straddle − mounted pinion with S1 / S < 0.175


C pm = or (bearings immediately adjacent)
1.1 for straddle − mounted pinion with S / S ≥ 0.175
 1
C ma = {A + Bb + Cb 2
35
Table 6-3: Empirical constants A, B, C for Cma, face width b in inch
Condition A B C
Open Gearing 0.247 0.0167 -0.7659(10-4)
Commercial, enclosed units 0.127 0.0158 -0.930(10-4)
Precision , enclosed units 0.0675 0.0128 -0.926(10-4)
Extra precision enclosed gear units 0.00360 0.0102 -0.822(10-4)
*See ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04, pp. 20-22, for SI formulation

VII. KB, Rim thickness
Assuming constant thickness gear, the rim thickness factor is
KB = 1
VIII. YJ = J, Bending strength geometry factor
Figure 6-3: Spur gear geometry factors J. Source: The graph is from AGMA 218.01, which is
consistent with tabular data from the current AGMA 908-B89. The graph is convenient for
design purposes.
36
IX. Bending stress
1 KHKB
σ = W t KoK VKs
bm t YJ
6.4 Helical Gearing: Force Analysis
The three dimensional view of the forces acting against a helical gear tooth is shown in figure.
Usually tangential component, also called transmitted load, is given and other forces are
desired.
Figure 6-4: 3D forces on a helical gear.
I. Tangential component, W = H
t
V
where, H = given power, and
II. Pitch line velocity, V = πdn in m/s
III. Radial component, Wr = Wt tan φ t

IV. Axial component, Wa = Wt tan ψ
V. Total force, W = Wt
cos φn cos ψ
VI. Relation between angles, cos ψ = tan φ n
tan φ t
where ψ is helix angle , φn is normal pressure angle and φ t is the transverse or pressure
angle in the direction of rotation.
7. Transverse module, m = m n , where m n is normal module.
cos ψ
t
37
6.5 Bevel Gear: Force Analysis
Bevel gears are used to transmit motion between interesting shafts. Although bevel gears are
usually made for a shaft angle of 90°, they may be produced for almost any angle.
Figure 6-5: Bevel gear tooth forces and terminology.
Pitch angles are related to the tooth numbers as follows:
I. Pinion pitch angel, tan γ = N P = Ext diameter of pinion

NG Ext diameter of gear
II. Gear pitch angel, tan Γ = N G = Ext diameter of gear

NP Ext diameter of pinion
where N P is tooth numbers of pinion and NG is the tooth numbers of gear
III. The transmitted load, W = T = H

t
rav V
where, T is torque, rav is average pitch radius, H is power, V is pitch line velocity.
IV. Pitch line velocity, V = πdn in m/s.
For pinion: For gear:
a. Radial force, Wr = Wt tan φ cos γ a. Radial force, Wr = Wt tan φ cos Γ
b. Axial force, Wa = Wt tan φ sin γ b. Axial force, Wa = Wt tan φ sin Γ
38
6.6 Worm Gearing: Force Analysis
Figure 6-6: Drawing of the pitch cylinder of a worm, showing the forces exerted upon it by the
worm gear.
a) Neglecting friction
The force exerted by the gear is the force W. The force W has three orthogonal components
i) W x = W cos φn sin λ
ii) W y = W sin φn
iii) W z = W cos φ n cos λ
b) Using subscripts
W – Worm and
G - Gear
Forces acting against the worm and gear are

i) Wwt = − WGa = W x
ii) Wwr = − WGr = W y
iii) Wwa = − WGt = W z
c) Including friction at the contact point

i) W x = W ( cos φ n sin λ + f cos λ )
ii) W y = W sin φn
iii) W z = W ( cos φn cos λ − f sin λ )
d) Transverse circular pitch, p = πm = π
t t
P
e) Axial pitch, p x = p t
39
f) Lead angle, λ = tan −1 L
πd w
g) Sliding Velocity, V = Vw
cos λ
s
Figure 6-7: Representative values of the coefficient for worm gearing. These values are
based on good lubrication. Use curve B for high quality materials, such as a case hardened
steel worm mating with a phosphor- bronze gear. Use curve A when more friction is
expected, as with cast-iron worm mating with a cast-iron worm gear.
6.7 Safety factor

6.7.1 Bending fatigue failure, SF
S Y / ( KTKR )
SF = t N = fully corrected bending strength
σ
where
a) St - allowable bending stress
i) Use following table and figure for determining St
St = 0.533H B + 88.3 MPa, grade 1
St = 0.703H B + 113 MPa, grade 2
40
Table 6-4: Repeatedly applied bending strength S t at 107 cycles and 0.99 reliability for steel.
gears
Material Heat Minimum Allowable Bending Stress Number

Designation Surface
Treatment Hardness1 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Steel 3 Through hardened4 See Fig. 6-8 See Fig. 6-8 See Fig. 6-8 _
Flame4 or induction See Table 8* 45 000 22 000 _

Hardened4 with type
A pattern5
Flame4 or induction See Table 8* 22 000 65 000 or _

Hardened4 with type
B pattern5 70 000
Carburized and See Table 9* 55 000 225 000 75 000

hardened5
Nitrided4.7 83.5 HR 15N See Fig. 14-3 See Fig. 14-3 _

( Through hardened
steels)
Nitralloy 135M, Nitrided4.7 83.5 HR 15N See Fig. 14-4 See Fig. 14-4 See Fig. 14-4
Nitralloy N, and
2.5% chrome (no
aluminium)
Figure 6-8: Allowable bending stress number for through hardened steels.
41
b) YN , Stress – cycle factor
The load cycle factors will be given in the question statement, with
N(pinion) = N cycles
N(Gear) = N/mG , and mG = NG/NP
As an example: For grade 1 steel,
( YN )P = 1.3558 × (N)−0.0178
( YN )G = 1.3558 × (N / m G ) −0.0178
Or use following figure for appropriate equations based on the number of cycles.
Figure 6-9: Repeatedly applied bending strength stress-cycle factor YN.
c) Temperature factor, KT
KT = 1, if T < 120
d) Reliability factor, KR
Reliability KR(YZ)
0.9999 1.50
0.999 1.25
0.99 1.00
0.9 0.85
0.50 0.70
e) σ , bending stress from section 6.3.

6.7.2 Pitting failure or Wear, SH
 SC Z N / ( K T K R ) 
( SH ) =  
 σC 
42
a) Repeatedly applied contact strength, SC
Use following table and graph to estimate SC
Table 6-5: Repeatedly applied contact strength SC at 107 cycles and 0.99 reliability for steel
gears.
Material Designation Heat treatment Minimum surface Allowable contact stress
Hardness1 Number2,Sc,psi
Grade1 Grade2 Grade 3
3 4
Steel Through Hardened See figure 14-5 See figure See figure -
14-5 14-5
Flame5 or Induction 50 HRC 170 000 190 000 -
5
Hardened 54 HRC 175 000 195 000
Carburized and See Table 9* 180 000 225 000 275 000
5
hardened
Nitrided5 (through 83.5 HR15N 150 000 163 000 175 000
hardened steels) 84.5 HR15N 155 000 168 000 180 000
5
2.5% chrome(no Nitrided 87.5HR15N 155 000 172 000 189 000
aluminum)
Nitralloy 135M Nitrided5 90.0HR15N 170 000 183 000 195 000
5
Nitralloy N Nitrided 90.0HR15N 172 000 188 000 205 000
2.5% chrome(no Nitrided5 90.0HR15N 176 000 196 000 216 000
aluminum)
Figure 6-10: Contact fatigue strength SC at 107 cycles and 0.99 reliability for through-hardened
steel gear. The SI equations are
SC = 2.22H B + 200 MPa, grade 1

SC = 2.41H B + 237 MPa, grade 2
b) Pitting resistance stress cycle factor, ZN
Generally given in question statement or use following figure to estimate ZN
43
Figure 6-11: Pitting resistance stress-cycle factor, ZN
c) Temperature factor, KT
KT = 1, if T < 120
d) Reliability factor, KR
Reliability KR(YZ)
0.9999 1.50
0.999 1.25
0.99 1.00
0.9 0.85
0.50 0.70
e) Pitting resistance (contact stress) σC

K H ZR
σC = ZE W t K o K v K s
d w1b ZI
where,
Z E - elastic coefficient N / mm2
ZR - surface condition factor
d w1 - pitch diameter of the pinion , in (mm)
ZI - geometry factor for pitting resisitance
And ,
W t , K o , K v , K s , K H , b the same terms as defined for the bending stress section 6.3.
44
i) Elastic coefficient, Z E
Elastic coefficient Z E N / mm 2
Table 6-6: Gear Material and Modulus of Elasticity EG, lbf/in2 (MPa)*
Pinion Steel Malleable Iron Nodular Iron Cast Iron Aluminum Tin Bronze
Pinion Modulus of 30*106 25*106 24*106 22*106 Bronze 16*106
Elasticity ED (2*105) (1.7*105) (1.7*105) (1.5*105) 17.5*106 (1.1*105)
Material psi (MPa)* (1.2*105)
Steel 30*106 2300 2180 2160 2100 1950 1900

(2*105) (191) (181) (179) (174) (162) (158)
Malleable 25*106 2180 2090 2070 2020 1900 1850
Iron (1.7*105) (181) (174) (172) (168) (158) (154)
Nodular Iron 24*106 2160 2070 2050 2000 1880 1830
(1.7*105) (179) (172) (170) (166) (156) (152)
6
Cast Iron 22*10 5 2100 2020 2000 1960 1850 1800
(1.5*10 ) (174) (168) (166) (163) (154) (149)
6
Aluminum 17.5*105 1950 1900 1880 1850 1700 1650
Bronze (1.2*10 ) (162) (158) (156) (154) (145) (141)
6
Tin Bronze 16*10 5 1900 1850 1830 1800 1700 1650
(1.1*10 ) (158) (154) (152) (149) (141) (137)
ii) Surface condition factor, ZR

Standard surface conditions for gear teeth have not yet been established. Thus, use Z R = 1.
iii) Geometry factor for pitting resisitance, ZI
 cos φt sin φt mG
 2m external gears
 mG + 1
I=
N
 cos φt sin φt mG int ernal gears

 2m N mG − 1
For spur gear, m N = 1

iv) Now you can find σC .
v) Finally , find pittinf failure factor SH
6.7.3 Compare factor of safety
Compare ( SF ) with ( SH )2 both for pinion and gear.
45
7. Mechanical Springs
The most commonly used springs are of the three types below:
There are many different types of compression springs. The following figure illustrate the
difference between them.
Notations
D Mean coil diameter
D Wire diameter
F Direct shear force
T Torque
KB Stress correction factor
C Spring index
N or Na Number of active coils
Α End condition constant
λeff Slenderness ratio
Formulas:
7.1 Shear stresses in Helical springs

8FD
τ = KB
πd 3
7.2 Shear stress correction factor
4C + 2
KB =
4C − 3
7.3 Spring index
D
C=
d
7.4 Total deflection
F 8FD3 N
y= = 4
k dG
7.5 Spring rate or scale of the spring
46
F d 4G
k= = 3
y 8D N
7.6 Stability
1
πD  2 ( E − G )  2
a) Lo <  
α  2G + E 
b) For steel,
D
Lo < 2.63
α
c) For squared and ground ends,
α = 0.5 and Lo < 5.26D
d) Slenderness ratio
αL o
λ eff =
D
7.7 Critical frequency of Helical Springs
a) Spring placed between two flat plate and parallel plates
1 kg
fundamental frequency, f =
2 W
b) Spring placement: one end against a flat plate and the other end free
1 kg
fundamental frequency, f =
4 W
where,
k = spring rate
g = acceleration due to gravity
W = weight of spring
π2 d 2 DN a γ
W = ALγ =
c) 4
γ = Specific weight
7.8 Fatigue Loading of Helical compression Springs
a) Endurance strength components for infinite life for: Zimmerli data
Unpeened:
Ssa = 241 MPa Ssm = 379 MPa
Peened:
Ssa = 398 MPa Ssm = 534 MPa
b) Torsional modulus of rupture or shearing ultimate strength

Ssu = 0.67Sut
where Sut is ultimate tensile strength
c) Shear forces
47
Fmax − Fmin
Alternating shear force, Fa =
2
F +F
Midrange shear force, Fm = max min
2
d) Shear stresses
8Fa D
Alternating shear stress, τa = K B
πd 3
8F D
Midrange shear stress, τm = K B m 3
πd
e) The Gerber ordinate intercept for shear
Ssa
Sse = 2
S 
1 −  sm 
 Ssu 
The alternating component of strength Ssa
 2 
r 2Ssu2   2Sse  
Ssa = −1 + 1 +  
2Sse   rSsu  
 
The fatigue factor of safety
Ssa
nf =
τa
f) The Sines failure criterion
Ssm = 0
Ssa = minimum for the Zimmerli data.
Ssa
nf =
τa
g) The Goodman ordinate intercept
Ssa
Sse =
S 
1 −  sm 
 Ssu 
The alternating component of strength Ssa
rSseSsu
Ssa =
rSsu + Sse
Ssa
nf =
τa
48
Table 7-1: Decimal Equivalents of Wire and Sheet Metal Gauges* (All sizes are given in
Millimeters).
Steel Wire
Name American Birmingham or Stubs United Manu- or Stubs
of or Brown Iron Wire States facturers Washburn Music Steel Twist
Gauge: & Sharpe Tubing, Standard† Standard & Moen Wire Wire Drill
Ferrous
Strip, Flat Wire, and Ferrous Ferrous
Nonferous Spring Steel Sheet and Wire
Principal Sheet, Wire and Rod Plate, Ferrous Except Music Steel Twist
Use: 75.4 kN/m3 Sheet Music wire Wire Drill Drills and
Rod Drill Steel
18 1.024 1.245 1.27 1.265 1.206 1.041 4.267 4.305
19 0.912 1.067 1.111 1.062 1.041 1.092 4.166 4.216
20 0.812 0.889 0.952 0.912 0.884 1.143 4.089 4.089
21 0.723 0.813 0.873 0.836 0.805 1.194 3.988 4.039
22 0.644 0.711 0.794 0.759 0.726 1.245 3.937 3.988
23 0.573 0.635 0.714 0.683 0.655 1.295 3.886 3.912
24 0.511 0.559 0.635 0.607 0.584 1.397 3.835 3.861
25 0.455 0.508 0.556 0.531 0.518 1.499 3.759 3.797
26 0.405 0.457 0.476 0.455 0.46 1.6 3.708 3.734
27 0.361 0.406 0.437 0.417 0.439 1.702 3.632 3.658
28 0.321 0.356 0.397 0.378 0.411 1.803 3.531 3.556
29 0.286 0.33 0.357 0.343 0.381 1.905 3.404 3.454
30 0.255 0.305 0.318 0.305 0.356 2.032 3.226 3.264
31 0.227 0.254 0.278 0.267 0.335 2.159 3.048 3.048
32 0.202 0.229 0.258 0.246 0.325 2.286 2.921 2.946
33 0.18 0.203 0.238 0.229 0.3 2.413 2.845 2.87
34 0.16 0.178 0.128 0.208 0.264 2.794 2.819
35 0.143 0.127 0.198 0.19 0.241 2.743 2.794
36 0.127 0.102 0.179 0.17 0.229 2.692 2.705
37 0.113 0.169 0.163 0.216 2.616 2.642
38 0.101 0.159 0.152 0.203 2.565 2.578
39 0.09 0.19 2.515 2.527
40 0.08 0.178 2.464 2.489
*Specify sheet, wire and plate by stating the gauge number, the gauge name, and the decimal equivalent in parenthesis.
†Reflects present average and weights of sheet steel.
Table 7-2: Formula for the dimensional characteristics of compression – springs. (Na =
Number of active coils. Source: Design handbook, 1987, p.32. courtesy of associated spring.)
Types of Spring Ends
Term Plain Plain and Ground Squared or Closed Squared and Ground
End coils, Ne 0 1 2 2
Total Coils, Nt Na Na+1 Na+2 Na+2
Free Length, Lo p Na + d p(Na+1) p Na+3d pNa+2d
Solid Length, Ls d(Nt+1) dNt d(Nt+1) dNt
Pitch, p (L0-d)/Na L0/(Na+1) (L0-3d)/Na (L0-2d)/Na
49
Table 7-3: End condition constants α for Helical compression springs*.
End Condition Constant α
Spring supported between flat parallel surfaces ( fixed ends) 0.5
One end supported by flat surface perpendicular to spring axis (fixed);
Other end pivoted (hinged) 0.707
Both ends pivoted ( hinged) 1
One end clamped; other end free 2
*Ends supported by flat surfaces must be squared and ground.
Table 7-4: High carbon and alloy spring steels. Source. Harold C.R. Carlson. “Selection and
application of spring materials,” Mechanical engineering, vol.78.1956,pp.331-334.
Name of Material Similar Description
Specifications
Music wire, UNS G10850 This is the best, toughest, and most widely used of all spring
0.80–0.95C AISI 1085 materials for small springs. It has the highest tensile strength
ASTM A228-51 and can withstand higher stresses under repeated loading than
any other spring material. Available in diameters 0.12 to 3 mm
(0.005 to 0.125 in). Do not use above 120°C (250°F) or at
subzero temperatures
Oil-tempered wire, UNS G10650 This general-purpose spring steel is used for many types of coil
0.60–0.70C AISI 1065 springs where the cost of music wire is prohibitive and in sizes
ASTM 229-41 larger than available in music wire. Not for shock or impact
loading. Available in diameters 3 to 12 mm (0.125 to 0.5000
in), but larger and smaller sizes may be obtained. Not for use
above 180°C (350°F) or at subzero temperatures.
Hard-drawn wire, UNS G10660 This is the cheapest general-purpose spring steel and should be
0.60–0.70C AISI 1066 used only where life, accuracy, and deflection are not too
ASTM A227-47 important. Available in diameters 0.8 to 12 mm (0.031 to 0.500
in). Not for use above 120°C (250°F) or at subzero
temperatures.
Chrome-vanadium UNS G61500 This is the most popular alloy spring steel for conditions
AISI 6150 involving higher stresses than can be used with the high-carbon
ASTM 231-41 steels and for use where fatigue resistance and long endurance
are needed. Also good for shock and impact loads. Widely used
for aircraft-engine valve springs and for temperatures to 220°C
(425°F). Available in annealed or pretempered sizes 0.8 to 12
mm (0.031 to 0.500 in) in diameter.
Chrome-silicon UNS G92540 This alloy is an excellent material for highly stressed springs
AISI 9254 that require long life and are subjected to shock loading.
Rockwell hardnesses of C50 to C53 are quite common, and the
material may be used up to 250°C (475°F). Available from 0.8
to 12 mm (0.031 to 0.500 in) in diameter.
50
Table 7-5: Constants A and m of Sut = A/dm for estimating minimum tensile strength of
common spring wires. Source: Design handbook, 1987, p.19, Courtesy of associated spring.
Materials ASTM Exponent Diameter A Diameter A Relative Cost

NO. m in kpsi. inm mm MPa. mmmm of
Wire
Music Wire * A228 0.145 0.004-0.256 201 0.10-6.5 2211 2.6
OQ & T wire1 A229 0.187 0.020-0.500 147 0.5-12.7 1855 1.3
2
Hard Drawn wire A227 0.190 0.032-0.437 140 0.7-12.7 1783 1.0
Chrome-Vanadium A232 0.168 0.063-0.375 169 0.8-11.7 2005 3.1
wire3
Chrome silicon A401 0.108 0.013-0.10 202 1.6-9.5 1974 4.0
wire 4
302 Stainless A313 0.146 0.20-0.40 169 0.3-2.5 1867 7.6-11
Wire5
0.263 0.10-0.20 128 2.5-5 2065
0.478 0.2-0.40 90 5-10 2911
Phosphor-Bronze B159 0 0.004-0.022 145 0.1-0.6 1000 8.0
wire 6
0.028 0.022-0.075 121 0.6-2 913
0.064 0.075-0.30 110 2-2.75 932
*Surface is smooth, free of defects, and has a bright, lustrous finish

1- Has a slight heat-treating scale which must be removed before plating
2-Surface smooth and bright with no visible marks
3- Aircraft Quality tempered wire, can also be obtained annealed
4- Tempered to Rockwell C49, but may be obtained untendered
5- Type 302 Stainless Steel
6- Temper CA510.
Table 7-6:Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical Compression Springs in Static
Applications.
Source:Robert E. Joerres, “Springs”, Chap. 6 in Joseph E. Shigley, Charles R. Mischke, and Thomas H. Brown, Jr. (eds.), Standard Handbook
of Machine Design, 3rd ed, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004.
Maximum Percent of Tensile Strength
Before Set Removed After Set Removed

Material (includes Kw or KB) (includes Ks)
Music wire and cold drawn carbon steel 45 60-70
Hardened and tempered carbon and low-alloy steel 50 65-75

Austenitic staninless steel 35 55-65
Nonferrous alloys 35 55-65
51
Table 7-7: Mechanical properties of some spring wires.
Elastic Limit, Diameter d, E G

Material Percent of Sut
tension Torsion mm Mpsi GPa Mpsi GPa
Music wire A228 65-75 45-60 <.8 29.5 203.4 12.0 82.7
.8-1.6 29.0 200 11.85 81.7
1.61-3 28.5 196.5 11.75 81.0
>3 28.0 193 11.6 80.0
HD spring A227 60-70 45-55 <.8 28.8 198.6 11.7 80.7
.8-1.6 28.7 197.9 11.6 80.0
1.61-3 28.6 197.2 11.5 79.3
>3 28.5 196.5 11.4 78.6
Oil tempered A239 85-90 45-50 28.5 196.5 11.2 77.2
Valve spring A230 85-90 50-60 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Chrome-vanadium A231 88-93 65-75 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
A232 88-93 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Chrome-silicon A401 85-93 65-75 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Stainless steel
A313* 65-75 45-55 28 193 10 69.0
17-7PH 75-80 55-60 29.5 208.4 11 75.8
414 65-70 42-55 29 200 11.2 77.2
420 65-75 45-55 29 200 11.2 77.2
431 72-76 50-55 30 206 11.5 79.3
Phosphor-bronze B159 75-80 45-50 15 103.4 6 41.4
Beryllium-copper B197 70 50 17 117.2 6.5 44.8
75 50-55 19 131 7.3 50.3
Inconel alloy X-750 65-70 40-45 31 213.7 11.2 77.2
Table 7-8: Maximum Recommended Bending Stresses (KB Corrected) for Helical Torsion
Springs in Cyclic Applications as Percent of Sut
ASTM A228 and

Type 302 Stainless Steel ASTM A230 and A232
Fatigue Life,
Cycles Not Shot-Peened Short- Peened Not Short-Peened Short peened
105 53 62 55 64
106 50 60 53 62
52
7.9 Helical coil torsion spring
4C2 − C − 1
a) Stress correction factor, K i =
4C(C − 1)
32Fr
b) Bending stress, round wire, σ = K i
πd 3
c) Static strength from distortion energy theory
0.78Sut

Sy = 0.87Sut
0.61S
 ut
d) Angular deflection of the body of the coil in number of turns,

10.8MDN b
θ'c =
d4E
l1 + l2
e) Number of active turns Na , N a = N b +
3πD
Nb = body turns ,l1 and l2 are lengths from applied force to origin.
d4E
f) Spring rate , K ' =
10.8DN a
g) Helix diameter of the coil
NbD
D' =
N b + θc'
h) Diametral clearance,
∆ = D' − d − D p
Dp = pin diameter
i) Fatigue
i) Alternating moment, M a = ( M max − M min ) / 2
ii) Midrange moment, M m = ( M max + M min ) / 2
Ma
iii) Load line ratio, r =
Mm
32M a
iv) Alternating stress, σa = K i
πd 3
32M m
v) Midrange stress, σ m = K i
πd 3
 2 
Sr / 2 r 2S2ut   2Se  
vi) Gerber fatigue failure, Se = , Sa = −1 + 1 +  
 Sr / 2 
2
2Se   rSut  
1−    
 Sut 
S
Factor of safety, n f = a
σa
53
8. Clutches and Brakes
8.1 Internal Expanding Rim Clutches and Brakes
Figure 8-1: Forces on the shoe

A) Clockwise roataiton
pa
1) Pressure distribution p = sin θ
sin θa
pa = maximum pressure
Short shoe: pa occurring at the end of the shoe, θ2
Long shoe: pa occurring θ = 90º.
θ2
fp a br
2) Moment of frictional forces, M f =
sin θa ∫ sin θ(r − a cos θ)dθ
θ1
θ2
p a bra
sin θa θ∫1
3) Moment of normal forces, M N = sin 2 θdθ
M N − Mf
4) Actuating force, F =
c
fp a br ( cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
2
5) Torque, T =
sin θa
6) Hinge pin reactions,
p a br  2 
θ θ2
Rx =  ∫ sin θ cos θdθ − f ∫ sin 2 θ  − Fx

sin θa  θ1 θ1


54

p a br
θ2 θ2

Ry =  ∫ sin 2 θ + f ∫ sin θ cos θdθ  − Fy
θ
sin θa 
 1 θ1 
B) Counterclockwise roataiton
M + Mf
1) Actuating force, F = N
c
p a br  2 
θ θ2
Rx =  ∫ sin θ cos θdθ + f ∫ sin 2 θ  − Fx



p br  2 
θ θ2
R y = a  ∫ sin 2 θ − f ∫ sin θ cos θdθ  − Fy



8.2 External Contracting Rim Clutches and Brakes

A) Unsymmetric external contracting shoe - Clockwise rotation
Figure 8-2: Notation of external contracting shoes.

θ
fp br 2
1) Moment of frictional forces, M f = a ∫ sin θ(r − a cos θ)dθ
sin θa θ1
θ
p bra 2 2
sin θa θ∫1
2) Moment of normal forces, M N = a sin θdθ
M N + Mf
c
p a br  2 
θ θ2
Rx =  ∫ sin θ cos θdθ + f ∫ sin 2 θ  − Fx



55
p br  2 
θ θ2
R y = a  f ∫ sin θ cos θdθ − ∫ sin 2 θ  + Fy



B) Unsymmetric external contracting shoe - Counterclockwise rotation
θ
fp br 2
1) Moment of frictional forces, M f = a ∫ sin θ(r − a cos θ)dθ
sin θa θ1
θ
p bra 2 2
sin θa θ∫1
2) Moment of normal forces, M N = a sin θdθ
M N − Mf
c
p a br  2 
θ θ2
Rx =  ∫ sin θ cos θdθ − f ∫ sin 2 θ  − Fx



p br  
θ2 θ2
R y = a  −f ∫ sin θ cos θdθ − ∫ sin 2 θ  + Fy



C) Symmetric external contracting shoe - Clockwise rotation
Figure 8-3: (a) Brake with symmetrical pivoted shoe (b) wear of brake lining
1) Pressure distribution p = p a cos θ

4r sin θ2
2) distance a, a =
2θ2 + sin 2θ2
56
p br
R x = a ( 2θ2 + sin 2θ2 )
2
p brf
Ry = a ( 2θ2 + sin 2θ2 )
2
8.3 Band-type clutches and brakes
Figure 8-4: Forces on a brake band.

1) Actuating force P2 and and pin reaction P1
P1
= fφ
P2
D
2) Torque , T = ( P1 − P2 )
2
2P
3) Pressure, p =
bD
2P
4) Maximum Pressure, pa = 1
bD
8.4 Frictional contact axial clutch
Figure 8-5: Disk friction member.

57
8.4.1 Uniform wear – single plate
πp d
a) Actuating force, F = a ( D − d )
2
Ff
b) Torque, T = (D + d)
4
8.4.2 Uniform pressure – single plate
πp
a) Actuating force, F = a ( D 2 − d 2 )
4
Ff ( D − d )
3 3
b) Torque, T =
3 ( D2 − d 2 )
Note: For multiple pair of mating surfaces the force and torque values must be multiplied by the
number of pairs of surfaces in contact.
8.5 Cone clutches and brakes
Figure 8-6: i) Cross section of a cone clutch ii) Contact area of a cone clutch.
8.5.1 Uniform wear
d
a) Pressure relation, p = p a
2r
πp a d
b) Actuating force, F = (D − d)
2
Ff
b) Torque, T = (D + d)
4sin α
8.5.2 Uniform pressure – single plate
a) Using p = p a
πp
a) Actuating force, F = a ( D 2 − d 2 )
4
Ff ( D − d )
3 3
b) Torque, T =
3sin α ( D 2 − d 2 )
8.6 Temperature rise
E
1. Temperature rise of clutch or brake, ∆T =
Cp m
where, ∆T = temperature rise, ºC
Cp = specific heat capacity, use 500 J/kg. ºC for steel or cast iron
58
m = mass of clutch or brake parts, kg
I1I 2 ( ω1 − ω2 )
2
2. Energy dissipated, E =
2 ( I1 + I 2 )
I ( ωo2 − ωf2 )
Energy absorbed by the brake stopping equivalent rotary inertia I, E =
2
T − T∞  h A 
3. Newton’s cooling, = exp  − CR t 
T1 − T∞  mCp 
 
where, T= temperature at time t, ºC
T1= initial temperature, ºC
T∞ = environmental temperature, ºC
h CR = overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/(m2. ºC)
A = lateral surface area, m2
m = mass of the object, kg
C p = specific heat capacity of the object, J/kg. ºC
m = mass of clutch or brake parts, kg
4. Heat loss, H loss = h CR A ( T − T∞ )
5. h CR = ( h r + f v h c )
h r = radiation component of hCR, W/(m2. ºC)
h c = convection component of hCR, W/(m2. ºC)
f v = ventilation factor
∆T
6. Tmax = T∞ +
1 − exp ( −βt1 )
h CR A
β=
mCp
7. Tmax − Tmin = ∆T
Figure 8-7: (a) Heat-transfer coefficient in still air.(b) Ventilation factors.
59
9. Power Screw
Terminology and definitions
The pitch is the distance between adjacent thread forms and measured parallel to the thread
axis.
The major diameter d is the largest diameter of a screw thread.
The minor ( or root diameter) dr is the smallest diameter of a screw thread.
The pitch diameter dp is a theoretical diameter between the major and minor diameters.
The lead l is the distance the nut moves parallel to the screw axis when the nut is given one
turn.
Figure 9-1: Terminology of Screw threads. Figure 9-2: Basic profile for metric M threads.
Sharp vee threads shown for clarity; the d = major diameter
crests and roots are actually flattened or dr = minor diameter
rounded during the forming operation. dp = pitch diameter
p = pitch
3
H= p
2
Figure 9-3: Portion of a power screw.
60
Figure 9-4: Force diagrams: (a) lifting the load; (b) lowering the load.
Figure 9-5: (a) Square thread; (b) Acme thread. Figure 9-6: Geometry of
square thread useful in
finding bending and
transverse shear stresses at
the thread root.
9.1 Formulas for Square thread:
F ( sin λ + f cos λ )
1. Force required for rising the load, PR =
cos λ − f sin λ
F ( l / πd m ) + f 
or PR =
1 − ( fl / πd m )
Fd m ( sin λ + f cos λ )
2. Torque required for rising the load, TR =
2
F ( f cos λ − sin λ )
3. Force required for lowering the load, PL =
cos λ + f sin λ
F f − ( l / πd m ) 
or PL =
1 + ( fl / πd m )
61
Fd m  πfd m − l 
4. Torque required for lowering the load, TL =  
2  πd m + fl 
5. Self locking, πfd m > l
or f > tan λ
l
where tan λ =
πd m
Fl
6. Torque required to raise the load assuming f = 0, T0 =
2π
T0 Fl
7. Efficiency of power screw, e = =
TR 2πTR
9.2 Acme thread

Fd m  l + πfd m sec α 
1. For raising the load, or for tightening a screw or bolt, TR =  
2  πd m − fl sec α 
9.3 Thrust collar
Ff d
1. Torque, Tc = c c
2
where fc is coefficient of collar friction.
9.4 Nominal body stresses
16T
1. The maximum nominal shear stress, τ = 3
πd r
4F
2. The axial stress ( in the absence of column action), σ =
πd 2r
2F
3. The bearing stress, σ B =
πd m n t p
where nt is the number of engaged threads
6F
4. The bending stress at the root of the thread, σ b =
πd r n t p
5. The transverse shear stress at the center of the root of the thread due to load F,
3F
τ= ; but at top of the root, τ = 0
πd r n t p
6. The von Mises stress σ ' at the root plane, the coordinate system of Figure 9-6,
6F
σx = τxy = 0
πd r n t p
4F 16T
σy = − 2 τ yz = 3
πd r πd r
σz = 0 τzx = 0
Then for three dimensional stress, von Mises stress
( σ x − σ y ) + ( σ y − σ z ) + ( σ z − σ x ) + 6 ( τ2xy + τ2yz + τ2zx ) 

1/2
1  2 2
σ' =
2
2  
And for plane stress, σ' = ( σ2x − σ x σ y + σ2y + 3τ2xy )
1/2
62
Formulas related to Elective course: System Design and Simulation
1. Equivalent stiffness, k eq =
( Ai+1 + Ai ) E
2l
2. Cross sectional area variation of tapered bar in the y-direction, A ( y ) = 0.25 − 0.0125y
3. One dimensional elements,

Linear element
Global Shape functions Si and Sj according to the equation,
Xj − X X − Xi
Si = and S j =
l l
ψ (e) = Si ψ i + S jψ j
Quadratic Elements
Global shape functions Si , Sj and Sk according to the equation,
2 (
X − X j ) ( X − X k ) , S j = 2 ( X − Xi )( X − X k ) , and Sk = − 2 ( X − Xi ) ( X − X j )
2 2 4
Si =
l l l
ψ (e) = Si ψ i + S jψ j + Sk ψ k
4. Global coordinates, local and natural coordinates

X = Xi + x
X = global coordinate and
x = local coordinate
5. Shape functions in terms of local coordinate x
X X
Si = 1 − and S j = 0≤x≤l
l l
6. Shape functions in terms of natural coordinate ξ
1 1 ξ = −1, ψ = ψ i
Si = (1 − ξ ) and S j = (1 + ξ ) at 
2 2 ξ = 1, ψ = ψ j
7. Heat transfer
(a) The conductance matrix and thermal load matrix for all elements, excluding the last
 kA 1 − 1 hpl  2 1  hplTf 1
element [ K ] =  +  & {F} =
(e) (e)
      and
 l  −1 1 6 1 2   2 1
(b) The conductance matrix and thermal load matrix for the last element or tip element if
the heat loss through the tip is considered
 kA 1 − 1 hpl  2 1 0 0   hplTf 1 0 
[ K ] =   −1 1 + 1 2  + 0 hA   & {F} =
(e) (e)
 + 
 l   6     2 1 hATf 
(c) [ K ] {T} = {F}
(G ) (G )
.
63
8. Fluid mechanicas
1. For piping flow with variation of viscosity
µ 1 − 1
(a) Element flow resistance matrix [ K ] =
(e)
l  −1 1
Pr essure drop × l 1

(b) Forcing matrix {F} =
(e)

2 1
(c) [ K ] { u} = {F}
(G ) (G) (G )
2. For piping flow with constant viscosity

 πD 4 πD4 
 − 
128Lµ 128Lµ 
(a) Element flow resistance matrix [ R ] =
(e)
 πD 4 πD4 
− 
 128Lµ 128Lµ 
(b) [ R ] {P} = {P}

(G ) (G) (L)
Where {P} - nodal pressure and {P}

(G) (L)
- load pressure.
9. Structural
AE 1 − 1
(a) Element stiffness matrix [ K ] =
(e)
l  −1 1
(b) [ K ] { u} = {F}
(G ) (G) (G )
10. fracture
i. stress intensity factor of mode I
K I = βσ πa
β - stress intensity modification factor, σ - stress , a – crack length

ii. yields
F
Sy =
A
A – sectional area, F – force
64
Figure A-1: Off-center crack in a plate longitudinal tension; solid curves are for the crack tip at A;
dashed curves are for the tip at B.
Figure A-2: Plate loaded in longitudinal tension with a crack at the edge; for the solid curve there are
no constraints to bending; the dashed curve was obtained with bending constraints added.
65
Figure A-3: Beams of rectangular cross section having an edge crack.
Figure A-4: Plate in tension containing a circular hole with two cracks.
66
Figure A-5: A cylindrical loading in axial tension having a radial crack of hepth a extending
completely around the circumference of the cylinder.
Figure A-6: Cylinder subjected to internal pressure p, having a radial crack in the longitudinal
direction of depth a. Use
67
11. Fatigue
i. Axial loading
Fa
Nominal alternating component, σao =
A
Alternating component, σa = K f σao
Fm
Nominal midrange component, σ mo =
A
Midrange component, σ m = K f σmo
ii. Gerber factor of safety,
2  2 
1  Sut  σa   2σmSe  
nf =   −1 + 1 +  
2  σ m  Se   Sut σa  
 
iii. Langer static yield
Sy
nf =
σa + σ m
68
Unit Conversion
Multiply input By factor To get output

X A Y
Inch, in 2.54 centimeter, cm
Inch, in 25.4 millimeter, mm
Pound, lbf 4.45 newton, N
Pound/in2, psi (lbf/in2) 6.89 kilopascal, kPa
1. module (m) = 1/ diametral pitch (P)
69
. References
[1] Budynas and Nisbett, Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, Eight edition, Mc Graw
Hill, ISBN: 0-390-76487-6.
[2] Budynas and Nisbett, Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, Ninth edition in SI Units,
Mc Graw Hill, ISBN: 13:978-0-07-107783-5 (ISBN 10: 0-07-107783-9).
[3] Saeed Moaveni, Finite Element Analysis Theory and Application with ANSYS, 3rd Edition,
ISBN: 0131890808 (ISBN13: 9780131890800).
70

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Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus

Table 1-3: Parameters for Marin Surface Modification Factor.

Ground 1.34 1.58 -0.085

Reliability%Transformation Variate ZaReliability Factor Ke

Figure 1-4: Round shaft with flat-bottom grove in torsion. τ0 = 16T/Лd3.

1.5 Endurance limit modifying factor, Marin Equation

Modify S'e to determine Se .

1.6 Determine fatigue stress concentration factor Kf or Kfs

1.7 Fluctuating simple load

1.8 Combination of loading modes

1.9 Deflection considerations

02- Series 02- Series

2.2 Combined Radial and Thrust Loading

Table 2-3: Equivalent radial load factors for ball bearings.

(continued on next page)

(continued on next page)

c- clearance; N – shaft rotation (rev/sec), μ – viscosity

Leather 1 ply t=4.5 75 5 9.5-12.2 0.4

2 ply t=7 115 7 9.5-12.2 0.4

PolyamidebF-0c t=0.8 15 1.8 9.5 0.5

Urethaned w=12.7 t=1.6 1.0e 10.3-12.2 0.7

Round d=6 1.4e 10.3-12.2 0.7

90, 100, 115 0.3 570, 635, 710 1.3 1.3

125, 142 0.4 800, 900 1.3 1.5

160, 180 0.5 1015 1.3 1.5

200, 230 0.6 1140, 1270, 1420 1.5 2.0

250,285 0.75 1600, 1800, 2030 1.8 2.5

4.1 Design steps:

4.1.4 From torque T find the necessary ( F1 )a − F2 = 2T / D .

4.1.5 From data book, determine ( F1 )a .

4.1.6 Find F2 from ( F1 )a − ( F1 )a − F2  .

4.1.7 Find the necessary initial tension from, F = F1 + F2 − F .

4.1.9 Find the factor of safety from n fs = H a / ( H nom K s )

4.1.10 Open-belt drive: contact angles:

4.1.11 Open-belt drive: Belt length

4.2.16 check for friction development, f' < f , 1 (F ) − F

4.2.17 factor safety ; n = Ha

Belt Width a, Thickness b, Minimum sheave KW Range,

Table 5-2: Inside Circumferences of Standard V Belts.

Quantity to be added 32 45 72 82 112

Belt Speed (m/s)

Table 5-6: Belt-Length Correction Factor K*2 .

Length Factor A Belts B Belts C belts D Belts E Belts

Table 5-7: Suggested Service Factors Ks for V-Belt Drives.

Table 5-9: Durability Parameters for Some V-Belts Sections

5.4 F1 − Fc = exp ( 0.5123φ )

where Hnom = nominal power,

That is, N ≥ H d N b = 1, 2,3...

5.8 The largest tension, F = F + ∆Fexp ( fφ )

5.9 The least tension, F2 = F1 − ∆F

5.10 Initial tension, F = F1 + F2 − F

The lifetime in hours , t =

Find H d , H a , and N b from H d / H a and round up

Find Fc , ∆F, F1 , F2 , and Fi , and n fs

Find belt life in number of passes, or hours, if possible

6.2 Force Analysis – Spur Gearing

6.2.2 Notations: Shaft

6.2.4 Notations: Coordinates

6.2.6 Notations: Torque