Awash Basin EIA Final Report

List of Report
Volume I Main Report
Volume II Meteorology and Hydrology
Volume III Ground Water Assessment
Volume IV Irrigation Engineering Study
Volume V Soil Survey and Land Evaluation
Volume VI Irrigation Agronomy
Volume VII Socio Economy study
Volume VIII GIS and Remote Sensing and Agro ecology
Volume IX Environmental Impact Assessment

Oromia Irrigation Potential Assessment Project Awash River Basin EIA Final Report, OIDA 2018
Table of Contents
Lists of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Lists of Figures .................................................................................................................................. vii
Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Background 5
1.2. Scope of the study 6
1.3. Objectives of the Study 6
1.3.1 General objective 6

1.3.2. Specific objectives 6
1.4. Description of the study area 7
2. Review of Policies, Legal and Administrative Framework ............................................................. 9
2.1. The Constitution of FDRE 9
2.2. Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) 10
2.3. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia 11
2.4. Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change Policy 12
2.5. Sectorial Policies 13
2.5.1. Water Resource Policy 13

2.5.2. Wildlife Policy 14
2.5.3. Forest Policies and Strategies 14
2.6. Cross-Sectorial policies 18
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2.6.1. Irrigation sector policies and guidelines 19

2.6.2. Overall Objective of Irrigation Policy 20
2.6.3. World Bank policies 23
2.6.4. Multilateral Agreement 24
2.7. Legal Framework 24
2.7.1. Proclamations related to protection of the environment 24

2.7.2. Proclamations related to Rural Land Administration & Tenure Rights 26
2.8. EIA Guidelines 28
2.9. Institutional and Administrative Framework 29
2.9.1. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia & Administrative Regions 29

2.9.2. Regional Governments 29
2.9.3. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change/Ethiopia/ 29
2.9.4. Regional Environmental Protection Authorities 31
3. Methodology and Approach .......................................................................................................... 32
3.1. Physical observation 32
3.2. Document reviews 32
3.2.1.Water quality of Awash River Basin 32

3.3. Flood and its cause in Awash basin 33
2.3.1. Social Pressures of the basin 34
3.4. Environmental pressure of the basin 34
3.6. Current situation of the basin 35
3.7. Irrigation Water Source and Management 35
3.7.4. Environmental Impact 38
4. Baseline Environmental Data of the area....................................................................................... 39
4.1. Climate 39
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4.2. Soil Physical Characteristics 39
4.2.1. Texture 39
4.2.2. Effective Soil Depth 40
4.2.3. Soil Drainage 40
4.2.4. Soil Stoniness 41
4.2.5. Soil structure 41
4.3. Soil Chemical Characteristics 41
4.3.1. Soil Reaction (pH) 41

4.3.2. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 42
4.3.3. Base Saturation Percentage (BS %) 43
4.3.4. Exchangeable Bases 43
4.3.5. Exchangeable Calcium 43
4.3.6. Exchangeable Magnesium 44
4.3.7. Exchangeable Potassium 44
4.3.8. Calcium (Ca) to Magnesium (Mg) ratio 45
4.3.9. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) 45
4.3.10. Organic Carbon (OC) 45
4.3.11. Organic Matter (OM) 46
4.3.12. Total Nitrogen and C to N Ratios 47
4.3.13. Available Phosphorus 47
4.3.14. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 48
4.4. Geology 49
4.5. Hydrological Situation of the Area 49
4.6. Topography and Drainage System 51
4.7. Land Use and Land Cover 53
4.8. Population and Demographic Characteristics 66
4.8.1. Population density 67
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4.8.2. Migration and unemployment 68

4.8.3. Religion and ethnic groups 69
4.9. Land Tenure and Land Holding 73
4.10. Basic Social Services 75
4.10.1. Education services 75

4.10.2. Health services 79
4.10.3. Water Supply 81
4.11. Economic and Livelihood system 83
4.11.1. Settlement Pattern and Farming System 83

4.11.2.Farming System 83
4.12. Flora and Fauna 87
4.12.1. Vegetation 87
4.12.2. Wild and aquatic life Resources of the basin 87

4.12.3. Identified Irrigation Dam Sites in Awash basin 88
4.12.4. Identified Irrigation Potential for Diversion or Gravity 94
4.10.5. Community Attitude towards the Project 96
5. Environmental Impacts of Future Irrigation Project in the Basin .................................................. 97
5.1. Deforestation 97
5.2. Soil Erosion 97
5.3. Water quality deterioration 98
5.4. Shortage of Water Supply on Down Streams 98
5.5. Soil Salinity 98
5.6. Social health impact 100
5.6. Flood problems 100
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5.7. Community Resettlement 102
6. Conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................. 103
6.1. Conclusion 103
6.2. Recommendation 104
7. References .................................................................................................................................... 105
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Lists of Tables
Table 1: Awash Irrigation Potential Area Land Use Land Cover ........................................... 54
Table 2: Population density by zone ....................................................................................... 67
Table 3: Unemployment rate by zone ..................................................................................... 69
Table 4: Percentage of population by religion ........................................................................ 70
Table 5: The major land use types or pattern of Awash basin by Zone.................................. 74
Table 6: Students enrolment and dropout rate in the basin ..................................................... 77
Table 7: Lists of top ten diseases in the basin ......................................................................... 80
Table 8: The main livelihood system of population by percentage in the basin..................... 84
Table 9: Number of Livestock Population Distribution in the basin by Zone (2007 E.C) ..... 86
Table 10: Identified irrigation potential sites .......................................................................... 88
Table 11: Population and households of districts of potential sites in E/Hararge .................. 90
Table 12: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in Arsi ................... 90
Table 13: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in West Hararge ..... 91
Table 14: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in South West Shoa 92
Table 15: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in S/O/Z/A/ Finfine 92
Table 16: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in East Shoa ........... 93
Table 17: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in West Shoa.......... 93
Table 18: Potential area identified using Diversion or Gravity ............................................. 94
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Lists of Figures
Figure 1: Map of Awash Rivers Basin ...................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: Catchment area of the identified irrigation potential area ....................................... 52
Figure 3: catchment area of the identified irrigation potential area ........................................ 53
Figure 4: Urban Rural Ethnic Group ...................................................................................... 72
Figure 5: The average land holding per hose hold by zone in the basin ................................. 75
Figure 6: domestic water supply of the basin ......................................................................... 82
Figure 7: Livestock population distribution in % ................................................................... 86
Figure 8: Goha Weriko and Godino diversion irrigation Scheme .......................................... 99
Figure 9: Flood damaged non-functional irrigation scheme in Doba Woreda, Meda

Bilisumma Kebele ........................................................................................................... 102
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Abbreviations
CSA Conservation Strategies of Ethiopia
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EISs Environmental Impact Statements
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
EPE Environmental Policy of Ethiopia
ADLI Agricultural Development Lead Industrialization
UNESCO United Nation Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization
HIV/AIDS Human Immune Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiencies Syndrome
OIPAP Oromia Irrigation Potential Assessment Project
OIDA Oromia Irrigation Development Authority
OWWDSE Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise
MW Mega Watt
ITCZ Inter-Convergence-Tropical-Zone
EPA Environmental Protection Authority
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
Co2 Caron Dioxide
CH4 Methane
EPC Environmental Protection Council
a.s.l Meters above sea level
Ha Hectare
Gwh/year Giga watt hour per year
GDP Growth Domestic Production
OEPA Oromia environmental Protection Authority
SOM Soil Organic Matter
Gw/h Giga watt per hour
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
ESMP Environmental and Social Management Plan
FAO United Nation Food and Agricultural Organization
Pb Lead, Atomic number 82
Mn Manganese
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Cr Chromium
Ni Nickel
As Arsenic
Zn Zinc
AwBA Awash Basin Authority
Executive Summary
Irrigation has a significant role in increasing agricultural production. Without irrigation and
drainage development, it is unthinkable to feed the dramatically increasing world's population
specifically in our country, Ethiopia; where drought and erratic rainfall are the major problems,
encouraging irrigation development as an option. Therefore, Oromia regional state, which is the
largest state of the country, has designed to ensure food security or improve economic
development of the region, and proposed irrigation potential assessment in seven rivers basins of
the region among which Awash river basin is the one. Awash Basin is the most utilized river
basin in the region with a number of small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes;
industries located along the river; urban and rural water supply schemes (both from
surface and groundwater), etc. Many of the big industrial hotspots in the country are found
inside the Awash Basin. Also recently, additional irrigation potential sites were identified by
Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (OWWDSE) in the basin on behaves of
Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA)
The overall objective is to identify current major environmental problems of the basin which can
be exacerbated with adoption of irrigation and drainage project and also has adverse impacts on
sustainability of the project and recommend to be focused on before proposal of any irrigation
and drainage project in the area during feasibility study.
Development programs and projects should comply with available policies, legislative
and institutional frameworks and standards for proper execution and implementation.
Knowledge of the policy and legal frameworks within which the project is going to be
implemented would facilitate the project performance and helps to ensure sustainable
development. There are several policy and legal documents both at federal and regional
level as regards to environmental management and development projects.
The study has been commenced based on national environmental policy, guidelines and legal
frameworks and signed international environmental projection conventions.
Accordingly baseline environmental data like temperature, rainfall, topography, geology, soil,
hydrology, socio-economy, flora and fauna, water quality, aquatic life and etc. were assessed.
From an environmental perspectives, the establishment of a further irrigation development within
the Awash rivers basin could have both a positive and negative impact on the environment.
From a positive perspective, irrigation would reduce the flood risk within the basin and also
increase the opportunities for enhancing biodiversity values. From a negative perspective,
irrigation exacerbates the risk of contamination of ground and surface waters, deforestation, soil
erosion, land degradation, and result in community health problem.
The main driving factors that exacerbate the extent and intensity of environmental degradation in
Awash River Basin are expansion of agricultural development, change production system from
pastoralism to sedentary/ traditional farming system of the people or from pastoral way of life to
a more settled lifestyle based on the cultivation of crops and tilling marginal land and disposal of
urban sewerage and industrial wastes. Therefore, before proposal of any irrigation and drainage
project in the basin is carried, detail study of current environmental problems should be carried
out.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Irrigation has a significant role in increasing agricultural production. In any country of the world,
without irrigation and drainage development, it is unthinkable to feed the dramatically increasing
world's population specifically in our country, Ethiopia; in which drought and erratic rainfall are
the major problems, encouraging irrigation development is an option. Therefore, Oromia
regional state, which is the largest state of the country, to ensure food security or improve
economic development of the region, has proposed irrigation potential assessment in seven rivers
basins of the region among which Awash rivers basin is one.
The Awash Basin is the most utilized river basin in the region with a number of small, medium
and large scale irrigation schemes; industries located along the river; urban and rural water
supply schemes (both from surface and groundwater), etc. Many of the big industrial hotspots
in the country are found inside the Awash Basin. These include the industrial corridor extending
from Addis Ababa to Adama town, Metehara area, Kombolcha and Dire Dawa City. For several
industries, the Awash River is used as source for water consumption and for disposing of their
waste. The growing saline Lake Beseka is also a major threat to the nearby Awash River which
is extensively used for irrigation purpose (Elleni, 2009).
Also recently additional irrigation potential sites were identified by Oromia Water Works Design
and Supervision Enterprise (OWWDSE) in the basin on behalf of Oromia Irrigation
Development Authority (OIDA). Even though, irrigation development enables to increase
agricultural production, it has adverse environmental and social impacts like surface and ground
water pollution, soil erosion, soil salinity, water logging, soil acidity and community health
problems etc. So before adopting irrigation and drainage projects in newly identified potential
sites focusing on environmental impacts of irrigation is an obligatory. Therefore, this document
aimed at assessment of environmental impacts of irrigation and drainage projects which needs
due attention in the detail study of these identified potential sites in Awash rivers basin.
1.2. Scope of the study

The scope of the environmental impact assessment on identified irrigation and drainage potential
area of the Baro river basin includes but not limited to the following activities like:
 Carrying out field visit in each identified irrigation potential areas;
 Discussing with concerned governmental sector offices of each woreda in which
irrigation potential area found;
 Colleting baseline Environmental data of the area ;
 Reviewing those collected data; and
 Policy and relevant documents review.
1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General objective
The overall objective is to identify current major environmental problems of the basin which can
be exacerbated with adoption of irrigation and drainage project which will have adverse impacts
on sustainability of the project and recommend focus to be given on the proposal of any
irrigation and drainage project in the area before or during feasibility study.
1.3.2. Specific objectives
 To assess soil erosion status of the identified potential areas;

 To identify flora and fauna that may be negatively affected by irrigation and drainage
projects;
 To assess water quality of the Awash rivers basin;
 To assess fitness of soil chemical properties for irrigated agriculture;
 To assess current social health problems related to irrigation development;
 To assess current environmental impacts of identified potential irrigation schemes;
 To recommend mitigation measures for those identified negative impacts to be
incorporated during feasibility study of the Irrigation and Drainage projects in the
identified irrigation potential areas.
1.4. Description of the study area

The geographical location of Awash river basin in degree, minute second ranges from 37o 59‟
9.9035” West to 42o 49‟ 8.9242” East and 9o 46‟ 48.0453” North to 7o 53‟ 43.0853” South. Its
area coverage is about 2,904,825.306 hectares. Figure 1 below indicates location map of the
basins.
The Awash River originates from the high plateau on Ginchi of 3000 m a.s.l, 80 km west of
Figure 1: Map of Awash Rivers Basin
Addis Ababa and terminates after travelling about 1200 km, at Lake Abe of 250 m a.s.l., at the
border of Ethiopia and Djibouti (Tessema, 2011; Berhe et al., 2013; Degefu et al., 2013). With
extreme ranges of topography, vegetation, rainfall, temperature and soils, the basin extends from
semi-desert lowlands to cold high mountain zones. Land use in the catchment is mainly
agricultural and shrub lands used for rain-fed crops, irrigation and grazing. Various crops are
cultivated ranging from cereals, vegetables, flowers, cotton to perennial fruit trees and sugarcane
(Tessema, 2011; Gedion, 2009). Although the relative surface water resource of the basin is
about 4.65 billion m3, it is the most developed and utilized since 77.4% of the irrigable land in
the basin has been cultivated. About 60% of the large-scale irrigated agriculture and more than
65% of the national industries are located in the basin. The rainfall pattern is bimodal with the
first being the short season of March to May while the second and the main one is from July to
September (Tessema, 2011). Annual average temperature ranges from 16.7 to 29°C and the
annual mean relative humidity in the basin varies from 60.2 to 49.7%. While the mean annual
wind speed is 0.9 m/s, the mean annual rainfall varies from about 1600 mm at Ankober to 160
mm at Asayita (Berhe et al., 2013).
2. Review of Policies, Legal and Administrative Framework

Development programs and projects should comply with available policies, legislative
and institutional frameworks and standards for proper execution and implementation.
Knowledge of the policy and legal frameworks within which the project is going to be
implemented would facilitate the project performance and helps to ensure sustainable
development. There are several policy and legal documents both at federal and regional
level as regards to environmental management and development projects.
Environmental management objectives in many countries, especially the developing countries,
is achieved not only through environmental legislation, i.e. laws, regulations and rules
which are enforceable in a court of law, but also through administrative provisions such as
administrative orders, technical standards etc. which are applied through various administrative
mechanisms.
2.1. The Constitution of FDRE

The Constitution (FDRE 1995), contains a number of articles which are relevant to
environmental matters in connection with development projects, as well as to the environment
in general, and forms the fundamental basis for the development of specific environmental
legislative instruments.
This constitution has several sections and articles in which major policy issues are highlighted.
In the section which deals with democratic rights:
Article - 43 gives the right to people to improved living standards and to sustainable
development;
Article - 44 states that all persons have the right to a clean and healthy environment; and
Article - 92 of Chapter - 10 sets out national policy principles and objective and includes
the following significant environmental objectives:
Government shall Endeavour to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean and healthy
environment:
 Development projects shall not damage or destroy the environment;
 People have the right to full consultation and the expression of views in the
planning and implementation of environmental policies and projects that affect them
directly; and
 Government and citizens shall have the duty to protect the environment.
Article - 40 states that ownership of both urban and rural land is vested in the State and the
people, and is common property which is not subject to sale or other means of exchange.
Peasants have the right to obtain land without payment, and are protected against eviction
from land in their possession.
Full right to immovable property and permanent improvements to land is vested in
individuals who have built the property or made the improvements, but government
may expropriate such property for public purposes, subject to the payment in advance of
compensation commensurate to the value of the property or alternative means of
compensation including relocation with adequate State assistance.
2.2. Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE)

Since the early 1990s, the Federal Government has undertaken a number of initiatives to
develop regional, national and sectorial strategies for environmental conservation and
protection. Paramount amongst these was CSE, approved by the council of ministers,
which provided strategic framework for integrating environmental planning into new
and existing policies, programs and projects. CSE has been approved by the council of
ministers and it is an important policy document which views environmental management from
several perspectives. The CSE itself provides a comprehensive and rational approach to
environmental management in a very broad sense, covering national and regional strategies,
sectorial and cross-sectorial policies, action plans and programs, as well as providing the basis
for development of appropriate institutional and legal frameworks for implementation.
The plan comprehensively presented the exiting situation within the country and gave
priority action plan on the short and medium term. In particular, it recognizes the
importance of incorporating environmental factors into development activities from the outset,
so that planners may take into account environmental protection as an essential component of
economic, social and cultural development.
Regional States are responsible to prepare regional conservation strategies, detailing with
the specific conditions and environmental issues prevalent in their territory, and outlining the
ways in which problems were to be addressed. Following CSE, the Oromia Regional States
have started preparing Conservation Strategy documents for their respective Regions.
The plan comprehensively presented the exiting situation within the country and gave
priority action plan on the short and medium term. In particular, it recognizes the
importance of incorporating environmental factors into development activities from the outset,
so that planners may take into account environmental protection as an essential component of
economic, social and cultural development.
Regional States are responsible to prepare regional conservation strategies, detailing with
the specific conditions and environmental issues prevalent in their territory, and outlining the
ways in which problems were to be addressed. Following CSE, the Oromia Regional State
has started preparing Conservation Strategy documents for its respective Region.
2.3. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia

The environmental policy of Ethiopia (EPE) was approved by the Council of Ministers in
April 1997 (EPA/MEDAC 1997). It is based on the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE)
which was developed through a consultative process over the period 1989-1995.
The policy has broad aim of rectifying previous policy failures and deficiencies which, in
the past, have led the environment to serious degradation. It is fully integrated and compatible
with the overall long-term economic development strategy of the country, known as
Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI) and other key national policies.
The EPE‟s overall policy goal may be summarized in terms of the improvement and
enhancement of the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians, and the promotion of
sustainable social and economic development through the adoption of sound environmental
management principles.
Specific policy objectives and key guiding principles are set out clearly in the EPE, and
expanded on various aspects of the overall goal. The policy contains sectorial and cross-sectorial
policies and also has provisions required for the appropriate implementation of the policy itself.
The proclamation, however, has not been enforced and did not help for the sustained utilization
of the remaining forest resources. Policies such as Bio-diversity conservation and
development, EPE, Energy policy and population policy are in place but could not bring
significant change in forest development and use. There is a need neither forest policy nor on
land use policy at regional levels to:
 Ensure the control of environmental health hazards;
 Endorse the protection of the interface between water bodies and land (e.g. river banks);
and
 Promote to the extent possible, viable measures to artificially recharge ground and
surface water resources.
2.4. Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change Policy

The Policies are:
 To promote a climate monitoring programme as the country is highly sensitive to
climatic variability;
 To recognize that even at an insignificant level of contribution to atmospheric
greenhouse gases, a firm and visible commitment to the principle of containing
climate change is essential and to take the appropriate control measures for a moral
position from which to deal with the rest of the world in a struggle to bring about its
containment by those countries which produce large quantities of greenhouse
gases;
 To recognize that Ethiopia's environmental and long-term economic interests and its
energy prospect coincide with the need to minimize atmospheric inputs of greenhouse
gases as it has a large potential for harnessing hydro-, geothermal and solar
energy, none of which produce pollutant gases in significant amounts and to
develop its energy sector accordingly;
 To actively participate in protecting the ozone layer since, as the highlands of
Ethiopia already have a thin protective atmosphere and are liable to suffer
agricultural losses and adverse health effects from exposure to ultraviolet rays; and
 To recognize that the continued use of biomass for energy production makes no net
contribution to atmospheric pollution as long as at least equal amounts of biomass are
produced annually to compensate this and to maximize the standing biomass in the
country through a combination of reforestation, agroforestry, the rehabilitation of
degraded areas, a general reforestation of the land and the control of free range grazing
in the highlands and to seek financial support for this from industrialized countries
for offsetting their carbon dioxide emission.
2.5. Sectorial Policies

Several detailed sectorial environmental policies are currently in various stages of preparation,
or are completed and endorsed. Some of the sectorial environmental policies cover:
 Soil husbandry and sustainable agriculture;
 Forest woodland and tree resources;
 Genetic species and ecosystem bio-diversity;
 Water, energy and mineral resources;
 Human settlement, urban environment and environmental health;
 Pollution from industrial waste and hazardous materials;
 Atmospheric pollution and climatic change;
 Cultural and natural heritage.
2.5.1. Water Resource Policy
The Ministry of Water Resources has formulated the Federal Water Resource Policy for a
comprehensive and integrated water resource management. The overall goal of the water
resources policy is to enhance and promote all national efforts towards the efficient and
optimum utilization of the available water resources for socio-economic development on
sustainable bases. The policies are to establish and institutionalize environment conservation
and protection requirements as integral parts of water resources planning and project
development. The Ethiopian Water Resources Management (EWRM) regulation of 2005 sets out
boldly as water is natural endowment commonly owned by all the people of Ethiopia:
 All Ethiopian citizen shall have access to sufficient water of acceptable quality to satisfy
basic human needs;
 Water shall be recognized both as economic and social good;
 Shall be under pinned on rural centered, decentralized management, participatory
approach as well as integrated framework;
 Establish preparedness and contingency plans for disasters and emergencies;
 Recognize and adopt how to manage disasters that associate with water;
 Promote coordinated planning to combat drought and growing desertification;
 Management of water resources shall ensure social equity, economic efficiency, system
reliability and sustainability.
Ethiopian Water Resources Management Proclamation No. 197/2000 states:
 Provision of hydraulic structures for the prevention of damages caused by ponded water
on Dam structure itself, persons, property and crops;
 Directing water use restrictions in a situation of water shortage emergency; and
 Prevent or reduce damages, and adverse impacts or accidents that may occur as a result
of floods and other related factors.
2.5.2. Wildlife Policy
It is developed by the Ministry of Agriculture whose prime objective is the preservation,

development and sustainable utilization of Ethiopia‟s wildlife resources for social and economic
development and for the integrity of the biosphere. This is at present in draft form, and covers a
wide range of policies and strategies relating, amongst others, to wildlife conservation and
protected areas.
Based on international criteria, the protected areas of Ethiopia have been divided into
four categories, each having its own laws and regulations. These areas are classified according
to their management objectives and are designed to serve their own respective categories.
The highest ranked are the National Parks, where strict legislation is applicable. These are
followed by Game reserves, Sanctuaries and finally, controlled hunting areas. In Ethiopia
there are a total of 10 National Parks, 11 Game Reserves and 3 Sanctuaries. In addition 18
areas have been designated as controlled hunting areas.
2.5.3. Forest Policies and Strategies
The Proclamation on Conservation, Development and Utilization of Forests was issued in

1994 (Proclamation No. 94/1994) to provide for the Conservation, Development and
Utilization of Forests. The objective of this Proclamation is to provide the basis for sustainable
utilization of the country‟s forest resources. The Proclamation categorizes types of forest
ownership (State, Regional and Private Forests). It provides the power for designation,
demarcation, and registration of forests to the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional

Governments.
According to this proclamation, state and regional forests shall be utilized in accordance
with approved management plans. The Proclamation then goes on to give some specific
direction for the utilization of State and Regional Forests, and lists prohibited activities within
protected forests.
The proclamation, however, has not been enforced and did not help for the sustained utilization
of the remaining forest resources. Policies such as Bio-diversity conservation and
development, EPE, Energy policy and population policy are in place but could not bring
significant change in forest development and use. There is neither forest policy nor on land use
policy at regional levels.
Oromia Forest Proclamation 72/2003 focuses on the development and protection and
utilization of forest. Article 4 (2) of the proclamation states that the authority shall secure the
consent of farmers in case of the need to evacuate farmers in the process of the state forest
demarcation in collaboration with the appropriate parties. The authority also ensures the
fulfillment of interest and benefit for the evacuated farmers. Article (3) states that the authority
shall strengthen community participation on forest development and protection. The authority
also signs an agreement with non-governmental organizations, private company, individuals
and appropriate parties and concludes a bilateral agreement to strengthen forest protection,
development and management Art 4 (6). All the articles mentioned above state the need to
ensure farmers willingness and interest when their forest is needed for demarcation or other
purposes.
Article 7(1), deals with the need to develop and protect different types of tree species in
protected forest. The authority may declare: area of rare tree species, wildlife and birds or
generally declare protected forest to prevent extinction of genetic resources. Article 12 (2) states
that the community around protected forest may collect grass and tree seeds from protected
forests and may keep beehive in the protected forest on the basis of permission from the
authority. In this case the proclamation doesn‟t give due attention to the farmers customary right
and the socio-economic losses they face during demarcation of forests for genetic
diversity conservation.
Article 14 (1) b states that it is prohibited to clear the forest resource in order to plant
coffee, Catha edulis and practice agricultural activities, etc. It is prohibited to cut any tree,
utilize tree products or perform similar activities in the protected forest.
This is an important issue that discourages illegal encroachments in buffer and core zones of the
coffee forest. However, many stakeholders agree that the demarcation of the coffee forest as a
protected area for Coffee Arabic demand of forest products and foster the contribution of
forest resources to food security and industrial development. The policy also states that
“State forests and forest lands in the country will be administered based on the management
plan to be drawn on a two-pronged approach of protected forest and productive forest
management system.” Based on this policy, state forest is administered in two groups as
protected forest and productive forest management system. The new policy states that the
boundaries of protected forests and forest lands, particularly those that are hotspots for
indigenous tree species threatened with extinction, will be delineated and administered, as
necessary, by federal or regional governments for their sustainable use. This clearly indicates
the lack of commitment by government bodies to conduct real decentralization where the
local people can share power in protected forest management. However, the policy has the
strategy which seems to conflict with the policy, to participate people in and around the
protected area through the grant of permits and technical assistance enabling them to engage in
the production of honey, spices, wild coffee and fodder by way of participatory forest
development and management. Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is the process
where the community and the government body share authority and responsibility in
forest management. For protected forests which are hotspots for biodiversity conservation, the
policy states that this will be administered by federal and regional governments. But this is not
convenient for PFM since the portion of the forest needs to be protected without human
involvement. For productive forests, there is no problem with the stated strategy and
application of participatory forest management as it is administered by the pertinent
government body, individual or organization.
The policy gives special emphasis for the administration of forests by the state. It denies trust
to the local community and their customary rights in forest management at this time when the
world, especially developing countries, is giving special emphasis to the community and
their indigenous institutions in forest management.
The policy also states that scattered natural forests and plantations that are not designated and
demarcated as a protected or productive forest shall be managed by kebele
administrations or individuals accorded with certificates of ownership rights. Very
important forests designated as a protected area are administered by federal and regional
governments. Few scattered forests are given to lower government structures. The only
opportunity given to individuals is developing forests on private land and administering
productive forests through concession. The policy gives trust to state forest
administration. This forces to question the sustainability of state forest administration by
governments of developing country where there is high political instability and where
millions of poor people‟s livelihood is attached to forest and forest products.
Along with the above mentioned policy, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development issued Proclamation No. 542/2007 that is known as forest Development,
conservation, and utilization proclamation no. 542/2007. In this proclamation, Article 2 (6)
defines “State forest” as “any protected or productive forest, which is under the ownership
of the Federal Government or the regional state”. In addition, Article 2 (9) of the proclamation
defines private forest as a “forest other than state forest” which also shows the existence of
only two types of forest ownership that includes state and private ownership as shown in
Article 3 of the proclamation. The proclamation has similar idea with the policy in giving
special emphasis to state forest. Article 8 (1) states that “in order to properly conserve, develop
and utilize forest resources of the country, major forest lands shall be designated as state
forests, their boundaries shall be demarcated and they shall be registered as protected and
productive forests.” From this, it is possible to confirm that both the policy and the
proclamation repeatedly and thoroughly indicate strong association between state ownership
or the designation of forests as state forest and efficient and sustainable conservation of
forests which many researches do not support (see Ostrom, 1990). However, this is not
the case in many of the research findings especially in developing countries, where
indigenous institutions dominate or effectively manage forests. Article 11 (6) of the
proclamation states, “the local community may be permitted to keep beehives, produce spices,
forest coffee, forage and the like in a protected forest by providing them forest development
and conservation training and technical support”. In general, it is possible to observe from the
policy and the proclamation that it is not based on the ideas of the people living in and
adjacent to the forest. It is rather based on the centralized approaches where much of
the management activities are decided at federal and regional level. This kind of policy and
proclamation will be the major cause for the creation of conflict with the local
community and the degradation of the resource. From the very beginning, in a country where
traditional resource management persisted for the past many generation, the designation
of forests as protected and productive forest of the state might have multi-dimensional
consequences on the livelihood of the local community and the sustainable management of
forest.
2.6. Cross-Sectorial policies

The cross sectorial policies encompasses:
 Population and the environment;

 Community participation and the environment;
 Tenure and access rights to land and natural resources;
 Land use plans;
 Social and gender issues;
 Environmental economics, information systems and research;
 Environmental impact assessment; and
 Environmental education and awareness.
The section of the EPE concerning EIA sets out a number of policies, key elements of which
may be summarized as follows:
 Recognition of the need for EIA to address social, socio-economic, political and
cultural impacts, in addition to physical and biological impacts, and for public
consultation to be integrated within EIA procedures;
 Incorporation of impact containment measures within the design process for both
public and private sector development projects, and for mitigation measures and
accident contingency plans to be incorporated within environmental impact statements
(EISs);
 Creation of a legal framework for the EIA process, together with a suitable and
coordinated institutional framework for the execution and approval of EIAs and
environmental audits;
 Development of detailed technical sectorial guidelines for EIA and environmental

auditing.
The thorough and holistic approach taken to development of the policy and, in
particular, recognition of the importance of addressing cross-sectorial environmental issues,
has led to a national approach to environmental management, which is not only
comprehensive, but also provides a sound and rational basis for addressing the
environmental problems faced by the country now and those which are anticipated over the
next decade.
Implementation of the EPE is still very much in its early stages, but a number of key elements
either have been or are in the process of realization. Some of these are referred to in the
sections which follow.
2.6.1. Irrigation sector policies and guidelines
In general, Ethiopia has an annual rainfall apparently adequate for food crop production and
pasture for livestock. The spatial and temporal distribution of the rainfall, however, is too
uneven.
Much of the eastern part of Ethiopia receives very little rain while the western part, the
highland areas in particular, enjoy adequate rainfall. Reliable food supply is almost
impossible due to the temporal imbalance in the distribution of rainfall and the consequential
no availability of the required water at the required period. This is a frequent phenomenon in
Ethiopia. Sometimes even the western highlands of the country suffer from food shortages
owing to discrepancies in rainfall distribution.
The National Economic Development Strategy places heavier emphasis on the agricultural
sector to enhance food-self-sufficiency and ensure food security at the household level and
to develop an agriculture-based industrial development in the long run. This strategic
approach can be achieved through the augmentation of agricultural productivity which calls
for mitigating water shortage problems as a pre-condition.
Water can be made to contribute to the national economy through the development of the
country's water resources and expanding irrigation scheme so that agricultural production is
improved by solving the problem of water shortage caused by the unpredictability of the
rainfall. This is what this policy intends to achieve.
The area of irrigated agriculture cultivated so far is insignificant compared to the irrigable
potential. Sufficient food has to be produced to meet the requirements of the fast growing
population and ensure food security for eventualities at household level. Furthermore, small,
medium and large scale irrigation schemes will have to be developed in order to enhance
reliable agricultural development in Ethiopia to cater for externally marketable surplus that
would earn the country foreign exchange and at the same time provide raw material inputs for
industries.
Irrigation being a development activity requiring huge capital investment, large and
convenient infrastructure and trained human resources; this policy has been formulated to
foster the realization of reliable and sustainable irrigation development which is harmonious
with the capabilities and realities of the country and the development strategies designed.
2.6.2. Overall Objective of Irrigation Policy
The overall objective of irrigation policy is to develop the huge irrigated agriculture potential for
the production of food crops and raw materials needed for agro industries on efficient and
sustainable basis and without degrading the fertility of the production fields and water resources
base.
Detail objectives are:
 Development and enhancement of small, medium and large- scale irrigated agriculture
and grazing lands for food self-sufficiency at the household level;
 Development and enhancement of small, medium and large scale irrigated agriculture
for food security and food self-sufficiency at national level including export earnings
and satisfy local agro-industrial demands;
 Promotion of irrigation study, planning and implementation on economically viable,
socially equitable, technically efficient, environmentally sound basis as well as
development of sustainable, productive and affordable irrigation farms;
 Promotion of water use efficiency, control of wastage, protection of irrigation
structures and appropriate drainage systems; and
 Ensuring that small, medium and large scale irrigation potential projects are studied
and designed to a stage ready for immediate implementation by private and/or the
government at any time.
A) Social aspects
Ensure the full integration of irrigation with the overall framework of the country's socio-
economic development plans, and more particularly with the Agricultural Development Led
Industrialization (ADLI) Strategy.
The Strategy is designed to promote the development of irrigation on two- pronged approaches
of:-
 Strategic planning for achieving socio-economic goals and
 Participatory- driven approach for promoting efficiency and sustainability.
The strategy also:
 Recognize that irrigation is an integral part of the water sector and consequently
develop irrigation within the domain and framework of overall water resources
management;
 Earmark a reasonable percentage of the GDP as committed resource towards the
development of irrigated agriculture, especially in capacity building and infrastructures;
 Promote decentralization and users-based-management of irrigation systems taking into
account of the special needs of rural women in particular;
 Develop a hierarchy of priority schemes based on food requirements, needs of the
national economy and requirements of raw materials and other needs;
 Support and enhance traditional irrigation schemes by improving water abstraction,
transport systems and water use efficiency;
 Ensure the prevention and mitigation of degradation of irrigated water and maintain
acceptable water quality standards for irrigation;
 Establish water allocation and priority setting criteria based on harmonization of social
equity, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability requirements;
 Integrate the provision of appropriate drainage facilities in all irrigated agriculture
schemes; and
 Enhance greater participation by the Regional and Federal Governments in the
development of large scale irrigated farms in high water potential basins but with low
population density.
B) Stakeholders
Promote full and meaningful participation of individual farmers, cooperatives and all
other stakeholders in all phases of the planning, studies, implementation and
operation and maintenance of small, medium and large scale irrigation farms;
Promote the involvement of Government at different levels and NGOs, in the
provision of support for bulk water storage and transfer schemes and other relevant
structures;
Promote fairness and transparency in the management of irrigated agriculture; and
Develop systems for the harmonious co-existence of indigenous peoples and irrigation
projects.
C) Economics and Finance
Establish norms and procedures for financial sustainability and viability of irrigated
schemes;
Promote credit facilities and bank loans for the development of irrigation schemes; and
Develop the appropriate cost recovery systems and mechanisms for all irrigation schemes.
D) Technical Issues
 Develop appropriate and affordable technologies for the design, construction,

implementation, operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes;
 Adopt improved and affordable systems and tools for water abstraction equipment, for
reducing seepage losses in canals, for water control systems and measurement structures;
 Develop the necessary technical guidelines and framework, mechanisms, systems,
materials and technologies for water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture; and
 Develop guidelines, manuals and procedures for the sustainable operation and
maintenance of irrigated systems.
E. Environmental Issues
 Conduct appropriate environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies for the irrigation
schemes, including the implementation of remedial measures based on the National
Conservation Strategy and Environmental Guidelines;
 Establish guidelines for maintaining irrigation water quality;

 Establish drainage parameters/requirements, and integrate appropriate drainage facilities
in all irrigated agricultural development schemes; and
 Consider technical and technological options, which avoid the prevalence of breeding
ground for vectors; minimize loss of forests; reduce seepage and protect erosion, siltation,
salinization and pollution.
F) Institutions and Capacity
 Promote the development of appropriate institutional structures for the management of

irrigated agriculture;
 Develop capacity in human resources development, new technologies, engineering and
financial management; and
 Improve and upgrade the production capacity of existing schemes.
2.6.3. World Bank policies
The World Bank provides guidance on requirements in the Environmental Assessment Source
Book, which includes recent versions of the World Bank Operational Policies as well as the
updates. The World Bank has ten “Safeguard Policies” whose primary objective is to ensure that
Bank operations do not cause adverse impacts, and that they “do no harm”. The ten safeguard
policies are grouped into Environment, Rural Development, Social Development and
International Law.
Of these ten safeguard policies, three are not applicable as they relate to international law
on waters and disputed areas, and the safety of dams. The following safeguard policies have
been considered in this study.
The safeguard policies No. 2.2.3. The World Bank Safeguard Policies that are pertinent to
the projects under consideration and No. 2.2.4. The Bank‟s Policy on Disclosure are
considered in the assessment.
It is the belief of the Bank that the peoples residing in the project areas have the right to
be informed of the proposed development project (s) in their respective areas. Therefore,
prior to project appraisal, the summary of the study of projects along with other relevant
information should be disclosed at the Bank‟s as well as project area (local) level.
2.6.4. Multilateral Agreement
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has ratified several international conventions
and protocols and these include:
 Vienna Convention on Ozone Layer Protection (1990);
 Montreal Protocol for Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer (1990);
 Convention on Biodiversity (Rio convention) (1997);
 Framework Convention of United Nations on Climate Change (1997); and
 Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movement of Hazardous Substance.
2.7. Legal Framework

Legal frame work is equally essential in the implementation, especially at its early stages
of environmental policy; such as the requirement of environmental impact assessment in
respect of development projects and the procedures to be followed in respect of such
assessments. From this perspective, environmental legislation is one of the chief tools for
formulating environmental policy while also being one of the major instruments for
implementing it.
There are several proclamations provided by the FDRE related to Environmental protection
issues both at federal and regional level.
2.7.1. Proclamations related to protection of the environment
Proclamation No.4/1995 which defines powers and duties of the executive organs of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Proclamation No. 9/1995 establishes the Federal Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MOEFCC). MOEFCC prepares environmental protection proclamations
and the federal government approves it.
Environmental Protection Organs Establishment Proclamation No. 295/ 2002 was provided in
October 2002. The proclamation differentiated responsibilities among environmental
agencies at Federal and Regional states. By this proclamation the MoEFCC is re-established
as an autonomous public institution at the Federal Government. MoEFCC has among
others powers and duties to coordinate measures to ensure that the environmental objectives
provided under the constitution and the basic principles set out in the Environmental policy of
Ethiopia and the conservation strategy of Ethiopia are realized.
Article-15 of the proclamation states the power & duties of the Regional Environment
Agencies. Powers and duties are also proposed in relation to Zonal, Woreda and
community Environmental Coordinating Committees.
Environmental pollution control proclamations NO. 300/2002 sets rules on control of
pollution, management of hazardous waste, chemical and radioactive substances,
management of municipal wastes, outlines sectors that require environmental standard,
environmental inspectors, incentives, rights to appeal, Offences and penalty.
Environmental impact assessment Proclamation No. 299/2002 is promulgated in December
2002. The primary objectives of this proclamation are to make EIA mandatory for defined
Categories of activities undertaken either by the public or private sector. The proclamation
under its General provision Article –3, sub article-1 states that without authorization from the
Authority (MoEFCC), or from the relevant regional environmental agency, no person shall
commence implementation of any project that requires environmental impact assessment as
determined in a directive issued pursuant to Article-5 of the proclamation.‟‟
Article–5 describes projects requiring Environmental Impact Assessment as follows.
Every project, which falls in any category listed in any directive issued pursuant to this
proclamation, shall be subject to environmental Impact Assessment.
Any directive provided under sub- article-1 of Article- 5 should among other things,
determine categories of;
a) Projects not likely to have negative impacts and so do not require EIA,
b) Projects likely have negative impacts and thus require environmental impact
assessment.
EIA-Guide lines have been prepared both at F ederal & Regional level. These guidelines
follow the conventional procedures adopted elsewhere in the world. These are:.
Proclamations NO.52/1993 which deals with the development of mineral resources;
Proclamations NO.94/1994 deals with conservation, development and utilization of forests;
Proclamation NO.197/2000 deals with Ethiopian water resources management; and
Proclamation NO200/2000 refers to public health issues.
2.7.2. Proclamations related to Rural Land Administration & Tenure Rights
2.7.2.1. Proclamations at federal level
a) Regarding land tenure issues, proclamations No. 31/1975 and 47/1975 state that land
in Ethiopia is state owned. The constitution of 1995 also retained land ownership under
the people. It is stated in the constitution that the right to ownership of rural and urban
land as well as all natural resources, is exclusively vested in the state and in people of
Ethiopia buying, selling or exchanging to other means is prohibited, however, tenure
rights and leasing of use rights to or from others is ensured. The constitution under its
article and 40.3 stipulates public ownership of land and expropriation of land holdings
for public purposes, and payment of compensation.
b) Rural land use and Administration Proclamation NO.455/2005 describes; the right to
hold and use rural land, acquisition and use of rural land, transfer and duration of rural
land use right, obligation of rural land users. Restrictions on rural land use (land use
planning and proper use of sloppy, galley and wetlands.
C) Council of Ministers Regulation No.135/2007, Regulation on Payment of Compensation
for property situated on land holding expropriated for public purposes. This
regulation discusses the assessment of compensation for properties, provision of
replacement land and payment of displacement compensation.
d) Proclamation No. 455/ 2005 specifically promulgated and provided provisions
for compensations. Proclamation NO 455/2005 discusses on expropriation of land
holding, determination of compensation, base and amount of compensation,
displacement compensations valuation of property.
e) Ethiopian Civil Code, Proclamation NO. 65/1960; involuntary displacement due
to expropriation is governed mainly by the Civil Code, proclamation No. 65/1960. In this
code reasons and objectives of expropriation are clearly specified. According to articles
1460-1488 of the Civil Code, expropriation is possible only for projects of public utility
and only immovable assets could be expropriated. These regulations of the Civil Code
are designed to protect private property and in the case of expropriation necessitated by
public utility are unavoidable to make sure that it is co-ordinated with payment of
legally sufficient compensation and proper communication with those whose

immovable assets are to be possessed.
According to this Civil Code, any one that can legally prove existence of real right over
the immovable assets to be expropriated, qualifies or is eligible to receive legally
sufficient compensation. Article 1474 of the Civil Code provides that compensation payment
could be either in cash or in kind. Therefore, if any compensation is required in the
processes of this project, it should be handled according to the above Civil Code and principles
of compensation.
2.7.2.2. Proclamations at Regional Level
Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation 56/2002; and Forest
Proclamation of Oromia, Proclamation 72/2003 is some of the guiding principles issued at
regional level based on the policies issued at federal level in an attempt to bring effective
management of natural resources, particularly forest. Article 5 (3) of Oromia Rural Land
Use and Administration Proclamation states that the customary right of access to land
communally like for grazing, ritual ceremonies and public uses shall be maintained both for
peasants and pastoralists. Though the statement regarding the customary use of land is
vague, it explains the necessity of ensuring access to forest products through their customary
right. The practice on the ground and statements of the proclamation are different. Article 6
(4) of Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation also states that the use right
of an individual land user shall be subject to termination, only if that land is required for more
important public uses and decided with the participation of the community. This article
also supports conversion of coffee forest from public use to biological diversity
conservation.
However, it puts restriction on arbitrary confiscation of coffee forest as it requires
decision with the participation of the community.
Proclamation 56/2002, article 20 (1) also asserts that government can demarcate priority
forest areas, wildlife parks and sanctuaries to protect with all the components of its
natural ecosystem for sustainable use. Article 20 (3) indicates that delineation,
demarcation, development, protection, rehabilitation and management of protected areas shall
be done with the participation of the local community. Proclamation 20 (4) shows that the
manner by which the local community shares the benefits obtained from the protected areas
shall be facilitated. It also confirms that pockets of natural forest lands shall be identified,
demarcated, protected, managed and sustainably used by the local community. Though the
proclamation gives a good cover for the benefit and security for the life of local community,
there is a problem in its implementation on the ground.
2.8. EIA Guidelines

In May 2000, as part of the ongoing effort to develop environmental legislation and guidelines
in Ethiopia, the EPA released the final draft of its EIA Guidelines document. These
follow the conventional pattern adopted in many other parts of the world, and make provision
for screening, scoping, identification and evaluation of impacts, the development of
environmental management and monitoring plans, consideration of alternatives, etc.
Approval of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) may be conditional on compliance
with environmental quality criteria, or other provisions stated in the EIS, and the approving
authority may conduct audit and surveillance to ensure compliance during and after project
implementation.
The guideline require all projects to be submitted to an Initial Environmental Examination
(IEE) to enable a decision to be taken as to whether the project is to be submitted to full EIA (in
the case of projects which may have significant impacts) and are defined as falling under
Schedule 1, or are of projects such as type or scale which does not justify full EIA, and,
therefore, fall into Schedule 2.
Schedule 3 projects are the ones which have no impact on the environment and do not require
EIA.
EPA has also prepared a document on environmental impact considerations for projects in
different sectors. The documents/guidelines provide a comprehensive statement of the types
of adverse impact which may occur, and sets out clearly the aspects which need to be addressed
in an EIA/IEE.
In addition, it provides a detailed checklist for the use of IEE/EIA compilers and reviewers,
and an outline format for the preparation of TOR for EIA studies. The document, is of a very
high standard, and provides a sound basis for IEE and EIA of development projects in various
sectors.
2.9. Institutional and Administrative Framework

The following paragraphs discuss the institutional and administrative framework at the Federal
and Regional level and organizations responsible for the preparation of environmental
policy and technical guidelines.
2.9.1. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia & Administrative Regions
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was formally established on August 21,
1995. The FDRE comprises of the Federal state with nine Regional state members. The new
government structure takes power from the center to regions and localities. The relative roles of
the government at the different levels (Federal, Regional and Local) in terms of power and
duties, including on fiscal matters, have been defined by the Constitution, Proclamations Nos. 33
of 1992, 41 of 1993, and 4 of 1995. Under these proclamations, duties and responsibilities of
Regional states include planning, directing and developing social and economic programs, as
well as the administration, development and protection of natural resources of their respective
regions.
2.9.2. Regional Governments
The project falls in Oromia regional state. Many of the responsibilities of the Regional
Governments Environmental Bureaus (offices) are formulated and additionally the regional
bureau structure is being reorganized whereby the environmental activities which are used to
be part of the bureau of agriculture, has been established independently as Oromia
Environmental Protection Authority (OEPA).
2.9.3. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change/Ethiopia/
The Ministry Of Environment and Forest (MoEFCC) was established in August

1995, under Proclamation No.9/1995 and is an autonomous government body reporting
directly to the Council of Ministers. It has a broad mandate covering environmental
matters at federal level. The Proclamation sets out the main responsibilities and broad
organizational structure of the MoEFCC.
The key functions of MoEFCC are defined in Proclamation No. 9/1995 and may be summarized
as follows;
 Preparation of environmental protection policies and laws and to ensure that these
are implemented;
 Preparation of directives and implementation of systems necessary for the evaluation of
the impact of projects on the environment;
 Preparation of environmental protection standards and implementation of
directives concerning soil, water and air;
 The conduct of studies on desertification and the co-ordination of efforts to combat it;
 Preparation of recommendations regarding measures needed to protect the environment;
 Enhancement of environmental awareness programs;
 Implementation of international treaties concerning the environment to which Ethiopia is
a signatory;
 Provision of advice and technical support to the regions on environmental matters.
As indicated above, the new proclamation on Institutional Arrangements for Environmental
Protection envisages a widening of the EPA‟s mandate. Most of the proposed additional powers
and duties relate to co-ordination and monitoring aspects. Key elements include:
To establish a system for EIA of projects, policies, strategies, laws and programs;
To enforce implementation of this EIA process (i.e. review EIA reports) and
the recommendations which result from it for projects that is subject to Federal
licensing, execution or supervision;
To determine environmental standards and ensure their compliance;
To enter any land, premises or any other places that falls under the Federal
jurisdiction, inspect anything and take samples as deemed necessary with a view
to ascertaining compliance with environmental protection requirements; and
To ensure implementation of environmental protection laws.
In view of the multi-sectorial nature of the EPE and the number of government agencies
involved in various aspects of environmental management, overall co-ordination and
policy review and direction is the responsibility of an Environmental Protection Council
(EPC) within EPA, whose members represent the key agencies concerned with policy
implementation. With these powers, EPA has the mandate to involve itself with all
environmental issues and projects that have a federal, inter-regional (involving more than one
Region) and international scope.
2.9.4. Regional Environmental Protection Authorities
Oromia Regional State has established independent Environmental Protection Authority,

following the federal Ministry Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
3. Methodology and Approach

The study has been commenced based on national environmental policy, guidelines and legal
frameworks and Ethiopia signed international environmental projection conventions.
Accordingly, the methodology followed during data collection is presented as below.
3.1. Physical observation

Observation on identified headwork of the identified potential sites, upstream and downstream,
and delineated command areas has been taken place.
3.2. Document reviews

To obtain relevant environmental and social conditions of the area, different documents which
were published in the area related to irrigation development and its environmental and social
consequences have been reviewed. In addition to this, other disciplines' study were also reviewed
and taken into consideration in the document.
3.2.1.Water quality of Awash River Basin
The impact of water pollution is seen on human beings who have been directly or indirectly
consuming the contaminated water like Awash River. Although water quality problem is
apparent to most Ethiopian rivers, Awash leads in the extent of impairment due to its service as a
sink for the basin-wide urban, industrial and rural wastes (Belay, 2009; Alemayehu, 2001). In
assessing the pollution level of the river, it is concluded that attention needs to be paid in
irrigating with the river for fear of public health effect. This is confirmed by examining the
bacteriological contaminant level of leafy vegetables grown around Adama town with Awash
river along with identifying heavy pollution loads on the vegetables (Benti et al., 2014).
Additionally, heavy helminthes, bacteriological pollution load, toxicity level and the slight to
moderate salinity effects of the little Akaki river, which is a tributary of Awash river, made it
unfit for any intended use (Taddese et al., 2004). According to this study, nitrate level of the
river water is above 10 mg/L and mean concentration of heavy metals including Mn, Cr, Ni,
Pb, As and Zn are reported to be more in soils and vegetables irrigated by Awash river than
their allowable limits.
The incidences of dental and skeletal fluorosis from the high concentration of fluoride are found
to exist in its valleys (Reimann et al., 2003) is designed only for Oregon streams (Cude, 2001;
Tyagi et al., 2013).
3.3. Flood and its cause in Awash basin
Recurrent flood and drought are common phenomena of Awash river basin, with devastating
effect on environmental, social and economic loss. The most noticeable factors that cause these
hydrologic risks are; deforestation, soil degradation, unmanageable urbanization and climate
change etc. Frequently, the flood hazard occurs in the basin during summer season specifically
June-September, following heavy rains in the eastern highland and escarpment areas of north
Shewa, Wollo, Western Hararghe and Upstream of Koka Reservoir, draining to Eastwards that
increase the water level of the Awash river in a short period of time. Becho Plain, Wanji area,
Metehara, Amibara, Gewane, Logia and Asayita are the most prominently flood prone areas of
the basin. Flood susceptibility still exists in some areas of the western highlands, Shoarobit,
Kemise, Kombolcha, and Ambasel; and in the eastern catchment such as Dire Dawa.
On the other hand, with the increase in population and developmental activities in the region,
such as, Anthropogenic, Urbanization, Industrialization, and Large Scale Irrigation Expansions
have changed the natural environment within Awash River Basin. This has been a tendency to
occupy the floodplains, often resulting in serious flood damages and loss of lives over the years.
Of late, some areas, which were not traditionally prone to floods, also experienced severe
inundation. Floods cause severe bank erosion if the river banks are not strong enough to resist
heavy floods and not protected with appropriate bank protection works.
Many floods are caused by heavy rains, usually during summer season of the year. This is
especially common in highland, escarpment and mountainous areas of the Awash River Basin.
Rivers, streams, creeks, ditches, and storm sewers can carry so much water. Even in natural
settings, rivers, streams, creeks and overflow every year when rains overload the channel.
Flooding can be further aggravated when debris or urban poor solid waste management that
blocks the drainage system of the water way.
Flooding urban settlements, especially in Addis Ababa, Adama, Kemise, Kombolcha and Dire
Dawa annually causes damages to property along streams coming down from the nearby hills. In
most cases, such damages occur on illegal settlement at the banks of the streams. Urban
settlement in buffer zoning and protection of river banks from obstructive structures to allow
flood passage can curtail unnecessary damages of property due to floods. Our pattern of
streets/city/ and buildings has interrupted some of the natural drainage ways and reduced the
width of some channels. As a result, more water runs off more quickly, and the drainage system
becomes overloaded more frequently. The combination of heavy precipitation and base
flow/Lake Beseka gets filled and over loaded drainage system can result in four types of
flooding: overbank flooding, irrigation ditch/canal flooding, base flow which increases the lake
level and street flooding. Each type of flooding is associated with somewhat different hazards.
2.3.1. Social Pressures of the basin
According to the population forecast of 2016, the total population of Ethiopia was estimated to
be 92,206,005, of which 20.2 % (18.6 Millions) of the total population is predicted to be within
the boundary of Awash River Basin. Out of the total population in Awash 39 % (7 Millions) and
61% (11 Millions) reside in rural and urban areas of the basin, respectively (Aw BA, 2013).
The annual population growth in the basin is estimated to be in the order of 2.9%, which is the
value of a fast population expanding country. Aw BA database reports depict that the average
population growth for the last decade, from 1999-2008 E.C inclusive, is about 25.3% (13.9-18.6
Million). This apparently indicates that there exists intensive population pressure on the water
resources and higher potential of degradations.
3.4. Environmental pressure of the basin
The most noticeable environmental pressures pertaining to the Awash River Basin‟s
physiography, climate and agro ecology are topography, geomorphology, temperature and
evapotranspiration, invasion of Prosopis and expansion of Lake Beseka. Each of these factors in
one way or another has significant influence on water resources availability, as flood and drought
extremes.
The topography of the basin can be characterized as high as elevation of escarpments reaching
up to 3,700 masl at Ankober in the basin‟s western highlands, and low-lying plains that sink to
230 masl at and around Lake Abbey. The escarpments at the West and North West of the basin
produce runoff that lead the water to flow North East wards.
Besides, industrial and agricultural expansion in Awash River Basin is high and dynamic for
socioeconomic development. For that reason, more emphasis is given to economic growth than
dealing with environmental issues. Though environmental institutions are established and laws
are enacted in the basin which seems a commitment from the government, most relevant
institutions which deal with environmental issues lack the necessary power to fulfill their duties.
Since the existing laws do not have enforcement mechanisms, they are not dynamic; they are
feeble and easily circumvented by economically oriented legislations. As a result, it is widely
noted that agricultural and industrial development in the basin together with population growth is
causing increased environmental pressure.
3.6. Current situation of the basin

Drought is one of the recurring natural hazards in the Awash River Basin in the country.
According to a survey conducted in the Upper Awash Basin, reported that drought occurs every
two years in the area (Desalegn et al, 2006). Again, drought analysis in Awash River Basin by
Desalegn et al, (2010) indicates that considering extreme drought category on 12-month time
scale, areas where droughts occur most frequently are found to be around two sites in the Middle
Awash Basin (Hurso and Miesso areas), followed by Metehara, Nazareth and Holota areas in the
Upper Awash and Dubti, Mille and Cheffa areas in the Lower Basin. However, on 3 and 6
months‟ time scales, areas most frequently hit by droughts of mild and above mild categories are
those located in the Middle and Lower Awash Basin. The same research shows that hydrologic
drought events of all Mild drought occurs in higher percentage in almost all over the basin except
in some basins of the upper and lower Awash (upstream Koka and upper most catchment of
Awash Terminal).
Extreme and mild drought occurrence overview of Awash River Basin (Shishay, 2016) i.e. these
and other observed facts, generally, reveal the basin faces frequent drought hazards, with severity
level growing to the direction of the Awash River flow. Hydrologic and meteorological droughts
are the most common drought types in the basin.
3.7. Irrigation Water Source and Management

The current irrigation water management of the basin is good. Wadessa-Belbela Irrigation
System has two small earthen dams called Wadessa and Belbela. These dams are the sources of
irrigation water for seven schemes within four peasant associations (PAs). The schemes are
Keteba Gimbi (Keteba PA), Harawa, Goha Weriko, Godino (Godino PA), Fultino, Belbela
(Koftu PA) and Denema (Gende Gorba PA).
The water distribution system in the area is of a constant amount. There is an established
calendar and each farmer receives irrigation water in their turn without any arrangement on
demand. Flooding and furrow irrigation is widely employed to irrigate crops in the irrigation
schemes. A farmer usually irrigates their field twice a week for crops like tomato and onion
during establishment, and once a week thereafter depending on the availability of irrigation
water. Generally, the irrigation water sources is more than sufficient for the schemes but seepage
losses in poor primary canals, that use the previous river system in the upper portion (Wadessa
Irrigation System), contribute to shortages of water on demand at a given time. Siltation and
vegetation growth in the distribution canals also play a significant role by retarding irrigation
water flow and hence delaying water delivery in both irrigation systems. Its pronounced effect is
seen in the lower part of the system, in the Belbela irrigation schemes, where farmers are forced
to wait for more than eight hours to get irrigation water once it is released from the source. This
coupled with poor operation of the system, limited availability of control structures, lack of
interest by the farmers to participate in maintenance, and insufficient funds for operation and
maintenance are responsible for the poor irrigation water management in the schemes.
However, the rest of the schemes practice traditional irrigation by diverting water directly from
the main canal. This irrigation system employs the natural waterway for conveyance of irrigation
water to the above-mentioned irrigation scheme. This waterway also feeds the leftover water to
Belbela micro-dam, which is found downstream of these schemes.
Belbela micro-dam is found in the lower part of the irrigation system. When constructed, its life
storage was 11.5 Mm3 with a catchment area of 85 km2. The Belbela and Fultino schemes have
access to water from this micro-dam using a well-constructed earthen canal system with control
structures as modern facilities. The type of water control equipment encompasses fixed
proportion division and manually operated gates. Most of the control structures and discharge
measurement facilities are found at primary and secondary canal levels.
The main farming system in the area is a mixed crop livestock system while horticultural crops
(shallot, tomato, potato, sugarcane, cabbage, and onion) cover the largest portion of irrigated
agriculture. Pulses like chickpea and lentil are also cultivated using irrigation. Sugarcane is
commonly cultivated in the backyards of Goha Weriko and Godino villages. The main rain fed
crops in the area include teff, wheat, chickpea, lentil, fenugreek, bean and pea. In this irrigation
system multiple cropping is widely practiced. As shown in figure 24, cabbage is especially
planted at the borders near the irrigation canals together with shallots (OWRME 1998). Land
preparation is usually carried out using the traditional „Maresha‟ using oxen as a source of power
for traction. Di-ammonium Phosphate (DAP) and Urea are the two most commonly used
fertilizer in the schemes. Pesticides and insecticides are also widely used for crop protection.
Recently, due to the expansion of flower farming and the horticultural industry in the country,
there is a huge development and expansion of greenhouses in this irrigation system. An extended
area below Belbela dam, which was once used for surface irrigation, is now converted to chains
of greenhouses for flower production. The greenhouses mainly use water from the Belbela dam.
The scheme is jointly managed by the government and local organizations. Oromia Irrigation
Authority is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation system at the dam
site, while the water user associations handle the water distribution. Organizations providing
various services include Goha Weriko Marketing Cooperative, Yerer Agricultural Development
Cooperative, Bishoftu Agricultural Research Center, and the International Livestock Research
Institute. Most of the time farmers sell their farm outputs to private traders in the local market in
Godino village and it is also common to sell the irrigated crop while they are in the field before it
is harvested in a wholesale manner through negotiations held between the farmers and the
traders. Recently (in 2006) at Goha Weriko, farmers, with the support of Oxfam, organized
themselves and established a marketing cooperative. The schemes have relatively good access to
both input and output markets as they are near Addis Ababa adjacent to Bishoftu and also
connected by all-weather roads. The main institutional constraints include inadequate farmer
participation in system operation, management and maintenance, limited technical capacity, poor
communication between farmers and the government agencies, inadequate coordination among
agencies serving irrigated agriculture, poor state of the physical control structures, inadequate
maintenance of the irrigation system, and lack of financial resources for maintenance of the
proper functioning of the irrigation facilities.
3.7.4. Environmental Impact

There is a change in the environment of the villages that use irrigation when compared to the
nearby rain fed villages. One of the positive environmental changes is the expansion of
vegetation cover such as trees in the immediate vicinity of the irrigators. This, together with the
presence of the reservoirs, attracts different kinds of birds and other wild animals. The reservoirs
and the night storages also serve as a reliable year-round source of water for livestock in the area.
Apparently, there is no concern is the flooding hazard in the rain fed fields downstream of
Belbela dam, which is usually attributed to improper operation of the Wadessa dam due to
defective control structures and lack of a working drainage system. Recently (in 2006), due to
high rainfall and low vegetation cover in the catchment areas of the Wadessa and Belbela
reservoirs, Belbela was full and there was an overflow at the tail end of the reservoir, which calls
for urgent attention in environmental rehabilitation in the area.
4. Baseline Environmental Data of the area

4.1. Climate
The climate of the Awash Basin comes under the influence of the inter-tropical convergence
Zone (ITCZ). The seasonal rainfall distribution within the basin results from the annual
migration of the ITCZ. The mean annual rainfall varies from about 1,600 mm at Ankober, in the
highlands North East of Addis Ababa to 160 mm at Asayita on the Northern limit of the Basin.
The mean annual rainfall over the entire Western catchment is 850 mm and the headwaters of the
Awash, as gauged at Melka Hombole it is 1,216 mm.
The mean annual temperatures range from 20.80C at Koka to 290C at Dubti, with the highest
mean monthly temperatures at these stations occurring in June, at 23.80C and 33.60C
respectively. Mean annual wind speeds at Koka averages 1.2m/s, the windiest months being June
and July with mean monthly values of 1.9 and 1.6 m/s respectively. It is seen that the Awash
river basin is characterized by bimodal rainfall pattern. The north western and eastern part of the
Awash basin receive most of their rainfall during July, August and September associated with
the north ward passage of the ITCZ. From September to November, the ITCZ moves back to
southward direction, causing a rapid end to the rainy season during September/October.
4.2. Soil Physical Characteristics

4.2.1. Texture
Texture is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a soil mass. It is based on this
proportion that the textural name or class of a specific soil type is determined. The proportion of
the soil particles (sand, silt and clay) plays their role in the determination of the soil‟s moisture
retention capacity, the movement of air within the soil, drainage conditions etc..
The Vertisols and Nitosols show dominantly clay texture, Luvisols and Cambisols are dominated
by clay loam. Fluvisols, Andosols, and Leptosols are dominated by loam & sandy loam texture.
Phaeozoms are sandy clay loam to clay in the top soil to sub soil respectively.
4.2.2. Effective Soil Depth
The Vertisols, Nitosols, and Luvisols are dominantly deep to very deep soils in the Upper
Awash sub basin and thus do not pose any serious constraint in so far as plant rooting depth is
concerned. Cambisols, Fluvisols, and Andosols are moderately deep to deep; however, the
Leptosols and Regosols have very shallow to shallow effective soil depths and thus they may
have limited agricultural value.
The dominant soils mapping units of Arba-Kurkura-Doba sub basin are moderately deep (50-100
cm) to very deep (100-150+ cm), so have no limitation for normal rooting for most cultivated
crops, grazing herbages, bush and shrubs.
The Vertisols and Luvisols of the sub basin have deep to moderately deep effective depth of
greater than 50-120 cm+. The Cambisols of the Dawa Danbal sub basin have shallow to deep
effective depth of 45- 120 cm+. The Leptosols have very shallow effective depth of 10 to 25 cm
in this area.
4.2.3. Soil Drainage
Soil drainage relates the frequency and duration of periods when the soil free of saturation or
partially saturated. The soil drainage classes reflect the effect of climate, landform and soil.
Rainfall, seepage, internal and lateral water movement and surface run off affect soil drainage.
The drainage is usually reflected by the colors of soil materials. The classes of internal soil
drainage that are used are as follow: excessively drained, somewhat excessively drained, well
drained, moderately well drained, imperfectly drained and poorly drained.
In the Upper Awash sub basin, Vertisols and some soil units with vertic properties and Fluvisols
are moderately well to poorly drained, due mainly to the finer textured clay and /or topographic
position. The Nitosols, Luvisols, and Cambisols are moderately well to well drained due to their
favorable structural aggregation. Gleyic Luvisols are imperfectly to poorly drained soils. The
Andosols Leptosols soil units within the basin are excessively to somewhat excessively drain due
mainly to their steep slopes and their loam texture. Also the dominant dark brown to very dark
reddish brown soils of the Arba-Kurkura-Doba sub basin have good surface drainage (2-30 per
cent slope). Pellic Vertisols, Eutric Vertisols on flat to gently sloping (0-5%) slope are
imperfectly to moderately well drain. This is due to the low topographic position and soil texture.
Eutric Cambisols with 8-15 per cent slope is well drained. Epileptic Leptosols are excessively
drained due to steeper slope whereas, Eutric Cambisols, Chromic Luvisols and Vertic Cambisols
Haplic Phaeozoms, on gently sloping (2-5) per cent slope to moderately sloping (8-15) per cent
slope.
4.2.4. Soil Stoniness
For the Upper Awash sub basin soil surface stoniness is not a major limitation to development of
the area as most of the soils are free of stones or only fairly stony. But, in Arba Kurkura and
Dawa Danbal most soil mapping units are covered with common to many fine and coarse surface
coarse fragments (gravels), which do not hinder as such agricultural activities. On the other hand,
surface stoniness are major limitations in Pellic Vertisols, Eutric Vertisols and Eutric Cambisols
soil type areas are covered by common surface stone(5-15 per cent) and common to many
surface stone(5-40 per cent) in Vertic Cambisols, Chromic Luvisols, Haplic Phaeozoms and
Epileptic Leptosols soil type areas.
4.2.5. Soil structure
Soil structure described the arrangement of individual soil particles in to stable aggregates; soil
profile descriptions usually report the shape, size, and distinctness of the structural aggregates.
Structure may be weak, moderate or strong and the aggregates may be plate-like, blocky,
prismatic, granular, etc. Soils good in organic matter content always have a stable good structure.
Top soil structure of the major soil types of the river basin are, strong to moderate fine to
medium sub angular blocky(Vertisols, Fluvisols, Cambisols, Luvisols, Nitosols, Phaeozoms,
Leptosols) and moderate fine to medium granular to sub angular blocky(Andosols).
4.3. Soil Chemical Characteristics

4.3.1. Soil Reaction (pH)
The PH determination on soil samples is made mainly in order to make some generalizations
regarding the availability of nutrients. On the other hand, high PH values can indicate a sodicity
hazard and reduction in the availability of micro-nutrients. The optimum PH range for most
crops is between 6.5 and 7.5. PH values between 7 and 8.5, the availability of Phosphorus and
Boron decreases and deficiency of other micronutrients, PH > 8.5 Calcium and Magnesium may
be unavailable to plants and may increase availability of Sodium. However, almost all the
identified soil units in the basin showed PH of < 8 indicating that complexes exchangeable
sodium may not be present to affect plant growth.
In Upper Awash sub basin an average PH value of top soils of Nitosols, Luvisols and some
Vertisols is between 5.2 and 6 which is strongly acid to moderately acid. Other soils of the sub
basin Cambisols, Leptosols, Fluvisols, Andosols, and Regosols have neutral to slightly alkaline
PH value between 6.8 and 8. For all soils, the PH values decrease in depth. In Arba Kurkura sub
basin data indicate that the average soil reaction (topsoil) of Pellic Vertisols, Eutric Vertisols,
Vertic Cambisols, are slightly alkaline (7.4 to 8) and Epileptic Leptosols and Haplic Phaeozoms
are neutral (6.6 to 7.2), and Chromic Luvisols, Eutric Cambisols are slightly acidic (6.3).
The electrical conductivity (EC) was expressed in dS/m. The electrical conductivity
measurements are used as indications of total quantities of soluble salts in soils. Estimate of
salinity of soils is important, because of its effect on crop yields. This effect arises when salt
concentrations in the soil are high since the resultant salt concentrations in the soil-water may
reduce or even reverse the flow of water into the plants by osmosis.
The EC values of over 4 dS/m are considered restrictive for most crops and values as low as 2
dS/m may adversely affect the more sensitive crops. According to the laboratory results of the
river basin as a whole, the average electrical conductivity values of all soils occurring within the
basin are < 2 dS/m within the threshold values and salt injury to plants should not be a concern.
4.3.2. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Cation exchange capacity measurements and deriving base saturation percentage are important
criterion in soil classification. They are mainly used as an overall assessment of the potential
fertility of the soils and possible response to fertilizer application CEC is often used in land
evaluation as a characteristic that determines the land's “nutrient retention” quality. The higher
the CEC the more capable is the soilsto retain cat ions. Heavier textured soils have high level of
CEC value, and would therefore, respond better to fertilizer applications. It should be noted,
however, that CEC values critically depend on PH.
Most of the soils within the study area have high to very high (30-70 meq/100g soil) CEC levels.
Therefore, the soils of this type are normally good from agriculture point of view. Vertisols,
Cambisols, Leptosols and Luvisols have average CEC levels 62, 42, 40, 49 meq/100g soil
respectively in the top soils. These soil types are normally good for agriculture from CEC point
of view. Nitosols, Luvisols, Fluvisols, and Andosols have an average CEC value of 37, 35, 33,
29 meq/100g soil respectively in the top soils, which is medium to high.
4.3.3. Base Saturation Percentage (BS %)
Base saturation is frequently used as an indication of soil fertility with levels of less than 50% as
Dystric (infertile) and above 50% as Eutric (fertile) in the FAO soil classification. In general, all
the soils identified within the river basin have high levels with topsoil >60% to 100%.
Cambisols, Fluvisols, and Andosols have an average BSP 92.6, 90, and 90 respectively in the top
soils, which is high. Luvisols, Leptosols, Phaeozoms and Nitosols have an average BSP of 67.8,
64, 61, and 68.6 respectively in the top soils.
Higher values of BS, more than 100% were recorded for some soils identified in the basin. The
CaCo3 solubilizes after leaching and the Ca and Mg content may increase. This may result in an
over estimation of the base saturation percentage.
4.3.4. Exchangeable Bases
The level of exchangeable cat ions in soils is important than the CEC as it is not only indicate
existing nutrient status, but also be used to assess balances among cat ions. This is of great
importance because it has many effects, for example on soil structure and on nutrient uptake by
plants. The situation is influenced by the relative concentration of cat ions as well as by their
absolute levels. The exchangeable complex is dominantly occupied by calcium followed by
magnesium.
4.3.5. Exchangeable Calcium
Generally, all soils of the Upper Awash sub basin exhibited high to very high levels of
exchangeable calcium (>19.4 meq/100gr of soil).Vertisols and Cambisols have very high
exchangeable calcium value of 34.8 for the top soils, 31.8 for sub soils, and 31.1 for top soils,
20.1for sub soils respectively.
The value of exchangeable calcium of soils of the dominant soil mapping units in the Arba-
Kurkura-Doba sub basin are very high both in the topsoil and subsoil (23meq/100g soil to
58.5meq/100g soil and 23meq/100g soil to 51.5meq/100g soil) and soils of soil mapping unit
CMeu-5 (Eutric Cambisols) is high in exchangeable calcium (19.9meq/100g soil and
19.2meq/100g soil) in the top and subsoil respectively. Therefore, the exchangeable calcium
level in the soil is sufficient for crop production. The Vertisols of the Dawa Danbal sub basin has
very high concentration of exchangeable calcium in their top and subsoils with the range of
36.02 – 40.09 meq/100g and 35.23 – 45.92 meq/100g respectively. The Luvisols have very high
exchangeable calcium of 30.07 to 29.74 meq/100g in their top soils and 36.65 to 29.61 meq/100g
in their sub soils. The Cambisols have high to very high calcium of 15.40 to 34.01 meq/100g and
16.95 to 34.47 meq/100 in its topsoil and subsoil respectively. The Leptosols of the sub basin
have very high calcium of 29.08 meq/100g.
4.3.6. Exchangeable Magnesium
The level of Magnesium in all soils is high which indicates Magnesium is sufficient in the soils
in soils of Upper Awash sub basin. In Arba Kurkura sub basin the level of exchangeable
magnesium (topsoil) in the study area is very high (8.9meq/100g soil to13meq/100g soil) to high
(4.6 meq/100g soil to7.8meq/100g soil) which indicates that magnesium is sufficient in the soil.
In Dawa Danbal sub basin the exchangeable magnesium of Vertisols is high with the value of
5.94 to 5.62 meq/100 and 7.80 to 7.15 meq/100g for their top and sub soils respectively. The
Luvisols also have high exchangeable magnesium of 7.24 to 4.70 meq/100g in their top and 6.35
to 5.68 meq/100g in their sub soils. The Cambisols have high exchangeable magnesium 4.24 to
6.81 meq/100 in its top soil and high to very of 4.76 to 8.26 meq/100g in its sub soil. The
Leptosols of the sub basin have high exchangeable magnesium of 7.07 meq/100g.
4.3.7. Exchangeable Potassium
In the Upper Awash sub basin Exchangeable Potassium (K) is sufficient for most of the soil
samples analyzed. However, a response to K fertilizer is likely when a soil has an exchangeable
K values below 0.2 meq/100g soil. The average K value for most of the soils of the basin ranges
from 0.58 to 2.2 indicates exchangeable K is sufficient in the soils.
In Arba Kurkura sub basin the level of exchangeable potassium in Pellic Vertisols, Eutric
Vertisols, Chromic Luvisols, and Epileptic Leptosols are very high 1.4meq/100g soil to 1.7
meq/100g soil). For Vertic Cambisols, Haplic Phaeozoms and Epileptic Leptosols of steep slope
area are high in Exchangeable potassium. Generally, level of exchangeable potassium has
recorded from high to low in the area.
In Dawa Danbal sub basin, exchangeable potassium is very high with the value of 2.27 to 1.60
meq/100g for their top soils and high to very high for their sub soils with the value of 0.79 to
1.12 meq/100g. Consequently, the exchangeable potassium of Luvisols is low in their top and
sub soils with range of 0.16 to 0.24 meq/100 g and 0.11 to 0.18 meq/100g respectively. The
exchangeable potassium of Cambisols is also low to medium for top soil that is 0.24 to 0.41
meq/100g and low for the sub soils that is 0.11 to 0.23 meq/100g. The Leptosols of the sub basin
have low exchangeable potassium of 0.23 meq/100g.
4.3.8. Calcium (Ca) to Magnesium (Mg) ratio
The CA: Mg ratio in Nitosols is less than 3:1. At this ratio Phosphorus uptake by plants is
inhibited. In Andosols, Cambisols, and Fluvisols, the ratio of CA: Mg is greater than 5:1. In this
ratio Mg is increasingly unavailable with increasing calcium.
4.3.9. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
Any soil is considered as sodic if its ESP exceeds 15 per cent and with electrical conductivity
less than 4 ds/m. the sodium toxicity and soil particle dispersion (few micro pores) is expected
highly affecting the productivity of the soil because of the excess concentration of sodium in the
soil. In the Upper Awash sub basin dominant soils have got exchangeable sodium percentage of
less than 15 per cent indicating the soils are free of sodicity problem.
In Arba Kurkura sub basin, the quantities of sodium found in the profile of some soils are very
high, that is in Vertisols (Pellic Vertisols 0-2 per cent slope and Eutric Vertisols 0-2 per cent
slope), and high in Cambisols (Eutric Cambisols 2-5 per cent slope and Vertic Cambisols 2-5 per
cent slope), Vertisols (Eutric Vertisols 2-5 per cent slope), Leptosols (Epileptic Leptosols 5-8 per
cent slope and Epileptic Leptosols 8-15 per cent slope).
In Dawa Danbal soils with exchangeable sodium greater than 15 meq/100 gm. soils are regarded
as potentially sodic so, all soils of the sub basin exhibited low to medium levels of Na (0 to
4.84).
4.3.10. Organic Carbon (OC)
Organic carbon measurement is often made as a measure of quantity of organic matter in soils,
which in turn is taken as a crude measure of soil fertility status.
Organic Carbon content of the soils decreases with depth. The Organic Carbon content of all
soils of Upper Awash sub basin is low to very low. OC value in general low to very low
indicating that, organic matter does not contribute much to soil fertility.
In Arba Kurkura and Dawa Danbal sub basins the average organic carbon (OC per cent) content
of soil mapping units is low to very low (1.4 per cent-2.8 per cent to 0.54 per cent-1.9 per cent),
very low in organic carbon content that is less than two percent means that the soils fertility is
relatively low. So it requires application of organic and inorganic fertilizer to maintain soil
fertility.
The average total nitrogen (TN per cent) content of soil-mapping units are high (0.09 per cent to
0.24 per cent) except for Eutric Cambisols and Chromic Luvisols, which is medium (0.03 per
cent and 0.05 per cent respectively). Generally, the C/N ratio of the dominant soils of the soil
mapping units in the sub basin is less than twelve, so that this indicates good quality of organic
matter that can be easily decomposed and avail nitrogen for plant growth.
4.3.11. Organic Matter (OM)
The measure of organic matter (OM %) is conducted to evaluate availability of plant nutrients
and physical condition of the soil. Soil organic matter consists of plant, animal and microbial
residues in various stage of decay. Organic matter contains about five percent total nitrogen, so it
serves as a store house for reserve nitrogen, but nitrogen in organic matter is in inorganic form
and not immediately available for plant use, since decomposition usually occurs slowly. Organic
matter gives dark color to many soils, holds water 20 times of its weight, provides aggregation,
and has high CEC.
In general, the average organic matter content of soils of the soil mapping units in Arba-
Kurkura-Doba sub basin is medium to high (1.7 per cent-2.9 per cent to3.1 per cent-4.8 per cent)
and low content (0.8 per cent &0.9 per cent) in some samples.
In Dawa Danbal sub basin the dominant soils Vertisols have got medium to high organic matter
content of 2.76 to 4.01 per cent in their top soils and 1.60 to 3.08 per cent in their sub soils.
Leptosols have got medium amount of organic matter content in their top soil that is 1.93 per
cent. The Luvisols have got high to medium organic matter content of 3.08 to 1.84 per cent and
medium organic matter of 1.55 to 2.67 per cent in their top and sub soils respectively. The
Cambisols have high to medium organic matter content of 3.55 to 2.16 per cent in their top soils
and low to medium in their sub soils with the value of 0.60 to 2.16 per cent.
4.3.12. Total Nitrogen and C to N Ratios
Nitrogen may be present in several forms, such as organic compounds (as exchangeable cat
ions). It can be also result from the breakdown and decomposition of organic matter and the
fixation of atmospheric Nitrogen by leguminous plants. However, as noted above, organic
carbon levels are apparently low; thus Nitrogen must effectively be supplied through fertilizer
application.
The majority of the soils in Upper Awash sub basin have high total nitrogen levels in the topsoil
and still decreasing with depth. Very often the Carbon : Nitrogen (C:N) ratio is used to show the
degree of decomposition, types of organic matter present in the soil, and resultant availability of
nitrogen to plants. Most of the soils within the sub basin have an average topsoil mean C: N
ratios of 10 to 12 which indicates moderate decomposition (and hence the quality of organic
matter is good).
In Arba Kurkura the average total nitrogen (TN per cent) content for some soils are high (0.09
per cent to 0.24 per cent) for Eutric Cambisols and Chromic Luvisols are medium (0.03 per cent
and 0.05 per cent respectively). Generally, the C/N ratio of the dominant soils of the soil
mapping units in the sub basin is less than twelve, so that this indicates good quality of organic
matter that can be easily decomposed and avail nitrogen for plant growth. All the entire dominant
soils in the Dawa Danbal sub basin have got high amount of total nitrogen in their top soils and
medium to high total nitrogen in their sub soils with the range of 0.27 to 0.09 per cent in their
top soils and 0.03 to 0.15 per cent in their sub soils that is medium to high.
4.3.13. Available Phosphorus
Phosphorus is present in soils both in organic and inorganic forms. The inorganic form is
usually more important as a plant nutrient. The phosphorus availability therefore, differs
between different forms of phosphorus in soils. The available phosphorus refers to the readily
available form to plants. Most of the soils within the Upper Awash sub basin have medium
Available Phosphorus in the top soils. However, Available phosphorus in Nitosols and Luvisols
is low.
In the Arba-Kurkura-Doba sub basin Eutric Cambisols and Epileptic Leptosols are high
Available phosphorus is 24 ppm and 22.1 ppm respectively. Eutric Vertisols, Eutric Cambisols,
Chromic Luvisols, Haplic Phaeozoms medium A.V.P content, 5.2 ppm to 15 ppm, whereas the
rest of all soil is low in A.V.P contents (0.88 ppm-4 ppm).
Available phosphorus content greater than 15 ppm consider as high value, 5-15 ppm medium and
less than 5 ppm low.
In Dawa Danbal sub basins Vertisols have got low available phosphorous in their top soils and in
their sub soils that is 2.16 ppm and 0.78 ppm for the top and sub soils respectively. The Luvisols
have low to medium available phosphorous of 2.0 to 6.0 ppm and 0.68 to 6.0 ppm in their top
and sub soils respectively. The Cambisols have also low to medium available phosphorous of 2.0
to 8.0 ppm in their top soils and sub soils respectively. The Leptosols also have low phosphorous
of 0.39 ppm in its top soils. The low level of available phosphorous is not sufficient for plant
growth. Thus, application of phosphate fertilizers is so vital for the mentioned soils.
4.3.14. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
Calcium Carbonate equivalent of >15% is used in the FAO definition as calcic horizon. High
level of Carbonate (>15%) affects physical as well as chemical characteristics of a soil. In Upper
Awash sub basin are very low<...1 in Calcium Carbonate.
The calcium carbonate equivalent of greater than 15 per cent is used in the FAO definition of
calcic horizon. High levels of calcium carbonate greater than 15 per cent affect the physical and
chemical characteristics of a soil besides normal root penetration. Calcaric which refers to soils
which are calcareous (show strong effervescence with 10 per cent HCL in most of the fine earth
or which contain more than 2 per cent calcium carbonate equivalent).
The calcium carbonate content of most of the soils in Arba Kurkura sub basin is less than 4
percent; this value does not affect greatly the physical and the chemical characteristics of a soil.
However, in the study area, the calcium carbonate content of Pellic Vertisols, Eutric Vertisols,
Vertic Cambisols and Chromic Luvisols are high 5.4 per cent-9.9 per cent). For the rest of all soil
mapping units are medium in calcium carbonate content (1.6 per cent-3.6 per cent).
4.4. Geology
In the Upper Awash plateaus the dominant rocks are the tertiary volcanic: basalt tuffs and
agglomerates of the trap series (Paleocene to Miocene age) and the younger, more silica–rich
rhyolite, trachyte, tuffs and ignimbrites of the magdala group (Miocene to Pleistocene).
Geologically, the plateau comprises the denuded surface of the Precambrian basement rocks on
which lies near horizontal Mesozoic sediments covered in turn by the tertiary flood basalt
extrusions.
Seven geological formation /structure comprises the study area: Alaje formation, mainly consist
of a pyric flood basalts associated with Trachyte (ignimbrites) and subordinate Trachyte forms
the bulk of the volcanic succession on the plateau of West Hararghe. Tarmaber-megezez
formation represents Oligocene to Miocene basaltic shield. Chilalo formation, a group of early
Pliocene shield volcanic complex, Afar series is a thick succession of stratified flood basalt and
intercalated alkaline to per alkaline felsic. Rhyolite dome flows and ignimbrites occur in the
North part of East Hararghe. Urandab formation, Mabla & Arba Guracha formation, middle
Miocene felsic volcanism is confined to the margin of rift valley in West Hararghe and Adigrat
formation (occurs in small portion of East & West Hararghe mainly in river valley areas).
The geology of Dawa-Danbal sub basin is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks at different
places of the sub basin namely Mesozoic lime stone and marls. These are mostly areas of most
parts of Chinaksen, Jarso and parts of Haromaya Woredas. There are also small areas of the sub
basin such as areas of Meta district and high lands of Chinaksen composed of igneous rocks
primarily granite and tertiary basalt and tuffs and metamorphic rocks i.e. gneiss.
4.5. Hydrological Situation of the Area

Hydrology of an area is a direct reflection of the climate, the terrain and other physical
characteristics such as porosity, permeability and vegetation cover. Water travels on the surface,
underground and in the atmosphere in a well-known cycle. Here, emphasis is given to part of the
water that run on the surface in the form of streams and rivers or stored in the form of lakes.
The very high variability exhibited by the climatic components of the country over time and
space is the main reason behind the spatial and temporal variability in the availability of water.
The shape, size and other physical features of the River Basin does also contribute to the same.
The Awash River rises on the high plateau to the West of Addis Ababa, at an altitude of about
3,000 m. It then flows Eastwards, through the Becho Plains and is joined by several small
tributaries before entering Koka reservoir, created by a dam, commissioned in 1960. At the outlet
to Koka the total catchments area is some 11,500 km2. The large expanse of catchments to the
east of the river, accounting for some 40% of the total Basin area, and dose not contribute any
surface runoff to the river. This area, of some 46,000 km2 extent, known as the Eastern
catchments loses all runoff in to the vast expanse of desert plains which stretches from the
escarpment northwards to the terminal lakes.
The mean annual runoff into Koka reservoir amounts to some 1,660 Mm3. About 90% of this
runoff occurs in the period July to October. It decreases to 1,390 Mm3 at Awash station being
depleted largely by losses from Koka and upper valley irrigation diversions. The mean annual
flow is around 2,200 Mm3 at Tendaho. Currently, at Tendaho some 75%-80% of the mean
annual runoff arrives during the periods March to May and July to October.
The total mean annual water resources of the Awash Basin amounts to some 4,900 Mm3 of
which some 3,850 Mm3 is currently utilizable, the balance being lost to Gedebassa swamp and
elsewhere in the river system.
The Awash River basin is one of the water scarce basins due to high Irrigation consumption in
the basin as country. There is not hydrological data scarcity with relative to other river basin in
the basin, more than 20 stream gauging stations in the basin with in Oromia regional state. A
good coverage of stream flow data over the basin is available only in the period 1984-2002
monthly flow data of 1990-2010 the calibration period and 2003-2010 validate years. The
distribution of the meteorological and hydrological gauging stations is not well integrated
reducing the plausibility of such data.
Inspection of most of the stations has shown that the stations are not reliable to capture the flow
situation in the basin. Some of them are installed on raised structures anchored to bridges, while
others are offsite in pockets of the main course of the stream. Low flow series often contain years
with zero values. Stream flows recorded as zero imply either that the stream was completely dry
or that the actual stream flow was below a recording limit.
4.6. Topography and Drainage System

The Awash basin named after Awash River which starts flowing from High lands of Oromia
Region and ends (seeps) to flood plains and marshy area in Afar region after travelling 1200 km.
Before the river leaving Oromia at Metehara, many tributaries feed it at different location to
increase the flow.
The total area of whole Awash basin is about 115,544 km2, while this study focuses on part of it
located within Oromia regional state which covers 27,709 Km2 (24% of the whole basin).The
Awash basin is divided to number of sub basins. 34 Flow gauging stations and 61 meteorological
stations are distributed un-evenly in these sub basins which are located within Oromia.
The Awash basin named after Awash River which starts flowing from high lands of Oromia
Region and ends (seeps) to flood plains and marshy area in Afar region after travelling 1,200 km.
Before the river leaving Oromia at Metehara, many tributaries feed it at different location to
increase the flow. The list of these tributaries with their characteristics, water usage, etc is given
in table 1 below. Another focus of this study is on Rivers/streams generated from eastern
escarpments, which are not joining the main Awash River but ends at swamps and sands
independently.
The Awash Basin covers a total area of 110,000 km2 of which 64,000 km2 comprising its
Western catchments, drains to the main river or its tributaries. The remaining 46,000 km2, most
of which comprises the so called Eastern catchments, drains to a desert area and does not
contribute to the main river course. The river Awash rises at an elevation of about 3,000 m in the
central Ethiopian Highlands, West of Addis Ababa and flows North Eastwards along the Rift
Valley into the Afar triangle where it terminates in Lake Abe at an elevation of about 250 m. The
main river length is about 1,200 km.
With regard to evolution of soils, the second important influence, by far next to climate is
vegetation. The kind of plants, their rooting habits and mineral composition as well as the land
use system play vital role in the type of soils which develops. Both factors determine the
properties and the local variation of soil characteristics.
The land cover/vegetation cover in the sub-basin is primary influenced by climate, particularly
the rainfall and temperature. Upper Awash sub-basin consist 12 major classes, which might be
further characterized into 16 to 20 sub-classes and/or mapping units. The land cover/vegetation
cover types identified in the Upper Awash sub-basin includes Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-Alpine
vegetation, Cultivated Land, Forest Land, Grass Land, Shrub Land, Water body, Wood land,
bare land. A large proportion of the sub basin is accounted as cultivated land, Forest Land, Grass
Land, Water body also consumable significant in the sub-basin.
Dense shrubs and bush are the dominant vegetation cover in the Arba- Kurkura -Doba sub basin
the dominant specie is acacia species. The present land use is agro pastoral system, which is
mainly cattle grazing and browsing by goats, sheep‟s and camels. There is some traditional crop
cultivation mainly sorghum, maize and haricot bean especially in the Woredas. The farming
systems in the sub basin are predominantly divided in to three major groups namely the mixed
agriculture of crop production and animal production, the agro pastoral and pastoral systems.
Mixed deciduous woodlands, acacia woodlands, bush and shrub lands are the common land
cover of the low land plains. The high land plateaus are mainly bare agricultural lands with
scattered trees of eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus globules, Cordia Africana, Ficus species,
Croton macrostachyus, etc.
Figure 2: Catchment area of the identified irrigation potential area
Figure 3: catchment area of the identified irrigation potential area

The basin has a total catchment area of about 25,674 km2 as obtained delineated from the DEM
data by application of Global mapper, Arc GIS and SWAT 2012 software. Watershed is a natural
topographical and hydrological entity which collects all the rainwater falling on it to a common
outlet and hence forms an ideal unit for management and sustainable development of its natural
resources like water, soil, land and vegetation.
Generally, watershed is the boundary of the drainage basin. Therefore; the classifications of the
watershed under study depend on the mentioned above idea and the terminology and size of the
catchments. Suggested terminologies of watershed are as follows: 1) Water resources region
(250,000 – 750,000 sq.km) 2) River basin (25,000 – 75,000 sq.km), 3) Watershed/ Sub-basin
(2,500 – 7,500) and 4) sub-watershed (less than 2,500 sq. km) (Schramm, 1980). Accordingly,
our study area lies above watershed area of 2500 and classified in to twelve main drainage sub-
basins. These are Gololcha, Mile, Erer, Hurso, Afdem, Chiro Miesso, Bersisa, Ture Kurkura,
Arba, Awash, Beseka and Kesem Sub-basins.
4.7. Land Use and Land Cover

The major land use land cover of Awash river basin are bare land, cultivated land, dense bush
shrub land, forest, open shrub land and shrub land are existent in Awash river basin. In the basin
27 dam sites with 26,395 ha command area and 88 weir sites with 52,684 ha were identified by
Oromia irrigation potential assessment project. Therefore, specifically land use land covers of the
identified dam sites' command area is 38.3ha bare land, 770.61ha built up area, 8,278.25ha
cultivated land, 15.3ha dense bush and shrub land, 3,353.21ha dense shrub land, 298.71ha forest
land, 39.83ha irrigated land, 148.792ha open bush shrub grass land, 1,142.642ha open bush
Shrub Land, 3,001.241ha open grassland, 40.5688 ha open shrub grassland, 1,415.856583 ha
open shrub land, 0.2 ha riverine forest, 1,156.12 ha settlement area, 85.16729 ha water body
(Ripha Dembel), 3.58946 ha wetland (Kerensa Wamura Seko) and 235 ha woodland (Holota
Haro Boki). Similarly, the dam sites reservoir area land use land is 1,583 ha cultivated land, 21ha
dense bush and shrub land, 163ha dense shrub land
Also, the identified diversion weir's command area land use land cover is 1,993.92 ha bare land,
346.72 ha built up area, and 39,306.867 ha cultivated land, 490.671ha Dense Bush Shrub Land,
1,765.55ha Dense Shrub Land, 72.556 ha exposed rock surfaces, 5.591ha forest land, 238.1ha
irrigated land, 2488.514ha Open Bush Shrub Grass Land, 603.442ha Open Bush Shrub Land,
225.811h open grassland, 1436.895ha Open Shrub Grass Land, 888.277ha Open Shrub Land
(Hararghe area), 40.28935ha riverine forest, 2873.1ha settlement area, 497.9ha wetland (Aash
agemsa Rogecha and Gara Roga), and 44.2976891ha woodland. The potential area land use land
cover is presented as follows.
Table 1: Awash Irrigation Potential Area Land Use Land Cover

Adverse Environmental and social
Land use land Impact to be considered during
No Project Name cover Area-ha-1 feasibility stud
1 Saphalo Nini Bare land 38.0899 Insignificant
2 Ripha Denbel Bare land 0.223925 ,,
Total 38.313825
1 Awash Gare Arera Built-Up Area 7.09554 Resettlement
2 Holota Haro Boki Built-Up Area 43.777 ,,
3 Holota Haro Boki Built-Up Area 719.739 ,,
Total 770.61214
1 Doba Urji Cultivated Land 231.034 No significant impact
2 Gambela Tokuma mata Cultivated Land 144.17 ,, ,, ,,
lencha
3 Walitane Cultivated Land 359.1598 ,, ,, ,,
4 Wagur Mede Telila Cultivated Land 682.844 ,, ,, ,,
5 Burkuke Yabdo Bobasa Cultivated Land 204.355 ,, ,, ,,
6 Chiro Melka Oda Cultivated Land 71.1615 ,, ,, ,,
6 Chiro Melka Oda Cultivated Land 479.26 ,, ,, ,,
7 Saphalo Nini Cultivated Land 20.2849 ,, ,, ,,
8 Jiru Ifa Cultivated Land 34.2606 ,, ,, ,,
9 Lencha Behadu Cultivated Land 330.476 ,, ,, ,,

10 Hara Cultivated Land 145.919 No significant impact
11 Iddo Abasa Gorba Cultivated Land 152.126 ,, ,, ,,
13 Finchawa Godela Cultivated Land 33.9867 ,, ,, ,,
14 Kokophe Buta Kuto Cultivated Land 24.7282 ,, ,, ,,
15 Abado Godelalo Cultivated Land 0.982827 ,, ,, ,,
15 Abado Godelalo Cultivated Land 11.05770 ,, ,, ,,
16 Measa Wacho Cultivated Land 28.5767 ,, ,, ,,
17 Ejersa Burkuke Robele Cultivated Land 7.29859 ,, ,, ,,
17 Ejersa Burkuke Robele Cultivated Land 110.854 ,, ,, ,,
18 Golba Mazoriya Cultivated Land 27.5939 ,, ,, ,,
19 Hecha Nano Cultivated Land 715.664 ,, ,, ,,
20 Awash Gare Arera Cultivated Land 2427.18 ,, ,, ,,
21 Kerensa Wamura Seko Cultivated Land 1413.29 ,, ,, ,,
22 Holota Haro Boki Cultivated Land 0.0970496 ,, ,, ,,
23 Dhibayu Serte Cultivated Land 16.5908 ,, ,, ,,
24 Golmayo Cultivated Land 19.0461 ,, ,, ,,
25 Kaliga Wereseyo Cultivated Land 108.772 ,, ,, ,,
26 Chinaksen_1 Cultivated Land 34.1174 ,, ,, ,,
12 Ripha Denbel Cultivated Land 9.39763 ,, ,, ,,
20 Awash Gare Arera Cultivated Land 2.1896 ,, ,, ,,

21 Kerensa Wamura Seko Cultivated Land 2.1896 No significant impact

22 Holota Haro Boki Cultivated Land 3.35874 No significant impact
Total 14650.0986049000 ,, ,, ,,
1 Walitane D/ Bu/ Shrub Land 0.01050210000 ,, ,, ,,

2 Walitane Dense Bush Shrub 7.17331000000 Deforestation
Land
3 Walitane Dense Bush Shrub 8.13594000000 ,,
Land
4 Lencha Behadu Dense Bush Shrub 0.08467020000 ,,
Land
Total 15.40442230000
1 Walitane Dense Shrub Land 0.63680600000 Serious deforestation
2 Walitane Dense Shrub Land 0.44558200000 ,, ,,
3 Walitane Dense Shrub Land 616.54000000000 ,, ,,
4 Burkuke Yabdo Bobasa Dense Shrub Land 33.60220000000 ,, ,,
5 Burkuke Yabdo Bobasa Dense Shrub Land 56.82510000000 ,, ,,
6 Chiro Melka Oda Dense Shrub Land 1.94745000000 ,, ,,
12 Saphalo Nini Dense Shrub Land 19.68590000000 ,, ,,
13 Saphalo Nini Dense Shrub Land 2272.5000000000 ,, ,,
14 Hara Dense Shrub Land 0.54301100000 Serious deforestation
15 Hara Dense Shrub Land 10.27110000000 ,, ,,
16 Kokophe Buta Kuto Dense Shrub Land 113.22800000000 ,, ,,
17 Kaliga Wereseyo Dense Shrub Land 0.90603000000 ,, ,,
18 Kaliga Wereseyo Dense Shrub Land 23.01320000000 ,, ,,
Total 3353.2099460000 ,, ,,
1 Hecha Nano Forest 0.16521900000 More serious deforestation
2 Holota Haro Boki Forest 11.98340000000 ,, ,, ,,

15 Holota Haro Boki Forest 9.34976000000 More serious deforestation
Total 298.71068867000
1 Hara Irrigated land 3.68930000000 No environmental impact
2 Hara Irrigated land 32.46970000000 ,, ,, ,,
3 Hara Irrigated land 3.66975000000 ,, ,, ,,
Total 39.82875000000
1 Ejersa Burkuke Robele Open Bush Shrub 148.79200000000 ,, ,, ,,
Grass Land
2 Wagur Mede Telila Open Bush Shrub 21.19500000000 Less deforestation
Land
3 Wagur Mede Telila Open Bush Shrub 18.53980000000 ,, ,,
Land
4 Wagur Mede Telila Open Bush Shrub 23.92390000000 ,, ,,
Land
5 Saphalo Nini Open Bush Shrub 12.86340000000 ,, ,,
Land
Land
Land
Land
Land
10 Jiru Ifa Open Bush Shrub 75.19170000000 ,, ,,
Land
11 Iddo Abasa Gorba Open Bush Shrub 275.66000000000 ,, ,,
Land
Total 1291.4338800000
1 Ripha Denbel Open Grassland 0.00011978300 Conflict of interest between land use
for irrigated agriculture and Grazing
land
2 Holota Haro Boki Open Grassland 93.88540000000 ,, ,, ,,
3 Ripha Denbel Open Grassland 1.99845000000 ,, ,, ,,

9 Ripha Denbel Open Grassland 2.61901000000 Conflict of interest between land use
land

47 Holota Haro Boki Open Grassland 19.09910000000 Conflict of interest between land use
land
Total 3001.240729363
1 Hara Open Shrub Grass 20.36490000000 Conflict of interest between land use
Land for irrigated agriculture and Grazing
land
2 Finchawa Godela Open Shrub Grass 20.20390000000 ,, ,, ,,
Land
Total 40.5688
3 Walitane Open Shrub Land 17.74030000000 Less deforestation
4 Walitane Open Shrub Land 11.21010000000 ,, ,,
7 Burkuke Yabdo Bobasa Open Shrub Land 12.79720000000 ,, ,,

10 Chiro Melka Oda Open Shrub Land 35.86590000000 ,, ,,
11 Chiro Melka Oda Open Shrub Land 18.18790000000 Less deforestation
14 Saphalo Nini Open Shrub Land 25.37620000000 ,, ,,
22 Jiru Ifa Open Shrub Land 10.10650000000 ,, ,,
23 Jiru Ifa Open Shrub Land 13.82820000000 ,, ,,
24 Abado Godelalo Open Shrub Land 80.66720000000 ,, ,,
25 Measa Wacho Open Shrub Land 358.72000000000 ,, ,,
26 Golmayo Open Shrub Land 3.53075000000 ,, ,,
29 Chinaksen_2 Open Shrub Land 72.92790000000 ,, ,,
Total 1415.856583
1 Hecha Nano Riverine Forest 0.19805500000 Deforestation

Total 0.19805500000
1 Wagur Mede Telila Settlement 16.49830000000 There may be resettlement
2 Awash Gare Arera Settlement 25.99700000000 ,, ,, ,, ,,
9 Kerensa Wamura Seko Settlement 40.37350000000 ,, ,, ,, ,,
10 Holota Haro Boki Settlement 1.40891000000 ,, ,, ,, ,,
13 Ripha Dembel Settlement 7.90885000000 ,, ,, ,, ,,

17 Ripha Denbel Settlement 7.93701000000 There may be resettlement
18 Ripha Denbel Settlement 2.61901000000 ,, ,, ,, ,,
40 Holota Haro Boki Settlement 74.18560000000 There may be resettlement


Total 1156.12708429
1 Ripha Denbel Water Body 9.39763000000 Drainage of wetland
2 Ripha Denbel Water Body 1.99845000000 ,, ,, ,,
Total 85.16729
1 Kerensa Wamura Seko Wetland 3.58946000000 Drainage of wetland

Total 3.58946000000
1 Holota Haro Boki Woodland 1.50180000000 Massive deforestation
2 Holota Haro Boki Woodland 3.21314000000 ,, ,,

Total 235.04744446000
Source: Current physical observation
4.8. Population and Demographic Characteristics

According to MoFED (2005), development would be perceived as a complex process involving
the economic, socio-cultural and political situations of people. In this regard, high population
growth, which may create pressure on natural resource endowment, the environment, provision
of public utilities and services as well as employment, could be blamed. In this study, the
demographic characteristic data of the woreda have been collected from the general
socioeconomic assessment of Woredas found in the basin, also to get reliable demographic data,
CSA official data regarding population and its characteristics were used. Even if the level of
growth varies from country to country and from region to region, 2007 CSA data were used to
indicate the current population.
4.8.1. Population density
Population density is defined as population of a given area divided by the total area in km2. The
population density as a measurement is an essential tool to review the population pressure on
existing development resources especially with reference to land resources. It also has an effect
on the resource utilization in general and productive resources in particular especially in an area
where the absolute economic activity is based on agricultural production, the livelihood of the
population is in general, and rural population in particular is retrieved from crop and livestock
production. Population densities are good indicators to determine the aggregate demand for land
in both quantity and composition. Accordingly, population density of the basin area was adapted
from (CSA, 2007 and GIS output 2016) data (see Table2). In this regard, the basin has the
population density of 177.8 persons/km2.
Table 2: Population density by zone
Zone Total Population in Total area in the Population density

the basin basin(Km2) (Population/km2)
East Shoa 1622324 7583.4 213.9
West Hararghe 742784 5453.5 136.2
East Hararghe 328931 2279.9 144.3
Arsi 890853 5031.9 177.0
West Shoa 141528 1188.4 119.1
South West Shoa 425319 2436.9 174.5
North Shoa 21600 363.3 59.5
Oromia Special Zone 640699 2734.7 234.3
Surrounding Finfine
Total 4,814,038 27072 177.8
Source: CSA data of 2007 and Recent OIPAP GIS output and farther manipulation (2016)
4.8.2. Migration and unemployment
Human population movement from one area to the others is also another factor that changes the
number of population in the given areas. The study team has tried to identify inward and outward
migrant community members in the Woredas found in the basin. Most of the daily workers come
mainly from different parts of the neighboring Woredas of Oromia, Amhara and SNNP region
for search of better jobs, finding of their relatives, and search of farmlands, education and
opportunities that they are not able to get in their place of birth, etc.
In addition, the other factors such as peer pressure, lust for short-cut richness, tidy jobs,
landlessness, lack of motivation due to less rewarding nature of agriculture sector because of
low input and technology use, lack of capital, community attitude towards home returnee youth,
friend or relative invitation to abroad also made the youth members of the society to migrate.
It was found difficult getting the number of inward and outward migration data at district level
on the current assessment.
According to data collected from thirty eight (38) Woredas in the basin, the main pull factors for
migration are generally desirables as follow i.e. income differences, need or demand for labor
within the basin, region, in the country or foreign countries, risk hate for those insufficient
income households, fulfillment of infrastructure and utility out of his/her life area, awareness of
the income difference between neighbors or other households in the migrant sending community/
economic inequality created by remittances i.e. successful high-skilled emigrants serve as an
example for their neighbors and potential migrants to hope achieve such success.
The main push factors of the migration of the people in the basin are existence of unfavorable
things or conditions in an area within the basin where one lives in, unavailability of jobs, few
employment opportunities, inadequate conditions i.e. lack of farmland, etc., loss of wealth,
natural disasters, poor housing, political issue, discrimination and poor chances of marrying.
Due to increasing in population, shortage of cultivable land, reduction of cultivated land
productivity, climatic change that cause drought and inward migration are the main contributing
factors for unemployment. In addition, the low development of industrial sector, service
providing economic sectors and agriculture based processing industry development also
aggravate the rural unemployment rate and even the urban unemployment.
The unemployed community members are those active populations who (age 15-64) can work
and transform the development of the region. The vice versa, the existence of unemployment in
the basin in general and rural areas in particular are also big development potential for irrigated
agricultural development since irrigated agriculture needs high labor force. According to Finance
and Economic Development Office data, the unemployment rate in the basin is shown on the
below table.
Table 3: Unemployment rate by zone
Unemployment rate
S/No Zone Total Male Female
1 East Shoa 6.9 4.7 2.2
2 West Hararghe 4.84 2.542 2.298
3 East Hararghe 5.4 3.0 2.5
4 Arsi 10.3 6.3 4.0
5 OSZSF 25.3 14.8 10.5
6 North Shoa 7.9 4.3 3.6
7 West Shoa 13.0 7.5 5.4
8 S/West Shoa 18.2 11.9 6.3
Average % 11.4 7.0 4.4
Source: Socio economic profile of finance and economic development offices, 2015
As indicated in the above table, the average unemployment rate within the basin is 11.4% from
which 7% are male and 4.4% are female. The data are only those whose data is recorded in
District Social Affairs and Micro Enterprise offices, the others are not incorporated. The rate of
unemployment in Oromia special zone surrounding Finfinne is higher than other zones because
of high inward migration to the towns.
4.8.3. Religion and ethnic groups
The other important population composition treated in this study is the ethnic and religious
compositions of the basin. Religion and ethnic aspects in the Awash basin were also assessed
from different data source offices‟ estimates as well as from the CSA data of 2007. It was found
difficult to get reliable ethnic and religious group data from current district level assessment and
hence found reasonable to use the 2007 population and housing census of the country. According
to CSA, 2007, the religion compositions of the basin are Orthodox, Protestant, Catholic, Islam,
“Wakefata”, and other religion compositions in the basin are presented as follows.
Table 4: Percentage of population by religion
Total Percentage of Population by Religion

Zone District Population Orthodox Protestant Catholic Islam Wakefata Other
Adama 155349 68.52 13.01 1.13 10.44 6.78 0.13
Lume 117080 90.11 3.27 0.16 2.72 3.40 0.34
Bora 58748 86.00 3.11 0.27 4.46 6.01 0.14
Li/Chukala 76351 71.05 18.49 0.07 0.27 9.94 0.17
Adea 130321 89.15 4.70 0.03 0.38 5.53 0.21
Gimbichu 86902 95.78 1.60 0.02 1.16 1.41 0.03
Boset 142112 60.56 8.37 0.43 15.64 14.45 0.54
East Shoa
Fentale 81740 27.74 18.96 1.54 43.49 7.61 0.66

Dugda 58239 91.32 3.88 1.15 1.91 1.36 0.38
Chiro 146719 15.40 0.10 0.79 83.68 0.03 0.00
Miesso 130709 2.66 0.15 0.09 97.06 0.03 0.01
West Hararghe
G/ Koricha 108572 6.43 0.14 0.12 93.26 0.05 0.00

Anchar 81646 15.58 0.44 2.90 80.95 0.07 0.06
Doba 115295 10.04 0.36 1.02 88.47 0.10 0.01
Goro Gutu 125393 5.96 0.33 0.37 93.29 0.03 0.02
Jarso 70123 1.52 0.13 0.03 98.27 0.03 0.01
Chinaksen 54980 1.84 0.10 0.03 97.96 0.05 0.03
East Hararghe
Meta 86932 6.26 0.27 0.22 93.20 0.05 0.01

Kersa 36589 2.78 0.17 0.04 96.97 0.02 0.02
Kombolcha 64269 1.42 0.19 0.05 98.29 0.04 0.01
Diksis 30121 36.71 0.24 0.05 62.92 0.07 0.01
Arsi
Lud/Hetosa 107133 53.48 1.22 0.03 45.22 0.03 0.01
Total Percentage of Population by Religion

Zone District Population Orthodox Protestant Catholic Islam Wakefata Other
Hetosa 108157 44.72 1.30 0.06 53.77 0.09 0.06
Dodota 64310 36.59 3.04 0.15 59.88 0.23 0.12
Sire 73970 51.61 3.76 0.03 44.46 0.09 0.05
Jeju 124093 23.97 1.30 0.05 74.53 0.08 0.06
Merti 90408 37.68 1.37 0.06 60.74 0.02 0.13
Guna 51233 39.99 0.07 0.02 59.89 0.02 0.00
Aseko 84112 36.89 0.11 0.06 62.82 0.05 0.07
Ziw/ Dugda 13754 7.82 0.76 0.10 91.04 0.23 0.05
Dendi 98852 84.98 5.11 0.30 0.77 8.47 0.38
West
Shoa
Ejere 63870 82.17 3.04 0.01 0.58 13.64 0.56

Dawo 65310 94.77 1.89 0.01 0.13 2.78 0.41
Tole 62895 98.48 0.63 0.00 0.52 0.31 0.06
Illu 61985 81.30 1.93 0.05 0.23 16.25 0.23
South West shoa
Ker/Malima 81015 98.23 1.48 0.01 0.15 0.11 0.02

Sodo Dacha 43607 97.39 1.53 0.01 0.37 0.69 0.00
Becho 42108 95.17 1.46 0.02 2.18 1.09 0.08
Seden Sodo 19110 80.69 2.43 0.02 16.74 0.06 0.06
Alaltu 28630 98.15 0.38 0.00 1.42 0.01 0.03
North
Shoa
Kembibit 10354 96.67 0.41 0.01 2.55 0.34 0.01

Welmera 61400 86.72 4.61 0.03 2.24 6.36 0.05
Zone Surrounding
Oromia Special
Akaki 77836 85.85 3.52 0.05 3.34 7.01 0.24

Seb/ hawas 132294 87.44 2.43 0.01 5.37 4.57 0.18
Finfine
Bereh 59854 94.97 0.47 0.01 2.69 1.82 0.04
Total in % 3584480 48.8 2.7 0.3 45.5 2.6 0.1
Source: CSA data of 2007
According to the CSA data of 2007 in the above table, the data shows that from total population
of the basin Orthodox constitutes great majority (i.e. 48.8%) followed by Islam (45.5%),
Protestant (2.7%), “Wakefata” (2.6%), Catholic (0.3%) and other are (0.1%).
The different ethnic groups living within the basin have different social norms, cultures and
behaviors, which have direct relationship with social, economic and political development in the
area. The ethnic composition in the basin is assessed based on CSA data by categorizing Oromo
and Non-Oromo ethnic groups. Because it was difficult to get reliable ethnic and religious data
from current district level assessment and hence found reasonable to use the 2007 Ethiopia
population and housing census.
98 96 96 94
100 92 90 90
87 87 85 83
90 83 84
80 79 80 79
80
69 69
64 66 65
70
60
60 55
50 45
40
36 34 35
40 31 31
30 21
20 20 21
17 16 15 17
20 13 13
8 10 6
10
10 2 4 4
0
East Shoa West East Arsi West Shoa South West North Shoa Oromia
Hararge Hararge Shoa Special Zone
Surrounding
Finfine
Oromo Rural Oromo Urban
Oromo Both Urban and Rural Non-Oromo Rural
Non-Oromo Urban Non-Oromo BothUrban and Rural
Figure 4: Urban Rural Ethnic Group

Source: CSA data of 2007
As indicated on the above figure, out of the total rural population of the basin 88.9% are Oromo.
The rest 11.1% are non- Oromo. In addition, in urban areas 66% are Oromo, 34% are non-
Oromo. In general, Oromo ethnic group are 85.25%. The remaining 14.75% of the basin‟s
population are other ethnic groups who came from other areas of the country. The composition is
mainly because the national regional state is the biggest and holds the very central part of
Ethiopia as well as economically attractive to other people who came in search of employment
and other means of livelihoods.
The distributions of ethnic groups among the administrative Woredas have great differences. The
Oromo nationality group holds the great majority where as in certain Woredas including Alaltu,
Aseko, Guna and some part of OSZSF town are significant where the highest percentage belong
to the Amhara ethnic group. So knowing ethnic composition and socio-cultural factors largely
determines adoption of any technology in general and irrigation technology in particular.
4.9. Land Tenure and Land Holding

Land tenure is an institution, which are rules invented by societies to regulate the tenure
behavior. Rules of tenure is defined how property rights of land is allocated within societies.
They define how land access is granted to rights to use, control, and transfer land, as well as
associated responsibilities and restraints. In simple terms, land tenure systems determine who can
use what resources for how long, and under what conditions. Land tenure refers to the type of
ownership or use rights of land (Shimelles et al 2009). Land tenure system in study area include
those private holdings or small holder holdings, communal lands mostly used to satisfy
community interests like for grazing or free spaces for different cultural and traditional uses,
forest and bush lands that cannot be claimed by any individual for private use or holding, the
state owned lands including farms for cultivations of large scale production like sugarcane,
cotton, tobacco, etc.
The land tenure system in the basin has two distinctive tenures including the conventional and
the traditional tenure administration. The traditional tenure system is largely the practice among
the communities in the eastern parts that covers the “Karayu” areas (Fentale and Boset district)
and the conventional one is the one covering the central and the western parts of the basin.
According to district Rural Land Administration Offices, the average farmland holding size, as
per the household in the basin varied from 0.375 to 2.9 hectares where the majority of the
average agricultural (farm) land holding is about 2 hectares per household. These holdings are
fragmented and some farmers cultivate land both within and outside the scheme area. Similarly,
the average modern irrigation land holding of the farmers or project beneficiaries range from
0.06 to 3 hectares. As stipulated in the Proclamation No. 56/2012 of Oromia Regional
Government, Rural Land Use & Administration (Article 8), maximum farmland plot size per
farmer household, excluding existing holding, is not more than 0.5 hectare for irrigation.
According to the key informants, most of the farmers cultivate their own land and interestingly
the PA administration allocates land for the landless youth as an employment opportunity on
communal land for traditional irrigation.
Table 5: The major land use types or pattern of Awash basin by Zone
No Zone Land use type in Awash basin

Arable Cultivated Grazing Forest Bush & Settlement Wet Rock Others
land sharable land land Land
1 E/shoa 845481.6 598681 29637.08 25681.38 109249.4 35722 49033 42802 27850.6
2 W/ Hararghe 188872.6 99924 43483 69974.31 88830.83 49101 0 79848.92 6824
3 E/Hararghe 66383.92 63652.92 26463.53 40016.27 8832.4 1649.2 0 19078.42 27313.49
4 Arsi 330973.4 242231.86 29320.65 33591.87 19090.75 11273 352.12 7969.59 29545.06
5 N/Shewa 32440.06 32440.06 7746.88 2808.244 0 342.71 0 0 1680.105
6 OSZSF 157969 157469 43892.82 26095.73 814 7433.8 2500 1256.5 8340.163
7 S/W/Shewa 190340.7 185461.45 19058.09 3094.375 8935.833 4576.25 183.96 6115 3821.98
8 West Shewa 99448 99361 29469.53 6598 6040 16203.47 804 4140 2621
Grand Total 1911909 432687.9 229071.6 207860.2 241793.2 126301.4 52873.1 161210.4 107996.4
Percentage 62.91 14.24 7.54 6.84 7.96 4.16 1.74 5.30 3.55
Source: District rural land administration offices in the basin data of 2015.
As indicated in above table, the district land administration offices in the Awash basin data
indicate the land use pattern organized by zone, the arable land which means both cultivated and
cultivable land of the area are the largest from the other land use pattern.
Average Land holding

0.00
1.56 E/shewa
2.2 0.69
1.10 W/ Harerghe
1.87
E/Harerghe
1.96 Arsi
2.23 North Shewa
2.5 OSZSF
S/W/Shewa
West Shewa
Figure 5: The average land holding per hose hold by zone in the basin
Source: District rural land administration offices in the basin data of 2015
4.10. Basic Social Services

Social services are the basic means for the development of the nation as well as the region. Basic
social services discussed under this topic include health, education and water supply services,
which are related to irrigation. The access to these services in one way or another influences the
livelihood of the people in enhancing or retarding development activities in an area. Thus, the
situation of the district under investigation will also be discussed by taking into account the
prevalence and condition of social services in the districts of the basin.
4.10.1. Education services
Education is one of the basic social services that have great contributions for social and
economic development and changes. The human learning behavior should be supported through
formal education and training to achieve the individual, local and national development and
change interests. It is a key to better and more advanced performances ensuring the quality,
quantity and sustainability of occupations and livelihoods.
Agricultural development in all its forms especially irrigation development is unthinkable
without the involvement of educated and enlightened farmers. Therefore, education is an
objective of self- improvement and economic welfare in and of itself. The government is doing
all what it can to expand education in general and provide primary education for all its citizens to
enable the people to use their rights of citizenship appropriately because the capacity of
uneducated citizens to use their rights is very small.
In this regard, a significant achievement is recorded especially in the stream of formal education
while on job practical adult learning program is lacking. Number of schools distribution,
primary and secondary education enrollment and dropout rates for sexes, their accessibility, the
problems and challenges of education system in the area were collected from office data and
field data of community consultation like FGD and KII. Moreover, the data that we collected and
the results are shown as follows.
4.10.1.1. Students’ enrollment and dropout rate in the basin
Enrollment of students is an indicator for the expansion of education program in a given country
or area. With this regard, the government of Ethiopia has made relentless efforts and carried out
considerable activities for creating access to education opportunity for the rural communities in
all regions of the country. Among others, a number of strategies has been designed and
implemented to enhance girl‟s participation in the education sector. With this sort of
intervention, remarkable achievements have been recorded within the elapsed few years in the
country. Nonetheless, to achieve the desired goals still much remains to be done in the future.
The school dropout cases are also one of the indicators for education efficiency for measuring
the education system of the area. It is believed that assessing the recent dropouts together with
the enrolment ratio will give better picture of current educational situations. Therefore, the
socioeconomic survey for Awash basin has tried to gather information on the extent of the
dropout problem using the existing education statistics.
The report is presented summarizing into primary education including kindergarten and
secondary education including the preparatory level.
Table 6: Students enrolment and dropout rate in the basin
Primary school enrolment Primary school drop out Secondary school enrolment Secondary school drop out
District Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both
Adama 103.6 101.7 102.6 1.88 1.06 1.48 114.2 107.5 110.8 4.3 5.1 3.54
Lume 79.3 79.2 79.2 1.4 1.78 1.61 20 17.2 18.7 11.8 6 9.1
Bora 96.5 89.8 93 3.48 4.87 4.18 110.5 100.6 105.5 10.41 3.85 7.3
Li/ Chukala 86.2 65.3 75.2 1.79 1.15 1.47 73.9 61.7 67.8 4.88 3.4 4.21
Ade'a 92.8 89.7 91.3 4.8 3.7 4.3 92.5 76.8 88.5 8.36 4.7 6.76
Gimbichu 104 96.8 100.5 2.7 2.7 2.7 76.69 79.03 79.37 7.5 7.6 7.5
Boset 82.4 66.3 74.3 1.23 1.1 1.16 62.6 51.8 57.2 1.78 2.04 1.9
Fentale 96.9 86 91.8 14.9 12.5 13.8 100 99.9 99.5 4.1 4.6 4.4
E/ Shoa 92.11 84.11 88.01 2.47 2.34 2.41 78.63 70.66 75.41 7.00 4.67 5.76
Chiro 105 99.5 102.2 3.5 3.8 3.6 115.6 104 109.8 41.6 20 35.4
Miesso 81.9 83.1 82 14 15.5 15 78.5 76.7 77.6 2.39 3.4 3
G/ Koricha 92.4 87.2 89 8.1 7.8 7.9 74.3 70.6 72.4 21.9 11.7 18.1
Anchar 90 91 90.5 21.7 29.8 25.7 81.9 78.1 80 1.1 5.9 3.2
Doba 86 85 85.5 2.5 2.8 2.6 90 78.8 84.4 5.5 2 4.5
W/Hararghe 91.06 89.16 89.84 9.96 11.94 10.96 88.06 81.64 84.84 14.498 8.6 12.84
Goro Gotu 98.5 96.5 99 2.48 3.28 2.8 28.5 15 22.5 16.6 13.64 15.64
Jarso 89 92 90.5 4.6 5.5 4.9 90.3 85 87.6 33.3 23.5 30.5
Chenaksen 93.5 90.8 92.1 5 6.2 5.56 88.7 69.6 79.1 29 17.7 26.5
E/ Hararghe 93.67 93.10 93.87 4.03 4.99 4.42 69.17 56.53 63.07 26.30 18.28 24.21
Diksis 85 81.7 83.6 7.1 5.7 6.4 31.5 40.6 34.1 7.4 2.3 5.2
Lode Hetosa 94 89.4 91.7 4.8 3.8 4.3 85.6 70.3 77.9 7.6 9.3 8.4
Hexosa 93.3 87.8 90.5 4.3 3.7 4 86.7 79.5 83.1 21 11.4 17.2
Dodota 97.3 99.5 98 3.3 2.3 2.8 86 93.8 89 8.6 6.7 7.7
Jeju 104.8 101 103 9.5 7.8 8.7 101 100 100.7 14.7 7.3 11.8
Sire 96.7 98 97.7 3.6 3.5 3.6 94 86 91.6 6.2 6.7 6.3
Guna 97.1 93 95.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 89.9 83.5 87.7 8 2.5 6.1
Aseko 96.95 93.56 95.3 2.88 3.75 3.31 86.45 76.37 81.6 8.14 7.5 7.82
Marti 91.4 91.1 91.3 2.03 1.99 2.01 78 80.9 79.2 3.2 1.88 2.54
Arsi zone 95.17 92.78 94.03 4.29 3.74 4.02 82.13 79.00 80.54 9.43 6.18 8.12
Akaki 100.7 91.2 96.1 1.49 1.47 1.48 48 51.7 50 6.6 0 4.9
Sab/Hawas 100.6 98.4 99.6 2.6 4.2 3.4 100.1 100.8 100.4 13 7 10.6
Primary school enrolment Primary school drop out Secondary school enrolment Secondary school drop out
District Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both
Barak 97.85 95.65 96.86 1.25 1.5 2.75 49 51 50 0.5 1.5 2
Welmera 88.82 76.98 82.87 2.7 2.4 2.5 17.53 12.18 14.85 8.3 4.9 7
OSZSF 97.0 90.6 93.9 2.0 2.4 2.5 53.7 53.9 53.8 7.1 3.4 6.1
Alaltu 94.89 90.3 92.66 3.47 3.52 3.49 88.4 93.75 90.76 9.4 8.2 8.82
North Shoa 94.89 90.3 92.66 3.47 3.52 3.49 88.4 93.75 90.76 9.4 8.2 8.82
Ejere 95 90 92.8 9.6 7 8.3 22.4 19.4 21 6.1 2.6 8.7
Dendi 90.83 85.26 88.15 7.45 6.36 6.95 44.24 34.78 39.74 19.4 8.9 14.15
West Shoa 93.57 88.52 91.20 6.84 5.63 6.25 51.68 49.31 50.50 11.63 6.57 10.56
Becho 98 98 98 1.5 1.5 1.5 90 93 92 2 2.5 2.15
Dawo 103 99.8 101.1 10 10.3 10.2 73.7 76.2 74.8 14 11 12.5
Tole 92.16 83.63 87.98 5.87 5.56 5.73 34.44 33.61 34 14.8 11 13
Sodo Dachi 96.9 96.5 96.7 13.3 12.9 13 87.4 82.3 84.6 24 20 21.9
Ilu 99.7 100 99.8 7.42 7 7.35 35.4 23.3 29.6 9.7 4.76 7.84
K/& Malima 87.4 87.25 87.35 12.4 11.04 11.8 85.8 85.2 85.5 22.8 2.9 13.8
S/ West Shoa 96.19 94.20 95.16 8.42 8.05 8.26 67.79 65.60 66.75 14.55 8.69 11.87
Cum. average 94.20 90.23 92.24 5.55 5.58 5.61 73.44 68.83 71.29 11.79 7.38 10.25
Source: District education offices in the basin data of 2015.
The result shown on the above table indicates that the sector data for the primary school and
secondary school enrollment and dropouts are significant. The school enrollment rate of the
primary education for the year 2007 EC is found to be 92.24% from which 94.2% are male and
90.23% are female. Out of the total school enrollment rate at the secondary education, 73.44%
are male and 68.83% are female totaling to 71.79% for the year 2007 EC. The average dropouts
of primary and secondary school students were 5.61% and 10.25 % respectively. The sex
composition of the dropouts of primary schools for male and female are 5.55% and 5.58 %
respectively and secondary school dropouts 11.79% are male and 7.38 % are female of students.
Major factors that are contributing for school dropout are child labor demand by the family like
cattle keeping, shortage of water that need the labor of the young to fetch from distant places,
more than half of the students withdraw from school for business purposes and abduction. In
addition, attitude and poor understanding of parents make students to be absent from school, no
budget and sources of income for the school, absconding or ran away of children to other areas
(migration), early marriage, underlying poverty for covering schooling fees and costs specially in
connection with secondary school education that needs traveling to farther centers from home
area and lack of interest were causes for dropout.
4.10.2. Health services
Health is one of the very basic socioeconomic issues to development that should get proper place
in the planning process of socioeconomic development. Growth and development can be
possible where there is improved health condition among the population. As defined by the
WHO, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not only the
absence of disease or infirmity. It meant that there should be a population that has complete
physical fitness, sound mental health and insured social well-being among the community
member for better economic performance in agriculture, industry or social services. Different
country level as well as international reports has been mentioned that Ethiopia has a poor health
status relative to other low-income countries, even within Sub-Saharan Africa. This is largely
attributed to preventable infectious illness and nutritional deficiencies.
The health conditions of the community is an essential component of irrigation development
since the human labor and health working conditions are the basic requirements for the
sustainability and productivity of the farms. The target of the health data over view is to identify
and evaluate changes in human health risk that might arise as the result of change in physical,
biological, social and psychosocial factors of the environment.
According to Ministry of Health, 2005, health policy in Ethiopia is rooted in the primary health
care approach, which has health education (education in personal and environmental hygiene),
nutrition, immunization and family planning for standard components. This indicates that
community health education is the major focus of national policy for prevention than cure. Thus,
it is advisable to integrate both prevention and curative health care system in the area.
4.10.2.1. Major Diseases
As elsewhere in other part of the country, the major diseases prevailing in the area are ensuing
from lack of primary health care and communicable in their type.
According to data obtained from all district health offices malaria, pneumonia, amoeba, upper
respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, rheumatic pain, gastritis, tonslaities, anemia and urinary
tract infections are the major diseases prevailing most commonly in the study area and its
surroundings. Out of the identified diseases, most persistently prevailing diseases are water
related (malaria) and water borne diseases (intestinal parasite) and there are some others caused
by lack of balanced diet and personal hygiene.
This indicates that most of the diseases prevailing in the area are potentially preventable and
could be undertaken by promoting primary health care which is the strategy stipulated in the
national health policy of the country. The existing health extension package also deemed to
reduce the prevalence rate of top diseases in the country in general and the project area in
particular.
Table 7: Lists of top ten diseases in the basin
No Types of disease Number of patients treated Percentage

1 Acute Upper Respiratory Infection 112644 20.05
2 Acute fever illness (AFI) 100869 17.95
3 Diarrhea (non-blood) 70402 12.53
4 Pneumonia 66129 11.77
5 Trauma or injury 54422 9.69
6 Urinary Tract Infection 37293 6.64
7 Helementhesis 35055 6.24
8 Dyspesia 34260 6.10
9 Malaria test (pf) 29385 5.23
10 Disease of macular of skeleton 21414 3.81
Total 561873 100.00
Source: District data of health offices in the basin data of 2015
Moreover, the major causes of most prevalent diseases of the basin are related to general socio-
economic and environmental conditions. These are vector borne diseases, water borne diseases,
waste products that pollute the water sources, low health care capacity & efficiency, sexual
transmitted diseases and poverty related diseases. Among top ten diseases of the area, results of
district information prioritize Acute Upper Respiratory Infection to be highly prevalent disease in
the basin.
4.10.3. Water Supply
Fresh water is essential for the survival and well-being of human beings. Access to safe water is
a pre-requisite for the realization of socioeconomic development, including those related to
standard of living and to increase health facilities. Providing access to clean water and sanitation
would not eradicate all the diseases, but it would be the single most effective means of
alleviating human distress. In relation to location or accessibility, water supply is found at great
differences among districts and even regions. It is possible to mention that there are excess of
fresh water sources in the Oromia National Regional State. It is also reach in ground and other
surface water sources (lakes & ponds).
Various documents and official reports show that access to clean water supply and sanitation
service in Ethiopia is one of the lowest in the world and even in the sub-Sahara Region.
4.10.3.1. Sources and accessibility of domestic water
Most of the people found in the basin area get available water from different sources such as
rivers, lake, unprotected springs, developed springs, hand dug wells, hand pump, shallow well
and deep well (piped water). These water sources are also used for livestock and sanitation
purposes.
According to FGD of the community, the majority of selected sample kebeles use water from
unprotected well, river, unprotected ponds and unprotected springs without any treatment. The
most serious shortage of water exists in Fentale, Merti, Sodo dache and Dawo districts. The other
districts are also under unsafe condition where significant percent of households use the rivers
and other unprotected source for domestic water.
Figure 6: domestic water supply of the basin

Source: Field survey, 2016
This situation might aggravate the incidence of water borne diseases and can worsen hygiene and
sanitation status of the community. Hence, urgent intervention of water supply schemes is
needed for the socio-economic wellbeing of the community. As it was mentioned under health
facilities, majority of the deadly diseases reported are easily preventable and curable. However,
availability of pure water supply and provision of sanitation is the crucial aspect of public
utilities. Most of the hand-dug wells are not well protected and the users should fetch the water
through rope pumping (pulling). The well water is open at the top and exposed for different
polluting agents. However, according to water, mineral and energy offices, the current potable
water supply coverage of the districts is averagely 55.5% in the basin.
Domestic water supply accessibility is the other issues that need important attention. According
to FGD of selected kebeles, survey was attempted to identify the conditions of accessibility to
households within the basin boundary from the water supply sources, most of them respond that
the households use to collect domestic water within 5- 8 kilometers distance from home. The
most prevalent water related and water borne diseases in the basin that has direct impact on the
agricultural work force (human being) are malaria, diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery and internal
parasites.
4.11. Economic and Livelihood system

4.11.1. Settlement Pattern and Farming System
4.11.1.1. Settlement pattern
According to the data obtained from 38 districts of sector offices found in Awash basin, the types
of settlement pattern found in the basin are sedentary settlements in which both scattered and
clustered houses are formed into villages. According to the data, the majority of the settlements
of housing in the basin are scattered. Highly scattered villages are common in lowland areas of
Fentale, Boset, Merti and other neighborhood localities.
Big rural settlements, that might be the results of urbanize program of the previous government,
are there in the South West Shoa, some of West and East Hararghe zones. The major base of the
existing settlement types is mainly related to economic activity and/ or to be near to the
farmlands. There are also some big settlements in the districts of the West Hararghe zone like
Chiro, Anchar, Guba Koricha and Arsi zone particularly in those highland areas like Guna,
Diksis, Hetosa, and Lude Hetosa. Some of the villages are leading to be rural town having huge
open weekly markets. Such cluster settlements are ideal places to bring about changes in the way
of life of the people and to improve the supply of social services and infrastructure with
minimum and affordable costs.
4.11.2.Farming System
According to the data obtained from districts, the farming system of the basin as well as the area
is mainly mixed agricultural system. The interactions are based on using animal traction power,
manure (in cropping) and crop residues as animal feeds in the highland, midland and lowland
(PAs) districts.
As indicated in the bellow table, it was estimated that 91.2% of the population in the basin are
involved in mixed type of farming systems, 5.1 % are involved in crop production especially
those on highland areas of Arsi, South West Shoa and West Shoa zones. Accordingly, 3.2 % are
those who are involved in purely livestock husbandry activities, which are mainly pastoralists
found in Fentale (33.3%), Boset (15%), Miesso (20%) and Guba Koricha (6%). About 0.4 % of
the inhabitants are involved in other activities that include non-agricultural activities such as
petty trading, construction, lumber and carpentry, wage from private and investment firms to
generate their means of livelihood system in the basin.
The farming system is cereal dominant, oxen cultivation and mixed farming where livestock
production is undertaken complimentary to crop production. In addition, the presence of pulses
and other non-cereal crops in the cropping pattern serves in maintaining soil fertility and
checking various pest problems associated with single/mono cropping.
The irrigation land utilization type should state whether the patterns of proposed changes will
support livestock feed or other village subsistence requirement. Therefore, the irrigation project
supports (directly or indirectly) the subsistence requirements in providing animal feeds and
enhance food security at household. Generally, the main livelihood system in the basin is mixed
farming system where crop production and livestock rearing practices are the predominant
farming system in the area.
Table 8: The main livelihood system of population by percentage in the basin
Main livelihood system in %

No Zone Crop production Livestock rearing Mixed Farming Other activity Total
1 E/ Shoa 0 10.4 89.0 0.6 100
2 W/ Hararghe 6.8 5.2 88 0 100
3 E/ Hararghe 30.7 2.5 66.8 0.0 100
4 Arsi 7.2 1.1 90.5 1.0 100
5 OSZSF 0 0 99.75 0.25 100
6 N/ Shoa 0 0.3 99.7 0 100
7 W/ Shoa 0 0 100 0 100
8 S/W/ Shoa 0 0 99.67 0 100
Average in% 5.1 3.2 91.2 0.5 100
Source: All districts of agriculture development offices data, 2007 E.C in the basin.
4.10.2.1. Agriculture development
Crop production in the basin
According to the data obtained from districts, the majority of productions are crops dominant
(primary) economic activities that are practiced in the basin. Among crops produced, the
percentage share of cereals (total yields/quintals) is high followed by pulse and oil seeds
productions in the basin.
In the production year, 2006/2007 E.C., 1,479,221.3 hectares of agricultural land of the total area
of the basin was used for cultivation of different crops in “Meher” and “Belg” seasons under
private land holdings. The total production obtained was 25,043,031.8 quintals. In 2006 /2007
E.C., using traditional and modern irrigation schemes, an area of 197,125.44 hectares were
irrigated in the 1st and 2nd round and a total of 26,348,196.2 quintals of production were obtained.
Number of factors in which crop diseases affects farming activities and pests are the major pre
harvest agent that reduces crop production.
4.11.2.2. Livestock production
Livestock is an integral part of the production system of the study area. Livestock is also
supplementary livelihood source and the second economic activities in the highland and midland
areas whereas the primary source of livelihood in the lowland areas of the basin. It is another
important component of the economic base along with crop production. Major types of livestock
reared in the study areas are cattle, shoats (sheep, goats), poultry, equines (horse, donkey and
mule) and camel. The sector contributes as food and income source and ox highly contributes for
farm activities of plowing land and determines wealth status of the household. The average ox
holding per farmers during 2007 E.C is about 2 oxen. Cattle dominate the livestock population
and products mainly dairy product (milk and milk by products) which are used to supplement
family food and income from sale of livestock and their product.
In general, the total livestock populations of the basin are presented on the table and chart below.
Table 9: Number of Livestock Population Distribution in the basin by Zone (2007 E.C)
Livestock Population Distribution

No Zone Cattle Shoats Equines Camel Poultry Total
1 East Shoa 1389563 1252545 266929 148836 608906 3666779
2 W/Hararghe 569424 762563 93603 67415 636609 2129614
3 East Hararghe 264804 429827 51897 6539 385393 1138460
4 Arsi 916240 1079033 300492 31544 722249 3049558
5 OSZSF 454193 266506 117247 0 383456 1221402
6 North Shoa 96113 95851 25343 0 49815 267122
7 West Shoa 306096 185457 76514 0 170777 738844
8 S/ W/ Shoa 489911 280934 98343 0 275244 1144432
Total 4486344 4352716 1030368 254334 3232449 13356211
Percentage 33.6 32.6 7.7 1.9 24.2 100
Source: All districts of livestock and fishery resource development offices data 2007 EC
Livestock population distribution in percentage
Poultry Cattle
24.2% 33.6%
Camel
1.9%
Equines (Horse, Shoats (Sheep

donkey and and Goat)
mule) 32.6%
7.7%
Figure 7: Livestock population distribution in %

Source: All districts of livestock and fishery resource development offices data 2007 EC
In the same manner, as it is seen in the above table, at the Awash basin level, in the year 2007
E.C, the highest share of livestock population are cattle productions (33%), shoats (33%) stands
second and poultry are (24%).
4.12. Flora and Fauna

4.12.1. Vegetation
The dominating vegetation in the Awash Basin is part of the Seasonal Tropics Eco zone. At high
altitudes this Eco zone forms individual humid alpine microclimates. The Tropical Arid Lands
Eco zone predominates at low levels in the Rift. Primary vegetation underlies a strong
anthropogenic impact. All over the upper and central Awash Basin, remains of different Savanna
types are still clearly visible. They range from thorn savannas in the lower rift, bush, grass and
open savannas above 800 m and woody savannas on the escarpments and the highlands. Forestry
hardly exists inside the Awash River Basin, with a few exceptions of small eucalyptus
plantations. Outside of Awash National Park the open and woody savannas have been almost
completely cultivated with crops. This especially accounts for all escarpment terraces. Thereby
the scattered tree cover remained similar to the primary state of the savannas, while the grass
layer has been replaced by crops. Only highest altitudes still show connected woodlands. Partly
reforestation was carried out on not cultivable altitudes with secondary coniferous forests. The
cultivated crops are (endemic) teff, maize, sorghum, beans and vegetables. Pastures hardly exist
where agriculture is possible. The cattle graze on field edges and waysides and on steep
escarpments. This is one major reason for erosion, because vegetation cover is partly destroyed.
Stubble-grazing is a common practice in the Awash Basin.
4.12.2. Wild and aquatic life Resources of the basin
According to information from the community of the area, previously large wildlife like lion,
buffalo, and elephants were used to live abundantly in Awash river basin specially in Eastern and
Western Hararghe zones, Eastern Shoa around Liben Chukala, in Sebeta Hawas around Sego
Kabi and Arsi Zone in Merti, Jeju, Lude Hetosa woredas. But due to forest resources which were
used for their habitat degradation, these large wildlife were disappeared from the areas. But some
elephant are used to live in Eastern Hararghe of Babile Woreda. Also, little number of wildlife
like, deer, antelope, leopard, tiger, pig, cheetah, and etc. are found in the area. But wildlife likes
hyena, monkey and ape are found abundantly in the area
On other hand, major aquatic life like hippopotamus and crocodiles are not found in the largest
river of the basin, Awash River. But a total of 10 species of fish were described from Awash
River and its tributaries. However, Getahun, 2007, indicated that there are 15 species of fish of
which 6 species are endemic. Golubtsov and Darkov, 2003, also indicated 13-15 fish species
found from this basin. The fish species found in Awash river basin are highland east African
forms. These include the genera, Barbus, Clarias, Garra, Oreochromis, and Varicorhinus.
According to Tessema et al, 2005 two families, five genera and six species were recorded from
Borkena and Mile rivers of Awash basin.
4.12.3. Identified Irrigation Dam Sites in Awash basin
The identified irrigation potential sites are based on water resources availability and agricultural
land suitability.
The identified sites are summarized in the following table indicating zones, woredas and area
identified in hectare.
Dams identified
The dams identified are 25 in number and found in seven zones and 13 districts. There also two
dam sites identified but they are not exactly demarcated in district and zonally. The number of
sites and potential area by each district is summarized below.
Table 10: Identified irrigation potential sites
No Zone Woreda Kebele Site‟s name Irrigable area (ha) % area

1 NI NI NI Gololch-DS-1 132.66 0.60
2 E/Hararge Chinaksen Serte Gololch_DS_1 1041.02 4.67
3 E/Hararge Chinaksen Golmayo Gololch_DS_1 33.74 0.15
4 E/Hararge Chinaksen "Kaliga Wereseyo" Gololch_DS_1 34.17 0.15
5 NI NI NI Gololch_DS_1 132.61 0.60
6 E/Hararge Goro Gutu Sepalo Bate_Ds_1 3804.99 17.08
7 E/Hararge Goro Gutu Jiru Efa Hola_DS_1 133.39 0.60
No Zone Woreda Kebele Site‟s name Irrigable area (ha) % area

Sub-total 5,312.58 23.85
8 Arsi Guna Nano Heja Arba damsite-1 718.56 3.23
9 Arsi Merti Abasa Gorba Awash-DS-17 427.79 1.92
Sub-total 1,146.35 5.15
10 W/Hararge "Ch/ zuriya” HARA BDS_3 34.73 0.16
11 W/Hararge Meiso "Gudicha Guracha” Bersisa_DS_2 142.39 0.64
12 W/ Hararge Anchar Godelalo Ture_DS_1 92.71 0.42
13 W/Hararge Anchar Wacho Ture_DS_2 446.62 2.01
14 W/Hararge Miesso Hule Adami Chiromiesso_DS_6 841.52 3.78
15 W/Hararge Ch/ zuriya "Yabdo kobisa” Chiromiesso_Ds_4 331.04 1.49
16 W/Hararge Doba Behadu Keraru_DS_1 330.56 1.48
17 W/ Hararge Miesso Walitane Korangogoga-DS-2 1076.21 4.83
18 W/ Hararge Doba Toku/ Mata Lenca Korangogoga-DS-1 143.2 0.64
19 W/Hararge Doba Urji Beresa Doba damsite_2 230.93 1.04
20 W/Hararge Doba Mede Telila Keraba damsite_2 764.98 3.43
Sub-total 4434.89 19.91
21 S/ W/ Shoa Sod/Dacha "BURQUQE Awash_DS_7 266.79 1.20
22 S/ W/ Shoa K//Malima MAZORIYAGOLBA Awash_DS_5 27.24 0.12
Sub-total 627.87 2.82
23 S/Z/A/Finfine Bereh Repa Deniable Awash_DS_9 627.87 2.82
24 S/Z/A/Finfine Welmera Haroboki Awash_DS_1 6385 28.67
Sub total 7012.87 31.49
25 East Shewa Lume Finchawa Myamari Awash_DS_11 54.19 0.24
Sub-total 54.19 0.24
26 W/Shewa Dendi Gare Arera Awash_DS_2 2549.95 11.45
27 W/Shewa Dendi Wamura Seqo Awash_DS_3 1467.83 6.59
Sub-total 4017.78 18.04
Grand total 22272.69 100
Source: Recent assessment
East Hararge zone and districts
The identified irrigation dam sites are found in seven districts of the Awash basin upon which the
two dam sites specific places i.e. districts and kebeles are not identified. The total area to be
irrigated is 5, 312.58 hectares of land using modern irrigation methods. The distribution of
potential land and area developed so far and population characteristics by each district in East
Hararge is presented below.
Table 11: Population and households of districts of potential sites in E/Hararge

No Area in ha Potential Irrigable Population of the district
Woreda
developed Verified area (ha) Male Female Total Remark
1 NI - - 132.66 - - - -
2 Chinaksen 25 3.71 1,108.93 23,854 22,368 46,222 3 dams
3 NI - - 132.61 - - -
4 Goro Gutu 189 134.46 3,938.38 95,703 91,069 140,550 2 dams
Sub-total 214 138.17 5,312.58 119,557 113,437 232,994
The data indicated in the above districts of East Hararge zone have potentials of 5,312.58 ha to
be developed in the two districts Chinaksen and Goro Gutu of the basin. Furthermore, the
potential identified is mainly by constructing dams i.e. using harvested rain water.
Arsi zone
The identified irrigation potential in the zone is found in two districts of the Awash basin in
which two dam sites specific places are demarcated. The total area to be irrigated is 1,146.35
hectares of land using modern irrigation methods. The distribution of potential land and area
developed so far and population characteristics by each district in Arsi is presented below.
Table 12: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in Arsi
Area in ha Potential Irrigable Population of the district

No Woreda Developed Verified area (ha) Male Female Total Remark
1 Guna 80 - 718.56 22,302 21,947 44,249
Area in ha Potential Irrigable Population of the district

No Woreda Developed Verified area (ha) Male Female Total Remark
2 Merti 2,603 3,866.9 427.79 61,203 57,009 118,212
Total 2,683 3,866.9 1146.35 83,505 78,956 162,461
The data indicated in the above districts of East Hararge zone have potentials of 1,146.35 ha to
be developed in the two districts Guna and Merti of the basin. Furthermore, the potential
identified is mainly by constructing dams i.e. using harvested rainwater.
West Hararge zone
The potential irrigation sites identified are in four districts of the zone found the Awash basin.
The total area identified to be irrigated using modern irrigation methods is 4,434.89 hectares of
land. The distribution of potential land and area developed so far and population characteristics
by each district in Arsi is presented below.
Table 13: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in West Hararge
Area in ha Population of the district

No Woreda developed Verified Potential Male Female Total Remark
1 Chiro zuriya 3628.30 0 365.77 82,640 78,756 161,396 2 dams
2 Miesso 1,230.00 805.83 2,060.12 87,785 83,806 171,591 3 dams
3 Anchar 1,472.58 145.58 539.33 55,966 52,838 108,804 2 dams
4 Doba 932.90 95.68 1,469.67 64,809 61,865 126,674 4 dams
Total 7,263.78 1047.09 4,434.89 291,200 277,265 568,465
The data indicated in the above districts of West Hararge zone having the potentials of above
indicated table are in four districts of the zone found in the basin. Furthermore, there are 568,465
potential populations which are potential consumers and source of labor force for the irrigation
development of the area.
South West Shoa zone
The potential irrigation sites identified are in two districts of the zone found the Awash basin.
The total area identified to be irrigated using modern irrigation methods is294.03 hectares of
Table 14: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in South West Shoa

1 Sodo Da‟che 25 - 266.79 27,495 26,568 54,063
2 Ker/Malima 83 - 27.24 53,340 51,052 104,392
Total 108 294.03 80,835 77,620 158,455
Source: Current assessment
The data indicated in the above districts of South West Shoa zone having the potentials of above
indicated table are in two districts of the zone found in the basin. Furthermore, there are 158,455
potential populations which are potential consumers and source of labor force for the irrigation
Oromia Special Zone around Finfine
The potential irrigation sites identified are in two districts of the zone found the Awash basin.
The total area identified to be irrigated using modern irrigation methods is 7,012.87 hectares of
Table 15: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in S/O/Z/A/ Finfine
Bereh - - 627.87 28,741 27,883 56,624
Welmera 1,142 523.92 6385.00 28,884 28,662 57,546
Total 1,142 1,665.92 7012.87 57,625 56,545 114,170
The data indicated in the districts of Special Zone Around Finfine zone has a potential
population of 114,170 that can be potential consumers and source of labor force for the irrigation
East Shoa zone
The potential irrigation sites identified are in one district of the zone found the Awash basin. The
total area identified to be irrigated using modern irrigation methods is 54.19 hectares of land.
The distribution of potential land and area developed so far and population characteristics by
each district in Arsi is presented below.
Table 16: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in East Shoa

No woreda developed Verified Potential Male Female Total Remark
Lume 2,144.5 - 54.19 59,398 54,482 113,880
Total 2,144.5 - 54.19 59,398 54,482 113,880
The data indicated in the district of East Shoa zone has a potential population of 113,880 that can
be potential consumers and source of labor force for the irrigation development of the area.
West Shoa zone
The potential irrigation sites identified are in one district of the zone found the Awash basin. The
total area identified to be irrigated using modern irrigation methods is 4,017.78 hectares of land.
The distribution of potential land and area developed so far and population characteristics by
each district in Arsi is presented below.
Table 17: Population and households of districts of dam potential sites in West Shoa

Dendi 30 57.53 4,017.78 40,018 39,059 79,077 2 dams
Total 30 57.53 4,017.78 40,018 39,059 79,077
The data indicated in the district of East Shoa zone has a potential population of 79,077 that can
be potential consumers and source of labor force for the irrigation development of the area.
4.12.4. Identified Irrigation Potential for Diversion or Gravity
The assessment has also identified potential areas to be irrigated using diversion or gravity on the
available water sources i.e. rivers. This potential is identified in 7 zones and32 districts having
irrigation potential of 47443.82 hectares benefiting 3,095,723 potential beneficiary people. The
available data are presented below.
Table 18: Potential area identified using Diversion or Gravity
Area in ha District Population

Zone District
No Developed Identified Rural Total Remark
1 W/ Shoa Dendi 25 1224.11 64,799 79,077 5 Diversions
A/Berga 0 82.23 -64799 0 1 Diversion
Total 25 1306.34 64,799 64,799
2 S/ W/Shewa Dawo 152.5 9616.80 63,205 66,601 1 Diversion
Tole 88 39.83 78,212 82,551 1 Diversion
K/Malima 83 40.79 94,600 104,392 1 Diversion
S/Dache 25 300.99 52,928 54,063 4 Diversions
Total 348.5 9998.41 288,945 307,607
3 E/ Harerge Jarso 473.5 248.24 52,632 55,230 Gololcha weir-3
Chinaksen 0 224.54 38,503 46,222 3 Diversions
Kombolcha 0 73.14 34,288 38,266 1 Diversion
G/Gutu 46 320.43 129,102 140,550 2 Diversions
Chi/Miessoweir_7 0 591.52 0 0 1 Diversion
Meta 0 63.70 35,769 38,473 1 Diversion
Afdem weirsite_2 0 33.84 0 0 1 Diversion

Total 519.5 1668.45 290,294 318,741
4 Arsi Jeju 100 341.94 149,150 159,180 5 Diversions
Guna 80 238.33 40,501 44,249 1 Diversion
Dodota 302.31 71.53 56,181 84,809 1 Diversion
Area in ha District Population

Zone District
No Developed Identified Rural Total Remark
Merti 2,461.50 49.04 96,251 118,212 1 Diversion
Sire 0 35.66 83,349 95,903 1 Diversion
L/Hexosa 273.75 94.33 117,427 140,355 1 Diversion
Total 3217.56 830.83 542,859 642,708
5 E/Shoa Gimbichu 125 367.48 101,565 111,049 3 Diversions
Adama 2,835 1230.06 163,959 203,409 6 Diversions
Liben 1,877 19976.53 93,844 98,234 2 Diversions
Lume 2,144.50 1386.69 98,829 113,880 2 Diversions
Akaki 3,004 165.66 90,442 90,442 2 Diversions
Adea 200 942.80 166,844 166,844 3 Diversions
Total 10185.5 51677.28 715,483 783,858
6 S/Z/A/Finfine Bereh 0 351.50 56,624 56,624 4 Diversions
Welmera 1,142 134.98 54,852 57,546 2 Diversions
S/ Hawas 473 5959.36 161,632 171,485 7 Diversions
Total 1615 6445.84 273,108 285,655
7 W/Hararge Chiro 3,618.30 452.78 161,396 161,396 6 Diversions
Afdem weirsite_1 0 36.39 0 0 1 Diversion
Anchar 1,357.58 33.39 99,077 108,804 1 Diversion
Habro 0 31.34 0 0 1 Diversion
Miesso 532.5 1301.95 133,563 171,591 6 Diversions
G/Koricha 1,445.93 196.09 120,497 123,890 2 Diversion
Doba 592.9 1072.79 123,040 126,674 6 Diversions
Total 7,547.21 3124.73 637,573 692,355
Grand Total 23,458.27 47443.82 2,813,061 3,095,723
Source: recent assessment
The expansions of irrigation contribute to the minimization of unemployment, development of

agro-processing industries and improvement of livelihoods of the beneficiary community. The
development opportunities and the like are presented lately in the document.
4.10.5. Community Attitude towards the Project
The community has been consulted during the socio-economic assessment and the attitude of the
different community members, and local authorities towards the project idea, specifically, on
possible problems and conflicts that may arise from the project implementation; their willingness
to participate and contribute to the future development was found positive.
The administration council of the districts in the basin also considers the project as a sustainable
development opportunity to reduce poverty among the rural communities and Peasant
Association leaders of the selected kebele have organized the community to be gathered in order
to explain about the intended project. During the community consultation meeting, they have
expressed their interest and willingness for the realization of the project by promising to
contribute all needed materials and they told the people to cooperate in the whole process of the
project.
According to FGD with the farmers or communities in the area, they have positive attitude
towards the implementation of the identified irrigation activities and maintenance and expansion
of existing irrigation development. The rationale behind the interest of the local farmers is the
existing situation of farmers in terms of rainfall distribution, soil fertility, pests, etc., which has
constrained crop and livestock production. Therefore, farmers believed that irrigation
development could be undertaken in which the problems related to food shortage is reduced and
in that way increase production and income.
The community of some districts of the selected area does not have full experience regarding
irrigation development. Nevertheless, they are quite aware of the importance of irrigation
development from neighboring kebeles and districts. They are entirely aware of the significance
of irrigation as the area is frequently suffers from crop failure. During the community
consultation meeting, members of the PA (those who are not beneficiaries) as well as upstream
traditional irrigation users expressed their wish for the project and no negative attitude is heard
or observed from them.
5. Environmental Impacts of Future Irrigation Project in the Basin

From an environmental perspective the establishment of a further irrigation development within
the Awash river basin could have both a positive and negative impact on the environment. From
a positive perspective, irrigation would reduce the flood risk within the basin and also increase
the opportunities for enhancing biodiversity values. From a negative perspective, irrigation
exacerbates the risk of contamination of ground and surface waters, deforestation, soil erosion,
land degradation, community health problem.
5.1. Deforestation
As it can be understood from document review and physical observation, in addition to climate
changes the major causes of the basin's recurrent flood and drought is deforestation and soil
degradation. Therefore, during proposal of irrigation and drainage projects in each identified
irrigation potential area if deforestation problem is not considered, the current flood and drought
problem will be exacerbated. So, careful attention must be given to an area with forest delineated
to command and reservoir areas of the identified potential areas like Haro Boki in which 298.711
ha of forest land was delineated to its command area, and 15.3 ha of Walitane identified potential
areas in Miesso woreda is dense bush and shrub land, 3353.21ha is dense shrub land in Walitane,
Burkuke Yabdo Bobasa, Chiro Melka Oda, Saphalo Nini, Hara, Kokophe Buta Kuto, of
command areas in Miesso, Sodo Dacha, Chiro, and Goro Gutu Woredas respectively. Generally,
deforestation which can cause climate change, soil erosion, flood and drought in vicinity of the
identified potential areas must be carefully observed during feasibility study of irrigation and
drainage projects in each identified potential sites specifically in the above mentioned potential
sites.
5.2. Soil Erosion

Erosion is the main environmental problem in the basin. Soil erosion in the basin is caused due to
absence of appropriate soil and water conservation, improperly plough or tilling land opposite to
contour, tilling hills for annual crops, and deforestation. Therefore, if in recently identified
irrigation potential sites slopes percentage, application of biological and structural soil water
conservation and forest coverage is not considered during feasibility study, soil erosion problem
of the basin will be exacerbated. Especially catchment management must be focused on in

Eastern and Western Hararge areas whose topography is undulating and dissected land form
unless it will devastate water diversion structures.
5.3. Water quality deterioration

This is confirmed by examining the bacteriological contaminant level of leafy vegetables grown
around Adama town with Awash River along with identifying heavy pollution loads on the
vegetables (Benti et al., 2014). According to this study, nitrate level of the river water is above
10 mg/L and mean concentration of heavy metals including Mn, Cr, Ni, Pb, As and Zn are
reported to be more in soils and vegetables irrigated by Awash River than their allowable limits.
Since nitrate level of the river water is above 10 mg/L and mean concentration of heavy metals
including Mn, Cr, Ni, Pb, As and Zn are reported to be more in soils and vegetables irrigated by
Awash River than their allowable limits, identified irrigation potential sites on Awash River such
as Sego kabi, Agemsa Rogecha, Batu degaga, and Kelecha guda and etc. sites water fitness for
irrigation must be focused on during feasibility study. Accordingly, adoption of new irrigation
and drainage project may exacerbate water quality problems of the basin. Therefore, during
feasibility study cause of water pollution like excessive irrigation and its mitigation measures
must be addressed.
5.4. Shortage of Water Supply on Down Streams

As we observed the identified irrigation potential sites, if irrigation and drainage proposed in
some identified irrigation potential areas, it may impose shortage of water supply for livestock
watering and other uses. Therefore, during feasibility study, on downstream water supply for
other water use must be considered especially on identified diversion sites of perennial streams.
5.5. Soil Salinity

Irrigation salinity occurs due to increased rates of leakage and groundwater recharge causing the
water table to rise. Rising water table can bring salts into the plant root zone which affects both
plant growth and soil structure. The salt remains behind in the soil when water is taken up by
plants or lost to evaporation.
Continual under-irrigation also increases salinity as salts contained in the irrigation water need to
be flushed or leached periodically to prevent them accumulating to levels that limit productivity.
But currently in some scheme of the study area, there is no salinity problem. According to
interview carried out with users of two irrigation schemes around Adama and Bishoftu; since
irrigation water supply is limited, in order to enhance their economic returns relative to available
water, they irrigate their crop one per week. As a result there is no over irrigation which causes
water logging and salinity.
In Eastern Hararge and Western Hararge identified irrigation potential sites like Dawe Irressa,
Kaliga Wereseyo, Aneno Mite, Mulata, Keraro, Golelcha, Lencha, Oda Muda, Yeka Jalela,
Walta, Jiru Efa and Golmayo Chiro, Miesso and Gumbi Bordodde woredas, Walitane, Gudicha
Dhadacha, Sobaka, Burika Kebena, Siriba, Belo, Burayisa Tuka, and Chiro Town, since the
temperature of the area is high, if attention is not given from evapotranspiration, salinity problem
will be expected. Therefore, during feasibility study of irrigation and drainage project in each
identified potential areas, salinity issues must carefully be considered.
Figure 8: Goha Weriko and Godino diversion irrigation Scheme
5.6. Social health impact

Water resources development has major impacts on human health. Positive health impacts arise
from higher incomes, better diet and nutrition, and improved access to health care systems, all of
which can translate to better overall health status.
Foremost among the negative impacts are water pollution and illnesses resulting from water-
related diseases. Although water quality problem is apparent to most Ethiopian rivers, Awash
leads in the extent of impairment due to its service as a sink for the basin-wide urban, industrial
and rural wastes (Belay, 2009; Alemayehu, 2001). In assessing the pollution level of the river, it
is concluded that attention needs to be paid in irrigating with the river for fear of public health
effect. Concentration of heavy metals including Mn, Cr, Ni, Pb, As and Zn are reported to be
more in soils and vegetables irrigated by Awash river than their allowable limits. Since nitrate
level of the river water is above 10 mg/L and mean concentration of heavy metals including Mn,
Cr, Ni, Pb, As and Zn are reported to be more in soils and vegetables irrigated by Awash river
than their allowable limits, it is concluded that attention needs to be paid in irrigating with the
river for fear of public health effect. This is confirmed by examining the bacteriological
contaminant level of leafy vegetables grown around Adama town with Awash river along with
identifying heavy pollution loads on the vegetables (Benti et al., 2014).
On the other hand, based on recently collected data by socio-economic discipline from the basin,
Malaria, typhoid fever, and diarrhea are the main health problems currently known in the basin.
Therefore, special attention must be given to these diseases during feasibility study. In addition, these
when irrigation project proposed in the area, sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS
must be focused on during feasibility study
5.6. Flood problems

With the increase in population and developmental activities in the region, such as,
Anthropogenic, Urbanization, Industrialization, and Large Scale Irrigation Expansions have
changed the natural environment within Awash River Basin. This has been a tendency to occupy
the floodplains, often resulting in serious flood damages and loss of lives over the years. Of late,
some areas, which were not traditionally prone to floods, also experienced severe inundation.
Floods cause severe bank erosion if the river banks are not strong enough to resist heavy floods
and not protected with appropriate bank protection works.
One of the reasons for recurrent floods in Awash River Basin is geo-morphology of the basin,
which is dynamic due to the nature of the river course. In the basin, many irrigation structures
have been damaged by floods. The following (figure 5) shows damaged irrigation scheme
headwork by flood in Doba woreda, Meda Bilisumma kebele. On the other hand, many irrigation
potential sites were identified in the area. Therefore, if attention is not given to flood control, it
may damage the structures of irrigation dam and diversion headwork which may be proposed in
future. So, the following parameters are the main cause of flood problem in the basin which
needs attention:
 Runoff from the highlands with intensive rainfall, aggravated by the modifications of
land use;
 Lack of proper urban drainage and spatial planning;
 Runoff from agricultural lands is intensified by inadequate surface drainage;
 Inundations from Beseka Lake, Urban flooding (Adama, Welenchiti);
 Flash floods from highlands with intensive rainfall;
 Dynamic river morphology and meandering;
 River channel blockage by sediment and debris at lowland;
 Flash floods from Hararge highlands; and
 Lack of proper natural drainage system (land locked and low-lying areas).
Figure 9: Flood damaged non-functional irrigation scheme in Doba Woreda, Meda Bilisumma
Kebele
5.7. Community Resettlement

More of the identified potential site's reservoirs area settles on agricultural land and built up area.
1,583 ha of cultivated land and 27 ha of settlement area will be occupied with dams' reservoir
areas. Therefore, during feasibility study special attention must be given and resettlement issue
must be addressed through discussion with affected community.
6. Conclusion and recommendation

6.1. Conclusion
The main driving factors that exacerbate the extent and intensity of environmental degradation in
Awash River Basin are expansion of agricultural development, change from pastoralist to
traditional farming system of the people or from pastoral way of life to a more settled lifestyle
based on the cultivation of crops and tilling marginal land in upper and lower parts of the basin
and mechanized state farms are widely expanding in this basin compared to the other basins in
the country. Additionally disposal of urban sewerage and industrial wastes from upper part of the
basin especially from Finfinne city and Oromia special zone around Finfinne to Awash River and
its major tributaries are the major environmental problems of the basin.
Due to the stated pressures above, Land degradation, Erosion and sedimentation problem has
been occurred. Excess/over irrigation water from these farms has been causing rising of the
ground water level denying free passage of the subterranean flow under the lake. Thus, water
from this subterranean flow rises and enters the lake raising its level/ enlargement of Lake
Beseka.
Generally, Awash rivers basin has various environmental problems like water pollution and
contamination, soil erosion, deforestation, land degradation, recurrent flood and drought, water
pollution, shortage of water resources, and high incidences of water borne and water vectored
diseases like diarrhea, typhoid fever, and malaria. Therefore, if irrigation and drainage projects
fostered in the basin without considering these environmental problems, the environmental
problems of the basin will be exacerbated. So, before proposing irrigation and drainage project
attention has to be given to the environmental problems. The bulleted parameters are the major
environmental problems of the basin. They are:
 Dumping industrial waste and urban sewerage without any treatment;
 Scarcity of appropriate and enough storage facilities:
 High evapotranspiration;
 High agricultural water demand;
 Liability to effects of climate variability;
 Less storage facilities;
 Lack of in situ water harvesting and storages;
 Erratic rainfall;
 Lack of proper artificial water storage facilities.
6.2. Recommendation
Before proposal of any irrigation and drainage project in the basin, current environmental
problems of the basin must be solved. Therefore, the following activities have to be carried out at
least one year before proposal of irrigation and drainage project. These are:
 Implement appropriate catchment management (water conservation and water
harvesting);
 Planning reforestation program;
 Banning disposal of any industrial and domestic wastes from Finfinne city and other
towns to tributaries of Awash river;
 Accomplishing adequate drainages for cities and towns of the basin;
 Removing forestland, wetland, and woodland areas from delineated command and
reservoirs areas of the identified potential areas;
 Detailed study have to be carried out concerning water quality, soil chemical and physical
properties;
Before proposing any irrigation and drainage development projects in the identified potential
areas of Awash River basin, it is better to focus on the establishment of recommended activities
for environmental and social sustainability .
7. References
Environmental impact assessment guidelines on irrigation ( Ethiopian EPA,2004 Addis Ababa
Ethiopia) Integrated Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Guidelines Water Supply
(Ethiopian EPA, 2004 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia)
Awash rivers basin flood and drought management Strategic plan, (June, 2017). Awash river
water quality assessment (Belay, 2009; Alemayehu, 2001).
Irrigation salinity cause and impact (Wagga Wagga October, 2009).
Guidelines for Planning Irrigation and Drainage Investment Projects (FAO,1996).

Transformational Agenda for Irrigation Development (Seyoum Getachew, June, 2018)
Konradsen, F., M. Chimbari, P. Furu, M.H. Birley, N.O. Christensen. 1997. The use of health
impact assessments in water resources development: a case study from Zimbabwe. Impact
Assessment 15: 55-72.
Listorti, J.A. 2002. Collaboration between the World Bank and USAID on vector-borne disease
control: a look at selected sectors. Draft report for the World Bank.
Mock, J. and P. Bolton. 1993. The ICID Environmental Checklist. HR Wallingford Ltd.
Scott-Samuel, A., M. Birley, K. Arden. 2001. The Merseyside Guidelines for Health Impact
Assessment. 2nd Edition, May 2001. 20 pp. Published by the International Health Impact
Assessment Consortium.
Scrimshaw N.S. and G.R. Gleason (eds). 1992. Rapid Assessment Procedures. Qualitative
Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes. INFDC International
Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries, Boston.
Stockle, C.O. 2001. Environmental impact of irrigation: a review.

(www.swwrc.wsu.edu/newsletter/fall2001/irrimpact2.pdf)
Taylor, L. and C. Blair-Stevens (Eds). 2002. Introducing health impact assessment (HIA):
informing the decision-making process. Health Development Agency. (www.hda-online.org.uk).
Tiffen, M. 1991. Guidelines for the incorporation of health safeguards into irrigation projects
through intersectoral cooperation with special reference to the vector-borne diseases. PEEM
Guidelines series 1. PEEM Secretariat, WHO World Health Organization, Geneva.
UNEP 2003. Environment Impact Assessment (www.uneptie.org/pc/pc/tools/eia.htm)

World Bank 1991. Environmental Assessment Sourcebook. Technical Report No. 140, Volume-
II.

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List of Report

Volume I Main Report

Volume II Meteorology and Hydrology

Volume III Ground Water Assessment

Volume IV Irrigation Engineering Study

Volume V Soil Survey and Land Evaluation

Volume VI Irrigation Agronomy

Volume VII Socio Economy study

Volume VIII GIS and Remote Sensing and Agro ecology

Volume IX Environmental Impact Assessment

Lists of Figures .................................................................................................................................. vii

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.2. Scope of the study 6

1.3. Objectives of the Study 6

1.3.1 General objective 6

1.4. Description of the study area 7

2. Review of Policies, Legal and Administrative Framework ............................................................. 9

2.1. The Constitution of FDRE 9

2.2. Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) 10

2.3. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia 11

2.4. Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change Policy 12

2.5. Sectorial Policies 13

2.5.1. Water Resource Policy 13

2.6. Cross-Sectorial policies 18

2.6.1. Irrigation sector policies and guidelines 19

2.7. Legal Framework 24

2.7.1. Proclamations related to protection of the environment 24

2.8. EIA Guidelines 28

2.9. Institutional and Administrative Framework 29

2.9.1. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia & Administrative Regions 29

3. Methodology and Approach .......................................................................................................... 32

3.1. Physical observation 32

3.2. Document reviews 32

3.2.1.Water quality of Awash River Basin 32

3.6. Current situation of the basin 35

3.7. Irrigation Water Source and Management 35

3.7.4. Environmental Impact 38

4. Baseline Environmental Data of the area....................................................................................... 39

4.2. Soil Physical Characteristics 39

4.3. Soil Chemical Characteristics 41

4.3.1. Soil Reaction (pH) 41

4.5. Hydrological Situation of the Area 49

4.6. Topography and Drainage System 51

4.7. Land Use and Land Cover 53

4.8. Population and Demographic Characteristics 66

4.8.1. Population density 67

4.8.2. Migration and unemployment 68

4.9. Land Tenure and Land Holding 73

4.10. Basic Social Services 75

4.10.1. Education services 75

4.11. Economic and Livelihood system 83

4.11.1. Settlement Pattern and Farming System 83

4.12. Flora and Fauna 87

4.12.2. Wild and aquatic life Resources of the basin 87

5. Environmental Impacts of Future Irrigation Project in the Basin .................................................. 97

5.2. Soil Erosion 97

5.3. Water quality deterioration 98

5.4. Shortage of Water Supply on Down Streams 98

5.5. Soil Salinity 98