Geograpgy 1 PB Press

Achievers Secondary
Geography and
Environment
For Rwandan Schools
Student’s Book 1
Richard Barekye
Daniel K. Sugut
Kigali • Nairobi • Kampala • Dar es Salaam • Lilongwe • Lusaka
Geograpgy 1.indb 1 7/11/16 3:19 PM

Published by
East African Educational Publishers Ltd.
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© Richard Barekye, Daniel K. Sugut, 2016
First published 2016
All rights reserved
ISBN: 978-9966-56-172-5
Printed in Kenya by
Ramco Printing Works Ltd.

Contents
Topic area: Physical geography................................................................................ 1
Sub-topic area: Map reading and photographic interpretation.............................. 1
Unit 1: Introduction to geography......................................................................... 2
Definition of geography............................................................................. 2
Importance of Geography.......................................................................... 9
Sources of geographical information....................................................... 10
Topic area: Practical geography............................................................................. 17
Sub-topic area: Map reading and photographic interpretation............................ 17
Unit 2: Elements of a map................................................................................... 18
What is a map? ...................................................................................... 18
Elements of a good map.......................................................................... 20
Symbols and signs used on maps............................................................. 22
Drawing sketch maps ............................................................................. 24
Indicators of relief on maps .................................................................... 27
Maps and aerial photographs ................................................................ 46
Atlas index . ............................................................................................. 50
Topic area: Physical geography ............................................................................ 53
Sub-topic area: Understanding the Earth and universe........................................ 53
Unit 3: The Earth in relation to the universe ..................................................... 54
Components of the universe................................................................... 54
The Earth’s movements and their consequences ................................... 78
Latitudes and longitudes.......................................................................... 87
Topic area: Physical geography ............................................................................. 91
Sub-topic area: Understanding the Earth and universe........................................ 91
Unit 4: The structure of the Earth . ..................................................................... 92
The components of the Earth ................................................................. 92
Topic area: Physical geography............................................................................. 97
Sub-topic area: Relief............................................................................................ 97
Unit 5: Forms of relief . ....................................................................................... 98
Relief........................................................................................................ 98
Slope, altitude and contours ................................................................... 98
Forms of relief........................................................................................ 101

Topic area: Physical geography........................................................................... 108
Sub-topic area: Rocks, weathering and soils....................................................... 108
Unit 6: Rocks..................................................................................................... 109
Definition of rocks . ............................................................................... 109
Types and characteristics of rocks......................................................... 109
Characteristics of rocks ........................................................................ 119
The importance of rocks ....................................................................... 120
Topic area: Physical geography............................................................................ 123
Sub-topic area: Weathering and soils.................................................................. 123
Unit 7: Soils ....................................................................................................... 124
Definition of soil . ................................................................................. 124
Factors influencing soil formation . ...................................................... 127
Soil properties and constituents............................................................ 130
Soil structure . ....................................................................................... 139
Effects of soils on human activities ...................................................... 143
Sub-topic area: Weather and climate.................................................................. 146
Unit 8: Weather and climate ............................................................................ 147
Definition of atmosphere, weather and climate ................................... 147
Atmosphere........................................................................................... 149
Element of weather and climate............................................................ 152
The weather station and its instruments............................................... 154
Temperature.......................................................................................... 160
Precipitation........................................................................................... 164
The water cycle...................................................................................... 167
Atmospheric pressure............................................................................ 173
Humidity................................................................................................ 177
Winds..................................................................................................... 180
Clouds.................................................................................................... 191
Sunshine................................................................................................ 196
Factors that influence climate................................................................ 197
Climatic zones of the world................................................................... 199
Impact of weather and climate on human activities............................. 204

Topic area: Practical geography........................................................................... 206
Sub-topic area: Vegetation.................................................................................. 206
Unit 9: Vegetation . ........................................................................................... 207
Vegetation.............................................................................................. 207
Classification of vegetation.................................................................... 207
Factors that influence the distribution of vegetation............................ 210
Importance of vegetation...................................................................... 212
Relationship between vegetation and human activities........................ 213
Sub-topic area: Drainage..................................................................................... 215
Unit 10: General organisation of hydrography.................................................... 216
Definition of drainage............................................................................ 216
Water bodies.......................................................................................... 216
Major rivers of the world....................................................................... 219
River profile........................................................................................... 221
Drainage patterns.................................................................................. 223
Relationship between water bodies and human activities.................... 226
Sub-topic area: Man and his environment.......................................................... 230
Unit 11: Hazards ................................................................................................. 231
Hazards.................................................................................................. 231
Types of hazards.................................................................................... 231
Responses to hazards............................................................................. 248
Topic area: Human and economic geography..................................................... 252
Sub-topic area: Population, settlement and urbanisation................................... 252
Unit 12: Population and settlement.................................................................... 253
Population.............................................................................................. 254
Population structure and composition.................................................. 254
Population distribution and density...................................................... 257
Population growth................................................................................. 259
Settlement ............................................................................................ 262
Types of settlements.............................................................................. 263
Migration............................................................................................... 266

Topic area: Human and economic geography..................................................... 269
Sub-topic area: Economic activities and development studies.......................... 269
Unit 13: Economic activities................................................................................ 270
Economic activities................................................................................ 270
Importance of economic activities......................................................... 274
Glossary . ............................................................................................................ 276
References........................................................................................................... 282


Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Map reading and photographic
interpretation
Number of periods: 3

UNIT Introduction to
1 geography
Key unit competence Geography

To be able to determine the importance of The word geography is derived from two
geography and its relationship with other Greek words; geo and graphein. Geo means
subjects. “the Earth” and graphein or grapho means
to “write, draw, or describe.” The two words
Unit objectives are joined form one word “geographia”,
which stands for “writing about the Earth.”
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: It also means describing the Earth, Earth
(a) define geography description or to draw about the Earth.”
(b) identify the main branches of The term geography was first used in
geography 240 B.C. It was introduced by a Greek
(c) state the importance of geography philosopher known as Eratosthenes. He
(d) state different sources of geographical published a book about the earth and
information named it geography. According to this Greek
(e) identify the relationships between scholar, geography is defined as writing
geography and other subjects. about the planet Earth.
His book contributed a lot to the
Definition of geography understanding of the Earth. He is regarded
as “the father of geography”.
Activity 1.1
Later on, other authors advanced various
Do the following individually. definitions of geography. They include the
following.
1. Using dictionaries, the Internet,
textbooks and other geographical  Geography is the study of humans
documents, look for the meaning of and their surroundings.
geography.  Geography is the study of the
2. Write down the meaning in your relationships existing between human
exercise book. beings and the environment.
3. Tell your teacher what you have  Geography is a science that studies
understood by the meaning of and describes the surface of the
geography. earth. It describes its physical,
biological, political and economic
characteristics of the Earth. It also

describes the complex interrelations Dialogue:
among them.
Do you think it is important
 Geography is the scientific study for us to plant trees?
of the Earth’s elements such as
climate, countries, people and natural
resources.
 Geography is the study of the Earth
and its features and the distribution Yes, trees help to make
of life on it. This includes human life our environment look
and the effects of human activities on beautiful.
the planet.
 Geography is the study of the physical
characteristics of the Earth and their
influence on human life and activities. They also help to prevent soil
erosion
In most cases, geography is used to describe
the distribution of physical and human
Fig 1.1 Students planting trees.
features on the earth.
Therefore, geography can be defined as
Activity 1.3
the scientific study of the description and
interrelationship of physical and human Do the following in pairs.
features on the Earth’s surface.
1. Use coloured pencils, pencils, art
Activity 1.2 books and paint to draw and colour
the following.
Do the following in groups of three. (a) Your homestead and its
1. Using your school’s surroundings, surroundings.
identify physical features and relate (b) People fishing on a lake.
them to your existence. (c) Your school and its surrounding.
2. Discuss how the geographical 2. For each drawing, briefly describe the
features you have identified help relationship between humans and the
you to understand the meaning of components of the environment.
geography.
3. Write down your findings in a Activity 1.4
notebook. Do the following in pairs.
4. Make a presentation of your findings
1. Identify the natural features in Figure
in class and discuss with the other
1.2.
class members.
2. Suggest how it is useful to the people
who live here.

Fig 1.2
Task 1.1 Physical geography

1. Briefly define the term geography. Activity 1.5
2. Explain the meaning of the following.
(a) geo In groups of five, do the following under the
guidance of your teacher.
(b) graphein
(c) geographia. 1. Go to your school garden and collect
samples of soil, stones and plants.
3. Giving specific reasons, explain why
Eratosthenes is very important in 2. Write the names of the samples in
geography. your notebooks.
4. Identify the relationship that exists 3. Relate the soil samples to the human
between man and the following activities.
physical features. 4. Present your findings in class.
(a) Lakes Physical geography is a branch of geography
(b) Forests that deals with the study of the physical
environment of humans. It studies
(c) Land and soils the natural features that have a direct
(d) Atmosphere relationship with the activities of humans.
(e) Rivers. It deals with geographical features that are
found on or near the earth’s surface.
Branches of geography
The major aspects studied under physical
There are two major branches of geography, geography include the following.
namely:
(a) Drainage (rivers, lakes, swamps and
(a) Physical geography other wetlands).
(b) Human and economic geography. (b) Vegetation.
(c) Weather and climate (climatology).

(d) Relief (landforms such as mountains, highlands and plains).
Fig 1.3 Birunga Mountains in northern Rwanda and prominent physical features.
(e) The structure of the earth (internal Table 1.1: Sub-divisions of physical
and external parts of the earth). geography .
(f) The earth and universe. Sub-division Specific area of
(g) The internal land-forming processes geography
(endogenic processes). Biogeography This is the study
(h) The external land-forming processes of the animals and
(exogenic processes). plants found on the
(i) Rocks and soils (geology). earth’s surface and
their relationship with
Activity 1.6 mankind.
Do the following in pairs. Climatology This is the study
that is concerned
1. Define the following sub-divisions of with climate and
physical geography. all its associated
(a) Drainage geographical aspects.
(b) Lithology Geomorphology This is the study of
(c) Relief landforms – their
(d) Geomorphology formation and
influence on humans’
2. Discuss your findings in class.
way of living.

Lithology This is the study that Task 1.2
deals with rocks and 1. (a) Outline the main branches of
soils. It looks at their geography.
type, characteristics, (b) Describe the following, giving
formation and examples of each:
influence on human
(i) physical features
activities and the
environment. (ii) human activities.
Hydrography This is the study of 2. Explain two reasons why physical
rivers, lakes, seas, features are important in our lives.
oceans, swamps – their 3. Physical features have advantages
features, formation and and disadvantages. Name the ways in
types and their role in which they are:
landform formation. (a) advantageous
It also looks at their (b) disadvantageous.
influence on the
environment and on Human and economic geography
humans’ way of living.
Activity 1.8
Activity 1.7
In groups of five, do the following.
Do these individually. 1. Visit the communities around your
1. Using the Internet, geographical school.
documents and knowledge learnt 2. Identify ways in which the people
in class, research on how physical utilise the resources in the
features can be protected. environment for their benefit.
2. Do you think it is necessary to 3. Write your findings in your notebook.
protect the physical features in our 4. Discuss your findings in class.
environment?
Human and economic geography is a branch
of geography that deals with the study of
human beings and their activities on the
earth’s surface. It examines what human
beings do on or near the earth’s surface.
Human and economic geography analyses
the role of humans in the world. It looks at
what humans have done and the outcomes
of their actions to the environment.
Fig 1.4 Students being shown how to plant
trees by their teacher.

Fig 1.5 Environmental degradation at a site in Gicumbi district as
a result of human activity.
Human and economic geography includes (b) suggest reasons why it is

the following geographical aspects: necessary for the activity to be
• Mining carried out.
• Forestry 2. Using the same photograph, explain
the effects of the activity on the
• Agriculture environment.
• Trade and commerce 3. What suggestions would you give
• Power and energy on how to care for and protect their
• Pollution surroundings? Use the knowledge
• population you have learnt so far.
• Settlement
• Urbanisation
• Industrialisation
• Tourism
• Conservation and management of
natural resources
Fig 1.6
Activity 1.9
1. Using the photograph of Figure 1.6: Task 1.3
(a) identify the economic activities 1. Explain the meaning of human and
being carried out economic geography.

2. State examples of activities studied in climate. Its main cash crops are pyrethrum
human and economic geography. and tea, while its food crop is the Irish
3. Name and describe at least four potatoes. The following morning we left
branches of human geography. Musanze for Rubavu in Western Province.
4. Distinguish between physical We visited the hot springs. The water was
geography and human geography. steaming hot. Our guide put an egg in the
hot water. In about two minutes, the egg
was fully cooked. After that, we visited Lake
Practical geography Kivu. There, we saw fishermen at work and
Case study people swimming.
Read the passage below in groups and Lastly, we visited the Bralirwa breweries.
answer the questions that follow. Later we travelled back to Kigali. We
thanked Father for the trip. We had learnt
Akaliza’s day out a lot and had lots of fun.
“Pack your bags we will be going for a trip (a) Suggest a suitable title for this
tomorrow,” Father said. My siblings and passage.
I were all so excited that we hardly slept
that night. (b) Name the physical landforms
mentioned in the story.
The next morning, we left for our destination. (c) Identify the human activities
There we were, in the land of beautiful mentioned in the passage.
mountains, Musanze district. I must admit
I was stunned by the beautiful scenery. We (d) Using the geographical knowledge,
went to climb Mount Karisimbi. However, I you have describe how one
was afraid and did not climb with the rest. can conserve and protect the
When my family members came down they environment in Musanze district.
told me about all the things they had seen. (e) Use a map of Rwanda to identify
They also showed me pictures of the famous Musanze and Rubavu districts,
crater lake on Mount Karisimbi. We then went respectively.
to see Mount Sabyinyo. We saw its top sharp (f) On the maps, point out the location
peaks. We learnt that it got its name from of some of the physical features that
those “sharp peaks”. We also saw gorillas and Akaliza and her family visited.
monkeys at the Volcanoes National Park. The Practical geography is a minor branch of
gorillas looked scary at first, but later, I found geography. It deals with scientific approaches
them to be friendly when treated well. In the that are aimed towards collecting, studying,
afternoon, we travelled to Burera to visit the analysing, recording and interpreting
Ntaruka hydropower plant. We learnt about geographical data. This is done in a practical
how electricity is produced. Lake Ruhondo way hence the name practical geography.
supplies water to the Ntaruka hydropower This includes the following.
station.
• Fieldwork studies.
I learnt that Musanze district has many trees
• Maps and map work.
and volcanic mountains. It also has a cold
8

• Statistical methods such as divided Geography is a subject that directly deals
circles and graphs. with different aspects of life. Studying
• Photographic interpretation, where geography as a subject is important in the
various physical and human features following ways:
are recorded in the form of photographs (a) Geography creates a platform for
for further interpretation. learners to research on different topics.
This branch enables learners to further This equips them with research and
understand what is studied in theory in analytical skills.
class. It also relates different geographical (b) Geography assists learners to know the
aspects to the real world. For example, outside world as they do their research.
when studying fishing, one goes out to the (c) It gives learners the knowledge and
field to study the practice on a lake or river. skills that enable them to understand
Activity 1.10 their environment.
(d) Geography enables humans to
Work in groups. understand problems that face the
1. Under the guidance of your teacher, visit community. They therefore work
the community living near your school. towards finding solutions.
2. Observe the farming methods (e) Geographical studies and research
they use and the soil conservation findings are helpful to the government
measures they have put in place. and related agencies during the
3. Record your findings in a note book. formulation of policies.
4. Discuss the findings of different (f) Geography equips an individual with
groups in class. knowledge of the relationships of
people from different countries.
Importance of geography (g) Geography provides guidance to
leaders on how to allocate national
Activity 1. 11 resources to all parts of the country.
Work in pairs. (h) Geography informs the attitude that
countries and individuals have towards
Use the Internet, your personal experience
other countries. For example, it is
and geographical documents to do the
important for countries in the EAC to be
following:
aware of the socio-economic conditions
1. Find out the contribution of prevailing in Burundi and Somalia.
geography to the socio-economic (i) Geography equips people with problem
development of Rwanda. solving skills.
2. Discuss and write down your findings. (j) Human and economic geography
3. Present your findings in class. provides learners with the knowledge
on the available resources that humans
can utilise for survival.

(k) Geography provides learners with a in the Eastern Province. As time went by,
strong foundation in understanding he saw a pile of journals on a table at the
other subjects of equal importance corner of the reception office. His attention
such as Physics, Mathematics and shifted to them. He began reading them
Economics. one by one.
(l) Geography assists learners to develop Shortly after, he was asked to get into
the spirit of cooperation through the governor’s office. They discussed the
teamwork during fieldwork studies. economic activities of the Eastern Province.
Activity 1.12 He got a lot of information which he wrote
in his notebook. He was also given a map
Do the following under the guidance of and was referred to the museum.
your teacher. As he left, he met an elderly man who
1. Visit the community around your was familiar to him. The man had lived in
school. the province for a long time. They greeted
2. Study the influence of geography each other and began talking about land
on land-use patterns and on socio- use in the province. As they talked about
economic development. agriculture in the region, Mr. Hakizimana
3. Write down the findings of your group. wrote notes. When they finished the
discussion, he thanked the old man and left
4 Present your findings in a class
for his home.
discussion.
On his way back, he kept looking out of
Sources of geographical the taxi window. He saw various plants,
settlements, industries and rice growing in
information valleys. He was impressed by what he saw.
Case study The following day, he visited the public
library at Nyagatare. He read books that
In groups, read the passage provided
had information about the Eastern Province.
below and answer the questions that
follow. The next morning, he visited the fields
in Gashora area. He interacted with the
Mr. Hakizimana, was commissioned to
farmers, traders and school administrators
conduct a study in the Eastern Province
in the nearby areas. He then went back
of Rwanda. The study was on the land use
home and began writing on the topic he had
patterns in the province. He decided to visit
been given. After two weeks, he was able
the governor of the province.
to present the findings of his study.
At the governor’s office, he was received
(a) Who was the researcher mentioned
by the secretary. As he waited for his
in the story?
turn to see the governor, he asked to use
the Internet. He was allowed to and he (b) Why do you think the researcher
immediately started using his laptop. He decided to visit the governor of the
searched for information about land uses Eastern Province?
10

(c) Why was Mr. Hakizimana carrying a bag
full of books, journals and magazines?
(d) Name the sources of geographical
information mentioned in the story.
(e) Name some of the things that
impressed him as he looked outside
through the taxi window.
Sources of geographical information refer Fig 1.8 Geographical magazines.

to the different materials that a geographer Mass media always has geographical
uses to obtain information. programmes with information that is helpful
to geographers. Examples of geographical
There are many sources of geographical
programmes on television can be found
information depending on the type of
on the National Geographic channel.
data or information that is required. The
The programmes tackle issues like the
following are the most commonly used
environment, wildlife, rocks and physical
sources.
features.
(a) Textbooks
(c) Atlases
These are geographical documents that
An atlas is a collection of maps. An atlas
have a lot of information concerning specific
is a map of the Earth or a region on the
geographical aspects. They are the most
Earth. However, there are also atlases
common source of information used by
of other planets and their satellites in
geographical researchers. Textbooks are
the solar system. Atlases usually present
usually written by professionals and well
geographic features, political boundaries and
informed authors.
geopolitical, social, religious and economic
statistics.
Fig 1.9 Atlases.

Fig 1.7 Geography textbooks. (d) Maps
(b) Mass media A map is a diagrammatic representation
This refers to the means of public of an area of land or sea. It shows physical
communication that reach large audiences. features such as mountains, rivers and lakes.
Mass media includes radio, television, A map may also show economic activities,
magazines and newspapers. natural resources and land use.
11

Administrative Divisions of Rwanda
W E
0 60 km
15 30 45
Fig 1.10 A map of Rwanda showing administrative district boundaries.
(e) Graphs This is shown by means of a line, curve, a

A graph is a two-dimensional drawing that series of bars or other symbols. A set of
shows a relationship usually between two variables are represented on both the x and
sets of numbers. y axes. A variable is a factor or figure that
Rwanda GDP can change.
7.89
7.52 8
7.22
7
An independent variable is a factor or figure
USD Billions
6.41
5.7 6
that does not depend on another variable
5.31
4.8 5
to change. It is usually represented on the
3.78 4
x-axis. In Figure 1.11, the years 2006-2014
3.11
3
are independent variables.
2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Source: tradingeconomics.com/worldbank
A dependent variable is a factor or figure
that changes and is dependent on another
Fig 1.11 Graph showing Rwanda’s GDP factor. It is usually represented on the y-axis.
between 2006 and 2014 . In Fig 1.11, the billion US dollars are the
dependent variables.
12

(f) Billboards (h) People
A billboard is a large outdoor advertising These are people who may be experienced,
structure. They are usually erected along busy skilled, unskilled or ordinary locals.
roads. Billboards present advertisements to
pedestrians and motorists. They can also be
a source of geographical information such
as the one shown in Figure 1.12.
Fig 1.14 A resource person guiding students

in a fieldwork study.
These people usually have relevant

geographical information concerning
Fig 1.12 A billboard advertising the mountain
different features, activities or areas.
gorillas of the Virunga Mountains.
Such people usually give dependable data
(g) Libraries or information that geographers use in
A library is a place where books, documents, their work. They are usually very useful
documentaries and films are stored. A library in fieldwork or as additional sources of
is a very reliable source of information. information in classwork .
Geographers can visit libraries to read about
the findings of other past geographers. (i) Internet
These findings are usually documented This is the most used source of geographical
in books. Examples of libraries in Rwanda information. It is used by many researchers.
include the Kigali Public Library and the Researchers look for information from
National Library of Rwanda. different sites.
Fig 1.13 Students studying inside the Kigali

Public Library. Fig 1.15 Children using laptops.
13

Different researchers, scholars and authors
post their information and findings on
the internet. Over the internet, sites such
as http://images.nationalgeographic.
com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/728/
cache/gorilla-volcanoes-national-park-
rwanda_72891_990x742.jpg provide a
lot of information that can be used to get
data. The internet is accessed by use of
computers or smart phones. Fig 1.17

(a) What can you see in the
(j) Physical environment photograph?
This includes humans and their surroundings. (b) Who used to stay in such huts?
The surroundings are made up of natural
(c) Give three reasons why we
features such as mountains, hills and water
should protect such historical
bodies. The physical environment is a
sites.
reliable source of geographical information.
(d) Where are such sites found in
Rwanda?
2. Discuss your finding in class.
Museums are places selected for storing

a variety of historical and geographical
information and artefacts. In such places,
various data are kept. A museum is very
important in gathering information on the
past historical and geographical events.
Fig 1.16 Students during a field study.
The following are some of the museums
It enables the geographer to get first-hand in Rwanda.
information on different geographical
• Natural History Museum (Kandt House)
phenomena. This information is used to
located at Nyarugenge in Kigali.
enrich geography as a subject.
• Ethnographic Museum located at
(k) Museums Huye.
Activity 1.13 • Presidential Palace Museum located
at Kanombe in Kigali.
Do this in pairs. • National Liberation Park Museum
1. Study the photograph of Figure 1.17 known as Umurindi w’intwari.
and use it to answer the questions • Environmental Museum located at
that follow. Karongi.
• King’s Palace Museum located at
Rukari in Nyanza.
14

(a) Mathematics
Geography as a subject involves many
calculations. They include determining the
areas of given locations and lengths of roads
or rivers. Climatic aspects such as relative
humidity, temperature range and averages
are also calculated.
(b) Chemistry
There is a direct relationship between
chemistry and studies in geography.
This applies to chemical and mineral
Fig 1.18 Animal artefacts at the Natural compositions of rocks, chemical weathering
History Museum.
and gases in the atmosphere.
The relationship between geography
(c) Physics
and other subjects
There are areas in geography that have a
Activity 1.14 relationship with certain concepts studied in
physics. They include topics like waves that
Do this in groups. are found in earthquakes and the influence
1. List all the subjects you are taught in of gravity in mass wasting.
school.
(d) Entrepreneurship education
2. Discuss the relationship between
each one of them and Geography. Entrepreneurship is a discipline that deals
3. Write down the points that you with the selection of business opportunities.
discuss in your note book. These opportunities are based on the local
environment. The available resources are
4. Make a class presentation of your utilised in the production of goods. The
findings. goods are sold to make profits as well as to
satisfy people’s needs. Similarly, geography
Geography as a subject cuts across is concerned with natural resources and the
many other disciplines. There is a strong environment.
relationship between geography and other
(e) Agriculture
disciplines such as history, mathematics,
physics, chemistry, economics, medicine Agriculture deals with the cultivation of the
and entrepreneurship. Below is a brief ground for crop production and the keeping
description of the relationship between of livestock. Various geographical aspects
geography and the other subjects: such as climate, soils and topography affect
agriculture in different ways.
15

(f) Biology and ecology and distribution and life expectancy. In
Biology is the study of living things. Geography, the population size in an area
Plants, animals and their environment determines the settlement patterns in the
are also important in geography. Ecology area.
on the other hand is the study of the
relationship between living organisms and
Did you know?
• The ancient Greek scholar Eratosthenes
their environment. It is also a function of
is known as the father of geography.
geography.
• Geography is related to almost
(g) Meteorology and climatology everything that concerns our world.
Meteorology is concerned with short-term • Geography provides solutions to
weather conditions. Activities such as environmental and social problems.
fishing and agriculture are influenced by • Geography is linked to all other
the weather. Climatology on the other hand disciplines under study.
deals with long-term weather conditions. • Geography studies real places and
Climate determines the economic activities real processes.
and vegetation in a given area.
(h) Geology End of unit revision task
This discipline deals with the history and 1. (a) Define geography.
structure of the earth in relation to rocks. (b) Name the two branches of
Geography is also concerned with such geography.
characteristics as colour, hardness and the (i) _______ (ii) _______
chemical composition of rocks. 2. Give five examples of aspects studied
under physical geography.
(i) Pedology
3. Write short notes on the following:
This is the study of soils. It deals with
the nature of the soil, its formation, its Term Description
characteristics and variation. Biogeography _________
Climatology _________
(j) Economics
Geomorphology _________
This refers to the conditions and laws
4. Giving specific examples, describe
affecting production, distribution and
the major sources of geographical
consumption of resources. The exploitation
information.
of natural resources is regulated by
economics. (a) __________ (b) __________
(c) __________
(k) Demography
Essay
This is concerned with human population
5. “Studying geography is important in
and its characteristics. It looks at birth
Rwanda’s education system.” Support
rates, death rates, population sizes
this statement.
16

Topic area:
Practical geography
Sub-topic area:
Map reading and photographic
interpretation
National capital
Major city
International boundary
17

UNIT
2 Elements of a map
Key unit competence friend had told him that they would meet
under a certain tree. She gave him a list of
By the end of this unit, you must be able to
physical features to look out for on his way.
interpret the essential elements of a map
He was to cross a river and then turn right.
and draw sketch maps.
After going down a valley, he was supposed
Unit objectives to turn left and wait for his friend under a
big tree with many leaves.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
(a) If you were Gahigi, what would you
(a) define a map have done?
(b) identify the various elements of a (b) Do you think Gahigi got to his
good map destination?
(c) identify and interpret symbols and (c) Name the tool that Gahigi needed for
signs on a map him to get to his destination quickly.
(d) draw sketch maps
(e) state indicators of relief on a physical A map is a representation of the features of
map an area of the earth on a flat surface. The
(f) define a map and an aerial area could be on land or sea. A map usually
photograph shows physical features such as cities and
(g) define an atlas index. roads. This representation is usually done
on a flat surface or piece of paper.
What is a map? There are several types of maps. In this
topic, we will use topographic maps for
Case study
our study. Topographic maps are also
Read this passage and answer the called relief maps. These are maps that
questions that follow. show both natural and artificial features
of a given area. The maps are drawn to
Gahigi wanted to go to a place far away
scale. This means that they are reduced so
from his home. He had been invited by his
that large areas are represented on small
friend Uwase to go on an expedition. Early
sheets of paper.
one morning, he set out on his journey. His
18

Activity 2.1
Study the map of Rwanda below, and answer the questions that follow. Write your answers
in your notebooks.
Fig 2.1
1. (a) What is the title of the map? (c) Which element helps a map
(b) What is the main information reader to understand the
represented by the map? meaning of various symbols and
(c) Why do you think it is important signs used on a map?
for such a map to have a title? 3. Suppose Miss Tumusiime
2. (a) Name other elements of maps wishes to use the above map,
that have been shown on the map. which tool would help her to
locate Kigali City?
( b) Give the importance of the
elements you have identified on
the map.
19

Elements of a good map
Activity 2.2
In groups, study the map of Africa below and answer the questions that follow.
Natural vegetation in Africa (i) (ii)
(iii)
(iv) (v)
Fig 2.2
1. Name the elements of a good map marked:
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
(b) Explain the purpose of each element mentioned in (a) above.
2. Give the direction of tropical rain forests from Lesotho.
A good map has specific features. These represented in a map. They are therefore
features are commonly referred to as the usually placed at the margins.
elements of a map. The elements of a The following are the major elements of a
map are not part of the information that is good map.
20

Table 2.1 Elements of a good map.
Element Description
Title This shows the information that is contained in a map.
Frame This is a line that surrounds a map showing its limitation.
A key This is a tool that is used in maps. It helps a map reader to
understand the symbols, colours and signs used. A key is important
since it helps one to understand the contents of a map in detail.
A compass This shows the direction of various features that are shown on
map. The directions are usually in relation to the cardinal points
of a compass. They are North, South, West and East.
Scale This is the ratio of the size of a map to the ground area
represented on it. A scale helps cartographers to draw a large
area of the earth’s surface on a small sheet of a paper.
Activity 2.3
In groups, use the elevation map shown below to answer the questions that follow.
Physical features of Rwanda
Fig 2.3
21

1. Which physical feature is found to the Symbols and signs used on
north-western part of the map? maps
2. Name the lake that is found to the
A symbol is something that is used for or
western side of the map.
regarded as representing something else.
3. Give the direction of Birunga In map work, a key usually shows different
Mountains from the Eastern plains. symbols. It also gives their meanings.
4. Your teacher has organised a trip for
The symbols are usually in the form of short-
you to the Rusumo falls. Identify its
hand characters, pictorial presentations
direction from Kigali city.
or colours. In most cases, they show the
activities, towns and other physical features.
This is done purposely to avoid overcrowding
a map with a lot of information that would
make it look untidy.
Activity 2.4
In groups, use the map extract provided below.
1. Identify the symbols used to represent various features on the map.
78
79
80
27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Borehole Water hole Well Spring

Settlement BH WH W S
Woodland PWD Public Works Division
Scrub RC Regional Commissioner
Sch School
Scattered trees T Telephone
Mkt Market
Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Bog TC Trading Centre
Seasonal Swamp SCHQ Sub-County Headquarters
Murram road
Contours .................................... Tarmac road
River .................................... Loose surface road
Fig 2.4
22

2. Use the map key to identify the Lake
symbols used.
3. Give the meaning of each of the School
symbols and signs used on the map.
Some of the features represented on a key
Hospital
are given in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2 Symbols used in maps Antiquity
Feature Symbol used
Road
Swamps
Railway line
Airstrip (airport) Telephone lines
Religious centre Trigonometrical

station (Primary)
Village Trigonometrical
station
Town (Secondary)
Foot path
Mineral works/
mining
Brown lines
Mosque (contours)
Power The features shown in Table 2.2 are only

transmission line a few of the features that are represented
Hut on maps. It is important that you go to the
library and find out other symbols used
Bridge to represent the features that are shown
in maps. The symbols used on maps are
River usually given in the key of a map. It is
important to study the key of a map.
23

Drawing sketch maps show you how to come up with and
use different scales, for example
Activity 2.5 1:100,000.
Do the following under the guidance of 4. On the map, use symbols to represent
your teacher. features such as buildings, vegetation
and roads.
1. Collect drawing materials: pencils,
5. Include all the elements of a good
paper, a ruler and an eraser.
map on the map that you draw. This
2. Go outside your classroom and include; a title, a frame, a key, a scale
carefully observe your school and a compass.
surroundings.
A sketch map is an outline map that is
3. Draw a map showing your school drawn from observation. It does not use
surroundings. Your teacher will exact measurements. It only shows the main
features of an area.
Below is an example of a sketch map of Mt. St. Helens

Se
15
am
3k
ile
ilo
me
tre
s
Obscured
by eruption
cloud
N
Shoreline at
Spirit Lake
Mt. St. Helens
Longview
s
56 kilometre
Tree blow down
lan
d
es 1 2 3 4 5 6 kilometres
rt etr
Po m Debris flow
kilo
72
Fig 2.5 Sketch map.
24

Characteristics of sketch maps landforms such as hills, mountains,
Sketch maps have the following features lakes and rivers. Remember to also
that distinguish them from other maps. include land use such as construction,
mining and farming. Transport
• They are drawn roughly.
facilities such as roads, railway lines
• They are not drawn to the scale. and airports should also be included.
• They represent few features for the 2. Place the identified elements in
interests of the user. order according to the divisions of
• They are less detailed as compared to the landscape. These include the
topographical maps. background, middle ground and
• They are simple and hence easy to the fore ground. This is important
understand. because it ensures that each feature
• They have the elements of a good is rightly shown where it is supposed
map such as the title, key, frame and to be.
compass. 3. Draw the actual sketch map,
representing it in a simple way.
Steps involved in drawing a sketch map
4. Select a suitable title that accurately
There are five steps in the designing and
shows the purpose of the sketch map,
drawing of a sketch map.
for instance, what the map is about.
1. Identify and point out the features
to be represented. For instance,
Sketch map of a school
Fig 2.6 (a) Sketch map of a school.
25

Sketch map of a school
Fig 2.6 (b) Sketch map of a school.
Activity 2.6
1. Draw a sketch map of your A. Title, roads, key
homestead with all the features that B. Title, key, relief
are in it. C. Title, key, compass direction
2. In your sketch map apply the 3. Give other elements of a good map
elements of a good map. that are not listed in the combination
3. Use a scale of 1:24000. in Question 2.
4. Present your work for assessment by 4. State the difference between a
your teacher. topographical map and a sketch map.
5. Explain the main steps involved in
Task 2.1 drawing a sketch map.
1. Explain the meaning of a map. 6. Describe the characteristics of a
2. Which of the following combination sketch map.
comprises of elements of a good
map?
26

Indicators of relief on maps
Activity 2.7
In groups, use the map extract provided below to answer the questions that follow:
KEY
Main tarmac road Lake, swamp Bananas
Savannah or pasture Papyrus Natural forest
Fig 2.7
27

(a) Identify the vegetation type of the • Understanding an area’s relief helps
area represented. town planners to understand the
(b) Identify two natural features on the drainage of an area. Relief maps help
map. planners to locate watersheds and
(c) Describe the economic activity of the to determine where water moves.
people in the area. It also helps to predict how human
activity is likely to affect water quality
over time.
The term relief in geography refers to the • Knowing the relief of the land
nature and outlook of a landscape. Relief also helps with planning for soil
usually refers to the highest and lowest conservation. Soil conservation is
elevation points in an area. Mountains and important in agriculture. This helps
ridges are the highest elevation points, while to inform the farmers about practices
valleys are the lowest. Relief describes the like contour ploughing.
horizontal and vertical dimensions of a land
surface. This is also known as terrain. • Knowing the terrain of an area makes
the difference between a smooth
Relief features are visible on physical maps. landing and a difficult one, for
This is because these maps emphasize the aircrafts.
height of the land. This is usually shown
with differences in colour and shading. This Activity 2.8
is done for different heights.
Do this in groups with the guidance of your
The earth’s surface is made up of various
teacher.
relief features. These features have varying
altitudes, characteristics and origins that 1. Go for a field study in the area around
shape their appearance. The relief features your school.
represented on maps include the following: 2. Study the relief of the area. Observe
• mountains areas) both the artificial and natural
features.
• hills • escarpments/
rift valley 3. Study the relationship between the
• rivers
artificial and natural features.
• lakes • fault lines
4. Write down your observations in a
• plains (low land • swamps. notebook.
It is important to study relief in geography 5. Explain how human activities have
because of the following reasons. affected the environment.
• The terrain of an area is one of the 6. Explain the ways humans can use
main determinants of its suitability their surrounding in a sustainable
for human settlement. Rocky and way.
steep areas are not favourable for
human settlement. Flat plains that
have alluvial soils are suitable for
settlement.
28

Methods of presenting relief geographical features, administrative
•
on maps boundaries, state and international
borders and reserves
Activity 2.9 • lakes, rivers, streams, swamps and
Your teacher will provide you with a coastal flats
topographical map extract of Rwanda. • mountains, valleys, slopes,
1. Study the map carefully. depressions and plains
2. Using the key of the map, find out how • forested and cleared areas.
both the artificial and natural features A map key lists the features shown on the
have been presented in the map. map, and their symbols. There are many
3. Draw the signs and symbols that have ways of representing relief on topographical
been used to represent the physical maps. They include:
features. (a) use of colour (d) contours
4. Present your work to your teacher for (b) trigonometric (e) pictorials
marking. stations (f) hachures
Physical maps show the location of (c) spot heights (g) shading.
landforms like deserts, mountains and
plains. Topographical maps are detailed, Layer tinting
accurate graphic representations of features
This is the use of colour to show different
that appear on the Earth’s surface. These
relief features in relation to various heights.
features include:
The colour or shade used varies from dark
• roads, buildings, urban development, to light shades.
railways and airports.
Fig 2.8 Coloured representation of relief.
The dark shades of colour are used for areas of higher altitudes. Areas with lower altitudes
are shaded using lighter shades of colour. For example, areas with ice or snow are shown
in white. Dark brown represents mountains, light green shows low lying areas and light
29

brown colour represents hilly areas. Depths blue from light to dark. This means that as
of oceans and seas are shown in shades of the height increases, the shade deepens and
becomes darker.
Activity 2.10
Do this in groups.
1. Study the map of Figure 2.9.
Fig 2.9
2 Identify the relief features shown.
3. Describe the height of the features presented on the map.
4 Present your findings to the rest of the class.
Trigonometric stations using a triangle. In some instances, the

actual heights of specific spots where the
These are fixed surveying stations that
triangles are placed are given beside the
are used for land surveys. A trigonometric
triangle. The stations are important in the
station is also known as a trig point. Many
construction of modern infrastructure
trigonometric stations are located on the
such as land boundaries, roads, railways
top of hills. This is done so that they can
and bridges. Table 2.3 shows the types of
easily be spotted from many directions.
symbols for trigonometric stations.
Trigonometric stations are shown on maps
Table 2.3 Symbols showing trigonometric stations.
Type of trigonometrical station The sign or symbol used on the map
Pillar Ground station
Primary trigonometrical station
Secondary trigonometrical station
Boundary pillar
30

Activity 2.11
Do this in groups.
Study the map of Figure 2.10.
KEY
Fig 2.10
1. Using the map extract provided, state the highest points in metres.
2. Describe the terrain of the area represented on the map.
3. Draw a sketch map of the landscape around your school. Use colour to show the
important features.
31

Spot heights
These are dots used to represent specific areas on a topographical map. They show the
actual heights of given areas. For example, • 2015 • 2001 • 560 • 675.
1030
labelspot height.
530
310
570
530
430 671
Fig 2.11 Spot heights on an extract of a topographical map.

Activity 2. 12
Do this in groups of three.
1. Identify the spot heights indicated on the map of Figure 2.12.
1030
labelspot height.
530
310
570
530
430 671
Fig 2.12
2. Describe what they represent.
32

Contours intervals. The contour lines never cross
each other. The lines are usually brown in
Contours are lines drawn on maps joining
colour. In steep areas, the lines are very
areas with the same height above sea level.
close to each other. In areas with gentle
They show both the height and steepness
gradients, the lines are far apart. Contours
of a place. Height is usually represented
are mostly used in representing relief on
in metres or feet. The contour lines are
topographical maps.
usually drawn at intervals called contour
overhanging cliff
0
540
gentle slope (widely

5200 spaced contours)
closed depression
hill contours upstream
steep slope
5400
repeat contours
(ridge top)
5000
5200
Fig 2.13 Contour lines used on a map.
33

Characteristics of contour lines used on maps
• They have the height number written on them.
• They are drawn based on a specific and uniform interval.
Activity 2. 13
In pairs, do the following with the guidance of your teacher.
1. Study the picture below.
Fig 2.14
2. Which side of the hill is shown in Figure 2.14?
3. Sketch contour lines representing this side of the hill.
4. Give reasons for your choice of sketch.
Interpretation of contours on a • spurs

topographical map • low lands
Contours are used on maps to represent • river valleys.
various landforms. Some of the landforms
include: Conical hills
• conical hills These are types of hills that have round
tops with slopes that are similar in gradient
• flat-topped hills
and appearance. The contours representing
• ridges conical hills are of the same size. They also
• hills with depressions have uniform spacing between them. This
• craters means that the lines are evenly spread.
• slopes They usually have a circular arrangement
as shown in Figure 2.16.
• plateaus
34

Flat-topped hills
These differ from the conical hills as their
tops are generally flat. The contour lines
representing flat-topped hills are wide apart
at the top, but start getting close together
Fig 2.15 A conical hill . towards the lower parts of the hills.
230
210
180
170
150 Fig 2.18 Flat topped hill.
Fig 2.16 Contour lines representing a conical

hill.
The top part of the hill is represented by 230
290
contour lines which are close together. As 260
you move away from the top, the space 230
200
between the lines are widely spaced on the
slopes of the hill. This is due to the gentle Fig 2.19 Contours representing a flat topped
gradient of the slopes. hill.
If a hill has the same gradient in all its slopes, Hills with depressions
it is represented by the contour lines shown
in Figure 2.17. These are hills which have depressions at
their tops. They are represented by contours
that are ring shaped. The depression is
represented by pictorial symbols.
Fig 2.20 A hill with a depression on its top.

Fig 2.17 Contour lines representing a conical
hill with an even gradient.
35

A depression
with a lake
A hill with a
depression
1000
0
102
2600
1040
2580 1060
2560
Fig 2.23 Contours representing a depression

Fig 2.21 Contours representing a hill with a crater
depression.
Ridges
Depression craters A ridge is an elongated or stretched out hill,
or a range of hills that are close together.
Activity 2.14
The contour lines representing ridges are
Work in groups of three. Use geographical elongated or sometimes oval shaped. In
documents and other resources. some instances, the hills that make up a
ridge are separated from each other by gaps
1. Find out information about
called saddles which are broad gaps or cols
(a) depression craters which are narrow gaps.
(b) ridges
(c) escarpments.
2. Write short notes about each feature.
3. Present your findings in a class
discussion.
Depression craters are hills or mountains
that have deep depressions usually
containing water. An example is Mt. Bisoke
in Rwanda. Such hills or mountains are
represented on a topographical map with
ring-shaped contour lines. Fig 2. 24 A ridge.
Saddle Col
Fig 2.25 Contours showing a ridge with cols

Fig 2.22 The crater lake on Mt. Bisoke and saddles.
36

Escarpments
These are physical features that have two
distinctively different slopes. One side is
steeper than the other. The steep side is
called a scarp slope while the gentle side
is known as the dip slope. The contour lines
representing the dip slope are far apart
from each other while those representing
the scarp slope tend to be close together. Fig 2.27 A slope.
Types of slopes and how they are
represented on topographical maps
Activity 2.16
1. Your teacher will take you for a field
visit to an area near your school.
2. Carefully study the hilly areas and
the slopes and draw them in your
exercise book.
3. Describe the difference in the
gradients of the slopes you have
drawn.
Fig 2.26 An escarpment and contour lines
representing it.
Concave slope
Activity 2.15
The contours that represent this slope are
Your teacher will take you to a hill near your close together towards the top. They are
school. Do this in groups. wide apart towards the base of the slope.
1. Observe and describe the nature of This is because the land is steep at the top
the hill. and gently slopes towards the base.
2. Identify the scarp slope and the dip
slope.
Slopes
A slope refers to the surface of the earth
whereby one end is at a higher level than
the other.
Fig 2.28 (a) A concave slope.
37

concave
Convex slopes
This is a slope that is gentle towards the top
and steep towards the base. The contours
are widely spaced at the top. Towards the
base where the land is steep, they are
closely spaced.
260
240
220
320
280
300
down
Fig 2.28 (b) Contours representing a concave

slope.
Fig 2.29 (a) A convex slope.
Down
Co
nv
ex
Fig 2.29 (b) Contours representing a convex slope.
38

Steep slopes 2. Explain the gradient or nature of the
slope.
Activity 2.17 3. Suppose you lived in such an area, how
Do this is in groups of three. would you use the land sustainably?
Use Figure 2.30 below to answer the
questions that follow. A steep slope is represented on a topographical
map by contours that are very close together.
This is due to the uniform steepness of the
slopes or land.
Fig 2.30
1. Describe the nature of the landscape
shown. Fig 2.31 (a) A steep slope.
ste
ep
ste
ep
con slop
tou e
rs
Fig 2.31 (b) Contours representing a steep slope.
Gentle slopes uniformly spaced. This is because the slope

is uniformly gentle.
A gentle slope is represented on a
topographical map by contours that are
39

Fig 2.32 (a) A gentle slope.
Gentle
down
220
260
280
240
300
320
Fig 2.32 (b) Contours representing a gentle slope.
Flat land or plains

This is represented on a topographical
map by contours that are uniformly widely
spaced. Such areas are associated with other
features such as swamps.
Fig 2.33 (a) A flat land.

40

500
400
300
200
100
Fig 2.33 (b) Contour lines on a relatively flat land.
Even slope
This is a slope where the land has an almost similar gradient. When being represented on
a topographical map, contour lines with same distance between the lines are drawn. The
contour lines are equally spaced.
Fig 2.34 (a) An even slope.
Fig 2.34 (b) Contours showing an even slope.
41

Activity 2.18
Work in groups.
Do the following.
1. Describe the nature of the land shown by the contour lines.
2. Identify some of the landforms on the map represented by the contour lines.
42

Borehole Water hole Well Spring
Settlement BH WH W S
Woodland PWD Public Works Division
Scrub RC Regional Commissioner
Sch School
Scattered trees T Telephone
Mkt Market
Papyrus swamp, marsh, bog TC Trading Centre
Seasonal swamp SCHQ Sub-County Headquarters
Murram road
Contours .................................... Tarmac road
River .................................... Loose surface road
Fig 2.35
There are other indicators of relief used on of areas represented as is the case with
maps. They include the following. contour lines.
Hachures
Hachuring is one of the commonly
used methods of representing relief on
topographical maps. This method is used to
show the altitude of a given area. It is used
more in places with steep gradients. They are
represented using short parallel lines.
The steepness or gentleness of a slope is
shown using lines with varying lengths and
thicknesses. It is very important to note that Fig 2.36 Hachures.
hachures do not reveal the actual heights
Table 2.4: Interpretation of hachure lines.
Nature of the lines Interpretation

Lines drawn very close to one another in a Represent a very steep slope or gradient
compacted way. such as a cone volcano.
43

Lines drawn widely apart and less Represent a very gentle gradient or a
compacted or not congested (thin in gently sloping area.
nature).
Pictorial method
This method uses symbols based on the appearance of the features. It shows how features
appear from above. For example, mountains are raised while valleys are sunken. When showing
height, very short thick lines which have thick heads and tails are used. The sharp point of
the symbol points towards the lowland part of a feature while the thick head points to the
high altitude.
Hill shading
This method of representing relief is about careful use of light and shadow. It is imagined
that light over a given area brings variations in shading. The intensity of light keeps on
reducing depending on the nature and angle of the slope and the gradient.
The darker expressions are used to represent the steep slopes. Bright expressions are
used to represent hill tops, areas with gentle gradients such as valley bottoms and plain
or flat lands.
Fig 2.37 Hill shading.
44

Activity 2.19
Do this in groups. Study the map extract provided below, and answer the questions that follow.
KEY
Fig 2.38
45

1. Give the grid reference of Lac Nyakuzi.
2. Mention the relief indicators that have been used to represent relief features on
the map.
Activity 2.20
Do the following in groups, with the help of your teacher.
1. Draw a sketch map showing the landscape of the area around your school.
2. Using different colours, shade the map illustrating variations in light. Ensure that
you bring out the gradient expressions.
3. Present your drawings to the rest of the class for discussion.
Maps and aerial photographs

Activity 2. 21
1. Study Figures 2.39 and 2.40. Give a name to each one of them
Fig 2.39
46

N
W E
0 60 km
15 30 45
Fig 2.40
2. Describe the features of each one of them.
As earlier explained, a map is a representation on a flat surface of a whole or part of an

area. Maps represent parts of the earth’s surface drawn to scale. Figure 2.41 shows a
map of Rwanda.
Nyagatare
Burera
Musanze
Gatsibo
Nyabihu
Rubavu Gakenke Gicumbi
Rulindo
Ngororero
kayonza
Rutsiro Gasabo
Nyarugenge
Kivu Lake Muhanga Kicukiro Rwamagana
Kamonyi
Idjwi Island
Karongi
Ruhango Bugesera Ngoma
Kirehe
Nyanza
Nyamasheke
Nyamagabe
Huye
Rusizi
Gisagara N
Nyaruguru W
S
E
0 60 km
15 30 45
Fig 2.41 A map showing the districts of Rwanda.

47

A photograph is a picture created using a 2. Identify maps and photographs. Do
camera and stored digitally. Photographs this by separating them accordingly.
are usually in the form of a print or a slide. A 3. Give reasons why you have classified
photograph could be a picture of a person, them the way you have.
a scene or a physical feature on earth or 4 Present your work to the rest of the
space. class members.
The sizes of photographs vary. There is
no relationship between the size of a Differences between maps
photograph and the size of the object and aerial photographs
represented.
Aerial photographs and maps are used by
An aerial photograph is a picture of the geographers. Cartographers sometimes
earth’s surface taken from above. The use aerial photographs when designing and
picture is usually taken from an aircraft. preparing maps.
Aerial photographs are often used as data
Activity 2.23
for geographers. They are also used for
locating geographic features as well as for Under the guidance of your teacher, do the
interpreting environmental conditions. following.
1. Draw a sketch map of your school.
Include all the elements of a good
map in your drawing.
2. Your teacher will help you take
ground photographs of your school
using a camera.
3. Compare the photographs you have
taken with the aerial photographs
that you had studied before.
4. Note the differences that you can
observe between the two types of
photographs. Write them in your
exercise books.
Fig 2.40 An aerial photograph of Mt. Bisoke in
5. Note down the differences between
Rwanda the aerial photographs and the map
that you have drawn.
Activity 2.22
6. Present your findings in class.
Your teacher will provide you with copies of
maps and a variety of aerial photographs.
1. Study the documents carefully.
48

The table below shows the difference between maps and aerial photographs.
Table 2.4 Differences between maps and aerial photographs.

Maps Aerial photographs
A map is a representation of a part of An aerial photograph is a picture taken from a
the earth’s surface. raised platform representing a small part of the
earth’s surface.
They are drawn to scale. Not taken to scale.
A map can represent a relatively large An aerial photograph only covers a small area
area. or object.
The features used on a map are The features are clearly seen without the use
interpreted by use of symbols. of symbols. They appear as they are in their
natural form.
A map is sometimes difficult to An aerial photograph is easy to interpret.
interpret.
A map only shows specific information An aerial photograph shows all features that are
that is needed. It is thus prepared near a place, whether they are useful or not.
selectively.
A map is difficult to come up with. It It is relatively easier to take a photograph. It
requires a wide range of skills such as only requires one to have a camera and to know
cartographic techniques. how to use it.
A map has a key that helps readers to An aerial photograph has no key. To understand
interpret and understand it. it, one only has to keenly look at it.
A map has no skyline. It does not An aerial photograph has a skyline especially the
show the horizon which can be used high oblique aerial photographs. This makes it
to determine the relief of an area. It easy to determine the relief and climate of the
instead uses contours to represent area represented.
relief.
A map has a compass that shows the An aerial photograph does not have a compass
direction of various parts on it. This to aid in determining the direction of the
is done in relation to the actual areas features in it.
being represented.
49

Atlas index
Activity 2.24
Work in groups. Your teacher will give you atlases.
1. Read the contents on the last page of the atlas.
2. Write down your observations in your exercise book.
3. Using the Internet and your textbook, find out the meaning of an atlas index.
4. Identify its main characteristics.
5. Write down the findings in your exercise books for class presentation.
An atlas is a collection of maps of the Earth Atlases usually present geographical

or regions of the Earth. However, there features, political boundaries, geopolitical,
are atlases of other planets too. An atlas social, religious and economic statistics.
is usually a bound book with a collection They also have information about maps and
of maps. However, there are atlases in places in them.
multimedia formats. An atlas index is a detailed alphabetical
listing of names, places and topics. In some
cases, an atlas index follows numerical
listing. The list is accompanied by the
numbers of the pages on which they are
mentioned or discussed. The atlas index is
usually found at the end of the atlas.
Activity 2.25
1. Your teacher will provide you with
an atlas. Find the index page and
comment on the following.
• Content of the index.
• The position of the index.
• The arrangement of content of
the index.
Fig 2.43 An atlas book.
50

168 Index
Latitude Longitude
A Auckland .... 7, 13, 97
Australia ....7, 13, 88-
Abidjan ..................................... 4, 7, 13, 60-1, 65, 69, 71, 74 5°N 4°W
.........................
Acapulco ........................................................ 108-13, 115-16 16°N 99°W
South Australia ....
Addis Ababa ...........4, 7, 44-58, 60-1, 69, 71, 74, 89, 138 9°N 38°E
Adelaide .................................................................. 13, 99-105 34°S 138°E Average Life Expectan
Afghanistan ...................................... 13, 87, 89-90, 92, 139 33°N 66°E
Africa ..... 3-4, 14, 17, 19, 24, 34-5, 38, 41, 44, 47-8, 54,
...................... 56, 58-75, 138, 147-8, 151-2, 155-8 7°N 21°E B
Central Africa ............................................ 32, 59, 65, 75 Baffin Bay ....................
East Africa ...........20, 38, 42, 48, 50, 52-4, 56-7, 64, 75 Baffin Sea ....................
Northern Africa ........................51, 65, 67, 72, 75, 145 Baghdad ......................
South Africa ............4, 13, 58-9, 61, 65, 67-9, 71, 73, Baha'i ........................
......................................................................... 138, 158 Bahamas .....................
Western Africa .................................................... 64-7, 75 Bahia Blanca ..............
Agriculture .... 3-4, 27, 40-1, 43, 48, 50, 52-3, 66, 69, 83, Balkan Peninsula ......
.........................................104, 113, 115, 125, 150-1 Baltic Sea ........... 7, 13
Agro-Forestry ........................................................................ 27 Bamako .......................
Airports ...................................5, 20, 32, 35, 53-5, 115, 129 Bananas .......................
Alaska .................... 7, 12, 107, 109, 131-2, 136, 140, 144 64°N 150°W Bangkok .............. 7, 1
Algiers Tunis ........................................ 4, 7, 60-1, 69, 71, 74 36°N 3°E Bangladesh ................
Alice Springs ........................................................ 99-105, 139 Bangui .........................
Altitude ...............................................................10-11, 46, 48 Banjul .........................
Amazon ..........................................................12, 118-20, 122 3°S 60°W Barcelona ....................
America ..............................................115-18, 126, 147, 151 40°N 100°W Bauxite .........................
Amsterdam ............................................................ 78-85, 138 52°N 4°E Bay Labrador .............
Anchorage .................................... 12, 108-13, 115-17, 138 61°N 149°W Bay Of Bengal ...... 7, 1
Andes Mountains .. 7, 118-9, 122-3, 136, 140, 144, 150 32°S 70°W .........................
Andorra ....................................................... 4, 61, 74, 79, 159 42°N 1°E Bay Of Biscay ................
Angles .................................................................................7, 12 .........................
Angola ......................................... 4, 13, 48-50, 55, 58-9, 61, Beaches .......................
............................................65, 67-9, 71, 73, 75, 156 8°S 13°E Beaufort Sea .................
Animals .... 10, 14, 28, 54, 83, 102, 113, 125, 133, 144-5 .........................
Antananarivo ........................ 4, 7, 60-1, 65, 69, 71, 75, 89 18°S 47°E Beijing .........................
Antarctica ......................100-1, 122, 130-1, 133, 145, 152 Belém .........................
Antarctic Circle ......5, 7, 122, 131, 136-41, 144-7, 150-5 90°S 0°E Belgium .......................
Aquaculture ..................................................................67, 151 Belgrade ......................
Arabian Sea Fig .......4,2.44
7, 13,Sample
62, 64-9,of an open
88-95, 137, 139, atlas
141,index. Benin .........................
...................................................... 145, 147, 151, 153 18°N 66°E Berbera ........................
Arafura Sea .................................................................... 98-105 9°S 135°E Bergen .........................
Archipelago ......................................................118, 141, 145 Bering Sea ..................
51
Arctic Bay ....................................................................... 108-12 73°N 85°W Bering Strait ...............
Arctic Circle .................................5, 7, 78-85, 88-95, 108-17, Berlin .........................
.................................... 131-2, 136-41, 144-7, 150-5 66°N 0°W .........................
Arctic Ocean ......7, 12-13, 88-9, 108-9, 130, 132, 136-8, Biotechnology ..........
Geograpgy 1.indb 51 ............................ 139-41, 144, 146, 148-52, 154-5 90°N 0°W Bique .........................
7/11/16 3:19 PM
Elements of an atlas index 2. (a) Name the seven different ways
The following are the elements of an atlas that can be used to represent
index. relief on topographical maps.
(b) Muhire wants to indicate the
 The atlas index shows various topics height of a specific spot of an
and names of places. area on a map. Suggest to him
 The index is at the last pages of the two methods that he can use.
atlas. 3. (a) Distinguish between a
 The index lists a summary of the trigonometric station and a spot
specific contents of the atlas. height.
 The index acts as a pointer. It directs (b) Name two types of trigonometric
the reader to specific pages where stations.
given topics can be found inside the (c) Show the symbols used for each.
atlas.
4. (a) Explain the difference between
 The index follows a systematic hachures and hill shading
alphabetical or numerical order. methods of representing relief.
(b) Give the appropriate illustration
Did you know? for each.
5. (a) Define contours.
• No one knows the exact date when
the first map was created. (b) Explain the main characteristics
of contours in map work.
• People who create maps are known
as cartographers. (c) Describe types of slopes and
explain how they are represented
• Some of the first detailed maps were
on topographical maps.
made by armies.
6. Using illustrations, explain how
• It is impossible to create a map with a
the layer tinting method can help
perfect scale.
geographers to represent relief on a
• The first aerial photographs were map.
taken by French map makers in 1858.
7. Explain five differences between a
map and an aerial photograph.
End of unit revision task 8. (a) Give the meaning of an atlas
index.
1. (a) Define the term relief.
(b) Describe the characteristics of an
(b) Name six the features that are atlas index.
represented on a topographical
map.
52

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Understanding the earth and
universe
53

UNIT
The Earth in relation
3
to the universe
Key unit competence 5. Write down your points.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to 6. Compile your points and share
analyse the impact of the earth’s position them with other members in a class
and movements in the solar system. presentation.
Activity 3.2
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Do this individually and share the findings
with other members of your class.
(a) identify different components of the
universe Study the pictures shown below.
(b) describe the earth and the solar
system
(c) state the earth’s movements and
their consequences
(d) show the relationship between
longitude and time
(e) define latitude and longitude.
Components of the Fig 3.1

universe
Activity 3.1
Do this in groups of four under the guidance
of your teacher.
1. Go outside your classroom for five
minutes.
2. Observe the sky.
3. Write down what you have observed.
4. Let each group member say what is Fig 3.2
seen in the sky at night. 1. Compare the two pictures showing
the sky at different times.
54

2. Write down the differences that you Components of the universe
can observe.
3. Explain why you think there is a Activity 3.4
difference in the sky at night and at Do this in groups of three.
day time. 1. Using the Internet and geography
4. Share your findings with the rest of textbooks, find out other heavenly
the class. bodies found in the universe.
2. Write them down in your notebooks.
Definition of the universe
The term universe refers all of space
The universe is made up of planetary bodies
including everything that exists in it. This
that move or revolve around the sun. They
includes the stars, the galaxies, the planets,
include the following.
matter and energy . It also has empty space
with particles and interstellar gas. The • Stars • Earth
universe is also known as the cosmos. • The sun • Moons
During day time, it is common to see the • Clusters • Asteroids
sun. This is one of the heavenly bodies that • Galaxies • Meteors
exist in space. However this depends on • Planets • Comets
one’s geographical location.
(a) Stars
The universe has no specific shape. It is
Stars are luminous heavenly bodies that
endless space. Scientists have not fully
give out light. In most cases, stars have very
explored the universe due to its vast and
high temperatures. There are many stars in
seemingly unending nature. They are still
the universe. Each star is associated with
making discoveries in order to understand
planets and moons.
the universe better.
Activity 3.3
Do this in groups of five.
1. Use the Internet, geography
textbooks and photographs to find
out the elements that constitute the
universe.
2. Write down notes on your findings.
3. Choose a group leader who will share Fig 3.3 Stars in the sky at night.
the findings of your group with other
class members in a class presentation. (b) The sun
The sun is one of the stars that are found
in the universe. It is the only star that
gives out its own light. Other stars in our
55

universe reflect light from it. It is located in
the middle of the solar system. The sun is
near the earth’s atmosphere. All the known
planets and other heavenly bodies revolve
around it.
The planets and heavenly bodies revolve
around the sun following specific paths Fig 3.5 A cluster of stars.
known as orbits. This revolution occurs (d) Galaxy
because the sun pulls them towards it. They
A galaxy is a large collection of gas, dust
also use their own gravitational force to pull
and billions of stars held together by gravity.
towards their centres and end up being in a
One galaxy can have hundreds of billions of
circular motion.
stars and be as large as 200,000 light years
across. These stars are still held together by
the force of gravity.
For example, our planet, Earth is found in
the Milky Way galaxy. It derived its name
from its milky, appearance of a dim glowing
band arching across the night sky. There are
also other galaxies in the universe.
Fig 3.4 The earth orbits the sun.

(c) Clusters
Star clusters are a group of stars that share
a common origin. They are held together by
the force of gravity. Fig 3.6 The Milky Way galaxy.
(e) Planets
These are heavenly bodies that revolve around a star following specific orbits.
Fig 3.7 Planets in the solar system.
56

The solar system consists of eight planets and Jupiter. They are too small to be called
and the sun. The eight planets are: Mercury, planets. This is because they never fully
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus developed into planets. They are sometimes
and Neptune. The Earth is the only planet referred to as planetoids or dwarf planets.
that has been known to support life. They range in size from tiny particles to
Activity 3.5 large bodies hundreds of kilometres in
diameter. It is not easy to see the smallest
Work in pairs. asteroids. Since they have little gravity, they
1. Go outside the classroom. Describe are irregular in shape. Asteroids are minor
what you can see on planet earth that members of the solar system. They form
makes it able to support life. part of the universe.
2. Write down your findings in your
notebooks.
3. Present your work in a class
discussion.
(f) Moons
The moon is another heavenly body that is
found in the universe. It is a natural satellite
of the earth. There is only one moon that
attends to our planet Earth.
Other planets also have satellites that
attend to them. It is estimated that there Fig 3.9 Asteroids in space.
are about 179 satellites that attend to all
the planets and planetoids. These satellites (h) Meteors
form part of the universe. Meteors are fragments of rock and metal
that fall to Earth from space. They are
known to fall as they break away from other
bodies such as asteroids.
They are of different sizes. Some are as
small as a fraction of a millimetre. Others
are as big as a football pitch or bigger.
The Earth’s gravitational force causes the
meteorites to accelerate to over 11.2
kilometres per second.
As they enter Earth’s thick atmosphere,
Fig 3.8 The moon as observed from the earth. they rapidly slow down due to the friction.
(g) Asteroids They then glow, flashing across the sky like
fireworks, before finally crashing to the
Asteroids are small, airless rocky bodies
ground.
revolving around the sun between Mars
57

Meteors are popularly known as shooting  The moon safeguards the Earth from
stars. When they enter the Earth’s meteoroids. Therefore, most of them
atmosphere, they appear as short-lived land onto the moon’s surface. This
long thin lines of light. This light suddenly is why there are many craters on the
disappears into vapour or ash. moon’s surface.
This happens before the meteors reach the
Earth’s surface. The bright light is formed Activity 3.6
out of friction between the meteor and the
atmospheric air. Do this in groups of three.
Meteors are minor members of the solar 1. Using space photographs, the
system. They form part of the universe. Internet and textbooks, find out what
would happen to our environment if
meteors hit the Earth’s surface.
2. Come up with appropriate measures
that humans could take to ensure
that we protect our environment
should that happen.
(i) Comets
Comets are small heavenly bodies that
revolve round the sun along very elongated
orbits. They are made up of frozen gases, ice
and lumps of rocks. Comets cross the orbits
Fig 3.10 Meteors in outer space. of other planets as they move towards
the sun.
Meteors that fail to vapourise or burn up
reach the Earth’s surface as rocks. They
are referred to as meteorites. Some hit the
Earth’s surface with a great impact forming
craters.
When meteorites reach the Earth’s surface,
they cause great damage. However, in most
case the meteors fail to enter the Earth’s
atmosphere. This is because of the following
reasons.
 Most of them burn up before they Fig 3.11 Comets in space.
reach on the Earth’s surface. This is When they get closer to the sun, the heat
due to the high speeds and powerful vapourises the frozen gases. This produces
friction. a glowing head called coma and a tail.
The tail extends for millions of kilometres.
58

This tail points away from the sun. As the 2. Look at the photographs that your
comets move away from the sun, the gases teacher provided you with and state
condense and the tail disappears. the differences between the two.
3. Write down the differences in your
Task 3.1 notebook.
1. (a) Define the term universe. 4. Present your findings in class.
(b) Outline the components of the
universe. Constellations
2. (a) Describe the phases of the moon. A constellation is a group of stars that forms
(b) Explain the meaning of a satellite. a pattern in the sky. This is as seen when
viewed from the earth.
3. (a) What is an orbit?
(b) Why should planetary bodies There are 88 constellations in our solar
revolve around the sun? system. The Southern Cross commonly
referred to as a Crux is the brightest while
5. Describe the difference between the Hydra is the biggest.
sun and other stars.
6. (a) With specific examples, define The following pictures show different
the term planet. constellations and their appearances in
the sky.
(b) Explain the characteristics of the
moon that is attendant to planet
Earth.
7. Describe the following terms as used
in geography.
(a) Asteroids (b) Planetoids
(c) Meteors (d) Meteorites
Fig 3.12 The big dipper.
(e) Comets (f) Shooting
stars
Constellations and galaxies

Activity 3.7
Work in pairs. Your teacher will provide with
two photographs.
1. Using the Internet and geography
textbooks, find out the meanings of
the following:
(a) constellations
(b) galaxies.
Fig 3.13 Orion.
59

Fig 3.17 Pegasus.
Fig 3.14 The Southern Cross.
Fig 3.18 Hydra.
Fig 3.15 Perseus.
Fig 3.19 Hercules.

Activity 3. 8
Fig 3.16 Andromeda.
Do this in groups of four.
1. Go outside the classroom.
2. Using threads and short sticks,
demonstrate the patterns of the
following constellations:
60

(a) The big dipper (b) The Andromeda galaxy – This galaxy
(b) The Southern Cross (Crux) gets its name from the area of the sky
(c) Orion in which it appears, the constellation
of Andromeda. It is the closest big
(d) Pegasus. galaxy to the Milky Way.
Galaxies
Activity 3.9
Do this in groups of three. Use the Internet,
geography textbooks and journals to do the
following.
1. Define the term galaxy.
Fig 3.21 The Andromeda galaxy.
2. Name and describe different galaxies. (c) Black Eye galaxy – It has a spectacular
3. Find out whether the Milky Way dark band of absorbing dust in front
galaxy is spiral, elliptical or irredula. of the galaxy’s bright nucleus, giving
4. Write down your findings in your rise to its nicknames of the “Black
notebook. Eye” or “Evil Eye” galaxy.
5. Share your findings in a class discussion.
As you learnt earlier, galaxies form part of
the universe. A galaxy is a big collection of
gas, dust and billions of stars held together
by gravity. One galaxy can have hundreds
of billions of stars. It can also be as large as
200,000 light years across.
(a) The Milky Way galaxy – This galaxy has
a bright central core with a high density
of stars and a flattened disk surrounding Fig 3.22 The Black Eye galaxy.
it. Its name “milky” is derived from (d) Bode’s galaxy – This is named for
its appearance as a dim glowing band Johann Elert Bode who discovered
arching across the night sky. This galaxy this galaxy in 1774.
contains our solar system.
Fig 3.20 The Milky Way galaxy.

Fig 3.23 The Bode’s galaxy.
61

(e) Cartwheel galaxy – Its visual
appearance is similar to that of a
spoked cartwheel.
Fig 3.27 The Tadpole galaxy .

(i) Whirlpool galaxy – From the
Fig 3.24 The Cartwheel galaxy. whirlpool appearance this
(f) Cigar galaxy – This galaxy appears gravitationally disturbed galaxy
similar in shape to a cigar. exhibits.
Fig 3.25 The Cigar galaxy.

(g) Comet galaxy – This galaxy is named
after its unusual appearance, looking Fig 3.28 The Whirlpool galaxy.
like a comet.
Task 3.2
1. What is a constellation?
2. Give the names of the following.
(a) The brightest constellation.
(b) The biggest constellation in our
solar system.
3. Give the names of specific examples
of constellations.
Fig 3.26 The Comet galaxy.
(h) Tadpole galaxy – The name comes 4. Define a galaxy.
from the resemblance of the galaxy 5. Name any three examples of galaxies.
to a tadpole. This shape resulted from
tidal interaction that drew out a long
tidal tail.
62

The earth and the solar system Activity 3.11
Activity 3.10 Do this in groups of three.
1. Discuss the importance of the
Do this in pairs. sunshine.
1. Go outside your classroom and 2. Explain what would happen to our
observe the sky. environment if:
2. Record what you see in your (a) the sun did not produce light
notebook.
(b) the sun gave too much heat.
3. Explain the importance of the
sun to human beings and to the The solar system
environment.
4 Share your findings in a class Activity 3.12
discussion.
Work in pairs.
When you go outside, you can see a bright
heavenly body that gives us light. The 1. What is the meaning of the solar
heavenly body is known as the sun. We system?
have already learnt that we have stars in 2. Name the components of solar
the universe. The most important star is system.
the sun. Plants, animals and human beings 3. Name the heavenly body that holds
all depend on the energy provided by the planets in the solar system.
sun. The sun is a star that is at the centre The word solar is derived from a Latin word
of the solar system. It is the only star that sol that means the sun.
gives out its own light.
Fig 3.29 The composition of the solar system.
63

The solar system is a composition of the 3. Choose some students to run as
sun, the eight planets and other heavenly they go round the circles in an
bodies. In the solar system, the planets and anticlockwise direction. They should
the heavenly bodies revolve around the sun. begin at a slow speed and increase
The eight planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, the speed gradually.
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. 4. Observe what happens. Explain why
They occur in that order from the sun. the above learners did not collide as
Jupiter is the largest planet while Mercury they ran around.
is the smallest. Other heavenly bodies are 5. What is the geographical name
smaller than the planets. They include; given to the paths that the learners
satellites, meteors, asteroids, satellites, followed?
comets and meteorites, gas and dust. The
solar system exists in the universe. It is one 6. What do you think would happen
of the components of the universe. if the learners did not have specific
paths to follow?
The sun A planet is a heavenly body which:
The sun is a star. A star has a bright sphere (a) is made up of rocky solids
of hot gas. There are millions of stars in the (b) is oval in shape
space. The sun was formed about 4 to 6
(c) is suspended in space
billion years ago. It forms the central part of
the solar system. All the bodies of the solar (d) rotates on its own axis
system revolve around the sun. (e) revolves around the sun.
The gravitational field of the sun holds The planets are grouped into two:
elements of the solar system in orbit. The (a) The inner planets: These are also
sun rotates in an anticlockwise direction on referred to as the terrestrial planets. They
its axis. It takes about 25 days to complete are made up of silicate rock mantles. Their
a rotation at the equator. It also takes about cores are composed of iron. They are the
34 to 35 days to rotate at the poles. The sun planets that are nearer the sun.
is mainly made up of hydrogen and helium
They are:
which are burning gases.
 Mercury  Earth
The planets
 Venus  Mars
Activity 3.13 (b) The outer planets: They are also called
Jovian planets. They are:
Work in groups.
 Jupiter  Uranus
1. Go outside your classroom to the
 Saturn  Neptune
playground.
Jupiter and Saturn are composed of gas
2. Draw eight different circles on the
while Uranus and Neptune are composed
ground using chalk. The circles should
of ice.
be inside each other with spaces of
about 2 metres apart.
64

The planets revolve around the sun in sun. This is the shortest time taken by a
an anticlockwise direction along paths planet to go round the sun. While revolving
known as orbits. The orbits are oval or around the sun, the planets also rotate on
elliptical in shape. Different planets take their own axes. The planets and heavenly
different lengths of time to make complete bodies are held in place by the gravity of
revolutions round the sun. This is because the sun.
of their various distances from the sun. The
period taken by a planet to make a complete Activity 3.14
revolution round the sun is known as a (a) Name the planets in the solar system.
year. The earth takes 365 ¼ days to make
(b) Which planet supports life?
a complete revolution round the sun. This
period is one year on the Earth. Mercury (c) Suggest ways that humans can make
takes 88 days to make a complete revolution planet Earth fit for human habitation.
round the sun. This is because it is near the
Table 3.1 The known planets of the solar system.

Planet Key features
Mercury • It is the smallest planet.
• It is the nearest planet to the sun.
• It completes its revolution in 88 days.
• It is moonless.
• It is about 70 million kilometres from the sun when it is at its farthest.
When it is closest to the sun , it is at 47 million kilometres away.
Venus • It is slightly smaller than planet earth.
• It is one of the brightest planets in the universe.
• It is almost similar to the earth.
• It is moonless.
• It is 108.9 million kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 225 days or 0.165 Earth years to complete its revolution
around the sun.
Earth • It is the third planet from the sun.
• It is the only planet known to support life .
• It is 146 million kilometres from the sun.
• It has one moon.
• It takes 365 days to complete a revolution around the sun.
65

Mars • It is slightly cooler than other planets.
• It has 2 moons.
• It takes 686.971 Earth days to complete a revolution around the sun.
Jupiter • It is the largest planet.

• It has 63 moons.
• It takes 12 Earth years to complete one revolution round the sun.
Saturn • It has a ring around it making it unique.
• It is 1.4 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 29.4 Earth years to complete a revolution around the sun.
Uranus • It is the 7th planet in the universe .
• It is the 8th 2.5 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 84.3 years to complete a revolution around the sun.
Neptune • It is the 8th planet from the sun.

• It is 4.5 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 164.79 Earth years to complete a revolution around the sun.
(c) Satellites planets are moonless meaning they have

no satellites while others have many moons.
Activity 3.15
In total, the solar system has 179 satellites.
Your teacher will provide you with There are two types of satellites in our
photographs of satellites. universe.
(a) Classify the satellites as natural or (a) natural satellites
artificial.
(b) artificial satellites.
(b) Write down the differences between
the two in your notebook. Natural satellites
(c) Share your findings with your These are heavenly bodies that float around
classmates in a class presentation. planets passing through specific paths called
A satellite is an object that moves around orbits. They occur naturally in the outer
a larger object. The moon is a satellite space. A good example is the moon. It is a
because it moves around Earth. Some natural satellite.
66

Activity 3.16
Use the Internet and geography textbooks:
1. Find the relationship between the
solar system and the universe.
2. State the importance of the solar
system in the universe. Write down
your findings in your notebook.
3. Share your findings with the rest of
the class.
Task 3.3
1. Explain what a planet is.
2. Distinguish between the inner planets
and outer planets.
Fig 3.30 The moon is a natural satellite.
3. List examples of terrestrial planets
Artificial satellites and explain why they are called so.
These are smaller objects in the outer
4. With the aid of a diagram, list the
space made by humans. They move around
planets of the solar system in order of
planets or moons. They are mostly used
occurrence.
for scientific research, communication,
weather monitoring and military purposes. The moon
The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
Moonlight is the illumination of the sun’s
light. The moon does not produce any light
of its own.
The moon’s diameter is approximately 3,476
kilometres. It is egg-shaped with the smaller
end pointing towards the earth. It rotates
on its axis. It also revolves round the earth
in 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes. It takes
29 days, 12 hours and 44 minutes to get to a
new moon. The moon therefore, completes
Fig 3.31 An artificial satellite in space. its rotation and revolution at about the
same time.
67

Phases of the moon
Activity 3.17
Do this in pairs.
1. From your own observation, how
would you describe the changing
appearance of the moon at different
times ? Write these down in your
notebook.
2. Share with your classmates in a class
discussion.
The moon has different phases. These
phases refer to the different shapes of the
illuminated part of the moon. These phases Fig 3.32 The new moon.
are as seen from Earth. The moon changes
Waxing crescent moon
its phase in relation to the reflected sunlight
depending on its position. Between the 1st and the 6th day after the
new moon, the moon changes. The part
The following are the main phases of the that faces the earth begins showing a
moon. silver bright crescent shape. This happens
1. Primary phases. to the moon as it moves around the earth.
• New moon This shape continues to increase in size as
days go by.
• First quarter
• Full moon
• Last quarter
2. Intermediate phases.
• Waxing crescent
• Waxing gibbous
• Waning gibbous
• Waning crescent
New moon
The new moon is completely dark on the
first day. This happens when the side of the
moon that receives sunlight faces away from
the earth. The new moon appears when the
moon is aligned with the sun and the Earth.
During this period, the sun and the moon
rise and set about the same time. The new Fig 3.33 Waxing crescent moon.
moon is usually dark.
68

The first quarter moon At this point, we view a bigger bright part
Seven days after the new moon, the moon of the moon as illustrated in Figure 3.35.
completes a quarter of its journey around Full moon
the earth. This is when we are able to see
Fourteen days after the new moon, the
the half of it that receives sunlight. This
moon completes half of its revolution
happens when the moon is at a 90° angle
around the earth. During this phase, we
to the earth and sun. This is the part that is
see a complete circle of the moon exposed
illuminated. The other half is in the shadow.
to sunlight.
Fig 3.36 The full moon.

Fig 3.34 The first quarter moon.
Waning gibbous moon
Waxing gibbous moon
This phase appears between 15 to 21 days
This is the moon that appears between after the first phase of the new moon. From
day 8 and 13. This phase appears when the earth, we see the lit disk of the moon
the part of the moon that receives sunlight decreasing or waning. This continues to
grows bigger. decrease as days go by.
Fig 3.35 The waxing gibbous moon. Fig 3.37 Waning gibbous moon.
69

Last quarter Waning crescent
This phase appears three weeks after the This phase occurs 23 to 28 days after the
new moon. From the earth, we see half new moon. In this phase, the dark part of
of the moon that is lit and half that is the moon is bigger than the lit side. From
completely dark. the earth, a bright crescent is seen. It keeps
on decreasing until the whole disk of the
moon is dark. This leads to day 0 when
another new moon occurs.
Fig 3.38 Last quarter moon.
Fig 3.39 Waning crescent moon.
Fig 3.40 A summary of the phases of the moon.

70

Activity 3. 18 (b) It is a dry globe. It has neither rain
nor water bodies. This means it has
Do this in pairs. no moisture in its environment.
1. Collect a used DVD disk and a torch. (c) Its surface is dominated with craters.
2. Hold the disk as you face your Craters are depressions or holes. They
classmate. are caused by other heavenly objects
3. Ask your classmate to hold a brightly that fall on it with great force.
lit torch pointing towards the disk. (d) Its landscape is made up of rocks and
4. Continue changing the position of the dust. When other heavenly objects
disk as you observe the light. fall onto the moon, they break the
5. Note down your observations. rocks on the surface. As they break,
6. Discuss your observations with your they are crushed into dust.
classmate. (e) It has no or low gravitation force. On
7. Compare this to the different phases most parts of the moon, there is very
of the moon. little gravity. On other parts, there
is no gravity at all. The gravitational
force of the moon causes periodic
Characteristics of the moon rising and falling of sea and ocean
waters. This causes tides.
Activity 3. 19 (f) Its atmosphere is very limited.
This means that there is little air
Do research in pairs. Use the Internet and
surrounding it.
other geographical documents.
1. Find out the unique characteristics
of the moon as a component of the
universe.
2. Write down your findings in
notebooks.
3. Share your findings in a class
presentation.
The moon has the following characteristics.

(a) It has a cold surface. Although it
gives out light, the temperatures on
its surface are so low. It does not Fig 3.41 The surface of the moon is full of
produce its own light. It reflects light craters.
from the sun that is projected onto
planet Earth.
71

Eclipse a heavenly body. This light is blocked by
another heavenly body that passes in front
Activity 3.20 of it.
Do this in groups of three. An eclipse occurs when the sun or moon
(a) Collect a torch and a football. The ball is hidden from an observer on earth. The
represents a heavenly body while the sun is larger than the earth and the moon.
torch represents the sun. This results in the formation of zones of
(b) One of you should hold the ball and shadows. The inner total shadow is called
the other one the lit torch. the umbra. The outer partial shadow is
called the penumbra.
(c) Hold the lit torch and the ball aligned
in a straight line. Types of eclipse
(d) Note down your findings.
There are two types of eclipses.
(e) One group member should stand in
front of the source of the lit torch.  The eclipse of the moon (lunar
eclipse).
(f) Observe what happens to the ball.
 The eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse).
(g) Write down your observation in your
notebook. Eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse)
(h) Answer the following questions in
This occurs when the earth comes
your group.
between the moon and the sun. The
(i) What happened to the ball when earth blocks the sun’s light from reaching
the torch was lit? the surface of the moon. The earth
(ii) What happened when an casts its shadow on the moon, making it
obstacle came in between the completely dark.
source of light and the ball?
During the eclipse, the moon may be visible
The answers to the questions in Activity 3.20 but without its bright illumination. The
explain what happens between the sun, moon remains in darkness for about two
moon and the earth. This happens when hours. This is because the earth is larger
the moon moves around the earth. than the moon. It therefore takes a longer
The word eclipse comes from the Greek period to move the path of the sunlight.
word ekleipsis which means abandonment. Lunar eclipses take place at night and only
An eclipse is the blocking off of the light of during the full moon.
72

Fig 3.42 A photograph showing what happens during the lunar eclipse.
casts its shadow on the Earth’s surface.
It obscures or hides the Earth from the
Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse)
sunlight. Only a small section of the Earth
This eclipse occurs when the moon comes experiences a total solar eclipse. It lasts for
between the earth and the sun. The moon about seven and half minutes. The solar
eclipse occurs at daytime.
Fig 3.43 (a) A drawing showing the lunar eclipse.
73

Earth
Moon
Sun
Fig 3.44 (b) An illustration of the solar eclipse.
moon
The darkest area of the moon’s

shadow, called the umbra is where Earth
The sun the moon is completely blocking the
disc of the sun
Fig 3.45 (c) A photograph of the solar eclipse.
Activity 3.21 million years ago. It was formed when

hot gaseous material broke away from
Do this in pairs. Use the encyclopaedia, the the sun. When this happened, the denser
Internet and geography textbooks. materials consolidated first. They collected
1. Carry out further research on the at the centre to form a core. The less dense
occurrence of the solar and lunar materials collected around the core to
eclipses. form the mantle and the crust. The crust
2. Compile a report of your findings. cooled at a faster rate than both the mantle
3. Share your findings in a class and the core. It therefore hardened. The
presentation. interior of the earth still maintains very high
temperatures.
The characteristics of the The earth is surrounded by a thin layer of
Earth gases that is called the atmosphere. The
The Earth is one of the eight planets in atmosphere is held into place by gravity.
the solar system. It is the third planet About 71% of the total surface of the Earth
after Mercury and Venus. It is believed is occupied by water. Only 29% is occupied
that the earth was formed about 4,600 by land.
74

Elements of the earth formation of the earth. The core consists of
an outer and an inner core.
Activity 3. 22
The mantle
Do this in pairs.
This part lies between the crust and the
1. Use the Internet and geography core. It consists of hot, dense, semi-solid
textbooks to critically study the rock. It is about 2,900 kilometres thick.
components of the earth.
2. Compare them with those of other The crust
planets in the solar system. It is the outermost layer of the earth. It is
3. Find out the components that make made of a variety of igneous, sedimentary
the earth unique. and metamorphic rocks.
The earth is made up of the following. The atmosphere
• The core This is the thin layer of gases that surrounds
• The mantle the earth. It is held onto the earth by the
• The crust force of gravity. It consists of a mixture of
gases like nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour
• The atmosphere
and carbon (IV) oxide.
• The hydrosphere
The hydrosphere
The core
This is composed of all the water on the
The core of the earth is made of dense
earth’s surface. The oceans and seas cover
material. This material collected during the
71% of the earth’s surface. This accounts
for about 97% of the total waters on earth.
Atmosphere
Crust
Upper mantle
Lower mantle
Outer core
Inner core
Fig 3.46
75

Uniqueness of the earth 3. Measure the latitudinal distances
around the pumpkin, 5 cm from each
The earth is the only planet that is known to
pole.
support life. This is because it has liquid water
on its surface. The water is in amounts that 4. Determine the middle part of the
are conducive to life evolving. The earth has pumpkin and draw a line using a
plates that move over an underlying mantle. marker. This represents the equator.
It also has an atmosphere. The atmosphere Measure its distance from the poles
shelters it from the sun’s rays. These attributes and note down your findings.
make it unique among the other planets. 5. From your findings, state the
similarities and the differences
Activity 3. 23 between the two parts of the
pumpkin.
6. Use your findings to describe the
1. Go outside the classroom.
shape of the earth.
2. Identify evidences of the factors that
support the Earth’s uniqueness.
In the past, the shape of the earth was
3. Suggest ways in which humans can
thought to be flat. Later on, scientific studies
conserve the environment to make
showed that it is almost spherical in shape.
the Earth remain habitable.
However, the shape of the earth does not
4 Use the findings of your discussion to make a perfect sphere. It is oblate spheroid
make a class presentation. or a geoid. It is flattened along the polar
The shape of the earth regions and bulges along the equator. It is
therefore not an actual sphere.
Activity 3.24 The dimensions of the Earth along the
Do this in groups of five. equator, the poles and the meridians give
a hint about the shape of the Earth.
Your teacher will provide you with whole
pumpkins. Follow the instructions given Evidence to show that the shape of the
below. After the activity, write down Earth is not a perfect sphere
the findings in your note book for class (a) The polar diameter (12,722 km) is
discussion. shorter than the equatorial diameter
1. Cut off the top and bottom parts which stands at 12,762 kilometres.
of the pumpkin. Name the top part (b) The circumference of the polar and
North Pole and the bottom part South equatorial areas differ. The circumference
Pole. at the equator is bigger than that at the
2. Use a thread and ruler to measure polar regions.
the circumference of the pumpkin. (c) There is great gravitational pull at
Record your findings. the poles than at the equator. This is
76

because areas along the equator are (d) Places on the Earth’s surface do not
far from the centre of the Earth. receive sunshine at the same time.
(d) Modern satellites show that the (e) The sun keeps changing its altitude
Southern Hemisphere is slightly larger at different times of the day. In the
than the northern hemisphere. morning and evening, the sun seems
to be at a low altitude. At noon, the
Evidence to show that the earth is not flat sun’s altitude is at a high altitude. This
Activity 3.25 is illustrated below:
Do this in pairs.
1. Describe the shape of each of the
following: Morning Noon Evening
(a) Eggs
(b) Oranges
(c) Watermelon
(d) Football The ground level
(e) A square wooden board Fig 3.47 The sun at various altitudes.
2. Write down your points for a class
discussion. (f) The Earth’s horizon is curved. This is
3. Which one of the above items evidenced by approaching ships. The
perfectly represent the shape of the smoke, funnels and mast appear on
earth? the horizon, before the rest of the
The above activity should help you prove ship is seen from the coast.
that the shape of the Earth is spherical. The (g) The polar star looks bigger at the
evidence listed below show that the Earth poles and smaller away from the
is not flat. poles.
(a) Aerial photographs taken using (h) All the planets in the solar system are
satellites from high altitudes show the spherical. The Earth being one of the
earth is round. planets has a similar shape.
(b) The shadow cast onto the moon The size of the earth
during the lunar eclipse shows the
Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar
earth is round.
system. It has a surface area of 510 million
(c) Several voyages taken around the square kilometres. It is a member of the
earth have all proven that the earth terrestrial planets and is the largest in the
is round. Movement on the earth group. It is also the densest planetary body
along a straight path in one direction in the solar system. Table 3.2 shows the
brings you to your starting point from dimensions of the earth.
the opposite direction.
77

Table 3.2 Dimensions of the earth. Rotation of the Earth on its
Measurement Kilometres axis
Equatorial 12,762 km Activity 3.27
diameter
Do this in pairs. You will require an orange
Equatorial 40,075.16 km and a sharp stick. You can also use a globe
circumference if it is available.
Polar diameter 12,722 km 1. Hold the orange in your hand.
Meridional 40,009 km 2. Pierce the sharp stick through it.
circumference Ensure that the stick goes through
Surface area 510,000,000 km2 both ends of the orange.
3. Hold the stick with the orange on
Position of the earth in the solar hand. Rotate it in a west to east
direction.
system
4. Compare this with the rotation of the
As you earlier learnt, the Earth is the third earth on its axis.
planet in the solar system. It is about
5. If you use a globe, rotate it to a west
150,000,000 million kilometres from the
to east direction. Observe what
sun. It lies between Venus and Mars. It is
happens.
the largest of the four terrestrial planets.
Activity 3.26
Definition of rotation
Rotation is the act or process of turning
Do this in pairs. around a centre or an axis. The earth is not
1. Using the Internet, encyclopaedias and static. It is always moving round its axis. The
other geography textbooks, describe earth rotates in an anticlockwise direction
other characteristics of the earth. from west to east. It rotates at a speed of
2. Write down your findings in your 1680 kilometres per hour or 28 kilometres
notebook. per minute.
3. Present your findings in a class The earth’s axis is an imaginary line believed
discussion to cut across the centre of the earth. It cuts
from the North Pole to the South Pole. The
The Earth’s movements earth’s axis is inclined at 23° perpendicular
and their consequences to its orbital plane. The axis has two ends,
namely:
There are mainly two types of the Earth
movements. (a) North Pole
(b) South Pole.
(a) Rotation of the Earth.
(b) Revolution of the Earth.
78

(d) The deflection of winds and ocean
currents.
(e) Variations in atmospheric pressure
over the earth’s surface.
(f) It influences the revolution of the
moon round the earth.
Day and night
Activity 3. 28
You will require a torch and a ball or globe.
1. One of you should hold the ball or
globe and the other one the torch.
2. The student with the lit torch should
Fig 3.48 Rotation of the earth.
focus the light to one spot . You can
The earth’s rotation takes 24 hours in which focus it to the centre of the ball or
it is able to complete 360°. This means that globe.
for every 1° , the earth takes 4 minutes. This 3. The student with the ball or globe
is calculated practically as shown below. should rotate the ball in a slow
360°=24 hours motion.
360 4. Observe what happens and write it
1° =
24 down.
15°= 1 hour 5. Present your findings in a class
Therefore, the Earth completes one degree discussion.
in 4 minutes. You will observe that the side of the ball
15°= 60 minutes facing the light is bright. The other parts
facing away from the light are dark.
60
1°= = 4 minutes
15
1°= 4 minutes.
The consequences of the earth’s

rotation
The rotation of the earth has the following
effects.
(a) Day and night.
(b) The rising and falling of ocean tides.
(c) Differences in time between
longitudes.
Fig 3.49 Day and night as a result of the
Earth’s rotation.
79

This is exactly what happens as the earth Pole. They are geographic coordinates
rotates. that specify the east–west position of a
The side of the earth that faces the sun point on the earth’s surface. Longitudes are
receives sunlight and thus experiences sometimes referred to as meridians. They
daytime. The opposite side of the Earth are measured in degrees east or west of
experiences darkness in the form of night. the Prime or Greenwich Meridian. This is
a line that is marked 0° up to 180° both to
The rising and falling ocean tides the west and east.
A tide is defined as a rhythmic rise and fall of Longitudes are expressed in degrees. They
the sea level. This is caused by gravitational cover 3600 of the globe. The difference
forces between the moon, the sun and the between longitudes is 150 which is equivalent
earth. to 1 hour.
When the earth is rotating, areas facing the The major longitudes are:
sun are pulled by the sun’s gravitational (a) Prime or Greenwich Meridian
force. However, the solid parts of the earth
(b) International Date Line.
do not positively respond to this force. The
mobile elements of the earth respond in How to determine local time using
particular the hydrosphere or water bodies. longitudes
It influences the water levels causing sea The Prime Meridian is important in
levels to rise. When these specific areas determining the local time. This is in
move away from the sun, the sea levels go reference to the usage of other longitudes.
back to normal. These are referred to as Calculation of time is in reference to
solar tides. Greenwich. Therefore, when calculating
Parts of the earth that face the moon time away from the Greenwich Meridian, it
at night are subjected to the moon’s is important to know the time at Greenwich.
gravitational force. This causes lunar tides.
Example
At times, the moon and sun are aligned at Calculate the time at Alexandria located
the same position in a linear order. At such at 30° east when the time at Greenwich is
times, strong tides called spring tides are noon.
formed.
The occurrence of tides can be observed at Solution
a shore. At high tide, the ocean water rises Step 1:
and covers most of the shore. At the low Determine the difference in degrees
tide, the water flows back into the ocean. between the two longitudes.
Time differences between longitudes The Prime Meridian and 30°.
Longitudes are imaginary lines drawn on 0° + 30°= 30° east.
a map from the North Pole to the South
80

Step 2: (b) It is 4:00 am at Greenwich; calculate
Find the time based on the difference in the time at Mogadishu which is
degrees between the two longitudes. In located at 45° east?
this case, if the earth takes 360° to make a
complete rotation in 24 hours, then: The standard time and time zones
360°= 24 hours The standard time
15° = 1 hour This is the time recorded by all the countries
found in the same geographical region. It is
15°= 60 minutes a time that is agreed by all the countries in a
1° = 4 times given region. For example, Uganda, Tanzania
and Kenya have the same time. Standard
Therefore, 30° = 30° X 4 minutes
time is important for the following reasons:
=120 minutes
(a) It helps in making schedules of
Convert the 120 minutes into hours.
transport systems.
1 hour = 60 minutes (b) It helps in creating schedules of
120 meetings.
120 minutes = = 2 hours
60 (c) It gives a country a standard time that
Step 3: it is known for internationally.
Alexandria is located east of Greenwich. This
implies that the time there is ahead of that Time zones
at Greenwich. Therefore; A time zone is a region that observes a
uniform standard time. This is important
2 hours + time at Greenwich for legal, commercial, and social purposes.
2 hours +12:000 GMT Time zones follow the boundaries of
countries and their subdivisions. This is
=14:00 hrs (24 hour clock) or 2:00 p.m
because it is convenient for areas close to
(12 hour clock)
each other to keep the same time.
The time at Alexandra is 14:00 hrs (24-hour Each time zone is 15 degrees of longitude
clock) or 2:00 p.m (12-hour clock) when it wide (with local variations). The local time is
is noon at Greenwich. one hour earlier than the zone immediately
Activity 3.29 to the east on the map. There are 24 time
zones in the world.
Do this individually.
Determine the time of various places using The International Date Line
the longitudes given. As earlier discussed, the longitudes are
(a) It is 2:00 pm at Greenwich, what is measured from 0° (Greenwich) to 180° east
the time at Kinshasa which is located or 1800 west. International Date Line refers
at 15° east? to an imaginary line of longitude on the
earth’s surface. It is located at about 180
81

degrees east (or west) of the Greenwich going to the east, one adjusts the clock by
Meridian. It marks the change from one adding 24 hours to the time. When going
calendar day to the next. At any moment, west, one adjusts the time by subtracting
there are two days on earth with the same 24 hours to the time.
time. A new day begins at midnight on the
International Date Line. If one travels across The deflection of winds and ocean
the International Date Line, the date would currents
change either forward or backward.
The earth’s rotation from west to east results
At 12:00 a.m at Greenwich on Monday, it in winds and ocean currents changing
will be 12.00 a.m on Tuesday across the direction. This change of direction is
180° east longitude. On the other hand, referred to as deflection. Ocean currents
the time at 180° west would be 12:00 a.m are streams of water flowing in a horizontal
on Sunday. In other words, time does not direction. They are usually associated with
change; what changes is the date. When seas and oceans.
Maximum deflection at pole

NP
60°N
Northern
Hemisphere Deflection to right
30°N
Equator
No deflection at equator
30°S
Southern
Hemisphere Deflection to left
60°N
SP
Maximum deflection at pole
Fig 3.50 Deflection of winds and ocean currents in the North and South Hemispheres.
Winds and ocean currents change direction Variations in atmospheric pressure

to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. over the earth’s surface
They deflect to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere. When the earth rotates, it causes the air at
the poles to move towards the equator. As
this air crosses latitudes that are becoming
82

wider, it spreads out over a larger area. It The revolution of the earth around
creates low pressure at latitudes 60° north the sun
and south.
Air moving from the equator towards the Activity 3.31
poles spreads over latitudes which are 1. Take a globe and rotate it to fully
becoming shorter. As the surface area cover 360° in a west to east direction.
reduces, the air molecules contract hence 2. Observe what happens.
having contact with each other. This builds
high pressure at latitudes 30° north and 3. Compare this to the revolution of the
south of the Equator. The earth rotates in earth round the sun.
an anticlockwise direction. It moves from Definition of revolution
west to east through 360° in 24 hours. In 1
hour, the earth covers 15°. To go through 1° Revolution refers to the motion of the
it takes 4 minutes. earth on its orbit around the sun. The earth
revolves round the sun from west to east.
The revolution of the moon round The earth takes one year or 365 ¼ days to
the earth complete its revolution round the sun. This
happens in a normal year. A leap year occurs
Activity 3.30 once after four years where the earth takes
366 days to complete one revolution. The
Do this in groups of three in the library. Use earth is inclined at an angle of 66½°.
the Internet, encyclopedias and geography
textbooks: The consequences of the earth’s
1. Find out why the position of the sun revolution
keeps changing as the day progresses. The earth’s revolution results in the
2. Relate this to the rotation of the Earth following.
on its axis.
(a) The occurrence of the four seasons.
3. Write down your findings.
(b) Varying lengths of day and night.
4. Share your findings in a class
(c) Changes in the position of the
discussion.
overhead sun.
The rotation of the Earth round the sun
leads to the revolution of the moon round
the earth. As the Earth rotates on its axis,
it produces a centrifugal force which causes
its satellite to move in a circular motion.
This leads to revolution of the moon around
the Earth.
83

Fig 3.51 Earth’s revolution round the sun.
The four seasons mostly experienced in high and mid-latitude

regions of the world. They are:
Activity 3.32
(a) Summer (c) Winter
(b) Autumn (d) Spring
(a) Analyse and discuss the climate of On 21 March, the sun is overhead at the
st
Rwanda. equator. This time is the start of the spring
(b) Note down the rainy and dry periods. season in the Northern Hemisphere. During
(c) How many climatic seasons does the same period, it is autumn season in the
Rwanda experience? Southern Hemisphere.
(d) If you lived in Europe, write down the On 21st June the sun is overhead at the
seasons you are likely to experience. tropic of cancer. This time is the start of
summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
Seasons are climatic changes that occur in During the same period, there is winter in
different zones of the earth. They occur due the Southern Hemisphere.
to temperature changes that result from On 22nd December, the sun is at the
the earth’s position as it revolves around overhead position at the tropic of Capricorn.
the sun. The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle This is summer time in the Southern
of 66½°. Hemisphere and winter in the Northern
This tilt brings about variations in the Hemisphere.
sunlight received at different latitude areas On 21st March and 23rd September the sun is
on earth. The revolution of the earth also overhead at the equator. During this period,
brings variations in the sunlight received days and nights are equal. This is called the
at different latitude areas. The seasons are equinox.
84

The summer season is characterised by Spring time comes immediately after winter.
warm to hot temperatures because of the This is when temperatures begin to warm
long durations of sunlight. up springing everything back to life. Leaves
The winter season is characterised by cool sprout on trees, grass and flowers begin
to cold temperatures because nights are to grow and hibernating animals become
longer. active.
Spring and autumn are short seasons that The summer season which follows spring is
mark the changes between winter and full of activities. Plants and animals become
summer. active. Fruits and grains mature and ripen
for harvest before autumn sets in.
The order of seasons is such that autumn
comes before winter and spring before In autumn, plants begin to shed their
summer. leaves and animals begin to hibernate in
preparation for winter.
The seasons determine the type of activities
that take place at a given time. In winter for These four seasons occur in the temperate
example, snow falls covering the ground zones. These are the regions between the
making it frozen. People engage in indoor tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic circles.
activities. Plants also remain dormant
throughout winter. However, sports such as
skiing and ice skating take place.
northern spring
earth’s orbit around the sun
southern fall
northern summer 21 March equinox northern winter
southern winter southern summer
22 December solstice
21 June solstice
southern fall
southern spring
23 September equinox
Fig 3.52 The four climatic seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
85

Table 3.2: Description of seasons
Season Description
Winter • Very low temperatures
• Severe cold
• Land mostly covered by snow in some areas
Spring • Occurs after winter
• Temperatures begin to increase leading to summer
conditions
Summer • A lot of sunshine
• High temperatures
Autumn or Fall • Occurs when summer is ending
• Temperatures start falling and decreasing towards very cold
conditions
Task 3.4 experienced during winter . This means that

in summer there are more days of sunshine
1. What is the meaning of the term
than darkness. It also means that in winter,
season?
there are more days of darkness than days
2. Name the seasons experienced in of sunshine.
Europe.
For example, in December, hours of darkness
3. On which date(s) is the sun overhead
increase in the Northern Hemisphere. At the
the equator?
same time in the Southern Hemisphere,
4. Mention the date(s) when the sun is hours of sunshine increase. As one goes
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer and beyond the Arctic circle 66° north, there are
Tropic of Capricorn. days of total darkness.
5. Explain the meaning of equinox.
Changes in the position of the
The varying lengths of days and nights
overhead sun
The earth’s revolution leads to differences
The sun’s altitude is the height of the
in the lengths of days and nights. During
sun above its nearest horizon. The sun
summer, longer hours of sunshine are
changes its altitude in relation to the earth’s
experienced. Longer hours of darkness are
revolution as seen in Figure 3.52.
86

Fig 3.53 Changes in the position of the overhead sun.
Task 3.5 Latitudes and longitudes

1. List and explain the effects of the
Activity 3.33
earth’s revolution round the sun.
2. Define the following terms: Do this in pairs.
(a) axis (b) tides. You will require a globe or a ball, thread of
3. What is the difference between different colours and a ruler.
standard time and time zone? 1. Tie a red thread round the globe or
4. Give the meaning of International ball. The thread should run vertically
Date Line. from the top to the bottom.
5. What are ocean currents? 2. Make 24 other vertical runs of
6. Differentiate between the earth’s thread of different colours round the
revolution and earth’s rotation. globe or ball. Ensure that the space
7. State and examine the effects of the between one thread and the next
earth’s revolution. is equal. Use a ruler to obtain exact
measurement. You can use sellotape
or glue to ensure that the threads
stick in place.
87

3. Get a strand of the red thread that Latitudes range from 0° at the equator to
you had used before. Determine 90° north or south at the poles. They are
the centre of the ball or globe using measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
the ruler. Tie the thread horizontally north or south of the equator. On a map,
across the ball or globe. latitudes are drawn horizontally from west
4. Use threads of a different colours to east. Lines of latitudes are referred to as
and pass them horizontally round parallels.
the globe. Ensure that the spacing
between one thread to the other is Distance between lines
equal. Use the ruler to ensure this. The distance on the earth’s surface for each
You can use sellotape or glue to degree of latitude or longitude is about 111
ensure that the threads stick in place. kilometres. This is achieved if you divide
the circumference of the earth by 360°.
5. Differentiate between the vertical and
It is important to note that this distance
the horizontal threads.
reduces as you move towards the poles.
This is the direction towards north or south
Latitude
of the equator.
A latitudes is the angular distance of a
place north or south of the earth’s equator.
Fig 3.54 A map of the Great Lakes countries showing latitudes and longitudes.
88

Longitude • Key longitude lines are the Prime
A longitudes is the angular distance of Meridian (0°) and the International
a place east or west of the Greenwich Date Line (180°).
Meridian. Longitudes are measured in • Key latitude lines include the Equator
degrees, minutes and seconds east or (0°), Tropic of Cancer (23° 26’ N),
west of the Greenwich Meridian. They Tropic of Capricorn (23° 26’ S), the
are imaginary lines drawn on a map, from Arctic Circle (66° 33’ N) and the
north to south. Lines of longitudes are also Antarctic Circle (66° 33’ S).
referred to as meridians. They help us to Activity 3.34
determine the time of a given place and
locations of different places. Use an atlas to do the following.
Latitudes and longitudes are used together 1. Distinguish between latitudes and
on a map. They help in finding the exact longitudes.
locations of places and features easily. 2. Find the location of Kigali City on a
map of Rwanda using latitudes and
In Activity 3.33 on page 88, the vertical
longitudes.
threads that you tied on the globe represent
the longitudes. The red middle thread 3. Determine the coordinates of the
represents the Greenwich Meridian which location where you were born on a
is a very important longitude. map of Rwanda.
4. Find the location of Kigali City on
The horizontal threads that you tied
a world map using latitudes and
represent the latitudes. The red thread that
longitudes.
you tied across the globe or ball represents
the equator. The equator is a very important 5. Present your work to your teacher.
latitude.
When reading the coordinates on a map, Earlier in this unit, you learnt that the
remember the following tips. rotation of the earth causes differences in
time between longitudes. You learnt how to
• Latitude is always given before
determine time using given longitudes. This
longitude (49° N 100° E). is in relation to the Greenwich Meridian.
• Latitudes are parallel, but longitudes
In this sub-topic, you will learn how to
are not. determine the longitudes of different
• Degrees west and south are
places. This is done using time in relation
sometimes referred to as negative to the Greenwich Meridian.
degrees (–12° –23° is the same as
12°S 23°W). How to determine the longitude of a place
• The latitude of a place affects its using time
climate, but its longitude does not. It is also possible to determine the longitude
of a given place using time.
89

Activity 3.35 Step 3:
Do this individually. Make reference to a The time at Greenwich is behind that of
globe, a map or an atlas. location X. This means that location X is east
of Greenwich by 135°. Therefore location X
1. Determine the longitude of Taipei in is 135° east of Greenwich.
Taiwan whose local time is 8:00 p.m
when the local time in London is Did you know?
12 noon.
• A huge part of the universe is made up
2. What is the longitude of Nairobi
of things we cannot see.
whose local time is 8:00 a.m, when it
is 5:56 a.m in Accra? • The solar system was formed
approximately 4.6 billion years ago.
3. Mr. Kamari took a flight from London
at 12 noon to Honiara Island that is • The formation of the solar system was
located at 159°E. What time did he by the collapse of a giant cloud.
arrive at Honiara? • 99.86% of the solar system’s mass is
4. It is noon at Manaus in Brazil which is found in the sun.
situated at 60°W. What would be the • A person would weigh much less on
time in Dhaka located at 90°E? the moon than on earth.
End of unit revision task

This is done in reference to the time at
Greenwich and the specific area. Study the 1. (a) What is the universe?
example shown below. (b) List the components of the
universe.
Example
2. Using examples, distinguish between
Calculate the longitude of place X whose a constellation and a galaxy.
local time is 10:00 p.m when the local time
3. Describe the composition of the solar
at Greenwich is 1:00 p.m.
system.
Step 1: 4. List four characteristics of the moon.
Find the difference in time between two 5. (a) Name two earth movements.
longitudes. (b) Discuss the consequences of the
Time at Greenwich is 1:00 p.m. rotation of the earth.
Time at location X is 10:00 p.m (c) Discuss the consequences of the
revolution of the Earth.
1:00 p. m - 10:00 p. m = 9 hours
6. Distinguish between a latitude and a
Step 2: longitude.
For every hour, the earth rotates through 7. With the use of well-labelled
15°. Therefore, in 9 hours the earth will have diagrams, describe the main types of
rotated through 15 × 9 =135° eclipses.
90

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Understanding the earth and
universe
91

UNIT
The structure of the
4
earth
Key unit competence 3. What will happen to this
neighbourhood if the trees, grass and
By the end of this unit, you must be able
vegetation were all removed?
to describe the geographical structure of
the earth. 4. Suggest ways in which the people who
live in this neighbourhood can protect
Unit objectives and conserve the environment.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Figure 4.1 shows us that the earth is
composed of solid materials. They include
(a) explain the external components of soil, rocks, vegetation and the air that
the earth surrounds us.
(b) describe the internal structure of the
earth. It is important to note that both living
and non-living things constitute the
environment. They form part of what makes
The components of the up the external structure of the earth. They
earth are the things that we can see and touch.
Activity 4.1 The structure of the earth is made up of
two components, namely the external and
Do this in pairs. Study the picture below and internal structures.
answer the questions that follow.
The external structure is made up of:
• the atmosphere
• the hydrosphere
• the lithosphere
• the biosphere.
The internal structure is made of:
• the crust
• the mantle
Fig 4.1
• the core.
1. Mention the natural features that you
can see in the picture.
2. Discuss the importance of the things
that you have listed.
92

External structure of the earth (c) Biosphere
This is the biological component of earth’s
(a) The atmosphere systems. It includes all living organisms
The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that on earth, together with the dead organic
surrounds the earth. It is held onto it by the matter that they produce. Living things are
force of gravity. It is a mixture of gases like divided into plants and animals. The plants
nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour and carbon are referred to as flora and the animals as
(IV) oxide. The earth’s atmosphere extends fauna.
out to 10,000 kilometres. The atmosphere is
important since it determines the climate. (d) Lithosphere
The atmosphere has to be protected since it This is the solid, rocky crust that covers the
influences human activities and wellbeing. entire planet. This crust is composed of
minerals. It is inorganic. It is this part that
(b) Hydrosphere supports plant life. It includes land or soils
The hydrosphere is made up of water. It is all and rocks.
the water on the surface of the earth. 71% of EARTH SPHERES
the earth’s surface is covered by water. The
oceans hold 96.5% of the earth’s water. The Lithosphere Atmosphere
solid earth the gases that
rest of the hydrosphere includes the fresh surround the
water found in the streams, rivers, lakes, earth (its air)
Earth system science
glaciers, ice sheets, underground water Hydrosphere all Biosphere all
and water vapour. Water moves from the water found on,
under, and over
life on earth
oceans and seas to the atmosphere, then the surface of

to the land and into the sea in a continuous earth Earth system science
process called the hydrological cycle. Water Interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and
hydroshpere
bodies on earth play a role in maintaining
our environment. Human activities such as Fig 4.3 A summary of the external structure of
agriculture and fishing depend on water the Earth
found on the earth’s surface. Activity 4.2
Do this in groups of three. Your teacher will
take you to two different locations in the
neighbourhood of your school. One location
has fertile soil, trees and vegetation. The
second location has rocks and bare soil.
1. Observe the external components
of the earth that can be observed in
Fig 4.2 Fishing on Lake Kivu in Rwanda. both locations.
93

2. Record your observations of the two 4. Show how plants and animals benefit
locations separately. from the hydrosphere, atmosphere
3. Present your findings on the and lithosphere.
description of the two locations to 5. Present your findings in class for
the class and discuss. discussion.
4. In a question and answer session,
answer the following. Internal structure of the earth
• State the factors that make the Activity 4.4
two locations different in their
appearance. Do this in groups of three. You will need an
• Explain what can be done to avocado fruit and a knife.
conserve the environment in the 1. Cut the avocado into two using a
second location. knife.
• Explain the importance of 2. Carefully study the parts of the cut
conserving the environment. avocado.
• Explain how plants and animals 3. (a) How many layers can you see?
benefit from the first location. (b) Name them
Task 4.1 4. Write down your findings.
5. Discuss them in a class presentation.
1. Explain why it is important to
conserve our environment. Earth’s interior is made up of three parts:
2. Describe the composition of the  the crust
external structure of the earth.
 the mantle
3. Explain how the earth’s external
 the core.
structure is important to humans.
Activity 4.3
Do this in pairs.
1. Discuss the importance of each of the
components of the earth’s external
structure.
2. Explain the importance of each
component as observed in your home
Fig 4.4 The internal structure of the earth.
area.
3. Suggest ways in which each of the (a) The crust
external components of the earth This is the outermost layer of the earth’s
can be protected. structure. It measures about 30 kilometres
at the continents and 5 kilometres under the
94

oceans. 1% of the earth’s mass is made up change in rock density between the crust
of its crust. The crust rests on the mantle. and the mantle. It is between 5 and 10
It is divided into two sections, the sial and kilometres with an average of 8 kilometres
sima. These are the continental and oceanic beneath the ocean floor. It is about 20 to 90
crusts. kilometres with an average of 32 kilometres
beneath the continents.
The sial (continental crust)
This zone makes the outermost layer of (b) The mantle
the crust. It forms the continents and is This is the layer that is found below the crust.
composed of granitic rocks. It is the largest part of the earth’s interior. It
It is dry and has a thickness of between makes up about 84% of the earth’s volume.
35 and 40 kilometres. This layer has huge The mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an
quantities of silica and aluminium minerals average thickness of 2,886 kilometres. It
hence the name sial. extends inwards to a depth of about 2,900
The density of this layer averages about kilometres. In the mantle, temperatures
2700 – 2800 kg/m3. The rocks found here range between 500 and 900 °C at the upper
are bright in colour. The sial is solid and firm. boundary with the crust to over 4,000°C at
It holds the biosphere. its boundary with the core.
It is divided into two parts, namely the
The sima (oceanic crust) upper mantle and the lower mantle.
This is the inner layer of the crust which
forms the oceanic beds. It has an average The mantle is separated from the core by a
thickness of between 7 to 10 kilometres. zone of discontinuity. This zone is referred
Sima derives its name from the component to as the Gutenberg discontinuity. It occurs
minerals silica and magnesium. Sima occurs at a depth of 2900 kilometres beneath the
beneath the sial. It is more dense than the surface.
sial with a density of about 2800 to 3300
(c) The core
kg/m3. The rocks are dark in colour.
This the innermost part of the earth’s
The upper part of the sima consists of interior. It is composed of iron and nickel.
sediments deposited by rivers and sea It extends from below the mantle to the
waves. It also has volcanic lava derived earth’s centre, a depth of about 6,400
from the eruption of volcanoes on the ocean kilometres.
beds. The lower layer is made up of basalt
It is about 7,000 kilometres in diameter and
rocks. The rocks result from the spreading
3,500 kilometres in radius. Temperatures
of lava on ocean beds. This layer is thicker
in the core are about 6,000°C. The core is
than the upper layer.
divided into two parts. They are the inner
The crust is separated from the mantle by and the outer core.
a transitional zone called the Mohorovicic
discontinuity. It is also referred to as the
Moho discontinuity. This is a zone of sharp
95

Fig 4.5 An illustration of the earth’s structure
Activity 4.5
Do this in groups of three. Using images
from the Internet: 1. (a) Name the components of the
1. Identify the parts that make up the
internal structure of the earth. (b) Describe the components of the
2. Describe their characteristics.
2. With the aid of a well-labelled
3. Draw well-labelled diagrams to aid
diagram, name different parts of the
your explanation.
earth’s structure.
Did you know? 3. Explain why the inner core of the
earth is in a solid state.
• The average density of the earth as
whole is about 5.51gms/cc. 4. Name the main minerals that form
the following.
• The total mass of the earth is about
5.9736 x 1024 kgs. (a) Sial
• The earth is mostly iron, oxygen and (b) Sima.
silicon. 5. Distinguish between the Mohorovicic
• The earth’s molten iron core creates a and the Gutenberg discontinuities.
magnetic field.
• The outer crust of the earth is broken up
into regions known as tectonic plates.
96

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Relief
97

UNIT
Forms of relief
5
Key unit competence 3. Name the physical features that you

have seen on the landscape.
determine the relationship between relief 4. Write them down in your notebook.
and human activities. 5. Present your findings in a class
discussion.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Slope, altitude and
(a) identify different forms of relief
contours
features Activity 5. 2
(b) state the relationship between relief
and human activities. Do this in groups of three. Your teacher will
take you to an area around your school.
Relief 1. Keenly observe the relief of the area.
Relief refers to the character of the land 2. Describe the nature of the relief of
surface of the earth. It comprises a wide the area.
variety of landforms. These landforms are 3. Name the types of slopes accordingly.
located between the lowest and the highest 4. Write down your findings.
elevation points on the land surface. Relief
is also known as terrain.
presentation.
A relief map shows the topography of an
area. Topography is the lay of the land, the Slope
relief of a region taken as a whole. Slope is the rise or fall of a relief feature. It
is a measure of the degree of inclination of
Activity 5.1
a feature in relation to the horizontal plane.
Do this in groups of three. The angle of elevation determines the type
of slope.
1. Go outside your classroom and
observe the landscape of the area. The following are four main types of slopes.
2. Describe the appearance of the • Convex slope
landscape. • Concave slope
98

• Steep slope (c) Steep slope
• Gentle slope This is a relief feature that has an almost
vertical slope or a relatively high gradient.
(a) Convex slope
This is a slope, or slope element, that
gets progressively steeper downhill. It
may be determined by structure. Convex
slopes may result from weathering and
transportation of debris.
Fig 5.3 A steep slope.
(d) Gentle slope

This is a relief feature that is almost flat.
Its elevation is flat when compared to the
convex, concave and steep slopes.
Fig 5.1 A convex slope.
(b) Concave slope
This is a terrain feature that is rounded
inward like the inside of a bowl. It goes
from more steep to less steep. It declines in
steepness with movement downslope. It is
also known as a waning slope.
Fig 5.4 A gentle slope.
Altitude
This is the height or elevation of a point above
a given reference point. In geography the
reference level is the sea level. Sometimes,
the ground level is used as the reference
point. Altitude is expressed in feet or
metres. Altitude is thus defined as the
Fig 5.2 A concave slope.
height above the sea level. Relief features
are found at different altitudes.
99

Contours A landscape that is nearly flat is shown by
A contour is a line connecting points of contours that are far apart. On the other
the same altitude on a topographic map. hand, contours that are close together
Contours show the type of relief on the indicate a steep slope.
earth’s surface.
Fig 5.5 Contour lines on a topographic map.
Fig 5.6 A topographic map with physical features marked by contours.

100

Activity 5. 3
Study the topographic map extract below.
Fig 5.7
1. Describe the nature of the slopes in the landscape shown by the map.
2. Which side of the landscape has the highest altitude?
3. Write down your findings and present them in a class discussion.
Forms of relief The main forms of continental relief include

the following.
Relief forms are classified into two main
categories. These are continental and (a) Mountain
marine relief features. A mountain is a large landform that rises
above the area surrounding it. It usually
Continental relief features has a peak. Mountains are formed through
These are landforms that are found on tectonic forces or volcanism. Mountains
the earth’s surface. The relief features may appear as a single landmass or in a
of continents are varied. Some of the chain called a range. Mountains erode
relief features are caused by the internal slowly through the action of rivers, weather
forces of the earth. These forces include conditions and glaciers.
tectonic plate movements, earthquakes
and vulcanicity. Other features are caused
by external agents including wind, rain,
temperatures, rivers, groundwater, ice and
human activities.
The internal forces are responsible for
the elevation of topography. The external
agents cause erosion and modification of
the earth’s relief. Fig 5.8 Mt Kilimanjaro.
101

An elevation is referred to as a mountain (e) Valley
when it is 600 metres and beyond above A valley is a sunken land or depression
sea level. surrounded by mountains or ridges. Rivers
(b) Hill may flow along the valleys.
A hill is a landform that extends above the
surrounding terrain. It is however smaller
than a mountain.
Fig 5.9 Hills of Gatare. Fig 5.12 A valley in Karongi District.

(c) Plain (f) Ridge
A plain is an extensive tract of flat land or A ridge is a linear, steep-sided upland. It
a gently undulating terrain. There are no is a relief feature that consists of a chain
prominent hills or depressions. of mountains or hills. These mountains or
hills form a continuous elevated crest for
some distance. Ridges are usually referred
to as hills or mountains depending on
their size.
Activity 5.4
Work in groups of three.
Fig 5.10 Plain at Akagera National Park.
1. Go outside your classroom.
(d) Plateau
A plateau is an elevated tract of relatively 2. Observe the landscape in the
flat land with a steep slope falling abruptly surrounding area.
to a lower land on one or either sides. A 3. Name and list the landforms that you
plateau is higher than a plain. can see.
4. Identify the characteristics of the
landforms you have identified.
5. Discuss the importance of the relief
features you have identified to the
area.
6. Discuss your findings in a class
presentation.
Fig 5.11 The Central Plateau in Rwanda.
102

Marine relief features Continental shelf
Ocean surface
These are landforms that are found on the Continental slope

oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is bordered
by a coast. A coast is a broad area of land Abyssal plain
that borders the sea. It has a variety of
landforms. They include beaches, gulfs, Sediment base
cliffs and capes. Continental
rise Ocean floor
The main relief features of the ocean bed
include the following. Fig 5.14 Continental slope.
(a) Continental shelf (c) Oceanic ridge

The continental shelf is an underwater This is a continuous submarine mountain
landmass. It extends from a continent and chain extending approximately 80,000
results in an area of relatively shallow water. kilometres through all the world’s oceans.
This area is known as a shelf sea. Most of It is formed from magma that rises from
the shelves were exposed during glacial the mantle to occupy spaces formed as
periods. The width of the continental shelf the sima rocks drift away from each other.
varies. It is wide in Japan, Canada and U.S.A An example of an oceanic ridge is the Mid-
but narrow in Africa. Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic ocean.
The continental shelf allows sunlight to
penetrate to the sea bed. This encourages
the growth of planktons. Continental
shelves are rich fishing grounds. This is due
to the availability of planktons which are
food for fish.
Continental margin
Fig 5.15 Satelite image of the Mid-Atlantic

Ridge.
(d) Oceanic trench
This is a long narrow steep-sided depression
Fig 5.13 Continental shelf. in the Earth’s oceanic crust. It is the deepest
part of the ocean floor. Examples of oceanic
(b) Continental slope
trenches are the Mariana and Atacama
This is a steep slope that extends from the trenches. They are located to the West and
edge of the continental shelf to the deep East of the Pacific Ocean respectively. The
sea plain. A continental slope is typically Mariana Trench is about 10,994 metres
about 20 kilometres wide. It consists of mud deep. It is the deepest part of the world’s
and silt, and is often cross cut by submarine oceans. The Atacama Trench is about 8,065
canyons. metres deep.
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Ascension, St. Helena, Bouvet and Gough.
All these islands rise from the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge in the Atlantic ocean.
Fig 5.16 (a) Location of the Mariana Trench on

the Pacific Ocean.
Fig 5.18 An oceanic island in the South Pacific
Task 5.1
1. (a) Define continental relief features.
(b) Name two ways by which
Fig 5.16 (b)The Mariana Trench. continental relief features are
(e) Deep sea plain (Abbysal plain) formed.
An abyssal plain is an underwater plain (c) Name three continental relief
on the deep ocean floor, usually found at features found in Rwanda.
depths between 3000 and 6000 metres. It 2. (a) What are oceanic relief features?
lies between the foot of a continental rise
(b) Name three examples of oceanic
and a mid-ocean ridge. Abyssal plains cover
relief features.
more than 50% of the earth’s surface.
Relationship between relief and human
activities
Activity 5.5
Your teacher will take you on a field visit.
1. Observe the relief features present in
the area.
2. Find out from a resource person
or the people how the features
Fig 5.17 Abbysal plain.
influence their day to day activities.
(f) Oceanic islands Ask for both the positive and negative
An island is an area of land that is completely influences.
surrounded by water. Oceanic islands are 3. Recommend activities that are
those that rise to the surface from the friendly to the forms of relief found in
floors of the ocean basins. Examples of the area.
oceanic islands include Iceland, the Azores,
104

4. Note down the points in your (b) Effects of relief on settlements
notebook. The type of relief in an area influences the
5. Discuss your findings in a class distribution of settlements.
presentations. (i) Gently sloping areas are suitable for
agriculture. This is due to the deep
The relief features in an area determine the soils hence attracting settlements.
human activities carried out in a place. The The landscape is also suitable for
main activities that are influenced by relief construction of houses.
features include transport, agriculture and (ii) Steep slopes have few settlements
settlement. because it is difficult to construct
houses on them. The soils on such
(a) Effects of relief on transport slopes are thin and discourage farming.
(i) Type of relief in an area influences (iii) Very flat areas that are covered
the establishment of transport and with marshes and swamps have no
communication networks. Roads, settlements. This is because they are
railway lines and airports are mainly unsuitable for construction of houses.
constructed on relatively level They are prone to flooding and disease-
ground. This is because level ground causing insects such as mosquitoes.
is convenient and easy to break during
construction of transport networks. (iv) As much as 80% of the world’s
population lives on plains.
(ii) Landscapes that are highly dissected
have transport routes constructed (c) Effects of relief on agriculture
along the valleys. This is because
Activity 5.6
valleys are relatively gentle and easy
to construct transport infrastructure Do this in groups of three. Your teacher
on. will provide you with a topographic map
(iii) Roads constructed on steep slopes will of Rwanda.
ascend in a zigzag manner. This is done 1. Identify the relief features on the
to reduce the gradient. map.
(iv) Wide river channels on relatively level 2. Find out the human activities that
land are suitable for navigation. take place in the areas with the relief
(v) Plains allow for the expansion of features.
infrastructure. This is because they 3. Relate the features to the human
have even surfaces. Such a surface activities that take place in the
favours the building of roads and various areas.
airports and laying of railway lines.
4. Suggest human activities that you
think are friendly to the forms of
relief identified.
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5. Write your findings in your (ix) The lava plateaus are preferred for
notebooks. agriculture since their soils are very
6. Discuss the findings in a class fertile.
presentation. (x) Plains generally have deep and fertile
7. Engage other group members in a soils. Since the plains are flat it is easy
question and answer session on their to practise irrigation. These factors
findings. have made the plains agriculturally
important. They are often called ‘food
baskets of the world’.
(i) Gently sloping or undulating landscape
encourage farming activities. This is (xi) The rich agricultural resources of
due to the presence of deep, well- alluvial plains have helped in the
drained soils. growth of agro- based industries. This
has given employment to millions of
(ii) Very steep slopes discourage farming people. It has also registered a marked
because of the thin soils. increase in the national production
(iii) Very high altitude discourages farming and per capita income. Since the
and settlement because of extremely plains are heavily populated, plenty
low temperatures. The moisture of labour is available for the intensive
in the soil is frozen and therefore cultivation. The population also
unavailable for plant growth. supplies the work force needed for
(iv) Highlands that experience lower industries.
temperatures and high rainfall have
adequate pasture. Dairy farming is (d) Effect of relief on other human activities
common in such areas. (i) Mountainous areas are usually
forested areas. The presence of
(v) The suitable climate and fertile soils
forests in such areas encourages
of the plateaus are helpful for animal
lumbering which is an important
- rearing and agriculture.
economic activity.
(vi) Pe re n n i a l r i ve rs a r i s i n g f ro m
(ii) Plateaus are useful because of the
mountains are important sources of
presence and easier way of extracting
water. They help in promoting the
minerals. They also favour generation
irrigation and provide water for many
of hydropower.
other uses.
(iii) Large resources of minerals are
(vii) The rivers from the high mountains
usually found in mountains. This
carry silt along with water to the lower
encourages mining activities.
valleys. This helps in the formation of
fertile plains for agriculture. (v) Hydroelectricity is generated from
the waters of perennial rivers in the
(viii) Plateaus have large grassland areas
mountain regions.
that are suitable for rearing sheep,
goat and cattle. They provide a variety (vi) The pleasant climate and the beautiful
of products such as wool, milk, meat scenery of the mountains have led
and hides and skin.
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to their development as centres of 3. Relate the features to the human
tourist attraction. The tourist and activities.
hotel industries get an additional 4. Write down four findings in your
encouragement in such regions. notebooks.
An example is found at the Virunga 5. Discuss them with other members of
Mountains of Rwanda. your class.
(vii) Most of the minerals in the world are
found in the plateaus. For example tin Did you know?
and wolfram are found in the central • Some of the highest mountains are at
plateau of Rwanda. the bottom of the sea.
(viii) Rivers falling down the edges of • The largest range of mountains is in
plateaus form waterfalls. These the Atlantic Ocean.
waterfalls provide ideal sites for
• The deepest parts of the sea are
generating hydroelectric power. They
found close to the margins of
are also good tourist attraction sites.
continents.
(ix) The easy means of transport on plains
• The abyssal plain is among the flattest
favour the growth of agriculture
portions of the earth’s crust.
and industries. This has results in
the expansion of cities and towns. • Plateaus also form in the ocean.
The most developed trade-centres
and ports of the world are found End of unit revision task
in the plains. They include Rome, 1. (a) Define relief.
Tokyo, Calcutta, Yangoon (Rangoon),
(b) Identify forms of relief.
Varanasi, Paris and other famous
cities are situated in the plains. 2. Name the relief features found in
Rwanda.
(x) The plains have been the centres of
many modern and ancient civilisations. 3. Differentiate between slope, altitude
The major river valley civilisations of and contours.
the world have flourished in them. 4. Discuss the importance of the relief
Hence, they are referred to as the features of Rwanda to the country.
cradles of civilisation. 5. Explain how the relief features of
Rwanda influence human activities in
Activity 5.7
the country.
Do this in groups of three. 6. Suggest four ways through which
1. Use an atlas to identify the relief Rwandans can preserve the relief
features in various parts of the world. features in the country.
2. Find out the dominant human
activities in the areas with the relief
features.
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Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Rocks, weathering and soils
108

UNIT
6
Rocks
Key unit competence solid part of the earth’s crust. A mineral is

a natural inorganic substance possessing
a definite chemical composition. Minerals
differentiate among types of rocks and their
are found below the earth’s surface. The
economic uses.
scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
The unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
Types and characteristics
of rocks
(a) define rocks
(b) state the types and characteristics of Activity 6. 2
rocks
Individually, study the photograph below
(c) outline the importance of rocks. and answer the questions that follow.
Definition of rocks
Activity 6.1
1. Go outside your classroom and
collect different types of stones.
2. Observe the stones you have
collected.
3. Describe their shape, colour and
texture. Fig 6.1
4. Write your findings in your 1. Are the rocks shown on the
notebooks. photograph similar?
5. Share your findings with other class 2. If your answer is no, identify the
members in a class discussion. differences seen in the rocks.
A rock is a naturally occurring solid made 3. Why do you think the rocks are
up of one or more minerals. Rocks form the different?
109

There are different types of rocks. Rocks Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling
are classified based on three main and solidification of magma or lava. Rocks
characteristics. in the interior of the Earth are in a molten
(a) chemical composition - mineral form. This is due to very high temperatures
composition and pressure. Magma is forced out of the
interior of the earth through cracks in the
(b) physical properties such as earth’s crust. The cracks through which
permeability, texture and the size magma passes are also referred to as
of the mineral particles fissures or vents. The magma then cools
(c) mode of formation. and solidifies into hard rock. These rocks
Based on the above characteristics, there are called igneous rocks.
are three main types of rocks. They are When magma that is on the earth’s crust
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic cools, it forms rock crystals. Magma that
rocks. cools slowly forms large crystals while
magma that cools quickly forms small
Igneous rocks crystals.
Activity 6.3 The chemical composition of igneous
rocks varies. This variation depends on the
Do this in pairs.
proportion of silica and basic oxides. There
Study the photograph below and use it to are four classes of igneous rocks based on
answer the questions that follow. their chemical composition. They are acidic,
basic, intermediate and ultrabasic igneous
rocks. Table 6.1 below shows the chemical
composition of the different classes of
igneous rocks.
Table 6.1 Chemical composition of igneous

rocks
Type of rock % silica % basic oxides
Fig 6.2 Acidic >65 35
1. Tell your freind what you can see in Intermediate 55 – 65 35 - 45
the photograph. Basic 455 – 55 45 - 65
2. Suppose you were staying in this area, Ultrabasic <45 >55
which type of rock would you see?
There are two types of igneous rocks. They
3. What happens when the hot magma
are intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
cools down?
4. Name the type of rocks found when Intrusive igneous rocks
the magma cools from within the
The word igneous comes from a Latin word
earth’s crust.
that means fire. This is related to the melting
5. Discuss your answers in class. process that forms these rocks. These are
110

also known as plutonic rocks. They form
from magma that cools and solidifies inside
the earth’s crust. The magma cools and
solidifies slowly leading to the formation
of large crystals. Landforms of intrusive
igneous rocks are sometimes seen on the
surface of the earth. This happens when Peridotite.
the overlying rocks of the earth’s crust are
removed by erosion. Examples of intrusive
igneous rocks includes diorite, granite,
gabbro, syenite and peridotite.
Diabase.
Diorite.
Porphyry.
Dolerite.
Granite. Lamprophyre.
Fig 6.3 Igneous rocks.
Rocks that cool and solidify near the surface
of the earth are known as hypabyssal rocks.
Since they form at shallow depth, the rate
of cooling is moderate. As a result, medium
sized crystals are formed. Examples of
Gabbro. hypabyssal rocks are porphyry, dolerite,
111

porphyrite, diabase, lamprophyre and
granophyre.
Extrusive igneous rocks

These rocks are also known as volcanic
rocks. They form from lava that cools and
solidifies on the earth’s surface. The lava
cools and solidifies rapidly leading to the Pumice.
formation of small crystals.
There are two types of extrusive igneous
rocks formed by lava flows and volcanic
ejecta.
(a) Extrusive igneous rocks formed by

lava flows
During volcanic eruptions, lava is ejected
onto the earth’s surface. The lava flows
for a long distance on the earth’s surface.
This happens before it cools and solidifies Tuff rock.
to form extrusive igneous rocks. Examples
of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt
and obsidian.
(b) Extrusive igneous rocks formed by

volcanic ejecta
During volcanic eruptions, solid ash and
semi-liquid materials are ejected out of the
earth’s crust. This happens with great force. Basalt.
The materials are pushed high up into the
atmosphere. They then cool and solidify as
they fall back onto the earth’s surface.
They form extrusive igneous rocks of
various sizes and shapes. Volcanic ash and
dust settle on the earth’s surface. They
are compressed and hardened over a long
period of time to form a rock called tuff.
Figure 6.4 shows examples of extrusive Obsidian.
rocks. Fig 6.4 Extrusive igneous rocks.
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Sedimentary rocks (b) organically formed sedimentary rocks
(c) chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
Activity 6.4
(a) Mechanically formed sedimentary
Do this in pairs.
rocks
Use the Internet and geographical
These rocks are formed when eroded rock
documents.
materials are transported by agents of
1. Define sedimentary rocks. erosion. They are then deposited in layers
2. Research on the formation of either on land or in the sea. The rock
sedimentary rocks. materials are derived from pre-existing rocks
3. Identify three examples of such as igneous or metamorphic rocks.
sedimentary rocks. The rock particles are consolidated and
4. Name some of the places where hardened into hard rocks by pressure from
sedimentary rocks are found. overlying layers. Examples of mechanically
5. Discuss your finding in class. formed sedimentary rocks include the
following.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the (i) Sandstone and gritstone – composed
deposition of materials on the earth’s of rock particles, mainly sand.
surface and on the beds of water bodies. (ii) Conglomerate, breccia and boulder
They are formed through the process clay – composed of rock particles
of sedimentation. Sedimentation is the larger than 2mm in diameter.
process that causes mineral and other (iii) Claystone, siltstone, shale, loess,
organic particles to settle and accumulate. mudstone – composed of very small
It also causes minerals to precipitate from rock particles.
a solution.
The sediments that form sedimentary rocks
are derived from the pre-existing rocks
through weathering and erosion. The
sediments are transported and deposited
in layers by wind, water or moving ice.
After a long period of time, the sediments
are compacted to become hard rocks. Claystone.
This is due to pressure from the overlying
sediments and other materials.
Sedimentary rocks are classified according
to their mode of formation and appearance.
The classifications are:
(a) mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks Conglomerate.
113

Breccia. Gritstone.
Fig 6.5 Mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks.
(b) Organically formed sedimentary
rocks
These rocks are formed from the remains of
organic materials. They are formed when the
remains of plants and animals accumulate
over time. They accumulate in layers on land
or in the sea. Other materials accumulate
Boulder clay. over these organic remains. The weight
of overlying materials exerts pressure on
the organic materials. Eventually, they are
consolidated and hardened to form rocks.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks
are classified based on their composition
and mode of formation. Table 6.2 below
summarises their classification.
Sandstone.
Table 6.2 Classification of organically formed sedimentary rocks.

Classification
Examples of rocks Composition
Calcareous Limestone, chalk, coral Skeletons of tiny marine creatures e.g.
reef coral polyps.
Ferruginous Iron stone Hydrated iron oxide.
Siliceous Diatomite Remains of diatoms rich in silica.
Carbonaceous Coral (lignite coal, Remains of plants.
bituminous coal, brown
coal, anthracite coal)
114

Limestone . Chalk.
Iron stone. Diatomite.
Coral base rock. Lignite coal.
Bituminous coal. Brown coal.
115

accumulate in layers. Soluble minerals such
as salts, lime and other chemicals result
from complicated chemical processes. They
are then deposited on the lakes or ocean
beds. High evaporation in areas with low
rainfall also results in accumulation of salts.
The salts accumulate on the lake beds.
Anthracite coal. The mineral salts accumulate in layers over
long periods of time. The overlaying layers
Fig 6.6 Organically formed sedimentary rocks.
exert pressure on the lower layers. The
Chemically formed sedimentary mineral particles are eventually consolidated
rocks and hardened into rocks.
These rocks are formed when minerals are Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
precipitated. They are also formed when are classified based on their mineral
solutions of salt evaporate and particles composition.
Table 6.3 Classification of chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

Classification Examples of rocks Composition
Carbonates Travertine, trona, dolomite Calcium carbonate compounds
Sulphates Gypsum Calcium sulphate
Chlorides Rock salt Sodium chloride
Silicates Flint Silica
Iron stones Limonite, hematite Iron oxides
Travertine. Trona.
Dolomite. Gypsum.
116

(c) Metamorphic rocks
Activity 6.5
Do this in pairs.
Make use of the Internet and geographical
documents.
1. Define metamorphic rocks.
2. Research on their formation.
Rock salt.
3. Get some clay and mix it with some
water. Mould a small ball out of it. Put
the clay ball in fire and observe what
happens.
4. Discuss your finding and observations
in class
These rocks are formed when pre-existing
rocks are subjected to great heat or pressure.
Sometimes the rocks are subjected to both
Flint rock. heat and pressure.
The pre-existing rocks are either igneous or
sedimentary. The process of metamorphism
leads to physical or chemical changes in the
original rocks.
Table 6.4 Types of metamorphic rocks.

Original rock Metamorphic
Classification Type of rock rock
Igneous Granite Gneiss
Limonite. Augite Hornblende
Sedimentary Shale Schist
Clay Slate
Sandstone Quartzite
Limestone Marble
Coral Graphite
Mudstone Slate
Hematite.
Fig 6.7 Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
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Gneiss.
Quartzite.
Hornblende.
Marble.
Schist.
Slate.
Fig 6.8 Metamorphic rocks.
Activity 6. 6
Work in groups of three. Use the Internet,
geography textbooks and journals for your
research.
Slate.
1. Find out the characteristics of each
of the types of rocks that you have
studied in class.
2. Note down your findings in a
notebook.
118

3. Discuss your findings within your grains have a very fine texture. Others are
groups. either medium or coarse grained.
4. Choose a leader to present your
findings in a class discussion. (c) Rock structure
This refers to the arrangement of the
5. Compare your findings with those of
minerals that form the rocks. Minerals
other groups.
have different shapes which determine
6. Write notes on the characteristics of the nature of rock formation. For example,
the different rock types. quartzite crystals are hexagonal in shape
Activity 6.7 and fluorite crystals are cube shaped.
Non-crystalline rocks like sedimentary
rocks have a compact appearance. This is
1. Your teacher will take you to a field because they are made up of dense and
near your school. solid minerals.
2. Collect rock samples that fit the Granular rocks are made up of grain-like
characteristics that you found out. minerals as seen in sandstone.
3. Take them to class.
4. Touch and feel them with your hands. (d) Mineral composition of rocks
5. Classify the rocks according to This refers to the chemical composition of
their types by observing their the minerals that form a rock. It determines
characteristics. the origin of the rock. The original materials
of volcanic rocks are identified as basic
6. Make a class presentation on your or acidic. Those with high silica content
findings. are acidic while those that contain little
7. Ask your classmates questions on silica are basic. Sedimentary rocks have a
the characteristics of rocks they have chemical composition similar to the rocks
collected. from which they are derived. The chemical
composition of a rock can be determined
Characteristics of rocks through laboratory tests.
(a) Rock colour (e) Rock hardness
The colour of rocks gives a hint about its This is the level of resistance of a rock to
mineral composition. For example, gold is being broken or scratched. Rock hardness
yellow and copper is reddish brown. The gives a clue to how a rock may have been
individual minerals that form these rocks formed. Generally, metamorphic rocks are
have the same colour as the rocks. more resistant than sedimentary rocks.
(b) Rock texture and grain size The hardness or resistance of a rock may
This refers to the size of the individual grains be tested through different ways. They
that form the rocks. Rocks with very small include scratching the rock with a fingernail,
119

another rock, a knife or hitting using a porous. Its pore spaces allow water to
hammer. collect and remain within.
(f) Rock density (i) Rock solubility

This refers to the weight of rocks. This can Some rocks such as limestone, chalk and
be determined by weighing the rock, tossing trona easily dissolve in water.
it or placing it in water. A heavy rock will
sink in water and settle at the bottom of a Task 6.1
container. A light rock of the same mass may Discuss the distinguishing characteristics of
float on water. For example, pumice rock will the following.
float on water while a granite rock will sink.
(a) Igneous rocks.
Rocks which form oceanic beds are heavier
(b) Sedimentary rocks.
than those that form the continental crust.
(c) Metamorphic rocks.
(g) Mineral luster
Lustre refers to the brightness of rocks. The The importance of rocks
brightness is determined by the way light
is reflected from the rock surface. There Case study
are two types of luster, metallic and non- Do this individually.
metallic. Minerals with a metallic luster
shine like metal. Examples of such minerals Read the passage below and answer the
include gold, silver and lead. questions that follow.
Hirwa and his younger sister Muteteli were
(h) Cleavage excited that they were closing school. They
This refers to the way a rock mineral breaks. were to begin their long vacation. On their
Some rocks have a uniform cleavage. These way home from school, they saw a road
ones break in one direction forming thin under construction. Beside the road was a
sheets. An example of this is mica. Other quarry where stones were being dug out.
rocks break into irregular shapes as is the The stones were rectangular in shape. They
case with granites. were being loaded onto trucks that were on
standby. Some rocks were being put into a
(i) Taste and odour
large machine to crush them into smaller
Rocks can either be porous or impervious. pieces.
Porous rocks have pore spaces which allow
water to pass through them. Hence such When they reached home, their father was
rocks are permeable. waiting to take them to town for shopping.
On their way, they saw a group of tourists
Impermeable rocks do not allow water taking photographs. They were standing
to pass through them. This is because around a rock that had a round top and
they have very tiny pore spaces. Clay is narrow base.
impermeable despite the fact that it is
120

After they passed the river, they saw some (b) Some rocks such as trachyte and
goats and cows licking some rocks. Their limestone are extracted to provide
father told them that the rock contained building and construction materials.
salt. Phonolite, sandstone and flint are
As they neared town, they saw some also used for building. Gabbro and
buildings that were under construction. granite can be crashed to provide
Hirwa and his sister saw a blue lorry that road chippings. Marble and gneiss
they had seen at the quarry. The lorry was are used to decorate buildings. Slate
parked next to one of the buildings that can be split into thin sheets for
was under construction. Some young men roofing. Loess can be cut into blocks
were offloading the rectangular blocks from used for building. Clay provides the
the lorry. There was another lorry that was raw materials for brick making and
full of bags of cement. Muteteli asked his pottery. Kaolin which is a type of
father where the cement was from. Their clay is used in the manufacturing of
father told them that the cement was from ceramics and porcelain.
a factory. He also told them that it was (c) Some rocks contain valuable minerals.
made by crushing limestone into powder. They are mined and exported to
They then continued with their journey to earn foreign exchange. Minerals
the city of Kigali. include gold, diamonds, copper, silver
and tin. Other rocks are sources of
(a) From the above story, give some of gemstones which are used to produce
the uses of the rocks that Hirwa and ornaments.
Muteteli saw.
(d) Some rocks are extracted and used in
(b) Apart from the uses identified in the art in the making of carvings. These
story above, state other uses of rocks. carvings are sold to earn income. An
example of such rocks is soap stones.
Rocks are of great significance to any (e) Some rocks such as coal are a source
country. of energy.
(a) Some rocks provide raw materials for (f) Some rocks such as rock salt is used
industries leading to industrialisation. as a healthy substitute of common
Coral limestone is used in the salt. This is because it is rich in
manufacture of cement. Cement minerals.
is also exported and this earns the (g) Some rocks when weathered produce
country foreign exchange. Rock chalk fertile soils which are suitable for
is used to produce chalk which is agriculture. Limestone when ground
used on chalkboards. Diatomite is a produces lime which can be added
filtering agent in food industries. to soils to improve them. Phosphates
are used as fertilisers.
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(h) Some rock formations like granitic End of unit revision task
tors and coral reefs are tourist
attraction sites. They earn foreign 1. Define a rock.
exchange. 2. (a) Give the characteristics of
(i) Some rocks store underground water. igneous rocks.
The water can be extracted and used (b) Give three examples of intrusive
for domestic, industrial or agricultural igneous rocks.
purposes. (c) Describe how extrusive igneous
rocks are formed.
Activity 6.8
3. Explain how sedimentary rocks are
Do this in groups of three. formed.
Your teacher will take you for a field visit 4. (a) Classify sedimentary rocks based
to a quarry. on their mode of formation and
composition. Give examples of
1. Observe how the rocks are extracted. rocks in each class.
2. Find out how they are used. (b) Give the characteristics of
3. Find out their importance to the sedimentary rocks.
people who use them and to the 5. (a) What are metamorphic rocks?
people who extract them.
(b) Describe three ways in which
4 Observe and point out how some of metamorphic rocks are formed.
the rocks have been used within your
(c) Give four original rocks to match
school compound.
the metamorphic rocks that
5. Write your observations and findings result after metamorphism.
in your notebooks.
6. Using specific examples, describe the
6. Once you are back to school, present importance of rocks to the economy
your findings in a class discussion. of Rwanda.
Did you know?
• The earth’s crust is made up of rock.
• Ninety-five percent of the earth’s
crust is made up of igneous rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks are extremely
important resources that give us clues
about the earth’s past.
• Metamorphic rocks are so called
because they always begin as another
type of rock.
• Rocks have been used by humans for
millions of years.
122

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Weathering and soils
123

UNIT
7 Soils
Key unit competence Soil refers to the top layer of the earth’s
surface on which plants grow. Soil consists
of rock and mineral particles mixed with
to determine the relationship between
decaying organic matter, water and air.
different types of soils and human activities.
Soil can also be described as a naturally
Unit objectives occurring thin layer of loose materials. The
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: loose materials overlie crustal rocks.
(a) define soils Soils are important for the existence of

many forms of life on earth.
(b) state factors responsible for soil
formation
Soil formation processes
(c) identify soil properties and constituents
(d) identify types of soils (a) Weathering of rocks
(e) state the importance of soils
Activity 7.2
(f) outline the effects of soils on human
activities. Work in pairs.
Study the photographs in Figure 7.1 and
Definition of soil answer the questions that follow.
Activity 7. 1
Work in groups of four.
2. Collect soils from different parts of
the school compound.
3. Observe and describe the soil
samples collected.
4. In your own words attempt to give a
definition of soil. (a)
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down. They are broken into smaller particles
through mechanical or chemical processes
hence forming soils.
(b) Leaching
This is the process by which water removes
minerals and other soluble constituents
from the soil.
The minerals are usually removed from the
upper to the lower horizons of soil. This
happens when the water percolates into
the soil.
(b)
(c) Eluviation
This is the process that involves the washing
through of solid materials from the upper
soil horizons as a result of leaching. This
process encourages the formation of
different soil horizons.
(d) Illuviation
This process follows eluviation. It involves
the accumulation of materials into the lower
layers of the soil.
(c)
Fig 7.1
1. Describe what you can see in each
picture.
2. Identify the weather conditions that
lead to the condition observed in
pictures (a) and (c).
3. Give the importance of the process
that is taking place in picture (a).
4. Why do you think there are different
colours on picture (c)?
Weathering is the process through which

the rocks of the earth’s crust are broken
Fig 7.2 The eluviation and illuviation
processes.
125

(e) Salinisation
It is a process by which water soluble salts
accumulate in the soil. This accumulation is
caused by high rates of evaporation on the
earth’s surface.
The salts in the lower horizons are carried
upwards towards the surface by capillary
action.
This process occurs in areas with high
temperatures and low rainfall such as the
deserts. Fig 7.4 Soil that has undergone podzolisation.
(g) Calcification
The dissolved calcium carbonate is then
carried downwards to horizon B where it
is deposited.
Plants transpire
This process occurs in dry climates. Calcium
carbonate is dissolved in horizon A during
the periods of rainfall or snowmelt.
Water evaporates
Salt remains
behind
Water and salt

move upward from
a high water table
Fig 7.3 Salinisation process.

Fig 7.5 Soil that has undergone calcification.
(f) Podzolisation (h) Laterisation
This process involves the decomposition This process occurs in warm humid climates.
of vegetative matter that results in the During the wet season, mineral salts
formation of humic acids. Minerals like in horizon A dissolve in rain water. The
calcium, iron, magnesium, aluminium, salts minerals that dissolve are mainly silica and
and bases and carbonates are dissolved the bases. The dissolved minerals percolate
from one horizon to another. This leads to downwards to the lower layer. Insoluble
the formation of acidic soils. This process minerals such as iron and aluminium
occurs in the cool temperatures.. accumulate in the top layer. They form a
126

is aided by the micro-organisms that are
crust of laterite. The top layer is reddish in
colour. found within the soils. The decomposed
organic matter form humus. The humus
(i) Humification mixes with the soils to form fertile layers of
When plants and animals die, their remains soil as shown in Figure 7.5.
decompose in the soil. This decomposition
Weeds
Dry leaves
Decomposed material
Half decomposed humus
Cow dung Soil poor in

organic matter
Fig 7.6 Transformation of organic matter into humus.
Task 7.1 3. Make notes on your findings.

1. Define leaching. 4. Present your findings in a class
presentation for input from other
2. Give the conditions that make it
class members.
possible for leaching to occur.
3. Using specific examples, explain the
Factors influencing soil
effects of leaching in the soil.
formation
Activity 7.3
Soils are formed through the interaction of
Do this in groups of three. five major factors. These are parent rock,
climate, topography (also referred to as
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
relief) time and living organisms.
journals.
1. Find out other soil formation (a) Parent rock
processes. This refers to the original material that
2. Discuss the processes with the help of forms the rock that weathers into soils.
well labelled diagrams. The parent rock determines the chemical
127

and physical characteristics of the soil. The (d) Time
nature of the parent rock influences the rate Different types of soils require different
of weathering. Soft rocks are weathered durations of soil formation processes to
faster thus enhancing the soil formation reach maturity. A soil formation process that
process. Hard rocks on the other hand are takes a long period of time forms mature
weathered slowly. This slows down the soil soils. A process that takes a shorter period
formation process. of time forms immature soils.
The parent rock also determines the soil
(e) Living organisms
texture. Large grained rocks are weathered
to produce coarse grained soils. Fine grained When plants and animals die, they decay to
rocks produce fine grained soils. The type of form humus. Micro-organisms in the soil aid
minerals and colour of the parent rock are in plant and animal decomposition to form
also transferred to soil during formation. humus. These organisms include bacteria,
fungi, vegetation and animals. Their major
(b) Climate influence is the effect on the chemical and
The climate of an area determines the physical environment of the soils.
way in which weathering of the rocks Roots of plants penetrate into the rocks
takes place. facilitating weathering of the parent rocks.
The main elements of weather that influence This process forms soils.
soil formation are temperature and rainfall. Human activities like ploughing and
Rainfall provides water. This water makes harrowing break up the rocks into small
it possible for decay and disintegration of particles to form soil.
rocks that form soil.
(f) Nature of vegetation
(c) Topography or relief Natural vegetation reflects the combined
The topography of an area influences the effects of relief and climate. The formation
process of soil formation in many ways. The and development of soil is very much
most important being the slope of land. influenced by the growth of vegetation.
Steep slopes encourage erosion. The areas The decayed leaf material adds much
of low relief or gentle slope experience needed humus to soil thereby increasing
deposition and have deep, well drained its fertility. The densely forested areas
soils. The degree of slope also largely contain some of the best soils. There is a
determines the fertility of soil. close relationship between the vegetation
types and soil types.
128

Figure 7.7 below shows a summary of the factors responsible for soil formation.
Human
Parent material activities
Fig 7.7 Factors that influence soil formation.
Activity 7.4 Task 7.2

Do this in groups of three. 1. Define the following terms.
Use the Internet, geography textbooks (a) Parent rock
and journals. (b) Climate
1. Find out other factors that influence (c) Topography
soil formation. (d) Living organisms
2. Analyse the factors by way of group 2. Describe how each one of the
discussion. factors in Question 1 influences soil
3. Make notes on your findings. formation.
class members.
129

Soil properties and (c) Explain the distribution of materials
constituents as the soil settled in the water.
(d) Give the reason why the water in the
Constituents of soil bottle changed its colour.
Soil is made up of the following
Activity 7.5 components.
Work in groups of five. (a) Inorganic particles
Under the guidance of your teacher, collect (b) Organic matter
the following apparatus. (c) Water (moisture)
• A shovel (d) Air (gases)
• A clear bottle or jar (a) Inorganic components
• Water These are particles that are obtained from
• Soil the parent rock through weathering. These
• Funnel particles vary in shape and size.
They include the following.
Carry out the experiment below.
(i) Rock particles such as sand, gravel,
Follow the steps below silt and clay.
1. Dig up soil from different parts of (ii) Metallic and non metallic minerals
your school compound. such as calcium, iron and potassium.
2. Carry the soil samples in paper bags Inorganic matter provides important plant
and take them to the class. nutrients, determine soil aeration, soil
3. Pour the water into the bottle until it texture and drainage. It also gives support
is half full. to the plants. Inorganic matter makes up
4. Add the soil into the bottle. 45% of the soil.
5. Stir the mixture and leave it to settle
(b) Organic matter
for 30 minutes.
Organic matter in soil consists of small
6. Observe the mixture and record your animals, bacteria, fungi, plants, animal
findings. waste and plants. Organic matter makes
Answer the questions below. up 45% of the soil.
(a) Draw a diagram showing the The breakdown of organic matter leads to
appearance of the mixture in the the formation of humus. Humus is black or
bottle. dark-brown in colour. It provides the soil
(b) As you stirred the soil in water, did with important benefits. They include the
you observe any bubbles? Explain following.
why you think the bubbles formed. (i) It enhances the soil’s ability to hold
and store water.
130

(ii) It provides essential minerals to the Task 7.3
soil.
1. Name the components of soil.
(iii) It improves the soil structure.
2. Give three ways through which
(iv) It reduces eluviation of soluble humus is important to soil.
minerals from the top soil.
3. Explain the significance of moisture in
(v) It helps in soil aeration. the soil.
(c) Soil water Activity 7.6
Soil water (or moisture) makes up 25% of
the soil. The water occupies the pore spaces Do this in groups of three.
in the soil. Use the Internet, geography textbooks
and journals.
Significance of soil water.
1. Find out more information on the
(i) It dissolves various substances for components of soil.
example salts that are derived from
2. Analyse the importance of each of
plant or animal remains forming
the components by way of discussion.
solutions.
3. Make notes on your findings.
(ii) It helps plants to absorb minerals
from the soil. 4. Present your findings in a class
(iii) It washes away highly soluble
class members.
minerals from the upper to the lower
layers (leaching).
Properties of soil
(iv) It brings soluble minerals from the
lower to the upper horizons of soil Activity 7. 7
through capillarity.
(d) Soil air Use the Internet, geography textbooks
Air or gases make up 25% of the soil. The and journals.
air occupies the pores in the soil. 1. Find out the properties of soil.
Importance of air in the soil. 2. List and discuss each property in your
(i) It facilitates plant growth by supplying group.
oxygen to the root hairs. 3. Present your findings in class.
(ii) Air supports micro-organisms which
are found in the soil. Properties of soil refer to the physical and
(iii) Air helps in the oxidation process. chemical characteristics of soil. Different
This process is responsible for types of soils have different properties.
breaking down rocks to form soils. The physical properties of soil include
texture, structure, colour, depth, density,
porosity, permeability and consistence.
131

(a) Soil texture (iii) It determines the soil’s ability to retain
Soil texture refers to the proportions of the humus from being washed away.
various soil aggregates that make up the (iv) It determines the aeration of the soil.
soil. These soil aggregates include gravel,
sand, silt and clay. The proportion of each Activity 7.8
of the aggregates is used to determine the Work in pairs.
type of soil. The soil texture is often defined
as the roughness or the smoothness of the 1. Collect samples of soil from the
soil particles. school garden or around the school.
2. Make the soils wet and rub each of
There are three classes of soil particles.
the soils between your fingers.
These are sand, silt and clay. The proportions
of the aggregates of sand, silt and clay in a 3. Tell your partner what you feel when
soil add up to 100%. Soil texture is important you rub each soil type between your
due to the following reasons. fingers.
4. Record your findings in your
(i) It determines the amount of soil
notebooks.
water available within the soil. Silt
and clay soils have a high water 5. Present your findings in class.
holding capacity. Sandy soils have a (b) Soil structure
low water holding capacity. The term soil structure refers to the physical
(ii) It determines the ease with which arrangement of the soil aggregates.
plant roots penetrate the soil.
Granular: Resembles cookie Prismatic: Vertical columns of

crumbs and is ussually less soil that might be a number of
Blocky: Irregular blocks that
than 0.5 cm in diameter. cm long. Usually found in lower
are usually 1.5 – 5.0 cm in
Commonly found in surface horizons
diameter
horizon where roots have been
growing
Columnar: Vertical column of Single grained: Soil broken

Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil into individual particles
soil that have a salt “cap” at that lie horizontally. Usually
the top. Found in soils of arid that do not stick together.
found in compacted soil Always accompanies a loose
climates
consistence. Commonly found
in sandy soils
Fig 7.8 Summary of soil structures.

132

It is the arrangement of primary soil Soil colour is influenced by the parent
particles into compound structures referred rock, organic matter , moisture content and
to as aggregates. The soil aggregates cluster minerals. Soils have a variety of colours.
together into structural units called peds. They include red, yellow, black, grey, white
Between the peds are spaces which are and brown. A soil that is black or dark brown
occupied by water and air. Therefore, has high organic matter content. Soils that
different aggregates are found in different are reddish brown are well drained whereas
soil horizons. They are also in different grey soils are infertile.
shapes. In most cases, soil structure is For example, in well aerated soils, the
commonly defined in terms of the shapes presence of oxidised iron is responsible for
of the soil aggregates. the colours seen in the soils. The colours are
Types of soil structures brown, yellow, and red.
(i) Granular - composed of rounded When the iron is removed, the soil becomes
particles. grey.
(ii) Platy - composed of thin sheets of
Activity 7.10
particles arranged in a horizontal
manner. Work in pairs.
(iii) Prismatic - composed of vertical 1. Under the guidance of your teacher,
prism-like particles. visit your school garden.
(iv) Columnar - similar to prismatic but 2. Observe the soil colour in different
the particles are rounded at the top. parts of the garden.
(v) Blocky - irregular angular particles 3. Record your findings in your
that are arranged to form a block. notebook.
Activity 7.9 4. Present the findings in class.
Work in pairs. (d) Depth

1. Under the guidance of your teacher, Activity 7.11
visit your school garden.
Work in pairs.
2. Dig holes using a hoe in different
sections of the school garden. 1. Under the guidance of your teacher,
visit your school garden.
3. Observe the soil layers in the different
sections that you have dug. 2. Using a hoe, dig holes in various areas
of the school garden.
4. Record your findings in your
notebook. 3. Observe the depth of each soil by
looking at the depth of the dark soil
rich in organic matter.
(c) Soil colour 4. Use a tape measure to measure each
This property of soil is easily identified soil depth.
through seeing. Soils have different colours.
133

5. Record the measurements in your 6. Calculate the porosity of each soil
notebooks. sample using the formula provided
6. Discuss your findings in class. below and report your findings in
class.
Soil depth indicates how thick the soil cover Soil porosity refers to the number of pore
is. Soils are either shallow or deep. Shallow spaces in the soil. The pore spaces relate
soils have the parent rock material lying to the portion of the soil space occupied
close to the surface level. by air and water. This is determined by
the arrangement of the soil particles. Soils
The parent rock material is found much vary in porosity. Soils with large pores,
deeper in deep soils. for example sand are porous while clay is
non-porous. Soil porosity is expressed as a
(e) Soil density
percentage. This percentage is of the total
The density of soil is the mass per unit volume of a sample of soil.
volume of soil particles. It is expressed in
Amount of water added to soil
grams per cubic centimetres (g/cc). Most Porosity = Total volume of soil sample × 100%
soils have a particle density of about 2.6
g/cc. The presence of organic matter (g) Soil permeability
decreases the density of soil. The presence
of iron compounds increases the density Activity 7.13
of soil.
Work in pairs.
(f) Soil porosity 1. Under the guidance of your teacher,
Activity 7.12 go to your school garden.
2. Dig some holes in different parts of
Work in groups of five. the garden.
1. Under the guidance of your teacher, 3. Pour water to fill the holes.
collect samples of soil from different 4. Observe the reaction.
sections of your school garden.
5. Write down your observations for
2. Put the small amounts of about class discussion
150 ml of the soil samples in a clear
container.
Soil permeability refers to the ease with
3. Using a marked cylinder, measure
which water or gases pass through soil.
100 ml of water and pour in each soil
Permeability is influenced by the size and
sample.
texture of particles. Sandy soils are more
4. Do this slowly until the water is permeable than clay soil.
slightly above each soil sample.
5. Record the amount of water that has
been poured into each soil sample.
134

(h) Soil consistency 3. Press a small amount of each soil
sample between your forefinger and
Activity 7.14
the thumb. You can squeeze the soil
Work in groups of five to test for stickiness in your palm as shown in Figure 7.9.
of wet soil.
1. Collect samples of different types
of soil from different parts of your
school garden.
2. Make the soil wet. Soil can also be
collected after heavy rains. Fig. 7.9 How to press soil using fingers or the
3. Press a small amount of each soil palm
sample between the thumb and 4. Rate each soil sample as being loose,
forefinger. friable or firm.
4. Open the fingers slowly and tell your 5. Record your findings in your
group members whether the soil is notebook.
sticky, slightly sticky or non-sticky. 6. Present your findings in class.
5. Record your findings and present Moist soil consistency can be measured as
them in class. loose, friable or firm. Loose soils do not hold
Soil consistency refers to the ease with together in a mass when moist. Friable soils
which individual particles of soil can be are crushed easily under gentle pressure
crushed. This is done by the fingers or a between the thumb and forefinger when
cultivation tool. Soil consistency depends moist. Firm soils can be crushed under
on the soil moisture content. The degree moderate pressure between the thumb
of soil consistency can be determined using and forefinger. However, the resistance is
moist, wet or dry soil. noticeable.
The consistency of wet soils is determined (ii) Wet soils
by its stickiness and plasticity. Plasticity is
the extent to which the soil can be moulded. Activity 7.16
(i) Moist soils Testing for plasticity of wet soil

1. Take a sample of each wet soil that
Activity 7.15
you have collected.
Work in groups of five. 2. Roll it between the palms of your
1. Collect samples of different types hands to form a ribbon.
of soil from different parts of your 3. Rate the soil as being non-plastic,
school compound. slightly plastic, plastic or very plastic.
2. Make the soil moist. Ensure that it 4. Record your findings and present
does not get wet. them in class.
135

The soil is non-sticky if there is no soil that Activity 7.17
sticks to your fingers. It is slightly sticky
when the soil sticks to your fingers slightly Work in groups of five.
then comes off. It is sticky when the soil 1. Collect different soil samples and air-
sticks to your forefinger and thumb. dry the soil.
2. Try to break each soil sample by
1 pressing it between the thumb and
2 forefinger. You can also break it in
your palm.
3. Rate the soil as loose, soft or hard.
4. Record your findings and present
Non-sticky soil Slightly sticky soil them in class.
The chemical properties of soil include:
4 • Soil pH
• Salinity
3 • Nutrient status

Sticky soil Very sticky soil (i) Soil pH
Soil pH is an indicator of the acidity or
Fig. 7.10 Images illustrating stickiness of alkalinity of a soil. It is also known as soil
soil. reaction.
Soil is non-plastic when no ribbon is formed Soil pH refers to the concentration of

when it is rolled. The soil is slightly plastic hydrogen ions in the soil. Soil pH affects the
when a ribbon is formed. It can also be availability of nutrients in the soil. Soil
broken easily and the soil returned to its acidity is increased when the carbon dioxide
original state. The soil is plastic when a reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
ribbon is formed. It can also be broken down
Alkalinity of the soil increases when too
and then rolled back to its original form.
much lime is applied to the soil. The pH scale
(iii) Dry soils is used to determine the level of alkalinity
The consistency of dry soils is loose when or acidity of soil. The soil pH scale ranges
the soil can be broken with little pressure. from 0 to 14.
It is hard when the soil is broken with a lot
of force.
Table 7.1 Soil pH colour chart.

Less than pH 5 pH 5-6 pH7 pH8-10 Over pH9
Soil is very Slightly Neutral(green) Slightly Alkaline (purple)
acidic(red) acidic(pink) alkaline(blue)
136

Acidity of the soil increases as you move • Distilled or rain water
from pH 7 to 0. Alkalinity of the soil • Pestle and mortar
increases from pH 7 to 14. Most crops grow • Evaporating basins/tins
well at a pH of 6.5.
• Source of heat
Activity 7.18 • Weighing equipment
Work in groups of five. Procedure
Do the experiment given below. 1. Collect soil samples from different
parts of your school compound.
Materials
2. Put the soil sample out to dry. Ensure
• Different soil samples that they are completely dry.
• Distilled or rain water 3. Crush the soil using the pestle and
• Container with a lid mortar. You can also use a stone to
• Litmus paper crush the soil until there are no soil
aggregates left.
Procedure
4. Add water to the soil and shake the
1. Collect different soil samples from
container thoroughly for about 2
different locations in your school
minutes.
compound.
5. Let the mixture settle for a minute.
2. Mix two parts of a given sample of
The ratio of soil to water should be
soil with one part of rain water.
1:5.
3. Put them in a container with a lid.
6. Filter the water and pour it out into
4. Allow the mixture to settle. the evaporating tin. Heat the mixture
5. Dip a litmus paper into the mixture until all the water evaporates.
and observe the colour change. 7. Weigh the residue that is left in the
6. Repeat this procedure using soil tin. This is to determine the amount
samples from different areas of your of salt available in the soil sample.
school compound. 8. Repeat this procedure using different
7. Record your observations and soil samples.
compare the colour produced with 9. Present your findings in class.
those on the soil pH colour chart.
8 Present your findings in class. Soil salinity refers to amount of salt present
in soil. Salts occurs naturally within soils and
(j) Salinity water. Salination can be caused by natural
Activity 7.19 processes such as mineral weathering or
by gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can
Work in groups of five. Do the experiment also come about through artificial processes
given below. such as irrigation.
Materials
• Different soil samples
137

Salts in the soil also come from fertilisers, 1. Explain what was missing in the soil
compost and manure. Introduction of water that led to poor yield.
into the soil can reduce the amount of salt 2. Why was he advised to use artificial
in the soil through leaching. and organic manure on the soil?
3. Why do you think the yield was good
Nutrient status in his second harvest?
Case study 4. Use the advice he was given to help
farmers in your home area to improve
Mr. Muhire, a farmer in Gashora village their yields.
planted beans in one of his fields during The nutrient status of soil determines the
the last planting seasons. However, the level of fertility of the soil. Soils that have
yield was very poor. He was advised by high levels of nutrients are very fertile
the agricultural office in his sector to use whereas soils with low levels of nutrients
artificial and organic manure in the next are infertile. The nutrients that are found in
season. When the planting season came, he the soil are referred to as minerals. These
did that and his harvest greatly improved. nutrients are divided into macro and micro
nutrients.
Soil nutrients
Fig 7.11 Nutrients found in the soil.

Activity 7.20
Do this in groups of five. 3. Observe the soils in your school
Use the Internet, geography textbooks compound. Find out if they
and journals. possess the properties that you are
researching about.
1. Find out other physical and chemical
4. Present your findings in class by way
properties of soil.
of discussion.
2. Note down your findings in your
notebooks.
138

Soil structure water and roots move through soil.
Activity 7.21 (a) Granular structure
Do this in pairs. This is the most common structure in
Use the Internet, geography textbooks surface soil layers. It is present in soils
and journals. with adequate organic matter. Granular
structures offer the most pore spaces.
1. Find out the meaning of soil
structure.
2. What is the importance of soil
structure?
3. Discuss and present your findings in
class.
Soil structure describes the arrangement
of the solid parts of a soil. It also describes
the pore spaces located between them. The
structure of a soil is determined by how Fig 7.12 Granular (high permeability).
individual soil granules bind together. (b) Columnar structure
Soil structure depends on what the soil Columnar structure is often found in soils
developed from. The quality of soil structure with excessive sodium. This is because of
declines under most forms of cultivation the dispersing effects of sodium, which
and irrigation. destroys the soil structure. Sodium seals
the soil to air and water movement. It has
Different types of soil structure moderate permeability.
Activity 7.22
Do this under the guidance of your teacher.
2. Dig holes in different parts of your
school compound.
3. Observe the structure of the soils that
you have dug up.
4. Record and discuss your findings in a Fig 7.13 Columnar structure.
class discussion. (c) Platy structure
Soil structure is classified by type (shape), Platy structure has the least amount of pore
class (size) of peds (soil aggregates) spaces. It is common in compacted soils. It
and grade (strength of cohesion) of the has low permeability.
aggregates.
Shape, size and strength of aggregates
determine pore structure and how easily air,
139

1. Horizon O – This layer is also known
as the superficial layer. It is the thin
layer of dry, decaying and partially
decomposed organic matter. It mainly
consists of decomposing leaves and
roots of plants.
Fig 7.14 Platy structure. 2. Horizon A – This horizon is also known
as the topsoil. This layer of soil is found
Soil profile and soil catena beneath the superficial layer. It is a
dark coloured horizon that is rich in
Activity 7. 23 humus. The layer has good aeration
and contains active living organisms.
Do this in pairs.
Use the Internet, geography textbooks 3. Horizon B – This horizon is also referred
and journals. to as the subsoil. It lies immediately
1. Find out the meaning of soil profile. below Horizon A. The soil particles are
closely packed together. The soil in
2. Name the horizons into which soil
this layer is poorly aerated. It also has
profile is categorised.
fewer living organisms and is rich in clay
3. Record your findings and present deposits.
them in class by way of discussion.
4. Horizon C – This is the zone of deposition.
Major horizons It forms the parent rock. It is also referred
to as sub-stratum. It is the deepest and
Activty 7.24 the thickest of all the layers.
Work in groups of three. 5. Horizon D – This horizon resembles
the C-horizon. It is made of the hard
Under the guidance of your teacher, visit a site rock which is resistant to weathering.
near your school where the ground has been
excavated to at least about 3 metres in depth. Note
1. Observe and note down the main Not all of the five horizons may be
characteristics of each layer and soil. present in every soil. This depends
2. Name the horizon or layer that is on the conditions under which the
important for plant growth. soil was formed.
3. Give reason(s) why the layer is
Soil profile
important
4. Discuss your finding in class. This is the vertical arrangement of the soil
in layers from the surface to the bedrock.
A soil horizon refers to the layer of soil The layers of soil are called horizons.
which lies parallel to the land surface. Each
Mature soil has four horizons. They are
horizon differs from the others in terms of
horizons A, B, C and D. Horizon A is
colour, structure and mineral composition.
composed of the top soil and horizon B the
The horizons are identified by capital letters
sub-soil.
O, A, B, C and D.
140

Horizon C is composed of partially weathered horizons have distinct structures, colours,
rock and Horizon D the parent rock. The textures, porosity and minerals.
Fig 7.15 Soil profile.
Activity 7.25
of the soil layers that you are able to
see. Describe aspects such as texture,
1. Go to your school garden. colour and particle sizes of the soil
3. Dig small holes and observe the soil layers.
layers. 4. Discuss your observations in class
3. Record the different characteristics under the guidance of your teacher.
141

Soil catena 3. Record your findings in your
notebook.
Activity 7.26 4. Present your findings in class for
Do this in pairs. discussion.
Use the Internet, geography textbooks Soil catena refers to the sequence of
and journals. different soil profiles that occur down a
1. Find out the meaning of soil catena. slope.
2. Name the factors responsible for soil
The soil down a hill slope is rarely uniform.
catena.
Soil eroded from the top of the slope tends
3. Record your findings and present to accumulate near the bottom. Runoff
them in class for discussion. water tends to infiltrate more in the flatter
Activity 7.27 areas at the foot of the slope. This water
encourages more plant growth there than
Your teacher will take you to a sloppy area on the steep part of the slope. Consequently,
in the neighbourhood of your school. the factors forming the soil differ from top
1. Study the soils on the different to bottom. Different soils thus develop. The
heights of the slopes. steep slopes have thin soils while the valley
bottoms have deep soils.
2. Name some of the factors that
you think are responsible for the Soil catena is therefore influenced by relief,
differences in soils. drainage, leaching and transportation of
soils during erosion.
Fig 7.16 Soil catena.
142

Task 7.3 Loam soil is a combination of sand, silt
and clay. Loam will vary depending on how
Use well-labelled diagrams to illustrate and
much of each component is present. It holds
explain:
moisture and also allows for good drainage.
(a) soil profile
(b) soil catena. Activity 7.29
Do this in pairs.
Types of soils
Using the soil samples that you had
Activity 7.28 collected;
1. Classify the soils according to their
Do this in pairs.
characteristics.
1. Go outside your school and collect
soils from different parts of the 2. Present your findings in class by way
compound. of discussion.
2. Observe the soil samples focusing on
their appearance and characteristics.
Effects of soils on human
3. Classify the soils into different types activities
based on the knowledge that you Soils are important for the existence of
have. plants, animals and humans. Most human
4. Present your findings in class. activities are supported by soils. Some of
the human activities that depend on soils
There are four types of soils. Three are basic include:
while the fourth one is a combination of the
three. They are: • Agriculture and food production
• Pottery
• Sand • Clay
• Building and construction
• Silt • Loam soils
• Mining
Sand is composed of small particles of
weathered rock. Sand is fairly coarse and • Culture
loose so water is able to drain through it
easily. While this is good for drainage, it is
Importance of soils
not good for growing plants. This is because Activity 7.30
sandy soil will not hold water or nutrients.
Work in pairs.
Silt can be described as fine sand. It however
holds water better than sand. 1. Observe the environment around
your home or school.
Clay is very fine-grained soil. Its particles are
even smaller than those of silt. This means 2. Note the different uses of soil.
that there is little space between the grains 3. Discuss the uses of each type of soil
for air or water to circulate. Therefore, clay that you identified in the activity
does not drain well. above.
143

4. Record your findings in your Activity 7.31
notebook.
5. Present your findings for a class
discussion. 1. Observe your surroundings at home
and in school.
2. Identify some of the human activities
Below are some of the ways in which soils that take place around the area.
are important:
3. Identify the specific soil types that are
1. Soil has vital nutrients which support used for the different activities.
the growth of plants. 4. Present your findings in class.
2. Soil supports animal biodiversity, above
and below ground. Relationship between soil
3. Soil is important in providing an types and human activities
adequate water supply and maintaining
quality vegetation. Activity 7.32
4. The water absorption property of Work in groups of three. Use the internet,
soil helps in reducing pollution from geography textbooks and photographs;
chemicals in pesticides.
1. Relate specific soil types to different
5. Soil holds the key to the earth’s history.
human activities.
It contains and preserves artifacts of
the planet’s past. For example dinosaur 2. Discuss and present your findings in
fossils were discovered in the earth. class.
6. Clay soils are commonly used in pottery, The type of soil found in a region determines
ceramics, bricks and other clay works. the human activities in that area. For example.
where there is a lot of sandy soils, there
7. Ordinary soil when mixed with water
is extraction of the soil for building and
forms earth blocks that are used in
construction.
building houses.
8. M u r ra m s o i l s a re u s e d i n t h e • Clay soil supports.
construction of roads. – crop production of specific crops
9. Some soils contain valuable minerals – pottery and ceramics
which are mined and sold to earn – building and construction
income. activities
10. Some soils contain minerals that are – medicinal uses.
used by animals as salt lick. • Loam soil supports agricultural
11. Some soils are used to make medicine activities.
and beauty products. For example, • Alluvial soil supports agricultural
soils rich in clay can be used to make activities. It is also used in the
facial masks. Some other soils are used manufacture of fertilisers.
to make skin ointments.
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Activity 7.33 End of unit revision task
Work in pairs. Define soil.
Using the Internet, geography textbooks, 1. Identify three soil formation processes.
journals and personal experience, answer 2. Discuss the factors that influence soil
the following questions. formation.
1. How is soil related to agriculture and 3. (a) List the components of soil.
mining as human activities? (b) Briefly describe any three
2. Which soil types support the properties of soil.
activities? 4. (a) Define soil profile.
3. Discuss and record your findings. (b) Draw a well-labelled diagram
showing detailed sub-divisions of
the horizons in a soil profile.
(c) Briefly describe the
Activity 7.34 characteristics of each horizon.
5. (a) What is soil catena?
Work in groups. (b) State the conditions which
After finding out how soil relates to influence soil catena.
various human activities: (c) State the type and characteristics
1. Suggest ways in which soil can be of soils on the following parts of
conserved. a slope.
2. Give reasons why you think it is (i) upslope (ii) steep slope
important to conserve soil. (iii) lower slope.
3. Why is agriculture an important 6. Explain how the soils shown in the
activity? table below are used for different
4. Present your findings in a class human activities.
discussion. Type of soil Human activity
Black cotton Suitable for cotton
Did you know?
soil growing/crop farming
• Soil is a living system Sandy soil ___________
• Soil hosts a quarter of the total Clay soil ___________
planet’s biodiversity.
Silty soil ___________
• There are more micro-organisms in a
Loam soil ___________
handful of soil than there are people
on earth.
• Soil is a non-renewable resource.
• Soils help to combat and adapt to
climate change.
145

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Weather and climate
146

UNIT
Weather and climate
8
Key unit competence (l) identify different types of winds

By the end of this unit, you must be (m) state different types of clouds
able to recognise the importance of the (n) define sunshine
atmosphere, differentiate weather from (o) outline factors influencing climate
climate and classify major climatic types. (p) outline the relationship between
climate and human activities.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Definition of atmosphere,
(a) state the difference between weather weather and climate
and climate
Activity 8.1
(b) identify layers of the atmosphere and
state its importance Work in pairs.
(c) outline the elements of weather and 1. Use the Internet and geography
climate textbooks to find out the composition
(d) identify weather instruments at a of the atmosphere.
weather station 2. Record your findings and discuss
(e) state the factors influencing them in a class presentation.
temperature variation
(f) identify how to measure temperature In Unit 3, you learnt that the atmosphere
(g) state the major processes of the water is one of the elements of the earth. You
cycle defined the atmosphere as the thin layer
(h) identify different types of precipitation of gases that surrounds the earth. It is a
mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, water
(i) state different types/forms of rainfall
vapour, carbon (IV) oxide and others. It is
(j) explain the factors influencing held onto the earth by the force of gravity.
atmospheric pressure variation In simple terms, the term atmosphere refers
(k) identify the factors influencing humidity to the envelope of air surrounding the earth.
and how to measure humidity
147

Activity 8.2
1. Go outside the classroom and
observe the nature of the day.
2. Study the wind, sunshine,
temperature and clouds.
3. Write down the observations in your
notebooks.
(b)
4. Compare your observations with
those of other members of the class
in a discussion.
Weather refers to the day to day conditions
of the atmosphere. It is described in terms
of temperature, wind, rain, moisture,
atmospheric pressure, humidity, sunshine
and clouds. (c)
The weather of the day can be described
as: windy, rainy, sunny or cloudy. This
depends on the elements of weather. The
element that dominates the day describes
the weather.
Activity 8.3
Use the following photographs to describe
the weather conditions shown. Do this Fig 8.1
individually. Climate refers to the weather conditions
prevailing in an area over a long period of
time.
Activity 8.4
Your teacher will take you to a field visit to
a weather station.
1. Observe the weather records kept in
the station for the last one year.
2. Describe the weather conditions
(a) observed.
3. Describe the climate of the area.
148

4. Identify the dominant activity carried • This is the zone where temperatures
out by the people who live in the reduce with increase in altitude. The
area. higher one goes the cooler it becomes.
5. Find out how the climate of the area Towards the end of this zone temperature
influences the activity. reduce to almost – 67°F (–20°C).
6. Discuss and record you findings. • Atmospheric pressure also falls with
7. Present your findings in a class increase in height.
discussion. • The speed of wind increases with
increase in height.
Atmosphere • It is the only life supporting layer.
You learnt about the atmosphere earlier in • The transitional zone between the
this unit. You defined the atmosphere and troposphere and the stratosphere is
the gases that make the atmosphere. known as the tropopause.
Stratosphere
The structure of the • This is the second layer of the
atmosphere atmosphere.
The atmosphere is divided into four major • The bottom of the stratosphere is
distinct zones or layers. These distinctions around 10 kilometres above the about
are based on changes in temperature with at middle latitudes. The top of the
increase in altitude. The zones are separated stratosphere occurs at an altitude of 50
by transitional boundaries. kilometres. The height of the bottom
(a) Troposphere (c) Mesosphere of the stratosphere varies with latitude
and with the seasons. The lower
(b) Stratosphere (d) Thermosphere boundary of the stratosphere can be as
Troposphere high as 20 kilometres near the equator.
• This is the lowest layer of the It can also be as low as 7 kilometres at
atmosphere. the poles in winter.
• It is also the site of all weather on • In this zone, temperature increase with
earth. It is thus the most important increase in altitude, and this is called
layer to meteorologists. temperature inversion.
• It contains about 75% of the • It is in this zone where the ozone layer
atmosphere’s mass and 99% of its is found. The ozone layer is the oxygen
water vapour. isotope whose concentration is 25 – 30
kilometres above the sea level.
• It has an average depth of about
17 kilometres in the mid latitudes. The ozone layer
It is deeper in the tropics about 20
kilometres and shallower towards the The ozone layer is important due to the
poles about 7 kilometres. following reasons.
(a) The sun’s insolation has dangerous rays
called ultra-violet rays. These rays are
149

dangerous to humans. The ozone layer The lower boundary of the stratosphere
filters the sun’s insolation by removing is called the tropopause. The upper
these rays. boundary is called the stratopause.
(b) The ozone layer regulates temperatures Activity 8.5
in the lower atmosphere. This prevents
the melting of ice and effects of global Work in pairs.
warming. Study the photograph below and answer
the questions that follow.
Ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion refers to the damaging
of the ozone layer by air pollutants.
Fig 8.3
1. What could have caused these crops
to look like this?
Fig 8.2 Smoke from industries containing 2. Analyse the effects of drought on the
gases that destroy the ozone layer. environment.
This happens due to the impact of some 3. Suggest ways in which drought can be
gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and prevented.
methane gas. These gases eat up some parts 4. Record your findings.
of the ozone layer creating holes in it. The
holes are called atmospheric windows.
presentation.
The destruction of the ozone layer has led to
serious effects which include the following. Mesosphere
• This is a part of the atmosphere that
(a) Increase in temperatures resulting in
is above the stratosphere.
many of the glaciers melting.
• It is separated from the stratosphere
(b) Rise in the sea level due to the
by a line of transition called the
incoming melt water .
tropopause.
(c) Diseases like skin cancer.
• It is the third layer in the zonation
(d) Extinction of some plant and animal within the atmosphere.
species due to the harsh climatic
• Its extends from about 50 – 85
conditions.
kilometres above the earth.
(e) Prolonged droughts and global
• This the coldest layer in the atmosphere.
warming in general that results to
Temperatures fall to between – 90°C
environmental degradation.
150

to -101°C at the mesopause. This is the • Temperatures in this zone rise to
upper limit of the mesosphere. nearly 15000C and above.
• The area has the strongest winds • Gases in the thermosphere separate
nearly 3000km/hour which hardly into different layers as follows;
allow temperatures to increase. (a) Oxygen zone – lower layer
• The transitional zone between the (b) Helium zone – middle zone
mesosphere and the thermosphere is (c) Atomic hydrogen – uppermost
known as the mesopause. layer
Thermosphere • This mesosphere and thermosphere
• This layer starts from the mesopause form one layer called ionosphere.
– a line of transition that separates This region is named so for its
the thermosphere from mesosphere. relatively large concentrations of ions.
It then continuously reaches up to the • The transitional zone between the
upper limit of the atmosphere. thermosphere and the exosphere is
• It extends from about 90 kilometres known as the thermopause.
to between 500 and 1,000 kilometres
Exosphere
above our planet.
• This is the uppermost region of
• Here temperatures increase with earth’s atmosphere as it gradually
altitude because of the absorption of fades into the vacuum of space.
solar energy.
Fig 8.4Layers of the atmosphere.
151

• Air in the exosphere is extremely thin. • The atmosphere shields the earth
In many ways it is almost the same as from ultra-violet rays which are
the airless void of outer space. harmful to all life forms on earth.
• It extends to a distance of about 1000 • The atmosphere facilitates wireless
kilometres above the earth’s surface. communication. This is due to the
It extends into interplanetary space. ionosphere where there are electro-
• It is distinctively dark. magnetic waves. These waves are
reflected back to the earth’s surface.
• It is a zone of low density. Atoms fly
into space because they are freed • The atmosphere regulates the
from the earth’s gravity. temperatures experienced along the
earth’s surface where life exists (flora
Activity 8.6 and fauna).
Work in pairs. • The atmosphere and its associated
Using the Internet and other geographical winds are utilised to increase
documents. generation of electricity-wind energy.
1. Describe each layer of the Activity 8.7
atmosphere and its characteristics. Work in groups of three.
2. Record your findings. Use the Internet and Geography
3. Discuss your findings in a class textbooks.
discussion. 1. Find out other importance of the
Composition of the atmosphere atmosphere.
2. Discuss how Rwanda benefits from
The atmosphere consists of gases such as the atmosphere.
nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon (IV) oxide,
water vapour and ozone. Nitrogen and 3. Record your findings.
oxygen gases occur in larger volumes than 4. Present your findings in a class
other gases. discussion.
The importance of atmosphere Elements of weather and

• The atmosphere facilitates the climate
formation of rainfall hence raising the
operation of the water cycle. Activity 8.8
• The atmosphere provides air which Work in pairs.
is necessary for plant, animal and 1. Describe the weather condition this
human life. morning on your way to school.
• The atmosphere provides case 2. Look outside your classroom and
studies for research, especially the describe the weather outside.
meteorologists. 3. Write down your findings and
present them in a class discussion.
152

Activity 8.9 clear. The amount of sunshine of a place
is recorded as a mean of sunshine hours
Work in groups of three. per day.
Use the environment in your school
or home, the Internet and geography (b) Temperature
textbooks. This describes the hotness or coldness of a
1. Describe other elements of weather place. High temperatures are experienced
and climate. on sunny cloudless days. Low temperatures
2. Record your findings. are experienced on cloudy days and at night.
Thus the temperature of a place is a result
3. Present them in a class discussion.
of the amount of heat energy received from
the sun.
The weather conditions experienced at
different times of the day are referred to (c) Atmospheric pressure
as elements of weather. These are aspects This is the weight exerted by a vertical
that describe the atmospheric conditions. column of air onto the earth’s surface. This
Humans depend on these elements to weight is exerted by the force of gravity.
interpret the weather and climate of a given Atmospheric pressure is greater on the
place. The following are the elements of ground surface and greatest at sea level. It
weather and climate. decreases with increase in altitude.
• Sunshine • Humidity (d) Wind
• Temperature • Cloud cover This is moving air caused by pressure
• Atmospheric • Precipitation difference. It moves from a zone of high
pressure • Visibility pressure to a zone of low pressure. It moves
• Wind in a horizontal manner.
The weather and climatic conditions of any (e) Humidity
given place can be influenced by one or This is the amount of water vapour in the
more of these elements. The elements can atmosphere. Water vapour is obtained from
be observed, measured and recorded daily water bodies and the ground surface. It is
in a weather station. obtained through evaporation and from
(a) Sunshine plants through transpiration. The amount
of water in the air depends on:
This is the light or amount of solar radiation
received on the surface of the earth from • Temperature
the sun. The amount of sunshine received • Size of water bodies present in a
in a place depends on cloud cover, aspect place
and latitude. Thick cloud cover reduces • Prevailing winds.
the amount of sunshine and its duration.
Sunshine is more intense when the sky is
153

Thus, places with large water bodies and Task 8.1
high temperatures have higher amounts of
1. (a) Define the term weather.
water vapour than those without. Onshore
(b) Differentiate between weather
and calm wind facilitate build-up of water
and climate.
vapour on land. Offshore and very strong
2. State the elements of weather.
winds blow away the water vapour from
3. (a) Define the term atmosphere.
the land.
(b) With the help of a diagram,
(f) Cloud cover describe the major layers or
zones that form the atmosphere.
Clouds are tiny droplets of water or ice
4. (a) Define the term ozone layer.
suspended in the air. They are formed when
(b) Explain the importance of the
water vapour condenses into water droplets
ozone layer to humans and
or ice crystals. These crystals condense
wildlife at large.
around things such as dust, salt or smoke
5. (a) Explain the meaning of depletion
particles moving in the atmosphere.
of the depletion of the ozone
(g) Precipitation layer depletion.
This is the deposition of moisture in liquid or (b) Analyse the causes of the ozone
solid form falling from onto the earth from layer.
the clouds. It is in the form of rain, hail, frost, 6. (a) What are atmospheric windows?
sleet, snow or frost. (b) State and explain the effects of
atmospheric windows on the
Visibility environment.
This is the measure of distance at which 7. Discuss the importance of
an object or terrain can be clearly seen. atmosphere to humans and to the
Visibility is reported in metres. It is reported environment.
as a prevailing value of the visibility at all
directions. The weather station and
its instruments
Activity 8.10
Activity 8.11
1. Observe the weather around your
school and home for about a week. Work in groups of three.
2. Describe the weather changes 1. Show how the following elements
through the week. of weather are measured using local
3. Find out the reason why the weather resources.
keeps changing. (a) Temperature
4. Record your findings and discuss (b) Rainfall
them in your group. (c) Wind speed
5. Make a class presentation on your (d) Sunshine
findings. 2. Write down your finding and discuss
them in class.
154

A weather station is a place where At a weather station, different instruments
observation, measurement and recording are found. Each instrument is used for
of elements of weather is done. These collecting specific data on given elements
activities are carried out on a daily basis. The of weather.
information obtained is used to describe the
weather of a place.
Table 8.2 shows elements of weather and the instruments used to measure them.
Table 8.2 Weather instruments.
Element Instrument Lines drawn on a map
showing each element
Temperature Thermometer Isotherms

Rainfall Rain gauge Isohyets
Wind speed Anemometer Isotachs
Wind direction Wind vane Isogons
Atmospheric pressure Barometer/aneroid barometer Isobars
Humidity Hygrometer Isohumes
Sunshine Sunshine recorder Isohels
Cloud cover Ceilometer/ceiling light (height Isonephs
of cloud), cloud cover radiometer
(CCR)
Thermometer Barometer
A t h e r m o m ete r m e a s u re s t h e a i r A barometer measures air pressure. It tells
temperature. Most thermometers are one whether or not the pressure is rising or
closed glass tubes containing liquids such falling. A rising barometer means sunny and
as alcohol or mercury. When air around the dry conditions. A falling barometer means
tube heats the liquid, it expands and moves stormy and wet conditions.
up the tube. A scale then shows what the
actual temperature is.
Fig 8.6 Barometer.

Fig 8.5 Weather thermometer.
155

Rain gauge
A rain gauge measures the amount of rain
that has fallen over a specific time period.
Fig 8.9 A windsock.

Anemometer
An anemometer measures wind speed. The
cups catch the wind, turning a dial attached
to the instrument. The dial shows the wind
speed.
Fig 8.7 A rain gauge.

Wind vane
A wind vane is an instrument that determines
the direction from which the wind is
blowing.
Fig 8.10 An anemometer.

Hygrometer
A hygrometer measures the water vapour
content of air or the humidity.
Fig 8.8 Wind vane.

Windsock
It also shows the direction and relative
speed of wind. It determines the direction
that the wind is blowing towards. It consists
of a bag like cloth closed at one end and
open on the other.
Fig 8.11 A hygrometer.
156

Sunshine recorder houses thermometers and the hygrometer.
A sunshine recorder is a device that records This is to protect the instruments from
the amount of sunshine at a location. The dew and rainfall. Rain and dew interfere
results provide information about the with and damage the thermometers. The
weather and climate of a geographical area. thermometers that are found inside a
Stevenson screen include the following.
• Maximum thermometer
• Minimum thermometer
• Wet-bulb thermometer
• Six’s thermometer
Fig 8.12 A sunshine recorder.

Ceilometer
This is a device that is used for measuring
and recording the height of clouds.
Fig 8.14 A Stevenson screen.

Important points to note about a Stevenson
screen
(a) It is made of wood. This is preferred
to prevent the external heat. Wood is
a bad conductor of heat.
(b) All the sides of the Stevenson screen
have louvres to allow proper aeration.
This is to allow free circulation of air. It
is also to safeguard the thermometer
Fig 8.13 A ceilometer.
from direct sun’s rays.
A Stevenson screen (c) The Stevenson screen is painted
This is a special box in which the main white. This is purposely to reflect heat.
delicate weather instruments are kept. It This implies that the sun’s insolation
157

is reflected back. This prevents it Activity 8.12
influencing the temperatures inside the
box. Do this individually.
(d) Stevenson screen is placed on a Study Figure 8.15.
grass-covered ground. This is done 1. Identify some of the instruments in
to prevent the radiated heat from the photograph.
influencing the temperatures inside 2. Why do you think it is necessary for
the Steven screen. such stations to be built in various
(e) The Stevenson screen is placed on a parts of the country?
stand, about 121 cm above the ground. 3. Does your school have a weather station?
This enables the air temperatures to be 4. If it does, how important is it?
easily determined.
(f) It is located far away from obstacles Activity 8.13
such as buildings, trees or concrete Work in groups of three. Your teacher will
fences. This is to avoid disturbing the take you for a field visit to a weather station.
free movement of air. It also allows
air to enter the Stevenson screen 1. With the help of a resource person,
through the four louvred sides. go round the station and identify the
instruments available.
(g) The Stevenson screen has a double
boarded roof. This prevents direct 2. Record them in your notebooks.
rays from the sun from influencing 3. The resource person at the station
the temperatures inside the box. will show you how to:
(a) measure temperature using a
thermometer
(b) check for the wind direction using
a wind vane
(c) measure air pressure using a
barometer.
4. Ask him or her to show you how to
use any other weather instrument
available at the station.
Fig 8.15 A weather station with weather
instruments. 5. Record the measurements of the
In Rwanda, there are several weather different elements of weather at the
stations. An example is the Nyamirambo station.
weather station in Nyarugenge District, 6. Write a report on the weather and
Kigali Province. climate of the area around the
station.
7. Make a class presentation on your
findings.
158

Importance of a school weather station professionals do. This helps in creating
(a) A school weather station enables the an inner passion in the learners to pursue
school administration and learners to careers like meteorology and climatology.
save time and money. These resources
would otherwise be spent on the Task 8.2
distant field studies on weather 1. (a) Describe a Stevenson screen.
stations. (b) Explain the main features of a
(b) It provides a platform for practical Stevenson screen.
studies to the learners. Learners are 2. Analyse the importance of a school
able to use the instruments to measure weather station.
various elements of weather.
3. (a) Explain the main features of a
(c) The school weather station can enable good Stevenson screen.
learners know the weather of their
(b) With the help of a diagram, name
school environment.
and describe the conditions
(d) The school weather station acts as a that should be considered while
laboratory for geography lessons. In installing a Stevenson screen.
practical lessons, learners are involved
(c) State the importance of the
in collecting data on various elements
following on a Steveson Screen.
of weather. This make them understand
what is studied in classrooms. (i) wood
(e) The practical studies facilitated (ii) louvred sides
by such stations enable learners (iii) double roof
to acquire various skills. The skills (iv) height of 121 cm above the
include measuring, recording and ground.
analytical skills. 4. Name the instruments kept inside the
(f) The school weather station provides Stevenson screen.
evidence on what certain specialists or
5. Study the table below and fill in the necessary missing information
Element Instrument Lines drawn on a map
showing each element
__________ Thermometer __________
Rainfall __________ Isohyets
Wind speed __________ Isotach
Wind direction Wind vane Isogon
__________ Barometer/aneroid barometer __________
__________ Hygrometer __________
Sunshine __________ __________
__________ Ceilometer/ceiling light(height of __________
cloud), cloud cover radiometer (CCR)
159

Temperature The minimum thermometer
This thermometer is responsible for showing
Activity 8.14 the lowest temperature reached in a day.
1. Go outside the classroom. Describe It does not use mercury but instead uses
the temperature of the air. alcohol. When temperatures decreases, it
causes the alcohol in the tube to contract.
2. Compare day temperatures to night It then pulls along the index to the actual
temperatures. lowest point. To determine the lowest
temperature, we use readings at end of the
Temperature is defined as the degree of index near the surface of the alcohol.
hotness and coldness of a given place. -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100oC
Temperature is one of the elements of

weather. It is measured by an instrument
bulb metal index
called a thermometer. There are essentially
three types of thermometers. Fig 8.17 (a) A diagram of a minimum
thermometer.
(a) Maximum thermometer
(b) Minimum thermometer
(c) Six’s thermometer
The maximum thermometer
The maximum thermometer is used to Fig 8.17 (b) A minimum thermometer.
determine the highest temperature reached The Six’s thermometer
in a day. This thermometer has a small This type of thermometer is used to measure
constriction in the tube just above the maximum and minimum temperatures
bulb. When the temperature increases, in a day. One of its sides has a maximum
the mercury in the bulb expands upwards thermometer and the other minimum
beyond the constriction. When there is a fall thermometer.
in temperature, the fluid threads break. The minimum maximum
end of the mercury column is positioned at conical bulb
the maximum temperature.

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 oC
°C °C
alcohol
-70 60
v -60 50
-50 metal index
bulb glass tube mercury metal index vacuum 40
alcohol -40 30
-30 20
Fig 8.16 (a) A diagram of a maximum -20 10
thermometer. -10 0
0 -10
metal index
10 -20
20 -30
30 -40
40 -50
mercury
Fig 8.16 (b) A maximum thermometer. Fig 8.18 (a) Diagram of Six’s thermometer.
160

2. Measure the maximum and minimum
temperature inside your classroom
and record your findings.
3. Measure the maximum and minimum
temperature outside your classroom
and record your findings.
Fig 8.18 (b) Six’s thermometer
4. Compare your findings with the rest
How it works of your class members.
1. It has two scales namely the
minimum and the maximum scale. Factors influencing variation of
2. The maximum scale is progressive temperature
while the minimum scale is
retrogressive . (a) Nature of the atmosphere
3. When temperature increases, alcohol Solar radiation passes through the
and mercury expand towards the atmosphere. As it passes, it collects various
maximum side. gases and aerosols which are impurities.
These impurities interfere with radiation by
4. Some of the alcohol in the maximum
scattering, reflecting and absorbing part of the
thermometer vapourises and
insolation. Eventually, the temperatures rise.
occupies the empty space on top.
5. This flow pushes the index upwards (b) The solar altitude
up to the highest temperature. The noon sun is much more intense than the
6. When temperature reduces, there rising or setting sun. Therefore, at noon time,
will be a reverse flow. temperatures become higher than those
7. The maximum index will stay still at experienced in morning and evening hours.
the maximum temperature. This time,
(c) The distance away from the sun
the vapour that was in the vacuum
turns back to liquid. The longer the distance covered by solar
radiation, the lower the temperature will
8. The mercury and liquid contract and
be. The shorter the distance, the more the
the constriction forces the metal
radiation and the higher the temperatures.
index in the minimum thermometer
upwards. (d) Latitudinal location
9. As it continues upwards, it reads This refers to the position of a place on the
lower and lower temperature on the earth in relation to the equator. The areas
scale. It then stops on the lowest near the equator have higher temperatures
temperatures of the day. than areas far from the equator. The polar
regions have lower temperatures.
Activity 8.15
(e) Altitudinal location
1. Your teacher will give you samples
of the maximum, minimum and Six’s This is the location of an area measured
thermometers. from the sea level. Areas whose altitudes
are high tend to have lower temperatures.
161

Areas of low altitudes tend to have high others are shielded from the sun. Areas
temperatures. that are exposed to the sun will have higher
temperature than those which are shielded.
(f) Nature of prevailing winds
Winds carry temperature and moisture from (k) Cloud cover
one place to another. Onshore winds cause The presence of clouds reduces both
lower temperatures on land. Winds which incoming and outgoing radiation. Thick
come from dry areas e.g. Hammatan winds clouds prevent solar radiation from
cause high temperatures in the places they striking the earth’s surface. This lowers
blow towards. temperatures of the land surface during
the day.
(g) The revolution of the earth round the
sun (l) Vegetation
As the earth revolves around the sun, Fo re ste d a re a s u s u a l l y h ave co o l
the solar altitude and the length of the temperatures. This is because the canopies
day change. Hence, the intensity of the of the trees act as an umbrella. They prevent
solar radiation (temperature) on the earth solar radiation from striking the floor of the
changes seasonally. forest.
(h) Distance from the sea (m) Human activities

There is always a very powerful interaction Human activities may influence temperature
between land and sea. This interaction patterns which may cause global warming
involves movement of air and transfer of or cooling.
temperature. This happens through land Temperatures are higher in built-up areas
and sea breezes. like urban centres.
(i) Ocean currents • Industries and motor vehicles also
Ocean currents are streams of water release a lot of carbon dioxide in
moving from specific areas, in particular the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide
regions with definite temperatures. Ocean absorbs a lot of terrestrial radiation
currents are majorly of two types, warm raising the air temperature.
and cold currents. Warm currents carry • Burning large forests releases a lot of
warm temperatures from the equator to carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
areas they bathe. Cold currents originate absorbs heat thus raising atmospheric
from the polar regions and transfer cold temperatures.
temperatures. • Clearing of forests also increases
the amount of carbon dioxide in the
(j) Aspect
atmosphere.
Aspect in this case refers to the degree to
which an area is exposed to the sun. Some
slopes are more exposed to the sun while
162

Activity 8.16 diurnal range temperature will be:
Work in pairs. = 24–14=10°C
Use the Internet and other geographical (b) Mean daily temperature
documents. Mean daily temperature
1. Find out and explain other factors daily maximum daily minimum
= temperature + temperature
that cause variations in temperatures
of different places. 2
2. Record your findings. Using the example in (a),
3. Present your findings in classroom. 24+14 = 38 = 19°C
2 2
Calculations involved
(c) Mean monthly temperature
in determining the
The mean monthly temperature is the sum
temperatures of a given area of mean daily temperatures divided by the
Temperature is calculated in different ways. number of days in a month.
We can calculate: Suppose the total sum of the mean daily
• diurnal range temperatures temperature of the month of June is 246.
• mean daily temperature The mean monthly temperature
• mean monthly temperature = 246 = 8.2°C
• mean annual temperature 30
• mean annual range
(d) Mean annual temperature
(a) Diurnal range temperature The mean annual temperature equals the
Diurnal range temperature = daily maximum sum of mean monthly temperatures for a
temperature – daily minimum temperature. year divided by the number of months in
For example: a year.
- If the maximum temperature of
a day = 24°C and the minimum
temperature of a day =14°C, then the
Table 8.3 Mean monthly temperatures.
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Mean 20 18 21 25 25 28 28 27 20 20 21 23
monthly
temp 0C
From Table 8.3, the mean annual temperature is = 276
12
= 23°C
163

(e) Mean annual range
The mean annual range = the highest mean
monthly temperature – the lowest mean
monthly temperature.
Using Table 8.3:
The highest mean monthly temperature
= 28°C
The lowest mean monthly temperature Fig 8.19
= 20°C 1. Describe the weather condition of the
day shown in Figure 8.19.
Therefore the mean annual range
2. Why is rain important to humans?
= 28–20 = 8°C.
Precipitation is the deposition of moisture
Activity 8.17 in liquid or solid form. The moisture falls
Do this individually. from the clouds in the atmosphere onto the
earth’s surface. Moisture falls in the form
1. Calculate the diurnal range temperature of rainfall, dew, mist, fog, sleet, snow, haze,
when the highest temperature is 30°C and frost.
and the lowest temperature is 10°C.
2. Calculate the mean daily temperature of Forms of precipitation
a place whose maximum temperature
is 30°C and minimum temperature is Activity 8.19
10°C.
3. Calculate the mean annual temperature
of the year 2014 from the Table 8.4. 1. Observe the weather conditions in
your home area in the morning on
Table 8.4 your way to school for a month.
J F M A M J J A S O N D 2. Identify the forms of precipitation that
17 17 18 17 16 14 13 14 15 16 16 16 your area experiences. You can also
state if it is a sunny month.
(e) Calculate the mean annual range of
3. Share your findings in class.
temperature from Table 8.4.
(a) Rainfall
Precipitation This form of precipitation is made up of
liquid water droplets. The droplets fall from
Activity 8.18
the sky after condensation. Condensation
Study the photography below and use it to refers to the process by which water changes
answer the questions that follow. its state from vapour to liquid.
The moisture rises into the atmosphere,
cools down and forms water droplets.
164

These droplets form clouds. They then get droplets are pulled towards the earth’s
heavy and yield water droplets. The water surface by gravity and falls as rain.
Cloud formation
Condensing water vapour
Snow Precipitation
Evaporisation
Surface runoff
Ocean contributes about
80% of total water vapour
Lake in air
Ground water
Ocean
Salt water
Impervious layer intrusion
Fig 8.20 Formation of rainfall.
(b) Dew
During the night temperatures near the
earth’s surface drop drastically. This makes
moisture condense near the surface of the
earth.
The water droplets are formed on cold
surfaces such as objects and vegetation.
These droplets are called dew.
Fig 8.22 Frost.

(d) Hoar-frost
In situations whereby the dew-point is below
the freezing point, water moisture condenses
directly. It then forms tiny ice particles on the
cold surfaces. The ice particles are formed
without passing through the liquid state. The
Fig 8.21 Dew.
process is known as sublimation.
(c) Frost
When the temperatures are too low, the
dew freezes. Frozen dew is called frost.
165

(g) Snow
This is frozen water particles from the
higher atmosphere. It is a form of solid
precipitation that is formed by sublimation
of water vapour. When air temperatures
fall below 0°C, the moisture in the air
condenses. It then forms small ice crystals
known as snowflakes. The crystals are then
deposited on the ground as snowfall.
Fig 8.23 Hoar-frost.

(e) Rime
This refers to super cooled droplets frozen
on the surface of telephone poles, wires,
and trees. Rime has a white opaque form
because of the air confined in ice particles.
Fig 8.26 Snow.
(h) Sleet
This is made up of a mixture of rain and
snow or partially melted snow. The mixture
then falls on to the surface of the Earth.
Usually, this is formed when the surface of
the earth is at or just above freezing point.
Fig 8.24 Rime.

(f) Fog
This refers to the cloud of visible aggregates
of minute water droplets. They are usually
suspended in the atmosphere near the
surface of the earth.
Fig 8.27 Sleet.

(i) Hail
This is frozen raindrops that build into
spherical ice particles. It usually forms in the
high clouds due to the uplift by convectional
currents. As the raindrops are lifted higher
by the rising air currents, they attract ice.
They then begin to fall downwards due to
Fig 8.25 Fog. the increased weight.
166

Haze is the term used when the visibility is
limited to between 1km and 2km as a result
of dust or smoke.
Fig 8.28 Hail.

(j) Thunderstorm
This is a form of precipitation that is Fig 8.31 Haze.
accompanied by thunder and lightning. Smog refers to a mixture of fog and smoke.
Thunder is the explosion or bomb-like sound It is very common in industrialised countries
which occurs in the sky where there are like Germany and the Unites States of
thick clouds. America.
(k) Mist, fog, and haze
These terms have a direct relationship in
terms of mode of formation. The difference
is in the variations of how they affect the
visibility of a given area.
Fog is used when the visibility is less than
one kilometre. Fig 8.32 Smog.
Task 8.3
1. Define the term precipitation.
2. List and describe various forms of
precipitation.
The water cycle

Fig 8.29 Fog. Activity 8.20
Mist is used when visibility extends to one
kilometre. Work in groups of three.
1. Collect sauce pans, water and a
charcoal stove or any other source of
heat.
2. Put water in a sauce pan to boil.
3. When it starts boiling, get a cold lid
and hold it above the sauce pan.
4. Note down your observations for a
Fig 8.30 Mist. class presentation.
167

The water cycle is a continuous cycle where the earth’s surface. It falls in the form of
water evaporates into the air, forms clouds precipitation.
and falls down as precipitation. It then When the dew-point is below freezing
evaporates again and repeats the same point the water vapour turns directly into
cycle. It is a never ending cycle. Water ice crystals. The crystals fall in the form of
keeps moving and changing its state from snow. The snow is formed by sublimation.
solid to liquid to gas over and over again. This is the process through which moisture
This process is also referred to as the freezes without changing into liquid.
hydrological cycle.
Stage 3: Infiltration, percolation and
The water cycle process over-land flow/run off
Stage 1: Evaporation Activity 8.21
The sun heats the surface of the earth. This Work in groups of three.
heat makes water from the earth’s surface
and plants to rise into the atmosphere. 1. Go outside your classroom. Pour some
Water rises in the form of moisture or vapour water on the ground and observe what
through evaporation and transpiration. happens after 10 minutes.
2. Move to a rocky area or an area that
Stage 2: Condensation and sublimation has concrete. Pour water on the
The rising moisture reaches the upper parts ground and observe what happens.
of the atmosphere where temperatures are 3. Relate your observation to different
low. It then condenses forming tiny water types of soils that you learnt about.
droplets that result in the formation of 4. Discuss your findings in class on the
clouds. Under the influence of gravitational rate of filtration and penetration of
pull, the water droplets fall down onto water on different surfaces.
Fig 8.33 A summary of the water cycle.

168

When the water droplets reach the earth’s water bodies such as swamps, rivers, lakes,
surface, part of it infiltrates and percolates and oceans.
into the ground. This forms underground Part of the infiltrated water is taken in
water. The water finds itself back to the by vegetation. When the sun releases its
water bodies in springs and wells. insolation it energises the processes of
When the soils are highly saturated, the evaporation and transpiration. Moisture
water starts flowing onto the earth’s surface then rises back into the atmosphere. This
in form of run-off. The water ends up into whole process repeats itself. It is continuous.
Activity 8.22
Do this in pairs.
Study Figure 8.34 and answer the questions that follow.
Vapour transport
40
Precipitation Precipitation
111 385
Evaporation + transpiration 71
Evaporation
Surface
425
runoff
Percolation River
Ocean
Lake
Land
Ground water flow
Fig 8.34
1. Describe what happens at every Types of rainfall

stage.
2. Explain what you think would happen Case study
if one process is omitted. Read the passage below and aswer the
3. Suggest ways in which humans questions that follow.
can maintain the water cycle in its Manzi, Kasime and Shema are very good
normal state. friends. The three friends come from
4. Record your findings and discuss different areas but study together in a
them in a class presentation. boarding school in the Eastern Province
169

of Rwanda. Manzi comes from Musanze 5. On the top of the mountain, the
District where there are many mountains. air drops down the other side. It
Kasime comes from Rubavu District near warms as it drops. This means it has
Lake Kivu. Shema’s home is near Nyungwe a greater ability to carry moisture.
Forest. There is therefore little rain on the
1. In pairs, identfy the types of rainfall far side of the mountain. This area is
experienced in each of the areas called the rain shadow.
where the students come from. Note
2. Explain the formation of the types of (i) The side of a mountain that receives
rainfall identified in (1) above. rainfall is called the windward
3. Mention and describe the formation side. The side that does not receive
of type of rainfall that is expirienced rainfall is known as the leeward
in any of the areas mentioned above. side. It is sometimes known as the
4. Advice the communities living in the rain shadow side.
areas mentioned on how to conserve (ii) The leeward side remains dry
the environment in order for them to because it is bathed by a dry
continues receiving rainfall. downslope wind. The moisture in
5. Discuss your finding in a class. the downslope wind is trapped and
dropped on the windward side.
As you studied earlier, rainfall is one of the
Areas in Eastern Africa where such rainfall
forms of the precipitation. There are 3 types
is received include:
of rainfall.
 The highlands of Rwanda – Northern
 Relief (orographic) rainfall
and Western provinces
 Convectional rainfall
 Western side of Mt. Ruwenzori in
 Cyclonic (frontal) rainfall Uganda
The relief (orographic) rainfall  Mt. Elgon
 Kenyan highlands
Formation of relief rainfall
1. The prevailing winds pick up moisture Condensation Clouds
level
from water bodies as they travel
across, making the air moist. Leeward
2. The moist air is forced to rise over
mountains and hills. Rain Warm dry air
3. This forces the air to cool and descending
Windward
condense, forming clouds.
Warm moist
4. The air continues to be forced over air rising
the mountains and so it drops its Sea
moisture as relief rain.
Fig 8.35 Formation of relief rainfall.
170

Convectional rainfall 3. This causes the warm air to cool and
This type of rainfall is very common in areas begin to condense.
where the ground is heated by the hot sun. 4. As the warm air is forced to rise
It mostly occurs in the tropics. This is why further, condensation occurs and rain
these areas experience heavy rainfalls most is formed.
afternoons. 5. Frontal rain produces a variety of
clouds, which brings moderate to
Formation of convectional rainfall
heavy rainfall.
1. The surface of the earth is heated by
Clouds
the sun.
2. The warm surface heats the air above Condensation level
it. Hot air always rises so this newly

heated air rises. Rain
3. As it rises, the air cools and begins to

condensate. Warm moist air rising
4. Further rising and cooling causes

a large amount of condensation to
occur and rain is formed. Warm moist air Cold dense air
5. Convection produces towering
clouds, which produce heavy rain and Front
possible thunder and lightning.
Fig 8.37 Formation of frontal rainfall
Clouds Activity 8.23

Condensation level
1. Describe the type of rainfall that
occurs in your home and school
Warm moist Warm moist neighbourhood.
air rising
air rising 2. Using a well-labelled diagram,
Rain describe how it is formed.
3. Suggest ways in which the
environment should be cared for to
Ground
ensure reliable rainfall.
Fig 8.36 Formation of convectional rainfall. 4 Discuss your findings in class.
Cyclonic (depression or frontal) rainfall
Measuring rainfall
Formation of frontal rainfall
Activity 8.24
1. Two air masses meet, one a warm air
mass and one a cold air mass. Work in groups of five with the guidance of
2. The lighter, less dense, warm air is your teacher.
forced to rise over the denser, cold air.
171

1. Find out how to make a rain gauge.
2. Make one for use in your school .
3. Place it in an appropriate location
within your school compound.
4. Measure the amount of rainfall that is
collected daily for two months.
5. Calculate the daily rainfall totals and
the mean monthly rainfall.
Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.
A rain gauge has an outer cylinder within
which there is a funnel that drains into a
collecting bottle. A part of it is buried in the
ground while the top part remains above
the ground.
The following important conditions should
be observed when placing a rain gauge in
a place. Fig 8.38 The structure of a rain gauge
 It should be situated in an open space Measuring rainfall
where there are no trees, houses or Rainfall can be measured as:
buildings. The place should also be free
• Daily rainfall
of surface run off. This is to ensure that
the rain to be measured is as actual as • Total monthly rainfall
possible. If it is placed under trees or • Mean monthly rainfall
in front of houses, it will give wrong • Total annual rainfall
readings. This is because more water • Mean annual rainfall
will collect in it.
 Part of the rain gauge (about 30 cm) Daily rainfall
should be left above the ground. This is This is the amount of rainfall collected in
to prevent the run-off and splash water a rain gauge at a weather station in a day.
from entering the measuring jar.
Total monthly rainfall
 The bottom part of the rain gauge
This is obtained by adding the figures of
should be partially buried. This is
the daily rainfall for a period of one month.
to reduce or stop any evaporation
from the jar. If this is not done, part
of this water collected in the jar can
evaporate. This will happen when the
temperatures are high.
172

Table 8.5: Daily rainfall totals in April for Nyamirambo.
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Rainfall 10 12 TR TR 10 2 0.1 TR 20 40 15 15 8 5 6 TR TR 30
Day 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Rainfall 29 10 TR TR 20 5 4 TR 5 10 10 TR
TR = traces
From Table 8.5 the rainfall total for the Total annual rainfall
month of April in Nyamirambo is 266.1 mm. This is the mean annual rainfall totals for the
12 months in a year added together.
Mean monthly rainfall
Mean monthly rainfall is calculated by See Table 8.6.
adding all monthly rainfall totals for the year
and dividing by 12.
Table 8.6 Total annual rainfall.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D Total
Mean 26 10 61 202 322 107 88 65 56 84 94 60 1,181
monthly
rainfall in
mm
Mean annual rainfall 3. (a) Explain how rainfall is measured.

This is the average rainfall of a place. It (b) State reasons to why it is
is calculated after a period of years such necessary to measure rainfall.
as 15 years. The annual rainfall totals are 4. Explain the factors responsible for the
collected for a period of 15 years. They are formation of rainfall.
then added and the sum divided by 15.
Atmospheric pressure
Task 8.4
1. With help of appropriate illustrations, Activity 8.25
describe the major types of rainfall. Work in pairs.
2. Study the table below, showing
areas which receive rainfall. Fill in 1. Define atmospheric pressure.
the appropriate types of rainfall 2. State and explain the factors that
experienced. influence atmospheric pressure.
Type of rainfall The area 3. Discuss your finding in a class.
Mountainous areas
Around Lake Kivu Atmospheric pressure refers to the weight
Highlands exerted by the atmosphere over the Earth’s
surface. Atmospheric pressure is greater
173

on the ground surface and greatest at the poles. As the air moves towards the poles,
sea level. It decreases with an increase in it crosses over latitudes which are reducing
altitude. Atmospheric pressure varies from in size. This leads to high pressure.
place to place. On the other hand, air blowing from
Factors that influence atmospheric pressure the polar region crosses over widening
latitudes. This leads to low pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is influenced by three
factors.
 Altitude  Rotation of the
 Temperature earth.
(a) Altitude
This refers to the height of a given place
in relation to the sea level. Areas closer to
the sea level support a high column of air
above them. This air exerts much pressure.
Hence, atmospheric pressure is higher in
areas near the sea level and lower on the
mountains.
Small column of air
Fig 8. 40 Global pressure belts.
(Less weight-LP)

High pressure
Activity 8.26
(A larger
column of air) Great Locate zones of high and low pressure
weight Mountain
on the earth’s surface on the map shown
below.
NP
Fig 8.39 Differences in atmospheric pressure. 60°
(b) Temperature
High temperatures cause low pressure while 30°
low temperature cause high pressure. In hot
warm regions, heated air becomes lighter
and rises. This causes low pressure. 0°
In areas with low temperature, air is cold
and dense. The air sinks and exerts pressure
on the surface. This causes high pressure. 30°
(c) The earth’s rotation 60°

During the rotation of the earth, air is SP
thrown from the equator towards the
Fig 8.41
174

Measurement of atmospheric The mercury barometer
pressure A glass tube graduated in centimetres or
inches and closed at one end is filled with
Activity 8.27 mercury. The tube is then inverted and the
open end immersed into a dish of mercury.
Study the diagram representing a mercury
The mercury flows out of the tube into
barometer and answer the questions that
the bowl. It does so until the weight of its
follow:
column is balanced by the pressure of the
Vacuum atmospheric pressure exerted on it. This
means the mercury adjusts itself until its
weight in the column is equal to the weight
Glass tube
of the air pressure.
760 mm When the pressure of the atmosphere
(29.92) increases, it exerts weight on the mercury in
Atmospheric
the dish. The mercury in the tube rises. The
pressure
atmospheric pressure is obtained by reading
the level of the mercury on the graduated
tube. When the pressure decreases, the
height of the mercury in the tube drops. The
Mercury length of the column of mercury indicates
the air pressure.
Fig 8.42
1. Explain why the arrow shown on the
diagram points down wards.
2. What is the atmospheric pressure
experienced in the area where the
above mercury barometer was used?
3. State the units used in measuring the
atmospheric pressure.
4. Explain how the above instrument
operates.
5. Discuss you findings in a class
presentation.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using
an instrument called a barometer. It is
measured in millibars.
Fig 8.43 Mercury barometer
There are two kinds of barometers. These
are: The aneroid barometer
(a) the mercury barometer This is a smaller and more portable
barometer. It consists of a vacuum metal box
(b) the aneroid barometer.
175

or capsule with a spring inside. This spring Task 8.5
prevents it from collapsing. One end of the
Use the diagram below to answer the
spring is firmly fixed to the frame of the
questions that follow.
barometer. The other end is free to move
North pole
with changes in atmospheric pressure. A X 60°N
lever is fixed to the movable end of the
spring. The lever moves a pointer over a
30°N
dial graduated in millimetres.
Y 0°
Sub-tropical high pressure 30°S
Sub-tropical low
30°S
pressure zone
Z 60°S
South pole
Fig 8.45
1. .(a) Name the pressure belts marked
X, Y and Z.
Fig 8.44 An aneroid barometer.
(b) Explain the reason for the
occurrence of the atmospheric
The metal bar or capsule is sensitive to
pressure at location Y.
pressure changes. It compresses when
pressure increases and expands when (c) Why are polar regions associated
pressure decreases. The spring in the box with high pressure cells?
or capsule correspondingly moves. It allows 2. State and explain any three factors
the pointer to indicate the pressure of the that influence the atmospheric
atmosphere on the dial. The atmospheric pressure of a given area.
pressure is obtained by reading the figure 3. Explain the effects of atmospheric
indicated by the pointer. pressure on temperature and winds.
On some aneroid barometers, pressure is 4. Study the diagram below and answer
automatically and continuously printed on the questions that follow
a revolving drum. This drum is inside the
barometer. The pressure is printed on a
graph known as a barograph.
Fig 8.46
176

(a) Name the instrument. (a) What were the tiny water droplets?
(b) State the element of weather (b) As a geography student, explain what
measured using the above was taking place when water droplets
instrument. started rolling down from Miss
(c) Explain how the above Batamuliza’s forehead.
instrument works. (c) Which element of weather caused
Miss Batamuliza’s agony on her
Humidity journey to school?
(d) What was limiting Miss Batamuliza’s
Case study visibility?
Read the short story below and answer the
questions that follow. Humidity refers to the amount of water
Miss Batamuliza is a day scholar in one of moisture in the air that surrounds the earth.
the secondary schools in Musanze district. Humidity displays the degree of wetness
She walks for five kilometres every day to of the atmosphere. It is one of the major
school. She passes through the rocky slopes influences of the atmospheric weather.
that decorate the beautiful landscape of The water vapour is obtained from water
the region. She struggles to see what is bodies and the ground surface through
ahead of her as she walks because of a evaporation. It is also obtained from plants
cloudy substance that blurs her vision. This through transpiration. The amount of
condition is a common occurrence in her water vapour in the air largely depends
area. on temperature, the size of water bodies
One day she woke up earlier than usual. She present and prevailing winds. Places with
wanted to go to school to do her assignment. large water bodies and high temperatures
After walking for two kilometres, she was have high amounts of water vapour .
covered by the tiny water droplets that Areas with no water bodies have little
stuck to her hair. amounts of water vapour. Areas with low
Despite the cold and the dampness, she still temperatures also have limited amounts
went on with her journey. In a few minutes, of water vapour. Onshore and calm winds
several droplets of water began rolling down facilitate build up of water vapour on land.
her face. She thought it was drizzling. Her Offshore and very strong winds blow away
bag and sweater became damp. water vapour from the land.
She soon reached school. She observed that At any one time, at a given temperature,
some of her classmates who arrived after there is a limit to the amount of moisture
her were cold and damp. Later that day that the air can hold. When this limit is
when she went home, she requested her reached, the air is said to be saturated.
parents to take her to a boarding school. Warm air can hold higher amounts of water
She wanted to become a medical doctor vapour than cold air. As a result, the amount
like her brother. of rainfall received from warm air is more
than that received from cold air.
177

Humidity is expressed either as absolute Actual vapour
Relative
humidity or relative humidity. density x 100%
Humidity =
Saturation
(a) Absolute humidity vapour density
Activity 8.28 Then, the relative humidity will be calculated
Your teacher will take you for a field visit to as follows:
a weather station near your school. = 47 x 100%
98
1. Ask the resource person at the = 47.96 %
station to show you how to measure
The relative humidity in this case is 47.96%.
humidity using the instrument at the
This implies that the same mass of air at the
station.
same temperature still requires 47.96% to
2. Measure the humidity in the reach saturation.
atmosphere at the station.
3. Record your findings. Factors that influence the amount of
humidity
Absolute humidity refers to the actual The amount of humidity varies from time to
amount of water vapour present in a certain time. It also varies from place to place. This
volume of air at a given temperature. The variation occurs due to the following factors.
absolute humidity is expressed in grams
per cubic metre (g/m3). Absolute humidity Precipitation
is high when temperature is high. This is This plays a great role determining the
during the day and in summer. Areas that quantity of humidity in the atmosphere.
experience high temperatures throughout Areas that receive heavy rainfall regularly
the year have high absolute humidity. Such have more water moisture hence creating
areas include the equatorial zones. This humid conditions. On the other hand, areas
happens in areas with large water bodies with arid conditions will have little or no
and heavy rainfall. water vapour.
(b) Relative humidity Air temperature

This is the ratio between the actual amount This determines the rate of evaporation
of water vapour present in a given mass of and transpiration. When the temperatures
air to the maximum amount of water vapour increase, evaporation and transpiration
that the same air can hold at the same increase too. These processes steadily supply
temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. the atmosphere with water vapour. The
opposite happens when the temperatures
Actual vapour
Relative decline.
density
Humidity = x 100%
Saturation The prevailing winds
vapour density Winds which are warm and moist carry a lot
of water vapour to the areas they blow to.
Suppose the actual vapour density is 47 and the
saturation vapour density is 98. Calculate the
Cold and dry winds limit the level of humid
relative humidity. conditions.
178

Plant cover wet-bulb and dry-bulb hygrometer. There is
Forested areas with dense vegetation cover a modern instrument also used to measure
have high humidity. This is due to intense humidity. It has a self-recording system and
transpiration and other related geographical it is called hygrograph.
aspects that increase water moisture. Areas
with little vegetation cover have less humidity. Wet-bulb and dry-bulb hygrometer
This has a muslin bag (wet-bulb hygrometer)
The presence and size of water bodies that is kept wet all the time. When the
Water bodies of reasonable sizes enable moisture reduces through evaporation,
areas where they are located to have humid latent heat also lowers. It cools the wet- bulb
conditions. This is due to evaporation that and as a result mercury contracts showing
continuously supplies water vapour to the the readings. The dry-bulb hygrometer has
atmosphere. Regions that have few or no muslin bag. It is entirely affected by the
lack water bodies have less humidity due moisture in the surrounding air.
to limited supply water moisture.
Latitude dry bulb wet bulb

The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is higher at the equator and
°C 45
the tropics. It is lower at the temperate and °C 40 40
polar regions. 35 35
30 30
Atmospheric pressure 25 25
20 20
The higher the atmospheric pressure, the 15 15
lower the amount of water vapour in the 10 10
air. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the 5 5
0
higher the amount of water vapour. 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
Activity 8.29 -15 -15
-20 -20
Do this in pairs. -25 -25
Use the Internet and geographical -30 -30
documents.
cotton cloth
1. Explain other factors that influence
humidity.
2. Record your findings and present water
them in a class discussion.
Measurement of humidity Fig 8.47 A simple hygrometer.
Humidity is measured by an instrument Humidity levels are therefore derived

known as a hygrometer. Though there are a from the difference existing between the
variety of hygrometers, the commonly used two readings. This is when the air has not
is the psychrometer. It is often known as the reached saturation levels.
179

Table 8.7 Interpretation of the readings of
the psychrometer.
Nature of the Description of
readings humidity levels
A very big difference Very low
between the humidity.
readings of the wet
bulb and dry bulb
hygrometers.
A very small Humidity is high. (b)
difference
The same readings The air is
saturated.
Winds
Activity 8.30
Go outside your classroom.
1. Observe trees and hanged clothes.
2. Cut small pieces of leaves and put
them down.
3. Observe what happens to them.
4. Throw chalk dust into the air.
5. Record your observations for a class (c)
discussion. Fig 8.48
Activity 8.31 1. Describe the photographs (a), (b) and
(c) while relating them to weather
Use the photographs provided below to conditions.
answer the questions that follow. 2. In which photograph is air calm?
3. Why do you think there are calm
conditions in photograph (a)?
4. Examine the effects of the element of
weather identified in photographs (b)
and (c).
Wind is defined as moving air. Winds range

from a gentle breeze to the fastest and most
(a) damaging winds. Wind plays a great role
180

in influencing weather as well as climate. If  The Chinook/Fohn winds
there were no winds, it would be hard for  The monsoon winds.
water vapour to reach the upper layers of
the atmosphere. Therefore, condensation (a) Land and sea breezes
would not take place and no clouds and These are air circulations which occur locally
rainfall could be formed. Wind moves from along the shores of water bodies such
a zone of low pressure to a zone of high lakes and oceans. They are influenced by
pressure. It moves in a horizontal manner. variations in temperatures between land
and sea respectively.
Types of winds
Sea breeze
There are essentially two types of winds.
During the day, the land warms up faster
• Local winds than the neighbouring water body. The
• Global winds. air over the land gets heated. It expands,
becomes light and rises. Low pressure
Local winds develops over the land surface. The water
Local winds are associated with specific surface which takes a longer time to warm,
areas. They are also directly influenced by remains cooler than the land surface. The
the local environment. Such winds cover a low temperature over the water surface
small area. They include the following. leads to the development of a high pressure.
 Land breeze Wind therefore blows from the water body
to the land.
 Sea breeze
 Katabatic and anabatic winds
Sea breeze
181

SUN
rising warm air

warm land surface
sea breeze
cool water
surface
SEA
Fig 8. 49 Development of a sea breeze.
Characteristics of a sea breeze Land breeze

• The wind is fairly strong. At night, the land cools faster then the
• It blows in the afternoon from sea. This leads to low temperature over
a water body towards the land. the land. The air molecules over the land
This is because by this time both becomes heavy leading to development
the land and the water body have of high pressure. The warmer and lighter
been heated. This creates a distinct air over the water rises. This results into
pressure difference. low pressure over the water body. Wind
• The wind is relatively cool. therefore blows from the land to the sea
forming a land breeze.
Land breeze
182

ris
ing
wa
night rm
air
descending cool air
cool land
surface high p
ress
ure
land breeze
low pressure
warm water surface
LAND
SEA
Fig 8.50 Development of a land breeze.
Characteristics of the land breeze valley bottoms. This creates a high pressure
• It is a light wind. zone on the upper slopes and a low pressure
• It blows at night. cell within the valley.
• It is weak compared to a sea The cold air from the upper slopes descends
breeze. This is because the pressure towards the valley. This air descends under
difference between the water and the the influence of gravity. The descending cold
land surface is small. wind is called the katabatic wind. It is also
Areas that experience these breezes include sometimes known as the mountain breeze.
the areas near Lake Kivu, Lake Victoria and night
Lake Tanganyika. Terrestrial radiation
Weather conditions associated with land hill slope

and sea breezes mountain breeze
(a) Sea breezes have cooling effects on
the adjacent coasts on hot afternoons accumulation of very cold air at valley bottom
in the tropical regions.
(b) Sea breezes also lead to formation of
convetional rainfall on the land in late
afternoons. This is common in areas
around Lake Victoria and the coastal
regions.
(c) Land breezes lead to the development
of heavy rainfall accompanied by
thunderstorms and strong winds. This
occurs on water at night. Fig 8.51 Development of a mountain breeze
(katabatic winds).
Katabatic winds Characteristics of mountain breeze
At night, the upper parts of mountains lose • It is cold and dense.
heat faster than the lowland areas such as • It blows at night down a mountain
slope.
183

• It is gentle. Within the valley, the sun’s rays are not
intense. The cool conditions lead to the
Weather associated with mountain breeze
formation of a high pressure zone. The
(a) It creates a temperature inversion in warm air is therefore forced to rise by the
the valley. The air above the valley adjacent cooler denser air in the valley.
bottom is warmer than the surface. This allows cooler air from the valley to
(b) It leads to formation of fog or mist start rising against the slopes. The air rises
in valleys in the early morning to replace the warm air that expanded and
hours. These weather conditions rose. This is sometimes known as the valley
are common in highland areas and breeze.
escarpments bordering highlands.
(c) It causes frost and chilly conditions in Characteristics associated with the anabatic
the valleys. wind
(d) It is associated with dry conditions. • It is a warm light wind.
• It blows upslope during the day.
Anabatic winds
Weather conditions associated with
During the day, the sun’s rays reach the anabatic winds
mountain slopes more than valleys. This (a) They lead to the formation of
results into a low pressure zone along upper cumulo-nimbus clouds. These clouds
slopes. The air continues heating up and yield heavy rainfall accompanied by
expands eventually rising into atmosphere. thunderstorms on the mountains.
day time (b) The valley remains without mist or
anabatic wind
fog.
incoming solar
hill slope radiation The Chinook or Fohn winds
These winds are formed when the warm
moist winds blow against the mountain. As
they blow, they drop the moisture in form
of precipitation on the windward side. After
moisture is dropped, winds descend on the
leeward side. They begin to warm up due to
adiabatic compression.
These winds are dry and warm leading to
dry conditions along the leeward side of
the mountain. The chinook is an American
word which means “snow eater”. This is
because the wind is associated with rising
temperatures that result into snow melt.
When these winds are still on the windward
Fig 8.52 Development of a valley breeze side they are not yet chinook. These winds
(anabatic winds). are common on the eastern slopes of the
184

Rocky Mountains in the USA and in the are called the Fohn winds in the Alps and
Alps Mountains in southern Europe. They Chinook in the Rocky Mountains.
Clouds
Windward side
Leeward side
Condensation level
Rain Mountain Fohn wind-warm

and dry wind
Warm moist air mass
Sea
Fig 8. 53 Fohn wind descends the mountain as a warm dry wind.
The monsoon winds Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons

A monsoon is a seasonal shift in the throughout much of the tropics. They are
prevailing wind direction. It usually often associated with the Indian Ocean.
brings with it a different kind of weather.
Fig 8.54 The direction of the monsoon winds in summer and in winter.
Monsoons always blow from cold to warm The harmattan wind

regions. The summer monsoon and the This wind originates from the Sahara desert.
winter monsoon determine the climate It is associated with a lot of dust. It usually
for most of India and Southeast Asia. It results into a decrease in temperatures due
blows from the southwest in summer and to the dusty haze created. When it occurs,
from the northeast in winter. In India and visibility is reduced to a kilometre or even
nearby lands, the season during which the less.
southwest monsoon blows has heavy rains.
185

North pole
60°N
30°N
0°
30°S
Fig 8.55 The harmattan wind.
60°S
Sirrocco winds
South pole
These are hot winds carrying large quantities
of dust in North Africa. They usually blow Fig 8.56
between February and June. They share 3. Present your work for marking.
similarities with the harmattan winds.
Activity 8.32 These winds operate between latitudes and

cover a huge area or region. They include
Do this in pairs. the following.
1. Use the Internet and geography  The trade winds
textbooks to find out other examples
 The westerlies
of local winds.
 The polar easterlies
2. Describe their characteristics and
effects on land where they occur. As earlier mentioned, global winds cover
a larger region and interplay between
3. Record your findings and present
latitudes.
them during a class discussion.
The global winds Trade winds

The trade winds are the easterly surface
Activity 8.33 winds found in the tropics. They are found
1. Describe the different types of global within the lower portion of the earth’s
winds. atmosphere near the earth’s equator. The
trade winds blow predominantly from the
2. Locate the global winds by filling in
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere.
the names of the winds in the map of
They form the North-east trade winds.
Figure 8.56.
They also blow from the south-east in the
Southern Hemisphere. Here they form the
south-east trade winds. They strengthen
during the winter and when the Arctic
region is in its warm phase.
186

They blow from the subtropical high
towards the equatorial trough. They
migrate with the pressure belts north and
south of the equator.
Fig 8.58 Westerlies.
The polar easterlies

Fig 8.57 Trade winds.
The polar easterlies are the dry, cold
The westerlies prevailing winds that blow from the high-
pressure areas of the north and south
These are prevailing winds that blow from
poles towards low-pressure areas. Cold
the west toward the east in the middle
air subsides at the poles creating the high
latitudes. They blow between latitudes
pressure. This pressure causes air to flow
30 and 60 degrees. They originate from
outward towards the equator. The outflow
the high-pressure areas in the subtropical
is then deflected westward by the coriolis
latitudes and blow towards the poles.
effect. This results in the easterlies.
The westerlies are strongest in the Western
Hemisphere and at times of low pressure
over the poles. They are weakest in the
Southern Hemisphere and when pressures
are higher over the poles. The westerlies
are particularly strong in areas where land
is absent. This is because land intensifies
the flow pattern, making the current to
flow in a north – south direction. This
action slows down the winds. The strongest
westerly winds in the middle latitudes occur
between the 40 and 50 degrees latitudes.
The westerlies carry the warm, equatorial
waters and winds to the western coasts
Fig 8.59 Polar easterlies.
of continents. This happens more in the
Southern Hemisphere because of its vast
oceans.
187

Table 8.8 below shows a summary of the global winds.
Table 8.8 Global winds

Wind Description
system
The polar • Their origin is in the polar regions.
easterlies • They blow towards the temperate areas 60° north or south of the
equator.
The • They originate from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
westerlies • They move towards the temperate low pressure belts.
• They begin as south westerlies but deflect hence generally named
westerlies.
The • They begin from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
northeast • They move towards the equatorial low pressure areas.
trade winds
• They are only found in the Northern Hemisphere.
• They are situated within 30°N.
The • They originate from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
southeast • They blow towards the equatorial low pressure areas.
trade winds
• Their latitudinal location is within 300S.
90°N
Polar easteries
Prevailing westeries
Tropical easteries
NE trade winds
The doldrums
Tropical easteries
SE trade winds
Prevailing westeries
Rising air Polar easteries

Sinking air 90°S
Fig 8.60 Global winds.

188

Measurement of wind The direction of wind is always determined
as the direction from which the wind blows.
Wind is measured in terms of direction
For example, wind blowing from west to
and speed. The instruments used in these
east is always defined as west wind.
measurements are:
Modern wind vanes are electronically
 wind vane for wind direction
connected to a calibrated dial. The dial has
 cup anemometer for wind speed degrees and compass directions, as shown
 wind sock for the wind strength and below:
direction.
 East wind is specified as 90°
Wind vane  South wind is specified as 180°
 West wind is specified as 270°
Activity 8. 34
 North wind is specified as 360°
Work in groups of five.
Cup anemometer
1. Use local materials from your
environment to make a wind vane. This is the most accurate instrument used in
measuring the speed of wind. It is accurate
2. Place it in a place where wind
especially in measuring the horizontal wind
direction can be determined.
speed. The cup anemometer has cups which
3. Read the direction of the wind and when blown by the wind, generate a weak
share your findings in class. electric current. The current drives the
pointer that is connected to standardised
This is an instrument used to show wind readings on a dial. The readings are in
direction. It has a pointer that looks like an metres per second, kilometres per second
arrow with a broad base. The head always or miles per second.
points to the direction of the wind. The more the wind speed, the more the
rotations and generation of electric current.
Hence, the pointer will point on high metre
readings.
Freely Cups
rotating arm
Metre
Compass
direction
10 metres
Fig 8.61 A wind vane.
Fig 8.62 Cup anemometer.
189

Activity 8.35 3. Determine the wind direction using a
compass.
With the guidance of your teacher, visit a
weather station near your school. 4. Observe its behaviour and record
down your observations.
1. Identify a cup anemometer at the 5. Use the findings in class discussions.
station.
2. Ask the resource person to show you Task 8.6
how to read the speed of wind. 1. Define wind.
3. Read the wind speed at the weather 2. (a) Explain how winds influence the
station. climate of a given area.
4. Record your findings. (b) With the help of diagrams,
The windsock describe how the following are
The windsock measures the strength and measured.
direction of wind. When the wind’s strength (i) Wind direction
is weak, the sock points downwards. When (ii) Wind speed
it is great, it blows out almost at right angle. (iii) Wind strength
Windsocks are mostly used in airports.
3. Distinguish between the following.
Direction of wind (a) Land breeze and sea breeze.
(b) Hamattan and Sirocco winds.
(c) Katabatic and anabatic winds.
4. (a) With the help of a diagram,
describe how the chinook winds
are formed.
Cloth (b) Examine the effects of Chinook
winds in areas where they occur.
Clouds
Mast Activity 8.37
Fig 8.63 Windsock. Do this in pairs. Go outside the classroom
and look up into the sky. What do you see?
Activity 8. 36 1. Note down the colour and
Work in groups of three. characteristics of the sky above you.
2. Write down the findings.
1. Tie a paper bag onto a long pole or
stick. 3. Draw and colour the sky that you
have observed.
2. Place it firmly in a good place where
the winds can reach. 4. Have a class for a discussion on your
observations.
190

Clouds are tiny water droplets or ice Types of clouds
particles suspended in the air. They form
Clouds are classified according to their
when water vapour condenses into water
height, appearance, shape and altitude.
droplets or ice crystals. They condense
They are generally classified into four.
around particles such as smoke, dust or salts
that are found moving in the atmosphere.  High clouds – 6,000 to 12000 metres
 Middle clouds – 2,100 to 6,000
metres
 Low clouds – below 2,100 metres
 Clouds of great vertical extent – 1,500
to 9,000 metres
High clouds
Clouds Characteristics
Cirrus • They are made of
crystals that give them
an appearance of white
colour.
• They are the highest
clouds in the
atmosphere.
• They are thin and
detached. Fig 8.64 Cirrus clouds.
• They are feathery with tail filaments.

• They yield no precipitation.
Cirrocumulus • They are made of ice

crystals.
• They are white in colour.
• They look like soap foam.
• They are made of thin
layers and rows of
rounded masses with a
ripple appearance.
• They yield no Fig 8.65 Cirrocumulus clouds.
precipitation.
191

Cirrostratus • They are made of ice crystals which give the clouds a milky
appearance.
• They are thin veil-like sheets or layers that cover much or all the sky.
• When the sun or moon shines through them they form a ring of
light around (halo).
Fig 8.66 Cirrostratus clouds.

Middle clouds
Altocumulus • They consist of water droplets and some ice crystals.

• They are whitish-grey in colour.
• They form waves of lumps separated by patches of blue sky.
• They look like piled up cotton wool.
• They have flattened bottoms.
• They yield small amounts of precipitation.
Fig 8.67 Altocumulus clouds.
192

Altostratus • They consist of water droplets and some ice crystals.
• They are grayish in colour.
• They form uniform sheets of watery-looking clouds. These sheets
partly or totally cover the sky, reducing the brightness of the sun
or the moon.
Fig 8.68 Altostratus clouds.

Low clouds
Stratocumulus • They mainly consist of water droplets.
• They are dark grey or smoky in colour.
• They are large globular and bumpy looking with an appearance
of long rolling rows.
• They occasionally yield showers.
Fig 8.69 Stratocumulus.
193

Stratus • They consist of water droplets.
• They form a low uniform layer resembling fog.
• They are greyish white in colour.
• They are associated with dull weather and drizzle.
Fig 8.70 Stratus clouds.
Nimbostratus • They consist of water droplets.

• They are thick and dark grayish-black in colour.
• They are shapeless and may have darker patches beneath them.
• They yield continuous rain.
Fig 8.71 Nimbostratus clouds.
194

Clouds of great vertical extent
Cumulus • They consist of water droplets.
• They are thick white clouds.
• They have a flat base and sharp outlines.
• They occur as isolated heaps. They look like cauliflower or heaped
cotton wool.
• They develop into a thick vertical extent because they are
convectional in type.
• They are associated with intermittent sunshine and occasionally
short-lived showers.
Fig 8.72 Cumulus clouds.

Cumulonimbus • They are made of water droplets at the lower levels and ice crystals
at the highest levels.
• They have a great vertical extent rising from a height of about 2100
metres to 9000 metres above the ground.
• They are big, heavy and black in colour with a flat base.
• The top of the cloud spreads out assuming the shape of an anvil.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are associated with convectional currents
which create rapid movement and mixing of air particles, leading
to very heavy rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning.
• They are associated with rain showers and hail. The showers are
heavy and violent.
Fig 8.73 Cumulonimbus clouds.
195

Fig 8. 74 Clouds at different altitudes.
Activity 8.38 2. Ask the resource person at the

station to show you how to measure
Work in groups of three. sunshine.
1. Go outside your classroom. 3. Measure the sunshine at the station
2. Look up into the sky. at that particular time.
3. Identify the different types of clouds 4. Explain how you can measure
that are up in sky. sunshine in your school using a
4. Give the correct characteristics of the Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.
clouds that you identify. 5. Record your findings.
5. Draw and colour the clouds identified. 6. Discuss them during a class
6. Present your findings in a class presentation.
discussion. This is the light or solar radiation that
is received on the earth’s surface from
Sunshine the sun. The amount and duration of
sunshine received on the earth’s surface is
Activity 8.39 determined by:
Your teacher will take you for a visit to a • cloud cover
weather station. • aspect
1. Identify a Campbell-Stokes sunshine • latitude.
recorder.
196

Thick cloud cover reduces the amount of sensitised paper. When the sun shines, the
sunshine and consequently its duration. The paper is burnt and produces a burnt line.
sunshine is more intense when the sky is In case the sunshine is continuous, a line
clear. In the Northern Hemisphere, the south- will be completely burnt. If there are some
facing slopes receive more sunlight than the variations, some gaps will be shown. All
north-facing slopes. Places near the equator parts of the burnt line are then added up to
get more sunlight than polar regions. The determine the number of hours of sunshine.
amount of sunshine in a place is recorded as
a mean of sunshine hours per day.
Factors that influence
Sunshine is measured using an instrument
called the Campbell-Stokes recorder.
climate
Activity 8.40
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
This is a glass which has a sensitised Use the geographical knowledge that you
calibrated paper on a metal frame. have so far gained about climate.
Glass sphere 1. Find out and give factors for the
variation of the following elements of
Support weather and climate in the area near
screw
your school.
Semicircular • Rainfall
metal
Cardholder • Pressure
Card
• Temperature
• Humidity
Levelling
Sub base
screws
• Rainfall
Main base
• Sunshine
• Wind
2. Write a detailed report on the factors
given.
discussion.
Some of the factors that influence climate
include the following:
(a) Latitudinal location

The latitude of an area determines the
amount of the sun’s insolation received
Fig 8.75 A Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder. in the area. The movement of the sun is
The glass is put in a position where it is specific. When it is overhead in a given
possible for the sun’s rays to focus on the area the temperatures increase. It is for
197

this reason that the equatorial regions (g) Ocean currents
are warmer than the temperate and polar Warm ocean currents carry warm conditions
areas. to the neighbouring areas. The currents are
associated with warm, wet winds that lead
(b) Altitude to wet conditions. On the other hand, cold
This has a direct influence on temperature, ocean currents cause cold temperatures.
precipitation and atmospheric pressure. They are usually are associated with cold,
Areas that are mountainous and hilly have dry winds that increase the arid conditions
a cool climate. The atmospheric pressure at of the areas.
high altitudes is also low.
(h) Relief
(c) Presence and absence of water bodies The nature of the land has a direct
These two factors modify the climatic influence on climate. For example, hilly
conditions of areas. Areas that are near and mountainous areas are associated with
water bodies are humid. On the other hand, orographic rainfall. However, it is only on
areas which lack water bodies are less the windward side that constant rainfall is
humid thus have unreliable rainfall. This is experienced. The leeward sides experience
with the exception of mountainous areas. dry conditions. These conditions are due to
the warm, dry descending winds.
(d) Vegetation
Areas with dense vegetation such as the Activity 8.41
Amazon and Congo Basins, experience
heavy rainfall and humid conditions. This Do this in pairs.
is due to the steady supply of water vapour 1. Observe the area around your home
due to transpiration. On the other hand and school.
areas with no vegetation experience arid 2. Identify the human activities going on
conditions. It is for this reason that it is in the areas around your home and
important for us to conserve our forests . school
(e) Distance from the sea 3. Explain how the human activities
Regions neighbouring the sea experience influence the climate of the areas.
maritime climate. When the sea water is 4. Explain how the climate influences
warm, the coastal areas also experience the human activities that are carried
warm conditions. These conditions increase out in the two areas.
the rate of evaporation and rainfall is 5. Use geography textbooks, journals
formed. Areas far away from the sea may and the Internet to find out other
experience less rainfall. factors that influence weather and
climate.
(f) Human activities 6. Compile a report of your findings and
Human activities greatly influence the present them in class.
climates of different regions. Activities such
as mining, deforestation and lumbering
have negative effects on climate.
198

Activity 8.42 (c) Write down the observations for a
class discussion.
Project work.
Climate zones are areas with distinct
Do this as a class. climates. They occur in the east-west
1. Design a project that will assist the direction around the Earth. These areas
communities around your school to are classified using different climatic
conserve and protect the environment. characteristics. Climate zones are belt-
2. Present your reports and shaped and circular around the poles.
recommendations to the community In some areas, climate zones can be
heads through your teacher. interrupted by mountains or oceans. The
world has different climatic characteristics
in different regions. These variations in
Task 8.7 climatic patterns makes it possible to divide
the world into different climatic zones. The
1. Outline the factors that influence
classified zones are not perfect but they
humidity in a given area.
work. Basing on the climatic differences,
2. Explain the following types of there are four major climate zones of the
precipitation: world.
(a) rainfall (c) snow
• Tropical zone
(b) sleet (d) frost
• Temperate zone
3. Describe the characteristics of the
• Polar zone
following types of clouds:
• Mountain zone
(a) cirrus
(b) stratus Tropical zone
(c) cumulus nimbus. This is the zone between latitudes 0° and
23.5°. This is between the tropics.
4. Differentiate between mist, fog and
hail stones. The region between the equator and the
5. Explain the type of rainfall received at: tropics is known as the equatorial region.
In this region, solar radiation reaches the
(a) the equator (b) Mt. Karisimbi.
ground vertically at specific times daily
throughout the year. It is therefore very
Climatic zones of the warm in these regions. Due to the high
temperatures, more water evaporates and
world the air is often moist. The resulting frequent
Activity 8.43 and dense cloud cover reduces the effect of
the solar radiation on ground temperature.
(a) As a class, go out for a field study
under the guidance of your teacher. Characteristics of the tropical climatic zone
(b) Climb a hilly area and note down the • It is in the area around the equator,
climatic conditions experienced at from 23.5° farther north to 23.5° in
every stage of the slope. the southern latitude.
199

• The sun is at its zenith (90°) at least • The sun’s angle is at 9° to 27° above
once per year. It is never lower than the horizon, according to place and
43°. season.
• The average temperatures are • The average temperatures range
between 20°C and 30°C. between 20°C and 35°C.
• The minimum temperature is 0°. • Its minimum temperature is – 5°C.
There is no frost. • Its maximum temperature reaches
• The maximum temperature is more +66°C in areas like Libya, Iran and the
than 40°. Death Valley.
• The radiation is positive. • Its radiation is neutral.
• The day length is between 10 and • The day length ranges between 9 and
13.5 hours. 15 hours.
• The rains are defined by the trade • It is generally dry with some humidity
winds. Its a seasonal shift. during winter.
• The climate is humid and warm. • It has a tropic summer and non-tropic
There is often precipitation. winter climate.
• There are ever green forests and • It has semi-deciduous or evergreen
savannahs. forests, hardwood forests with winter
• More than 40% of the earth’s rain, savannah, pasture land. It also
population lives in the tropics. This has semi-deserts, warm temperate
population keeps increasing. moist forests, nemoral deciduous
forests.
The subtropics zone • It has extreme heat, strong
This is the zone between latitudes 23.5° precipitation and drought in some
and 40°. The subtropics receive the highest areas.
radiation in summer. This is because the
sun’s angle at noon is almost vertical to the Temperate zone
earth. The cloud cover is also relatively thin.
This is the zone between latitudes 40°and
These regions receive less moisture. This
60°. Here, the solar radiation arrives with
condition increases the effect of radiation.
a smaller angle. The average temperatures
Therefore, most of the deserts in the
here are much cooler than in the subtropics.
world are situated in this zone. In winter,
The seasons and day length differ significantly
the radiation in these regions decreases
in the course of a year. The climate is
significantly. It can temporarily be very cool
characterised by less frequent extremes.
and moist.
There is a more regular distribution of the
Characteristics of the subtropics climatic precipitation over the year. There is also a
zone longer vegetation period.
• It lies in the area between the tropical
and the temperate zones (25° to 40°
North and South latitudes).
200

Characteristics of the temperate climatic Characteristics of the polar climatic zone
zone • It is in the area between 60° to 90°
• It is in the area between the cold zone North and South latitudes.
and the subtropical zone (40° to 60°). • The maximum angle of the sun is at
• The maximum angle of the sun is at 53° above the horizon (polar day) to
73° and minimum 0° (at the Arctic under the horizon (polar night).
Circle). • The average temperatures are
• The average temperatures is between between – 47°C and 0°C.
0°C and 20°C. • The minimum temperature is at –
• The minimum temperature is at 89°C (Antarctica).
–40°C. • The maximum temperature is at
• The maximum temperature is at + +25°C (Tundra).
40°C. • The radiation is negative.
• The radiation balance is negative. • The day length is between 0 and
• The day length is between 4 to 16 24 hours for polar night and day
hours and 8 to 12 hours at 50°. respectively.
• The precipitation is from 300 mm to • Precipitation is variable and is mostly
2000 mm with an average of 800 mm. in the form of snow.
• The climate is warm and cold • There is ice climate with the average
temperate. temperature of the warmest month
• The vegetation is deciduous forests, below 0°C and tundra climate with
warm temperate forests and the average temperature of the
savannah. warmest month between 0 under
• Extreme temperatures and 10°C.
precipitation are rare. • The vegetation in the area is scarce.
There is moss, lichens, grass, boreal
Polar zone forest with conifer woods.
This is the zone between latitudes 60° and • The area is hostile to life.
90°. The polar areas between 60° latitude
and the poles receive less heat through solar Mountain zone
radiation. This is because the sun has a very This climatic zone is also referred to as the
flat angle toward the ground. Because of the alpine or highland climatic zone. In this
changes of the earth’s axis angle to the sun, zone, no month has a mean temperature
the day length varies most in this zone. In the that is higher than 10°C. The climate
summer, polar days occur. Vegetation is only becomes colder at high elevations than the
possible during a few months per year and surrounding lowlands.
even then is often sparse. The conditions for Although this climate classification only
life in these regions are very hard. covers a small portion of the earth’s surface,
mountain climates are widely distributed.
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The altitude where alpine climate occurs • The Andes in South America
varies with latitude. For example, at 68°N in • The Rockies in North America
Sweden, mountain climate occurs as low as • The Kenyan highlands
650 metres, while on Mount Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania, it occurs at 3,950 metres. • Mount Kilimanjaro
In mountainous areas with an alpine Characteristics of mountain climatic zone

climate, the dominant vegetation is the • It is distributed all over the world.
alpine tundra. This consists of vegetation • This type of climate is greatly
that does not contain trees because it grows influenced by relief and altitude.
in very high altitudes. This type of climate • Due to variations in temperature, it
is experienced in areas like: has a wide range of micro-climates.
• The Ethiopian Highlands • Temperatures decrease with altitude.
• The Alps of Europe The higher one goes, the cooler it
• The Himalayas of Asia becomes.
Tropical Climates Temperate Arid Arctic

Equatorial Marine west Subtropical Taiga/boreal
N rainforest coast high desert forest
Monsoon Rainshadow Tundra
W E Mediterranean
S
rainforest desert
0 3000 km Savannah Steppe Cold current
desert
Prairie
Fig 8.76 Climatic zones of the world.
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• During the day, temperatures rise • The heavy precipitation is received on
while in the night, they fall. This is the windward side of the mountain.
due to excessive radiation. The leeward side has no rainfall and
• There is minor annual temperature temperatures tend to be high.
range. Temperatures tend to be • Atmospheric pressure decreases as
constant for most part of the year. one ascends.
• Temperature inversion is a common in
these areas.
Activity 8.44
Do this in pairs.
1. Indicate the major climatic zones of the world in the map below.
Fig 8.77
2. Justify your locations by describing the characteristics of the zones that you have
indicated on the map.
3. Present your work in a class discussion.
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Impact of weather and (a) High and reliable rainfall in moderate
levels supports the growth of crops.
climate on human activities
This ensures food security.
Activity 8.45 (b) Moderate and abundant rainfall
supports growth of grass hence
Study the photographs provided below. favouring livestock farming. It also
supports herbivorous wildlife hence
developing the tourism sector.
(c) Heavy and reliable rainfall supports
the growth of trees of high value. This
leads to the development of forestry
and lumbering.
(d) The warm tropical climate attracts
many tourists who come to enjoy the
warmer conditions when they have
Fig 8.78 Crops growing in a farm in Musanze
district. winter conditions back home. This
supports the tourism sector.
(e) In areas where with arid climates,
humans are forced to find ways of
irrigating the crops.
(f) Heavy and reliable rainfall sustains
water bodies like rivers, swamps,
lakes and wetlands. All these
support aquatic life, tourism sports
and provide water that is used for
domestic purposes.
Fig 8.79 Children wading through a flooded Activity 8.46
street in Nyabugogo area in Kigali.
1. List the differences in the pictures. Work in pairs.
2. What are some of the causes of the Use your local environment, the Internet
floods in Nyabugogo area? and other geographical material.
3. Discuss your findings in class. 1. Find out other influences of weather
and climate on human activities.
The weather and climate play a huge role in 2. Discuss and note your findings down.
determining the human activities that can
3. Share them with your classmates in a
take place. For example agricultural activities
class presentation.
are directly influenced by the climate. The
following points show how weather and
climate impact human activities.
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Did you know? 3. (a) Explain the water cycle
• The South Pole is the least sunny processes.
place on earth. (b) Identify different forms of
• Antarctica is the least rainy place and precipitation.
not deserts. 4. Explain the factors influencing
• The shape and colour of clouds can atmospheric pressure variation.
help you predict rain 5. Identify the different types of winds.
• Ice plays an important role in 6. State the different types of clouds.
regulating climate, because it is highly 7. Outline the factors that influence
reflective. climate.
• Without the sun, there would be no 8. (a) Name the major climatic zones in
weather. the world.
(b) State the characteristics of alpine
climate.
9. Explain how climate has influenced
1. (a) Distinguish between weather and human activities in the world.
climate.
(b) List the elements of weather and
climate.
2. (a) Define atmosphere
(b) Briefly describe the layers of the
atmosphere.
205

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Vegetation
206

UNIT
9 Vegetation
Vegetation refers to all the plant cover

Key unit competence
growing in a particular area. It also refers
By the end of this unit, you must be able to the ground cover provided by plants.
to determine the relationship between Human beings, animals and insects all
vegetation and human activities. depend on vegetation. They purify the air
that we breathe.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Classification of vegetation
(a) identify different vegetation types on Vegetation is classified into three main
maps groups, namely:
(b) outline factors that influence the
(a) Natural vegetation
distribution of vegetation
(b) Artificial vegetation
(c) outline the importance of vegetation
(c) Secondary vegetation
(d) state the relationship between
vegetation and human activities. Natural vegetation
This is the vegetation that grows naturally
Vegetation in an area without any human aid. It grows
Activity 9.1 under natural physical conditions and has not
been interfered with by people or animals.
Types of natural vegetation include forests,
Take a walk in the area around your school. grasslands, desert vegetation and swamp
Observe the vegetation growing around the vegetation.
school. Record the following in your exercise
books. Forests
• Type of vegetation A forest is a large area of land covered by
• Height of the vegetation trees and other woody vegetation. The
• Size of the leaves natural forests found in Rwanda are the
natural forests of Nyungwe National Park,
(a) Discuss your observations in groups. Volcanoes National Park and Gishwati
(b) Present your findings in class. and Mukura forest reserves. Most of the
remaining natural forests in Rwanda are
protected as national parks or forest
reserves.
207

Fig. 9.3 Desert vegetation.
Fig. 9.1 Nyungwe Forest National Park. Swamp vegetation
Grasslands A swamp is a wetland with woody vegetation.
Grasslands are areas where the main Swamp vegetation can be found in salty or
vegetation is grass. They grow naturally. fresh water. The swamps in Rwanda are
Examples of grasslands in Rwanda are Mugesera, Rweru, Kagera, Nyabarongo,
the savannahs of Akagera National Park, Mushaka and Kamiranzovu.
Bugesera, Gisaka and Umutara.
Fig. 9.4 Rweru swamp.
Artificial vegetation
Fig. 9.2 Savannah at Akagera National Park. This is composed of the vegetation that has
Desert vegetation been planted by human beings.
A desert is an area of land with little or
no vegetation. There is very little rainfall
in these areas thus the conditions are
unsuitable for plant and animal life. There
are some plants adapted to growing in the
desert. These are desert and semi-desert
vegetation such as scrub and cactus.
However, there are no deserts in Rwanda. Fig. 9.5 Artificial forest in Rwanda.
It is also known as planted vegetation.
Forests made up of exotic trees are examples
of planted vegetation. Exotic trees that
are planted include pine, cypress and
eucalyptus.
208

Activity 9.2
Work in groups.
W E
0 1000 km
Fig 9.6
1. Study the map shown above.
2. Using the key, identify the different types of world vegetation on the map.
3. Give examples of the vegetation types that are found in Rwanda. Locate the areas
in which the vegetation are found on a map of Rwanda.
Secondary vegetation
This is the vegetation that grows naturally A good example of secondary vegetation
in an area after being interfered with by is the one that grows in an area after
people or animals. It is also known as the previous vegetation cover is cleared
derived vegetation. The vegetation is still or destroyed by an outbreak of fire. Do
in the process of development and will you know of any such vegetation in your
eventually acquire the characteristics of country?
natural vegetation.
209

Factors that influence the 3. Identify areas in Rwanda where each of
distribution of vegetation the vegetation shown on the pictures
are found.
Activity 9.3
4. How important are the vegetation to
Rwanda as a country and to the people
who live near them?
There are four main factors that influence
the distribution of vegetation over the
earth’s surface.
• Climatic factors
• Edaphic factors
• Topographic factors
• Biotic factors
Fig 9.7
Climatic factors
Activity 9.4
1. Look at the vegetation surrounding
your school
2. Identify some of the factors that have
influenced their growth and presence
in the area.
3. Classify them according to the factors
Fig 9.8 identified in (2) above.
4. Note down your findings.
Climate is the weather condition in an
area over a long period of time. The main
elements of climate that influence vegetation
include precipitation, temperature, sunlight
and wind.
(a) Precipitation
Precipitation is the deposit of water in liquid
Fig 9.9
or solid form on the earth’s surface from the
1. Identify the type of vegetation in all the atmosphere.
pictures.
The type and amount of precipitation
2. Suggest the factors that are suitable for influences the type and distribution of
the growth of the vegetation shown in vegetation. Different plants have different
each of the pictures. moisture requirements.
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Areas that receive heavy and well distributed Hot dry winds cause wilting of plants since
rainfall throughout the year have forests it accelerates water loss from the plants.
composed of many tree species. Strong winds cause the trees to bend.
Areas with moderate and seasonal rainfall
are dominated by grasslands.
Edaphic factors
This refers to soil particularly with respect
Areas with low rainfall are dominated by
to its influence on organisms. Deep well
desert and semi-desert vegetation.
drained soils support a variety of large trees.
Soils that are shallow in depth support the
growth of shallow rooted plants such as
grass.
The pH of the soil also determines the
type of plants found in a region. Soils with
nutrients and humus support the growth
of plants. Soils with few nutrients support
very little plant growth.
Fig. 9.10 Natural rainforest.
Topographic factors
(b) Temperature
Topography defines the physical features
Temperature plays an important role in the in a place. The topographic factors include
growth of vegetation. It determines plant relief, slope and aspect. These factors affect
processes such as germination, rate of plant vegetation through soil formation processes,
growth, flowering, ripening of fruits and climate, soil moisture and soil nutrients.
shedding of leaves.
Warm conditions encourage rapid growth of (i) Relief
plants. Cold conditions slow down the rate Relief refers to the difference in elevation
of plant growth. between any two points on the earth’s
surface. The height of the land determines
(c) Sunlight temperature and rainfall. There is an
Sunlight is important to plants for increase in vegetation with an increase in
photosynthesis. Long hours of sunlight altitude. This is distinct on mountains. The
encourage the growth of many varieties of vegetation ranges from grass to forests,
plants. Areas with fewer hours of sunlight bamboo, heath and moorland.
have fewer plants.
(ii) Slope
(d) Wind Steep slopes experience high rates of soil
The moisture content and strength of the erosion leading to the development of thin
winds influences plant growth. Warm moist and shallow soils. This results in poor plant
winds contain sufficient moisture. This helps growth. Gentle slopes have deep and well-
in the formation of rainfall necessary for drained soils resulting in the growth of thick
plant growth.
211

vegetation and a wide variety of plants. Flat 2. Explain how human activities have
areas are easily waterlogged resulting in the influenced the distribution of
growth of swamp vegetation. vegetation. Use specific examples
from Rwanda.
(iii) Aspect
Aspect is the direction of the slope with Importance of vegetation
regards to sunshine and rainfall. Slopes
that are exposed to the sun are warm. They Activity 9.5
support plant growth. The slopes which Work in groups of four.
are not exposed to the sun have fewer 1. Go outside your classroom
vegetation.
2. Look at the vegetation surrounding
Biotic factors your school.
3. Find out the importance of the
These are the living organisms which have
vegetation to the people who live near
an effect on the growth of vegetation.
them and to the country.
These include human beings, animals,
bacteria, burrowing animals and insects. 4. Write your findings down.
Human activities such as deforestation,
mining and overgrazing destroy vegetation. Vegetation is a major component of the
Other activities such as agroforestry, ecosystem. It is important because of the
reforestation, afforestation and creation following reasons.
of forest reserves result in the development 1. Food – Some vegetation are a source
of vegetation. of food for human beings and animals.
Some insects aid in plant pollination. Some insects also feed on vegetation.
Animals and birds aid in seed dispersal 2. Habitat for wild animals – Forests
leading to growth and distribution of and other vegetation provide a home
vegetation. for wild animals. Wild animals attract
tourists. They earn the country foreign
Burrowing animals and earthworms aerate
exchange that aids in economic
the soil resulting in suitable conditions for
development. Therefore, we should
plant growth.
not destroy our vegetation.
Task 9.1
1. Describe how each of the following
factors influences the growth of
vegetation.
(a) Climate factors
(b) Edaphic factors
(c) Topographic factors
Fig. 9.11 Vegetation provides habitats for wild
animals.
212

3. Sources of medicine – Some types of 10. Conserve soil and water – The roots of
vegetation such as barks, roots and vegetation help in conserving soil and
leaves of trees are used as medicine. water. They hold the soils together and
They are used in curing different conserve moisture in the soil.
diseases in both animals and in humans
too. Task 9.2
4. Prevent soil erosion – Vegetation holds 1. Explain the importance of vegetation
soil together. This prevents erosion to the economy of Rwanda.
by water and wind. Vegetation also 2. Give five uses of trees.
reduces the speed of water when it is
raining. Roots of vegetation hold soil Relationship between
particles together. This helps to reduce
soil erosion and conserve soil.
vegetation and human
5. Purify the air – Vegetation purify the activities
air that we breathe. They utilise carbon Activity 9.6
(IV) oxide in the atmosphere and
release oxygen. Work in groups of four.
6. Improve soil fertility – Plant materials 1. Find out how the presence of the
that fall from different vegetation vegetation around your school has
decompose into humus. This improves influenced the activities that take place
the fertility of the soil. The decaying in the area.
material increases the organic matter 2. Use the Internet, textbooks and
content in the soil. topographic maps to find out how
7. Source of timber – Trees are a source of vegetation influences human activities
timber. This is used in making furniture in different areas of the world.
and building. Trees are also a source of 3. Write down your findings.
fuel. However, trees should not be cut
carelessly. Whenever one tree is cut, 4. Present them in class.
two more trees should be planted.
8. Source of raw materials – Vegetation 1. Vegetation type and distribution have a
are also a source of raw materials for great influence on human activities and
industries. For example, trees are used occupation over the earth’s surface. For
in the manufacture of paper, plywood example, availability of grass has led to
and rubber. livestock keeping due to availability of
pasture.
9. Windbreaks – Vegetation such as
trees act as windbreaks. They help 2. Overdependence on vegetation by
in reducing the speed of wind. This human beings for their needs has
reduces the effects of wind such as had a negative impact on vegetation.
blowing away roof tops or soil erosion. It has lead to a reduction in the
area under natural vegetation. Such
human activities include overstocking
213

leading to overgrazing, pollution and Did you know?
deforestation.
• The forest at Nyungwe is one of Africa’s
true rainforests with more than 200
types of trees and numerous flowering
plants.
• Much of Rwanda’s natural rainforest
has been cut down to make way for its
growing population.
• The bamboo is a natural vegetation.
• Some plants like the Venus flytrap are
carnivorous.
• There are over 200,000 plant species.
Fig. 9.12 Deforestation.
3. The human population is growing. There End of unit revision task
is need for land for settlement. Human 1. Define vegetation.
beings are destroying vegetation to
2. List and describe the different types of
create more land for settlement. This
vegetation.
has had an effect on the distribution of
vegetation. 3. Discuss four factors that influence the
distribution of vegetation.
4. Human activities such as pollution lead
to climate change. This leads to global 4. Assess the importance of vegetation to
warming and causes a decrease in Rwanda.
vegetation. 5. Describe how natural vegetation
has influenced the following human
Activity 9.7 activities.
Work in groups of four. (a) Tourism
1. Find out how the human activities that (b) Livestock keeping
take place have affected the vegetation (c) Building and construction
in the area surrounding your school. (d) Medicine
2. Use the Internet, textbooks and 6. Describe how the following human
topographic maps to find out human activities have influenced the
activities have affected vegetation in distribution of vegetation.
different areas of the world. (a) Overstocking
3. Write down your findings. (b) Mining
4. Present them in class. (c) Pollution
(d) Urbanisation.
214

Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Drainage
215

UNIT General organisation
10 of hydrography
Key unit competence was very dirty. She saw dirty water flowing
almost everywhere carrying all types of
waste. It also had a bad smell that polluted
to analyse the general organisation of
hydrography and its relationship with the area.
human activities. (a) Describe the environment in the slum
area.
Unit objectives (b) What description is given to the
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: condition where dirty water flows
everywhere without proper direction?
(a) state different types of water bodies
(b) identify the major terminologies related Definition of drainage
to drainage
Drainage refers to the natural or artificial
(c) identify major rivers of the world
removal of surface and sub-surface water
(d) explain different parts of river profile from an area. This is done through a system
and their characteristics of natural streams in the ground or through
(e) identify different drainage patterns pipes.
(f) explain the relationship between
drainage and human activities. Water bodies
Hydrography is the study of water bodies of Activity 10.2
the Earth. The water bodies include oceans, Do this in pairs.
seas, rivers and lakes. Use the Internet, maps of Rwanda,
photographs and geography textbooks.
Activity 10.1
1. Name the categories of the water
Mukamwezi’s class teacher took the class bodies found in Rwanda.
to the Kiniha slum area in Karongi district.
2. Describe their characteristics that
The class went for a field study. Mukamwezi justify them to be under the categories
observed that the surroundings in the area that you have put them.
216

3. State the importance of the water (b) Lakes - A lake is a body of water contained
bodies to Rwanda. in an extensive depression on the earth’s
4. Discuss your findings in class. surface. The water in the lake may
be salty or fresh. Examples of lakes
A water body is any significant accumulation in Rwanda include Lake Kivu, Lake
of water on the earth’s surface. The water Ruhondo, Lake Mugesera, Lake Burera,
bodies are categorised into two. Lake Muhazi and Lake Ihema.
• Natural water bodies

• Artificial water bodies
Examples of natural water bodies include
oceans, seas, lakes, swamps, rivers and
ponds. Reservoirs, dams, canals and artificial
lakes are examples of artificial water bodies.
Activity 10.3
In groups, use geographical resources such as Fig 10.2 Lake Kivu in Rwanda.
textbooks, the Internet and documentaries. (c) Ponds - A pond is a body of stagnant
1. Find out the main types of water water that could either be natural or
bodies. artificial. It is smaller than a lake and
is surrounded by land.
2. Describe their characteristics.
3. Identify the water bodies in your
country.
4. Write down your findings and present
in class.
The main water bodies include the following.
(a) Oceans - An ocean is a large and
extended body of salty water occupying
a basin between continents. Examples of
oceans of the world include the Indian
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Fig 10.3 A pond.
Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean. (d) Reservoirs - A reservoir is an artificial
lake where water is stored. It is from
reservoirs that dams are constructed
across rivers. Examples of reservoirs in
Rwanda include the Nyabarango and
Rusumo dams.
Fig 10.1 The Indian Ocean.

217

Fig 10.4 Dam on Nyabarongo River.
(e) Swamp - This is a flat uncultivated Fig 10.5 Rugezi marshland.
land where water collects. The ground
is usually wet and soft and saturated (f) Seas - A sea is a large body of salty
with water. Rugezi, Kamiranzovu, water found on the margin of oceans.
Mwogo, Nyabugogo, Rwasave, Ngenda, It is partially enclosed by land. It is
Sake, Mugesera, Ntende, Rwagitima, smaller than an ocean. Examples of
Muganza, Bugarama, Koko, Mugenoro seas include Mediterranean Sea, Baltic
are some of the swamps in Rwanda. Sea, Red Sea and Dead Sea.
Fig 10.6 A map showing the location of the Mediterranean Sea.
218

(g) Rivers - A river is a stream of water which Task 10.1
flows in a channel from a high ground
to a low ground. It flows into an ocean, 1. Draw correct diagrams showing the
sea, lake or swamp. Rivers in Rwanda following.
include Mwogo, Rukarara, Mukungwa, (a) A reservoir
Base, Nyabarongo and the Akanyaru (b) A river
and the Akagera Rivers. (c) A pond.
2. Identify the main water bodies in
Rwanda.
3. Differentiate between a perennial and
an intermittent river.
Major rivers of the world

Activity 10.4
1. In pairs, use an atlas to identify and
locate the main rivers of the world.
2. Identify their sources and mouths.
Fig 10.7 River Nyabarongo in Rwanda. 3. Share your findings in a class
There are different types of rivers. They presentation.
include:
Some of the major rivers of the world
(a) Perennial river - This is a river that include the following.
contains water throughout the year. It
can also be referred to as a permanent Table 10.1 Major rivers of the world.
river. An example is River Nyabarongo. Region River
(b) Intermittent river – This is a river Africa - Nile
whose surface water ceases to flow
- Niger
at some point in time. Such rivers
periodically stop flowing. Such rivers - Congo
drain large arid and semi-arid areas. An South America - Amazon
example is River Kidepo in Uganda. - Parana
(c) Ephemeral river – This is a river that
flows periodically and only exists for
a short period. It flows immediately
following heavy rains or snow melt.
219

Region River Region River
North America - Rio Grande Asia - Ob
- Mississippi - Yenisey
- Missouri - Lena
- Yukon - Amur
- Mackenzie - Huang
- Yangtze
Europe - Rhine - Mekong
- Danube - Ganges
- Volga - Indus
Middle East - Tigris
- Euphrates
Australia - Murray darling
Ob Yenisey
Volga Lena
Mackenzie
Danube Indus
Yukon Amur
Missouri Huang
Rhine
Mississippi
Nile Yangtze
Rio Grande
Niger Mekong
Amazon
Congo Ganges
Parana
Tigris and Euphrates
Rhine Murray–darling
Fig 10.9 Rivers of the world.
220

Activity 10.5
1. Draw a sketch map of the world. On it, mark and name the main rivers of the world.
2. For each of the main rivers in (a) above, name their sources.
3. Name the continents and countries that contain each of the rivers you have named.
4. Present your work for marking.
Activity 10.6
1. Use an atlas or the Internet to identify the major rivers of the world marked by
the arrows shown.
Fig 10.10
2. Present your findings in a class discussion.
River profile
Activity 10.7
Work in groups of three. Study the photographs shown below.
1. Identify the parts of the river profiles that are shown in the pictures.
Fig 10.11
221

Fig 10.12 Fig 10.14 A cross profile of a river.
Long profile
This is the shape of a river along its course
from the source to the mouth. The long
profile is expressed graphically as a curve.
It has a steep gradient near the source but
gradually flattens towards the river mouth.
The profile of a river is ideally expected to be
smooth. However, this never occurs since
the energy of the river changes as it flows
Fig 10.13 through its course.
2. Discuss the characteristics of each of The energy changes in the long profile may
the stages identified. be caused by the following.
3. Present your findings in class. (a) Increase in the river discharge due to
A river profile is the shape of the river increased precipitation.
course. There are two river profiles. (b) Changes in the sea level. This may
be either a rise or fall in the level of
• The cross river profile.
the sea.
• The long river profile.
(c) The land may rise or fall due to
continental movements.
Parts of a river profile
The long profile of the river is divided into
Cross river profile three stages.
This is the transverse profile of a river from • The youthful stage
one bank to another. The river cross profile
• The middle stage
changes from the upper to the lower course.
• Old stage
222

Upper course
(c) The water speed is moderate.
(d) There is high stream volume.
400
(e) The river erodes its valley laterally thus
300
widening it.
Height (m)
Middle course
(f) Both erosion and deposition take place
Lower course
200 at this stage.
100 (c) The old stage (lower course)

This is the stage that is close to the river
0 mouth. The gradient of the river channel
is very gentle. The main function of the
Fig 10.15 The long profile of a river
river is deposition though lateral erosion
(a) The youthful stage (upper course) still occurs.
This is the stage that is near to the river’s
Characteristics of the old stage of a river:
source. The river has a lot of energy due to
(a) The gradient of the river channel is very
the steep gradient. Erosion is the dominant
low.
function of the river.
(b) The speed of the river is very low.
The characteristics of the youthful stage (c) The stream volume is large.
of a river: (d) The river valley is wide and U-shaped.
(a) The river has a steep gradient.
(e) Deposition occurs on the river channel
(b) The water flows at a very high speed. making it shallow.
(c) There is a deep steep sided river valley.
(d) It has a narrow channel. Task 10.2
(e) Vertical erosion is dominant 1. What is a long profile of a river?
(f) The river channel is V-shaped. 2. Name three stages of the long profile
of a river.
(b) The middle stage 3. Name the features found in each stage
This stage is also known as the mature of the long profile.
stage or the valley stage. It is the stage
4. State the characteristics of the river in
between the youthful and the old stages.
each stage.
The gradient of the river channel is reduced.
The river has more stream volume since
more tributaries join it.
Drainage patterns
A drainage pattern is the arrangement of
Characteristics of the middle stage of a a river and its tributaries on the earth’s
river: surface. Drainage patterns tell a lot about
(a) The river has wide U-shaped valley. the land. Drainage patterns are influenced
(b) The gradient of the river channel is gentle. by:
• the slope of the land
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• differences in the rock resistance
• rock structure.
There are different types of drainage
patterns. They include:
• radial • centripetal
• dendritic • parallel.
• trellis
(a) Radial drainage pattern
This is a drainage pattern that forms on Fig 10. 17 Dendritic drainage pattern.
volcanic cones or domes.
(c) Trellis drainage pattern
This is a pattern where the tributaries join
Central the main river at right angles. The minor
uplift
tributaries also join the main tributaries
at right angles. It develops in areas where
there are alternate layers of hard and soft
rocks. These rocks lie at right angles to the
main direction of slope. The main river is
powerful enough to cut through the hard
rocks while the tributaries cut through
the soft layers of rocks at right angles. The
Fig 10.16 Radial drainage pattern. minor tributaries cut valleys into the less
resistant rocks. The hard layers of rocks
The rivers flow outwards from a central high
protrude as ridges.
point. The pattern resembles the spokes of
a bicycle wheel. The slope influences the
direction of flow of the rivers.
(b) Dendritic drainage pattern

This drainage pattern looks like a tree
trunk and its branches. The tributaries
flow towards the main river from many
directions. They join the main river at acute
angles. This pattern develops in an area with
gentle slopes with fairly uniform rock type.
The direction of flow is influenced by the
slope. It is common on massive crystalline
rocks such as granite. It also develops on
horizontal gently dipping sedimentary rocks. Fig 10.18 Trellis drainage patterns.
224

(d) Centripetal drainage pattern (f) Fault guided drainage pattern
This is a drainage pattern where rivers flow This is a drainage pattern where rivers flow
from all directions into a common basin. along fault lines. This occurs in areas that
The common basin could be a swamp or a have experienced faulting. The direction
lake. The direction of flow of the rivers is of flow is influenced by the faults. The
influenced by the slope. tributaries form very sharp bends along
their course. This drainage pattern is also
referred to as rectangular drainage pattern.
Fig 10.19 Centripetal drainage pattern.
(e) Parallel drainage pattern Fig 10.21 Fault guided or rectangular

This is a drainage pattern where the main drainage pattern.
river and its tributaries flow parallel to (g) Annular drainage pattern
each other. It occurs over a large area. The This is a drainage pattern around a basin or
slope determines the direction of flow of crater. It forms when the main river and its
the river. It is common on steep slopes and tributaries are arranged in a series of curves
escarpments. Tributaries join the main river around a basin. The tributaries join the
at small acute angles. main river at sharp angles. Lake Bosumtwi
in Ghana forms this pattern.
Fig 10.20 Parallel drainage pattern
Fig 10.22 Annular drainage patterns.
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Activity 10.8 (a) The influence of water bodies on
human activities.
Work in groups of three. Use an atlas.
(b) The influence of human activities on
1. Identify the different drainage patterns water bodies.
of the major rivers of the world.
2. List the patterns and match them to Influence of water bodies on human
specific rivers. activities
Activity 10.10
Activity 10.9
Do this in pairs.
1. Outline the ways in which human
1. Collect clay soil and water. activities are influenced by water
2. Mix the two well bodies. Give examples from Rwanda.
3. Mould the following drainage system. 2. Discuss your findings in class.
(a) Radial drainage pattern
Water bodies have a great effect on
(b) Dendritic drainage system human activities. These effects include
(c) Trellis drainage pattern the following:
(d) Centripetal drainage pattern
(a) Settlements
(e) Present your work for assessment.
Water bodies that contain fresh water
attract human settlements. This is because
Task 10.3 they provide water for domestic use.
1. What is a drainage pattern?
2. State three factors that influence the (b) Agriculture
formation of drainage patterns. Fresh water bodies encourage agriculture by
providing water which is used for irrigation.
Rivers deposit alluvium in the flood plains.
following drainage patterns.
Alluvium contains fertile soils which are
(a) Dendritic used for growing crops. The water bodies
(b) Radial also provide water for livestock to drink
(c) Centripetal encouraging livestock keeping.
(d) Trellis
(c) Transport
Relationship between Lakes, seas, oceans and navigable rivers
provide a cheap means of transport for
water bodies and human people and goods.
activities
(d) Fishing
The relationship between the water bodies
Water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers
and human activities can be looked at in
are good habitats for fish and other aquatic
two ways.
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life. Fishing is carried out in such water (k) Building materials
bodies for subsistence and for sale. Lakes and rivers contain sand, gravel and
pebbles in their beds. These materials are
(e) Mining extracted and used as building materials.
Some water bodies contain minerals in
their beds. These minerals are mined. (l) Flooding
Mining takes place as an economic activity. Water bodies such as rivers may flood
Minerals which are mined in water bodies causing the displacement of people,
include salt, trona and gold. destruction of property. Floods also cause
loss of lives.
(f) Tourism
Water bodies form beautiful sceneries e.g. (m) Water-borne diseases
waterfalls and sandy beaches which attract Water bodies can be breeding grounds for
tourists. Tourism earns foreign exchange disease-carrying organisms. Mosquitoes
which is used for economic development. and snails transmit malaria and bilharzia
respectively, which are water-borne diseases.
(g) Recreation
Some water bodies offer recreational The impact of human activities on
activities. Water sports such as surfing, water bodies
yatching and sport fishing are some
recreational activities that people engage in. Activity 10. 11
(h) Industries Work in pairs.

Water bodies such as rivers and lakes 1. Outline the ways in which human
provide water which is used for industrial activities affect water bodies. Give
purposes. examples from Rwanda.
Water bodies also provide raw materials 2. Discuss your findings in class.
which encourage the establishment of
industries. Fish leads to establishment of Human activities have an increasing impact
fish related industries. on the water bodies. These activities
include sedimentation, deforestation,
(i) Ports pollution, landscape changes, urban growth
Some rivers have suitable sites for the and climate change.
construction of ports and harbours. Rias
and estuaries at river mouths are used for (a) Sedimentation
construction of ports. Fiords form natural Human activities such as farming, clearance
harbours. of forests, mining and building of roads
expose the soils to erosion. The soils are
(j) Hydroelectric power generation washed by surface runoff and are eventually
Some rivers have been dammed and their deposited in the water bodies.
water is used to generate hydroelectric
power. The power is used for domestic and
industrial purposes.
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The sediments affect water in various ways.(e) Climate change
• They can harm aquatic life by carrying Some human activities lead to climate
toxic chemicals into the water. change. Climate change can result into
wetter or drier climates in some regions of
• They reduce the amount of sunlight
the world. In drier climates, a decline in the
penetrating the water.
volume of the water bodies is witnessed.
• They add nutrients to the water
encouraging the growth of plants (f) Landscape changes
(entrophication) The drainage of swamps to create dry land
• Sediments reduce the capacity of for agriculture interferes with the water
reservoirs making them shallow. balance. The water cycle is also destroyed
This interferes with navigation and result leading to the depletion of wetlands. It also
in flooding of the areas adjacent to the affects the flow of water into the lakes,
water bodies. eventually affecting their sizes.
(b) Deforestation (g) Urban growth

The clearance of vegetation in the catchment The expansion of urban centres results in
areas exposes the soil to erosion leading to increased contamination of underground
sedimentation in the water bodies. water and surface water bodies. This occurs
by direct discharge and surface runoff.
(c) Pollution Contamination can occur directly through
Industrial wastes, sewage and surface runoff seepage of soluble contaminants from
from the farm lands are disposed of into the septic tanks, landfills and other industrial
water bodies. They cause pollution making wastes.
the water unfit for use.
Activity 10.12
Gases emitted from factories and vehicles
are released into the atmosphere. This leads Work in groups of three.
to the formation of acid rain which damages 1. Why is it important to protect water
vegetation and pollute the water. bodies?
2. Suggest ways in which the citizens of
(d) Excessive use of water
Rwanda can protect the water bodies
The excessive use of water from the surface in Rwanda.
and underground sources leads drying up
of water bodies. Such water bodies include 3. Giving examples in Rwanda, discuss how
forests and mountains are responsible
lakes, rivers and aquifers. Some of the
for the creation of rivers.
rivers experiencing excessive use of include
Niger and Nile. 4. Discuss your findings in a class
discussion.
228

Did you know?
• Rivers normally contain freshwater.
• Most of the world’s major cities are
located near the banks of rivers.
• The largest river drainage basin area in
the world is that of the Amazon river.
• Rivers begin at their source in higher
grounds such as mountains or hills.
• A dendritic drainage pattern is the most
common form of drainage pattern.

1. Define drainage.
2. Give four types of water bodies.
3. List three terminologies related to
drainage.
4. Identify the major rivers of the world
and the continents in which they are
located.
5. Discuss the different parts of a river
profile and their characteristics.
6. Identify and describe seven drainage
patterns.
7. (a) Explain how water bodies influence
human activities. Give examples to
support your answer.
(b) Discuss how human activities affect
water bodies.
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Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Man and his environment
230

UNIT
Hazards
11
Key unit competence harm to life on the earth and to the physical
environment. They have a very significant
impact on a country or area.
to propose responses to the effects of
natural and non-natural hazards in the
environment. Types of hazards
Learning objectives Activity 11.2
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Work in pairs.
(a) define hazards 1. List the different types of hazards that
(b) identify different types of hazards affect people and the environment in
your area.
(c) state the causes and effects of hazards
2. Discuss them in class.
(d) explain human responses to natural and
or human hazards in the short, medium There are many hazards that affect human
and long term. beings and their environment. These hazards
are divided into two major categories.
Hazards • Natural hazards.
• Man-made hazards.
Activity 11.1
Natural hazards
These are naturally occurring events that
1. Use your dictionary and the Internet
have negative effects on the environment
to find out the meaning of the term
and on people. Human beings have no
hazard.
control over natural hazards. However,
2. Write it down in your notebook. some measures can be put in place to
3. Share your findings with your class reduce their effects. Examples of natural
members. hazards include floods, earthquakes,
drought, epidemics, landslides, volcanic
Hazards are events or activities that cause
eruptions and strong winds.
a threat to life, health, property or the
environment. Hazards can cause great
231

Floods A flood is an overflow of large amounts
of water onto dry land. The flood water
Activity 11.3 covers the land surface. When floods occur,
Work in pairs. Study the pictures below and they wash away important things such as
answer the questions that follow. crops and other vegetation. People are
also displaced from their settlement areas.
Sometimes people drown in the floods.
Causes of floods
1. Soil deposition – Soils are usually
deposited on river beds due to erosion.
This makes the river beds to become
shallow. The increase in river water due
to high rainfall makes water to spill over
the banks thus causing floods.
Fig 11.1
Fig. 11.3 Soil deposition on a river bed.

Fig 11.2 2. High rainfall – High rainfall in catchment
1. Name the type of hazard shown in the areas releases large volumes of water
pictures. into the rivers. This causes the rivers to
2. Suggest possible causes of the hazard burst the banks as the water flows to
shown. the adjacent lands.
3. What are the effects of this hazard to 3. Blocked drainage systems – Blocked
human activities? drainage systems in the urban areas
4. Suggest possible measures that can be cause water to flow on the surface.
put in place to overcome the hazard. 4. Earthquakes – They cause tsunamis
5. Give examples of countries in Africa in the oceans which flood coastal
where this hazard is common. Use lowlands.
the Internet and other geographical 5. Low gradients of the river channels
documents to get this information. – Low gradient river channels in the
6. Present your findings in a class old stage lead to low stream velocity.
discussion. This causes the load to be deposited
in the river channel making it shallow.
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The water spills over the river banks 2. Educating people – People should
causing flooding. be educated on the importance of
not blocking drainage systems by
Effects of floods poor waste disposal. This will prevent
1. Displacements of people since their blocking of drainage systems when it
homes are in water. rains.
2. Flooding washes away crops leading to 3. Construction of dams – Dams should
food shortage. be constructed. They should have
flood-control reservoirs to help in flood
control.
Fig. 11.4 Floods destroy crops.

3. Water logging in soils which hinders
crop cultivation.
4. Loss of lives through drowning, and Fig. 11.5 Reservoirs in a dams.
destruction of property.
Earthquakes
5. Floods wash away bridges, roads and
railway lines which interfere with Activity 11.4
transport and communication.
6. Create pools of stagnant water which Work in pairs. Study the pictures below and
provide a conducive habitat for breeding answer the questions that follow.
of disease-causing organisms such as
mosquitoes which spread malaria.
Diseases such as cholera, typhoid,
malaria and bilharzia are also common
in flooded areas.
Prevention and control measures
1. Planting vegetation – Vegetation
prevents the land from erosion. They
Fig 11.6
hold soil firmly together. Vegetation
helps to reduce the flow of flood water
hence reducing its effects.
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Fig 11.7 Fig. 11.8 (a) Plates moving towards each
other.
1. Describe what you can observe in the
pictures.
2. Suggest areas where the hazard
shown in the pictures is common.
3. State the effects of the hazard shown
in a settlement area.
4. Suggest measures that can be put in
place to overcome the effects of the
above hazard. Fig. 11.8 (b) Plates moving away from each
5. Present your findings in a class other.
discussion.
An earthquakes is a sudden and violent
shaking of the ground as a result of
movements within the earth’s crust. It can
also be due to volcanic action. Earthquakes
cause a lot of destruction.
Causes of earthquakes
1. Movement of tectonic plates –
Earthquakes occur when two plates Fig. 11.8 (c) Plates sliding against each other.
move towards each other and one of
2. Violent volcanic eruptions – Magma
them slides beneath the other.
that is pushed from the interior of the
It also occurs when the plates move earth through the vent by great force
away from each other or when the causes vibrations in the earth’s crust.
plates slide against each other without
3. Radioactivity – Radioactivity refers
destroying the earth’s crust.
to the particles that are emitted from
the mantle due to instability. It causes
the mantle to release a lot of energy
which in turn causes vibrations in the
earth’s crust.
234

Effects of earthquakes be done to indicate preparedness for
1. Destruction of property – A lot of an earthquake.
property is destroyed when earthquakes 2. Discuss this in groups.
occur. For example, there is destruction 3. Present your findings in class.
of buildings, roads, railway lines,
bridges and dams.
2. Loss of lives – Earthquakes occur Drought
suddenly. When buildings collapse,
people in them lose their lives. When Activity 11.6
roads crack, accidents occur leading to
loss of lives. Your facilitator will download different video
clips from the Internet showing areas facing
3. Earthquakes cause occurrence of
drought. Watch the clip and discuss the
landslides.
following in class.
4. They also cause flooding of coastal
lowlands due to tsunamis. 1. The causes of drought.
5. Outbreak of fire – This is caused by the 2. The effects of drought.
damaged electric cables. 3. Ways of preventing droughts from
6. They cause breaking or displacement occurring.
of rocks of the earth’s crust.
7. Displacement of people – When Drought is a prolonged period of low rainfall
earthquakes occur, people are forced to leading to shortage of water. Drought affects
move from where they live. This is due people, animals and vegetation. Examples
to destruction of property including of areas that experience drought in Africa
houses. Therefore, they have to move include the Sahel, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya,
and settle in a different area. Angola and Mozambique.
Prevention and control measures Causes of drought

Earthquakes cannot be prevented. However, 1. Lack of rain – Drought occurs when
they can be monitored using specialised an area does not receive adequate
equipment. People can then be alerted amounts of rainfall for a long period
to a possible earthquake. People are then of time.
able to prepare themselves by evacuating 2. Global warming – The gases that
vulnerable areas. This helps to reduce the are released in the atmosphere due
effects of the earthquake. to human activities cause a rise in
temperature. This in turn causes
Activity 11.5
climate change. The weather patterns
Work in groups of three. change and areas receive little rainfall.
This can lead to drought.
1. Carry out a book and Internet research
to find out some of the things that can
235

3. D e f o r e s t a t i o n – F o r e s t s h e l p
in conserving water and reducing
evaporation. Their roots hold water in
the soil. Cutting down of trees exposes
water sources such as rivers and
streams causing them to experience
more evaporation. The water bodies
become smaller making an area dry.
This speeds up drought conditions.
Effects of droughts
Drought has the following effects. Fig. 11.9 Drip irrigation in a dry area.
1. Frequent food shortages. 3. Greenhouse farming – Greenhouse
2. Loss of lives. farming should be encouraged.
3. Shortage of water. Greenhouses protect crops against
4. Drying up of rivers. adverse climatic conditions. This ensures
that food is available throughout the
5. Shrinking of lakes.
drought period.
6. Decrease in hydro-electric power
4. Rain water harvesting – During the
production due to lack of water.
rainy season, people can harvest and
7. Loss of vegetation. store rainwater to be used during a
Prevention and control measures drought.
It is difficult to detect a drought. It also 5. Recycling water – Water that has been
cannot be prevented. However, certain used can be purified and reused.
control measures can be put in place to Epidemic
reduce the effects of a drought.
1. Building dams – Dams should be built in Case study
different areas. They should be used to In the month of April 2014 in Kamembe slum
collect and conserve water during the in Rusizi District, there was an outbreak of
rainy seasons. This water can then be a disease. The disease caused the death of
used for different purposes when there very many people.
is a drought.
2. Irrigation – When an area is hit by Medical officers from the government
drought, irrigation farming can be visited the area to find out what disease it
practised. The water from dams can was. They noticed the following symptoms
be used to irrigate the crops. This will in people:
ensure a constant supply of water to • diarrhoea
the crops. Drip irrigation should be used • fever
in an area facing drought to prevent • stomach ache
wastage of water.
• vomiting.
236

Those who were diagnosed were told that They may also get diseases such as
they had cholera. They were also told that cholera and typhoid which are caused
it was an epidemic. by consuming contaminated food and
(a) What do you think is the meaning of water.
the term epidemic? Effects of epidemics
(b) What likely caused the epidemic? The following are the effects of epidemics
(c) Suggest some of the solutions that can in an area.
be put in place to prevent occurrence 1. Loss of lives.
of the disease.
2. High cost of treatment.
(d) Discuss your answers in a class
3. Shortage of labour due to disposition
presentation.
or death of energetic people.
An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that
4. Reduced productivity of people due to
spreads rapidly among many people in a
illnesses. This leads to poor economic
community at a particular time. Examples
development in an area.
of epidemic diseases include HIV and Aids,
Ebola, influenza, cholera, malaria and Prevention and control measures
typhoid. 1. Vaccination – People should be
vaccinated against various diseases
Causes of epidemics that may cause death rapidly. This will
1. Climatic conditions – Climatic protect them against infection.
conditions such as flooding lead to
2. Proper hygiene – Most epidemics
the spread of epidemics. The flood
are brought about due to lack of
water causes sewages to overflow. The
proper hygiene. People should practise
water for domestic use then becomes
personal, environmental and food
contaminated causing outbreaks of
hygiene to prevent outbreaks of
diseases.
diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
2. Lack of water – Poor water supply in
3. Education – People should be educated
an area can cause an epidemic. People
on different types of epidemics and
have little or no access to safe water for
their effects to a community. They
their day to day use.
should also be educated on how to
3. Inadequate sanitation facilities – protect themselves against infection
People living in poverty usually live in and how to handle the epidemics if they
areas with poor hygiene and that lack get infected.
proper facilities for disposal of waste.
4. Eating a balanced diet – A diet that
These unhygienic conditions cause
has all the nutrients needed by the
epidemics.
body will make the immune system
4. Unsafe food – When people eat food strong. This will make people resistant
that is contaminated, they can get to certain diseases. Lack of nutrients
diarrhoea and other such infections. in the body makes the body’s immune
system weak.
237

Landslides 2. Vibrations of the earth – These
vibrations are caused by earthquakes.
Activity 11.7 They cause trembling and shaking of
the earth’s crust making soil and rocks
to move down-slope.
Your teacher will provide you with video 3. Undercutting at the base of a slope –
clips on various areas that have been hit by Undercutting is the process of wearing
landslides. Watch the video carefully. After away of the part below a cliff or a slope.
watching do the following: This makes the slope to be unstable
1. Find out the possible causes of landslides. thus triggers movement downslope.
2. Give the effects of the landslides on a 4. Melting ice – It may cause movement
community. of large masses of ice and rock particles
3. Suggest possible prevention measures downslope.
of above hazard. 5. Volcanic eruptions – When volcanic
4. Name the areas in Rwanda that are eruptions occur, there is a rupture on
likely to experience the hazard. the crust. This causes earth movements
which make soil and rocks move
discussion. downslope.
6. Mining and quarrying activities –
Landslides refer the movement of masses During mining and quarrying activities,
of earth’s materials composed of rocks and techniques such as blasting are used.
soils down a slope. Landslides may be rapid These cause vibrations to occur under
or slow. the soil that lead to landslides.
7. Wildfires – Fires destroy vegetation. The
vegetation holds soil firmly together
preventing landslides from occurring.
When the vegetation is destroyed by
fire, the soil becomes loose causing
landslides.
Effects of landslides
1. Destruction of property such as
buildings.
Fig. 11.10 Landslide. 2. Loss of lives and injuries to people.
3. Destruction and interruption of
Causes of landslides transport and communication lines
1. Prolonged heavy rainfall – Rainwater such as roads.
saturates and lubricates the soil and 4. Landslides expose the slopes to soil
rock materials making the earth erosion.
unstable.
5. Displacement of people when they
occur in settlement areas.
238

1. Improving drainage – Improving the
surface and sub-surface drainage of
an area near a slope will help reduce
the occurrence of a landslide. This is
because water is the main cause of
most landslides.
2. Growing vegetation – Vegetation holds
the soil together firmly. People should
avoid destroying vegetation through
cutting trees in sloppy areas. Trees and
other vegetation should be planted to Fig 11.12
hold any loose soil in place. 1. Give reasons why the activity taking
3. Removing and replacing soil – Soil that place in the picture is considered a
is prone to landslides can be removed. hazard.
It should then be replaced with soils 2. Give examples of areas where the
that are not prone to landslides such activity in the pictures have been
as silt and sandy soils. experienced in Rwanda and Africa.
Volcanic eruptions 3. State how the activity shown in the
pictures influences human activities
Activity 11.8 both positively and negatively.
Work in groups of three. Describe the 4. Discuss your answers in a class
activity shown in the following pictures. presentation.
Volcanic eruptions occur when there is
rupture on the crust of the earth. The
rupture causes hot lava, volcanic ash and
gases to be discharged from volcanic vents.
Fig 11.11
Fig. 11.13 Volcanic eruption on Mount

Nyiragongo.
239

Causes of volcanic eruptions 7. Destruction of power lines and other
Volcanic eruptions are caused by movement communication infrastructure.
of tectonic plates. This movement causes 8. Destruction of vegetation and wildlife.
magma to rise through cracks or weaknesses
in the crust of the earth. Pressure then Prevention and control measures
builds up inside the earth’s crust. When this Volcanic eruptions cannot be prevented.
pressure is released, the magma explodes However, people can be educated on the
and moves to the surface causing volcanic different things they can do to protect
eruptions. themselves and their families when the
eruptions occur.
Ash and rock
Activity 11.9
Crater Work in groups of three.

1. Study the pictures below and explain
Vent
what is taking place. Explain the causes
Strata and effects of each.
Ashfall
Magma chamber
Fig. 11.14 How a volcanic eruption occurs.
Effects of volcanic eruptions
Massive volcanic eruptions result in the
following. Pyroclastic
flow
1. Displacement of people.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Destruction of settlement areas and
property.
Lava flow
4. Air pollution that occur s from the
volcanic ashes and gases that are
released.
5. Destruction of transport and
communication lines.
6. Destruction of farmlands leading to Fig 11.15
food shortages.
240

Human-caused hazards
These are disastrous events caused directly
by identifiable, deliberate or negligent
human actions. They are also known
as non-natural disasters. These hazards
include pollution, wars, famine, accidents,
fires and terrorism.
Fig 11.16 Pollution

Activity 11.10
Work in groups of three. Study the pictures
below and answer the questions that follow.
Fig 11.17
2. Find out from a resource person the
types of natural disasters that have
occurred in your local area in the past.
3. Discuss the natural disasters that you
have been explained to the resource
person. Fig 11.18
4. Identify their causes and effects
and write down short notes in your
notebooks.
5. Find out how the people reacted and
responded after the occurrence of the
hazard.
6. Find out the disaster preparedness,
response and prevention measures
the people and the government have
adopted in case of a reoccurrence of
the disaster.
7. Present your findings in class. Fig 11.19
241

use these fossil fuels. When the fuels
burn, they release fumes. The fumes
cause air pollution. This is a major cause
of air pollution in Rwanda. It is quite
difficult to manage.
Fig 11.20
1. Define the term pollution.
2. Name the types of pollution shown in
Figure 11.20. Fig. 11.21 Fumes from a car.
3. Give the effects of pollution on the
3. Chemicals – Chemicals used in
environment.
agricultural production also cause
4. Identify the types of pollution in your pollution. Herbicides and pesticides
local environment. used in dusting crops are usually
5. Suggest possible measures that can be released in the air causing pollution.
put in place to overcome the problem 4. Dust – When there is too much wind,
of pollution. dust is blown from the surface of the
6. Present your findings in class. earth. This leads to air pollution.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants Causes of water pollution
into the environment that cause undesirable 1. Fertilisers – Fertilisers are applied in
effects. It causes harm to people and other the soil during agricultural production.
living things and also to the environment. When it rains, they are carried away by
Sewage water, dust and smoke are examples rain water and deposited into sources
of contaminants. Pollution can be classified of water such as rivers and lakes.
into air, water, ground (or land) and noise
2. Sewage water – There is no proper
pollution.
mechanism for sewage disposal in
Causes of air pollution many areas. Sewage water is mostly
released into water sources and this
1. Emissions from industries – The
causes pollution. It also leads to the
smoke and fumes from industries
spread of water borne diseases.
cause air pollution. Large amounts of
carbon monoxide are released into the 3. Dumping of dirt into water sources
atmosphere introducing impurities in – People dump waste products such
the air. as human waste, animal waste and
domestic wastes into water sources.
2. Burning of fossil fuels – Fossil fuels are
This causes pollution.
natural fuels such as coal, oil and gas.
Vehicles and other means of transport
242

4. Oil spills – Oils spills from ferries and 3. Entertainment activities – Entertainment
ships lead to pollution of the water activities are also a cause of noise
sources. This contributes to destruction pollution. Examples are weddings,
of aquatic life. parties and music from entertainment
areas.
Effects of pollution
1. Climate change – Pollution leads to the
release of gases into the atmosphere.
This causes the climate to change.
Temperatures become high due to
global warming.
2. Poor health conditions among people
– Air, water and land pollution have
adverse effects on the health of people.
Fig. 11.22 Oil spillage in a water body. Water pollution leads to the spread
of water-borne diseases. Air pollution
Causes of land pollution
leads to respiratory infections.
1. Excessive use of fertilisers – Excessive
3. Death of aquatic life – Oil spillage in
use of fertilisers in agricultural processes
water bodies deprives aquatic animals
lead to contamination of soils.
of oxygen. This causes them to die.
2. Poor disposal of garbage – There are
4. Reduction in agricultural production
no appropriate areas for disposing
– Climate change causes unfavourable
garbage. This has lead to emergence of
conditions for agriculture. The crop
random dumping sites that cause land
yields reduce leading to food insecurity.
pollution.
Excessive use of fertilisers also causes
Causes of noise pollution soils to be acidic. They are therefore not
1. Industries – Industries have a lot of suitable for crop production.
machines that produce very loud noise. 5. Formation of acid rain – Chemicals and
These sounds are unpleasant and smoke in the air cause the formation
therefore cause pollution. of acid rain. Acid rain destroys aquatic
2. Means of transport – Various means of life. It also destroys the leaves of plants
transport such as large motor vehicles, leading to loss of vegetation cover.
trains and aeroplanes produce very
loud noise. The noise causes pollution.
243

Gases carried
Acidic gases (sulphur by the wind
dioxide and nitrogen
oxides released into
atmosphere)
Gases dissolve in
rainwater to form acid rain
Acid rain kills plant life

pollutes rivers and streams
and erodes stonework
Fig. 11.23 Formation of acid rain.

Prevention and control measures 5. Reduce use of chemical fertilisers – The
1. Recycling – Waste materials should be use of chemical fertilisers should be
recycled to reduce the amount of waste reduced. Farmers should opt for more
products dumped in water bodies and environmental friendly methods such
on land. It will also help reduce the as using farmyard manure and green
number of dumping sites. manure.
2. Combustion of gases – Gases and 6. Sucking of oil spills – Oil spills should
vapours should be burnt using flames. be sucked from the surface of water
This will ensure that they are released immediately they occur. This reduces
into the environment in the form of water pollution and prevents the death
less harmful products. For example, of aquatic life.
carbon monoxide should be burnt and
released as carbon (IV) oxide which is Wars
less harmful.
Activity 11.11
3. Maintenance of vehicles – Motor
vehicles and other means of transport Work in groups of three.
should be properly maintained to Use geographical documents and the
reduce the amount of fumes released Internet to research on war as a human
in the environment. hazard. Use your findings to answer the
4. Sewage treatment – Sewage water following questions.
should be treated and the water 1. What is war?
recycled. The solid wastes should be
2. Outline the possible causes of war.
disposed of appropriately and not in
the water sources.
244

3. Explain the effects of war on: Effects of war
• human activities 1. It leads to the death of people and
• the economy. human suffering.
4. Explain the possible measures that can 2. It leads to displacement of people from
be taken to stop the occurrence of war. their homelands creating refugees.
5. Present your findings in a class 3. It leads to destruction of property.
discussion. 4. The soldiers and victims suffer from
War is a conflict between large groups of mental and psychological illnesses.
people. It involves physical force inflicted 5. It results in food shortages since farmers
by use of weapons. War takes many forms abandon their farming activities as they
such as armed conflicts, hostilities and look for safety.
police action. The 1st and 2nd World Wars 6. There is economic stagnation due to the
are examples of war. destruction of the main infrastructure.
War has resulted in great destruction on the It is also very costly to finance wars. The
economy, human suffering and loss of lives. resources that would have been used
for economic development are diverted
Causes of war to war.
1. Competition – Competition for some Prevention and control measures
resources that are unfairly distributed or
1. Promote peace education – People
which are inadequate result in conflicts
should be taught the importance of
and war. Such resources include jobs,
peace and harmony in the country. This
political positions, territory, housing,
will reduce hostility which may lead to
cultivable land, fresh water and pasture.
war. They should also be taught the
2. Poor governance – This makes people effects of wars to human beings and o
unhappy with the government. It development of the country.
makes people or groups of people to
2. Increase security – Security personnel
fight for independence from the central
should be deployed to various borders
government.
of the country. This will help to protect
3. A clash in people’s beliefs – Religions the country against external attacks
and political views give a group of which may result to war.
people a sense of identity. When these
beliefs are interfered with, it results Famine
into war.
Activity 11.12
4. Ethnic differences – Ethnicity gives
people a sense of identity and Do this in groups.
belonging. A threat to this results into
Your facilitator will provide you with video
violence or conflicts.
clips on various areas that have been hit
245

by famine. Watch the video carefully. After received in an area. This can result in
watching, find out the following. famine.
(a) What are the causes of famines? 3. Natural hazards – Natural hazards cause
(b) Give the effects of the famine to a people to fight for the scarce resources.
country. They also cause food insecurity due to
low agricultural production.
(c) Suggest possible prevention measures
to the above hazard. 4. Poverty – People living in poverty do
not have access to land needed for
(d) Present your findings in a class agricultural production. Food will thus
discussion. not be available to ensure food security.
Famine is a widespread scarcity of food. 5. Poor infrastructure – Poor transport
It is caused by many factors. Famine and communication facilities in a
is accompanied by cases of starvation, country cause poor food distribution.
malnutrition and outbreak of diseases. This People living in areas with poor road
is a huge problem that affects very many networks cannot easily access food.
countries in Africa. There was a great famine
in Rwanda in the year 1943 – 1944. Effects of famine
1. Malnutrition – Lack of all nutrients
required by the body causes health
problems. These health problems may
lead to death.
2. Epidemics – During famine, people
have access to very little food and
water. They do not get enough nutrients
needed to protect the body against
attacks by diseases. Therefore, they
are prone to attack by diseases which
Fig. 11.24 An area facing famine. may lead to an increase in number of
deaths.
Causes of famine 3. Starvation – Famine leads to lack of
1. Conflicts – When a country or an area food in an area or country. This in turn
is engaged in war, the government uses leads to starvation. Extreme cases of
funds to deal with the war. When a starvation lead to death.
natural hazard such a drought affects 4. Migration – People usually migrate
an area, the government lacks funds to from areas that have been hit by famine
deal with the situation. in search of food. They later decide
2. Climate change – Global warming to settle in those areas. This leads to
results in poor agricultural production. population increase in some areas.
It leads to reduced amounts of rainfall
246

Prevention and control measures 3. Explain the effects of accidents on the
1. Improve infrastructure – Transport and economy.
communication infrastructure should 4. Explain the possible measures that can
be improved. This will ensure that the be taken to reduce accidents.
roads are accessible and thus food can 5. Present your findings in class.
be distributed equally in all areas of the
An accident is an unplanned or unfortunate
country. This will help prevent famine.
event that happens unexpectedly. It also
2. Conflict resolution – Conflicts that happens unintentionally. Accidents result
occur should be resolved peacefully in injuries or damage. Accidents can occur
without engaging in war. when doing different activities such when
3. Disaster preparedness – People travelling, doing domestic chores like
should be taught on how to handle cooking, playing, walking and working.
different hazards when they occur. The Some accidents also occur as a result of
government should also set up disaster poisoning or electric shock.
response centres that will ensure that
people experiencing famine are given
food.
4. Improved farming methods – Improved
farming methods such as building
of greenhouses should be adopted.
This will ensure constant food supply
throughout the year. People living in dry
areas should practise irrigation farming
to ensure there is crop production
hence food security. Organic farming Fig. 11.25 A fire accident.
should also be encouraged to reduce Causes of accidents
land pollution which leads to poor crop 1. Careless and drunken driving – Road
yields. accidents cause a lot of deaths in the
country. They mostly occur due to
Accidents
careless driving. They also occur due
Activity 11.13 to speeding. Some drivers drive under
the influence of alcohol thus cause
Work in pairs. accidents.
Use geographical documents and the 2. Poor weather conditions – Poor
Internet to research on accidents as a weather conditions also lead to travel
human hazard. Use your findings to answer accidents. When there is fog or mist,
the following questions. drivers and pilots are not able to see
clearly.
1. What are the different examples of
accidents that human beings face? 3. Failure to observe road safety rules –
Many of road users do not obey road
2. Outline the possible causes of accidents.
247

safety rules. This increases the number 4. Reduced development – Accidents lead
of accidents that occur. to loss of lives. This causes a reduction
4. Careless handling of machines and in the population of an area. The rate
equipment – If machines are not of development thus reduces due to
handled well when working, they can scarcity of human labour.
cause to injury to those using them. This
happens more in industries. Electric
1. Education on road safety – People
appliances should also be handled well
should be educated on how they can
and used for the purposes they are
use roads safely. They should also be
intended for to avoid accidents.
taught the importance of observing
5. Poor housekeeping practices – The road safety.
home is where many accidents that
2. Being careful – People should be careful
can be prevented occur. This is due
when performing different tasks or
to poor housekeeping practices and
when handling machines to prevent
carelessness. For example, when water
accidents.
spills on the floor and it is not wiped, it
can cause falls. 3. Construction and maintenance of
roads – Road networks should be
6. Gas leaks in homes – When one does
improved to ensure that the number
not turn off the gas knob well, it causes
of accidents are reduced.
the gas to leak. A fire can start when a
match is lit. 4. Avoid speeding when driving – Drivers
should be cautioned against speeding.
7. Poor road network – Roads with a lot
Speed governors should be installed
of potholes and those that are unpaved
in vehicles to ensure that drivers drive
can lead to road accidents.
within acceptable speed limits.
Effects of accidents 5. Proper housekeeping practices –
1. Death – Many accidents are fatal. They The house should be kept clean and
cause the loss of lives of very many everything should be stored where it
people. Road accidents cause very is supposed to be to reduce accidents.
many deaths in the country daily. Gas cookers should be turned off
2. Loss of property – When accidents appropriately to prevent gas leaks
occur, property worth a lot of money which may lead to fire outbreaks.
is lost. Infrastructure is also destroyed.
3. Disability – Those who are injured from Responses to hazards
accidents may become disabled. This
Activity 11.14
prevents them from doing their work as
they were used to. They have to learn Work in groups of three.
new ways of coping with the situation. Use geographical documents and the
Internet to research on the different
248

responses to hazards. Use your findings operations such as helicopters, boats
to answer the following questions. and bulldozers.
1. What is a response to a hazard? • Recovery of dead bodies and survivors.
2. What do you understand by: • Provision of food, tents and water.
• short-term response • Sending of medical teams to the
• medium-term response affected areas.
• long-term response? • Provision of aid money to help victims
and their families.
3. Give reasons why it is necessary to
respond after the occurrence of a • Burying of the dead victims to stop the
hazards. spread of diseases.
4. Identify some of the hazards that have (b) Medium-term responses
occured in Rwanda.
These are responses that occur in weeks
5. For each hazard in (4) above, outline and months after a disaster has taken place.
the short-term, medium-term and long- These responses are aimed at providing
term responses that have been carried services and facilities to help the victims of
out to overcome those hazards. a hazard to settle and continue with their
6. Give some of the challenges that face normal lives. Medium-term responses are
responses to hazards in Rwanda. rehabilitation measures.
7. Present your findings in class. They include the following.
A response to a hazard is a deliberate effort
• Medical rehabilitation and counselling.
or measure that is put in place to ease the
problem. There are three responses to • Reconnection of water and electricity
hazards. supplies.
• Rebuilding of homes.
• short-term
• Rebuilding of transport lines such as
• medium-term
roads, railway lines, airports and ports.
• long-term
• Reconnection of communication lines
(a) Short-term responses such as the telephone masts and
Internet.
These are responses that occur in the days
• Clearance of damaged buildings.
and weeks immediately after a disaster
has occurred. Short-term responses mainly • Re-building and reopening of schools,
involve search, rescue and helping those hospitals, colleges, universities,
injured or affected. Short-term responses shopping malls, offices and banks.
are rescue measures. They include the • Cancellation of debts.
following.
(c) Long-term responses
• Search and rescue operations.
A long-term response is a response or
• Provision of machinery and equipment
activity that goes on for months or years
for use in the search and rescue
249

after a disaster has occurred. The aim of Activity 11.16
the long-term response is to jump start the
local economy. Long-term responses are Project work.
reconstruction measures. Work in groups of six.
They include the following. Your teacher will provide you with writing
materials and tools.
• Building of new shelters such as
schools, hospitals and houses. 1. Prepare posters and leaflets on causes
and effects of natural and human
• Cancellation of debts. caused hazards that might occur in and
• Improvement on the disaster monitoring outside your school’s environment.
and warning systems such as those 2. Each group should carry out an
used for earthquakes. awareness campaign targeting the
• Improved education provision to people rest of the school to educate the other
on hazard risks and their possible students on the causes and effects of the
solutions. possible hazards. Extend the campaign
• Provision of long-term aid or donations and education to people outside the
to a region or country. school.
• Creation of enterprise zones in order to 3. Educated them on disaster preparedness
encourage investment. and appropriate responses to each
• Taking refugees back to their homes. hazard.
Activity 11.15 Did you know?

Work in groups of ten. • When magma reaches the earth’s
surface it is referred to as lava. When
1. Act out a skit to show an area that has the lava cools down, it forms rocks.
experienced a hazard. Use a hazard of
• Most natural disasters are caused by
your choice.
weather.
2. Respond to the hazard that has occurred
• Floods are the most widespread natural
and offer short-term solutions to the
disaster aside from wildfires.
affected people.
• Earthquakes are the deadliest of all
3. Outline the medium term and long
natural disasters.
term solutions that should be offered
in response to the hazard. • The greatest famine in history
killed around 45 million people in
China between 1958 and 1962.
250

1. Define a hazard.
2. Giving examples, discuss the different
types of hazards.
3. The table below shows some of the
hazards that have been experienced in
Rwanda. Fill in the blank spaces.
Hazard Short- Medium Long-term
term –term responses
responses responses
1 Water
pollution
2 Genocide
3 Soil
erosion
4 Floods
5 Diseases
like HIV
and AIDS
4. Explain the importance of responses to

hazards in Rwanda.
5. Identify some of the challenges that
Rwanda faces in the attempts to
respond to hazards.
251

Topic area:
Human and economic
geography
Sub-topic area:
Population, settlement and
urbanisation
252

UNIT Population and
12 settlement
Key unit competence 7. Why is it important for your facilitator

and school management to know the
number of students in a class?
explain general population concepts and
settlement patterns (rural and urban). Activity 12.2
Unit objectives Work in pairs. Your teacher will guide you

to fill in the table below with the required
By the end of this unit,you must be able to: details.
(a) define population and associated
concepts Table 12.1 The population of our school.
(b) identify types of settlement Category of people (persons) Number
(c) define concept of migration. Females
Activity 12.1 (a) Learners
(b) Teachers
(c) Workers such as
1. Count the number of people in your cleaners, cooks and
classroom. security personnel.
2. Include all the students, your facilitator (d) Administrators
and any other person present at the (e) Visitors such as the
time of counting. inspectors.
3. Give the number of males and females, Males
separately.
(a) Learners
4. Use the data collected to draw a chart
(b) Teachers
or a picture of your classroom. Use
symbols to show the statistics of your (c) Workers such as
class. cleaners, cooks and
security personnel.
5. Display your chart or picture on the
class notice board. (d) Administrators
6. Describe the composition of the people (e) Visitors such as the
in your class. inspectors.
253

(a) Analysis countries at intervals of ten years. Rwanda
also carries out its population census after
(b) The number of females
every 10 years. The last population census
(c) The number of males in Rwanda was in 2012.It is therefore
(d) The total number of the expected that there will be a population
population census in 2022.
General description or The study of populations is referred to as
comment on the composition demography. This field deals with studying
of the school’s population the population distribution, population
structure. structure and composition, factors that
(Compare the male and influence population distribution and the
female numbers) effects of population levels on the available
resources and socio-economic state of the
society.
Population
Activity 12.3 The population structure
Work in pairs.
and composition
1. Define the term population. Activity 12.4
2. Explain the meaning of population Do this in pairs.
census. 1. Use the data findings in Activities 12.1
3. Why do you think it is important for and 12.2 to do this activity.
countries to carry out population 2. Determine the age of the population of
census? your school.
4. Give the term given to the study of 3. Fill in the table below.
population.
Population is a term used to refer to the Table 12.2 The age group of the population
number of people living in an area at a given of our school.
time. Using the findings of Activity 12.1, you Category of Age Number
are able to know the population of your people (persons) group of people
class. At the same time, Activity 12.2, assists Females 0–4
you to know the population of your school. 5–9
Suppose your class was a country, you would 10 – 14
be able to know the number of people living 15 – 19
in the country. The official counting exercise 20 – 24
is known as population census. 25 – 29
30 – 34
Population census is the act of counting 35 – 39
people living in a given area over a specific 40 – 44
time. Population census is usually done by 45 – 49
254

Females 50 – 54 Population structure refers to the
55 – 59 composition of a given population. It is
60 – 64 broken down into categories such as age and
65+ gender. The population structure of a given
country is represented diagrammatically by
Males 0–4
use of population pyramids. The pyramids
5–9
are commonly known as the Age and Sex
10 – 14
graphs.
15 – 19
20 – 24 The importance of a population structure
25 – 29 (a) It helps governments to project the
30 – 34 future growth and economic prosperity
35 – 39 of countries.
40 – 44
45 – 49 (b) It provides the data that is used by
50 – 54 policy makers and economic planners.
55 – 59 The data is used when planning and
60 – 64 budgeting for the nation. For example
65+ it helps to determine the number of
schools, hospitals and distribution of
Analysis
clean water. Electricity supply, roads
The number of females. and recreational facilities in a given area
The number of males. can also be determined.
The information collected is then statistically
The total number of the
represented. This representation gives a
population.
visual interpretation of the analysis of the
General description population composition.
or comment on the
composition of the school’s The nature of a population pyramid
population structure.  When the population structure has the
(Compare the male and female greatest population lying between 0–14
numbers in terms of age.) years, it is a young population.
 Most developing countries have a
1. State the number of females and males population pyramid that is broad at the
found in your school. base. This means that there are more
2. Why do you think it is very important young people and few aged ones.
to know the above numbers?  On the other hand, the population
3. Identify the largest age group in your structure of a developed country is
school and explain why it is so. narrow at the base and wider at the
4. Using the answers obtained in 1, 2 and apex when compared to that of a
3 above, explain what a population developing country.
structure is.
255

Rwanda – 2013
Male 100+ Female
95 – 99
90 – 94
85 – 89
80 – 84
75 – 79
70 – 74
65 – 69
60 – 64
55 – 59
50 – 54
45 – 49
40 – 44
35 – 39
30 – 34
25 – 29
20 – 24
15 – 19
10 – 44
5–9
0–4
970 776 582 388 194 0 0 194 388 582 776 970
Population (in thousands) Age group Population (in thousands)
Fig 12.1 Population pyramid of Rwanda – a developing country.
Source: www.coopami.rg
The middle part of this population structure is wide. This is reflected by bulging bars
as illustrated below.
Canada – 2014
Male 100+ Female
95 – 99
90 – 94
85 – 89
80 – 84
75 – 79
70 – 74
65 – 69
60 – 64
55 – 59
50 – 54
45 – 49
40 – 44
35 – 39
30 – 34
25 – 29
20 – 24
15 – 19
10 – 44
5–9
0–4
2 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Population (in millions) Age group Population (in millions)
Fig 12 2 Population pyramid of Canada – a developed country.
Source: www.indexmundi.com
256

Population distribution An analysis of population distribution shows
and density areas with many people or few people and
areas that are moderately populated.
Activity 12.5 This implies that population can hardly be
Do this in groups of three. evenly distributed. Some areas have dense,
low and sparse populations. Population
1. Use the five classes; Senior 1, distribution is represented using population
Senior 2, Senior 3, Senior 4, and maps. On such maps, dots are used to
Senior 5 as representatives of the represent settlements. The maps are known
provinces of Rwanda. as dot maps. There are other population
2. Count the number of learners in each maps that use shades of different colours.
class. They are called choropleth maps.
3. Describe the way population is spread Areas with many dots imply dense
out in your school. populations. Areas with scattered dots
Population distribution is the spread of indicate sparse populations.
people across the area where people live.
W E
0 60 km
15 30 45
Fig 12.3 United States Hispanic population dot map.
257

N
W E
0 1000
60 km
km
15 30 45
Fig 12.4 A choropleth map showing global population distribution.
Task 12.1 Suppose country Y has a total population

of 29,500,500 people and a total land area
1. Define the term population distribution. of 156,578 km2. Its population density will
2. Describe a population structure. be as follows:
3. Explain the composition of a population
Population density = Total population
structure of a: Total area
a) developing country 29,500,500
=
b) developed country. 156,578 km2
4. Describe how population distribution = 1,884 per person
is represented in geography. per km2
Therefore, the population density of area Y
Population density is 1,884 persons per square kilometre.
Population density refers to the number of
people living per unit area. The unit area is Activity 12.6
usually in square kilometres. To determine
Use the data indicated in the Table 12.3 to
the population density of an area, the total
determine the population density of each
population of an area is divided by the total
country.
size of the area. The population density is
expressed as persons per square kilometre.
258

Table 12.3 Population densities of different countries.
Country Total population Total area in km2 Population density
X 11,565,810 26,671 -------------------------
Y 2,050,678 276,106 --------------------------
Z 50,000,658 25,000 --------------------------
E 38,689,654 102,000 --------------------------
1. Identify the country with the highest population density.
2. Identify the country with the lowest population density.
3. Explain the problems a country with a high population density is likely to face.
4. Examine the challenges a country with a low population density is likely to experience.
Activity 12.7 Population growth

Project work. Case study
Work in groups of five.
1. Analyse the effects of a high population
There is a large inflow of refugees from
density on the environment where you live.
Burundi entering into Rwanda. The refugees
2. Suggest how the problems arising are fleeing from insecurity and famine.
can be solved in order to use the Unfortunately, this is happening when the
environment sustainably. infant mortality rate in Rwanda has declined
3. Present your findings in class. tremendously. The life expectancy level in
Rwanda has also risen.
The knowledge on population density
enables the country to allocate resources
appropriately. This is in proportion to the
number of people.
Task 12.2
1. Define the term population density.
2. Explain how the population of a given
country is obtained. Fig 12.5
3. Why is it necessary to determine the 1. Explain the effects that this refugee
population densities of various parts of problem will have on the population of
a country? Rwanda.
4. Calculate the population density of 2. Identify the main factors that have forced
country X, whose total population is refugees from Burundi to enter Rwanda.
2,506,761 people and total area is 2,565 3. Why did the refugees decide to take
square kilometres. refuge in Rwanda?
259

Population growth refers to the increase in The birth rate is approximately 20 per every
the number of people living in a given area 1,000. This means that every year there are
or country. The population of the world 20 newborn babies.
has been steadily increasing over time. The birth rate of an area is closely affected
The population of Africa is also rapidly by fertility.
increasing. To determine whether there
has been population growth, the following (b) Fertility rate
formula is used;
(birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + Activity 12. 9
emigration).
Work individually.
(a) Birth rate 1. Identify the following families in your
neighbourhood:
Activity 12.8
(a) families with many children
Do this individually. (b) families with few children
1. Study the population of your home (c) childless families.
area.
2. Explain the varying sizes of families.
2. Compare it with how it was last year.
3. Do you notice any difference? Fertility rate refers to the number of children
that would be born to a woman in her
4. Explain the difference noted.
lifetime. It is calculated per every 1000
5. Present your findings in class. women in a population. Fertility rates
Birth rate refers to the number of live babies vary in different areas. Other reasons that
born in a year for every 1000 people in the account for differences in fertility rates
total population. It is calculated using the include economic constraints, cultural and
following formula. traditional beliefs, poor nutrition by the
mothers and diseases.
Birth Number of new born babies
rate = x 1000
The total population Task 12.3
1. Explain the difference between fertility
Suppose in a certain year, new born babies rate and birth rate.
were 200,000 in a total population of
2. Explain the factors that influence the
10,000,000 people. The birth rate is as
fertility rate in any given region.
follows;
3. What would happen to population sizes
= 200,000 x 1000 = 20 if the fertility rate:
10,000,000
(a) increases
(b) decreases?
260

(c) Death rate (d) Growth rate
Case study Growth rate refers to the natural change in
the number of people living in a given area
Do this in pairs. or country. This change is by an increase or
In a certain year in a village in Gasabo district, decrease expressed as a percentage.
there were many grandparents taking care Growth rate is also defined as the ratio of
of their grandchildren. After 10 years, the birth rate and death rate per 1000 people.
grandchildren were found alone taking care This is determined by the formula:
of themselves. Their grandparents could not
be seen anymore. Birth rate - Death rate x 100
Growth rate = 1000
(a) What do you think happened to that
There are different types of growth rates.
village?
(b) Why were the grandchildren left alone? Rapid growth rate - refers to a situation
where birth rates are high and death rates are
low. This leads to a fast growing population.
Death rate refers to the number of people Slow growth rate - refers to a nearly
dying per 1000 people in the total population. stagnant population growth where both
It is calculated using the following formula: the birth and death rate are low. It is
experienced in countries such as Britain
and Sweden.
The total number of deaths
Death rate = x 1000
The total population Zero growth rate - is also known as constant
growth rate. It is a stable population growth
Let us see a scenario; rate where birth rates are equal to death
rates and the rate of population increase is
In 2014, country X registered 60,000 deaths therefore zero.
in a total population of 12,000,000 people.
Negative growth rate- is a type of growth
Calculate the death rate of country X. rate where birth rates are lower than death
rates. This results in a declining population.
The total number of deaths
Death rate = The total population
x 1000 (e) Natural increase
This is the difference between the number
of births and number of deaths. It occurs
60,000 when the birth rate exceeds the death rate.
= x 1000
12,000,000 This may be caused by high birth rates,
=5 low death rates and influx of people like
refugees into a country.
This means that for every 1000 people of
the general population, 5 persons died in (f) Natural decrease
that year. This is a condition that occurs when the
death rate exceeds the birth rate. It results
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in a low population growth rate. A natural such as floods, severe drought, pests and
decrease could also be caused by epidemics diseases and civil wars.
such as HIV and AIDS, natural hazards
Activity 12.10
Do this in pairs.
Use the following data to calculate the birth and death rates of various countries.
Table 12.4
Year Country Total Number of Number of Birth Death
population deaths births rate rate
2011 X 150,000 1000 768 _____ _____
2012 Y 20,000 800 2500 _____ _____
2013 Z 95,000 1500 1500 _____ _____
2014 F 84,006 250 362 _____ _____
1. Define the term death rate.

2. Differentiate between birth and death rates.
3. Comment on country X and Y and suggest factors that led to their differences in birth
and death rates.
4. Calculate the growth rate for each of the countries.
5. Identify some factors that may influence the population growth rate.
Activity 12.11 Settlement

Do this in groups of three. Activity 12.12
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
Do this in pairs. Discuss and answer the
other geographical documents.
following questions.
1. Find out other concepts and terms
1. Where did the early man live?
related to population studies.
2. Where do people live?
concepts. 3. Describe where you live.
3. Write down your findings. 4. Why is it necessary to have homes?
4. Discuss them in a class presentation. 5. Identify the factors that influence the
establishment of a home.
6. Draw a village where people live and
display your picture in the class.
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A settlement refers to a place where people (d) In places with security such as near
live and establish their homes. It refers to the king’s palace, state house or army
forms of human habitation from a single barracks.
dwelling to the largest city. (e) In areas with favourable relief that
People choose to build their homes in given is generally flat or gently sloping
areas due to factors that may be favourable. areas. This is for easy accessibility and
They include the following. infrastructural development.
(a) Where there is a reliable source of water. (f) In places that are disease and pest free.
(b) In places with fertile soils that can (g) Strategic positions or sites such as at a
support plant growth. place where many roads meet.
(c) In locations with enough supply of (h) The presence of natural resources,
food such as near the market or an where people able to get jobs easily.
agriculturally rich region.
Types of settlements
Activity 12.13
Observe the settlements around your home area and school. Answer the following
questions in a class discussion.
1. Describe the settlements.
2. Name the types of settlements you have observed.
3. Which type of settlement is associated with roads, rails and towns?
4. Which type of settlement is associated with rivers and farms?
Rural settlements are villages occupied by people involved in primary production such as
subsistence agriculture.
Urban settlements are areas occupied by people who are involved in trade, commerce and
industrial activities. They comprise of towns or urban centres and cities.
Fig 12.6 A rural settlement in Nyanza Province of Rwanda.

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Fig 12.7 An Aerial view of housing units of urban settlements in Kibagabaga, Gasabo District.
Both rural and urban settlements take any (a) Nucleated settlements
of the following settlement patterns. This is a settlement pattern where people
(a) Nucleated settlement pattern. cluster together to form compact
settlements. The clusters may be around a
(b) Linear settlement pattern.
market, a source of water or a farm that has
(c) Sparse settlement pattern. been divided into strips.
Fig 12.8 A nucleated settlement pattern in Poomparai village in India.

(b) Linear settlements
This is a common kind of settlement pattern. Homesteads and houses are arranged in lines.
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The houses are located on either side of certain features like roads, railways, rivers or
along a coast. Most linear settlements develop because of the convenience of nearness
to a transport route.
Fig 12. 9 A linear settlement pattern along Saint Lawrence River in Quebec Canada.
(c) Sparse or scattered settlements low and unreliable in nature. Practices such
This is a type of settlement consists of as hunting, shifting cultivation and food
isolated dwellings which are scattered gathering and nomadic pastoralism are a
over a large area. This type of settlement main economic activity.
is common in areas where rainfall is very
Fig 12.10 A dispersed settlement pattern in Darrenfelen and Cwm Dyar-fach in Britain.
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Activity 12.14 Case study
Do this in pairs. Esther Gasana is an accountant in one of the
1. Observe the settlements in the area prominent companies in Rwanda. She stays
around your school. in Kigali with her family. She grew up in Kigali.
2. Identify the different types of Recently, she got a promotion at her place
settlement patterns. of work. She got a letter that required her
3. Give their characteristics and reasons to report at the Huye branch. She received
why they exist. the news with a lot of happiness.
4. Record your findings for a class
discussion. She has an older brother who stays in the
Unites States of America.
Task 12.4 One of her sisters recently visited one
1. Define the term settlement. of their uncles who stays in the Eastern
Province of Rwanda.
2. Explain the meaning of the following.
(a) Rural settlement. 1. Mention the geographical concept
represented in the story.
(b) Urban settlement.
2. Name and explain the types of migration
3. Differentiate between:
represented in the passage.
(a) nucleated settlement and sparse
3. Apart from the factor of employment
settlement
mentioned in the story, identify other
(b) linear and isolated settlement. causes of migration.
Migration
Activity 12.15
Do this in pairs.
Study the photograph shown below and answer the questions that follow.
Fig 12.11 Refugees from Rwanda.
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1. Explain what is happening in the Activity 12.16
photograph.
Study the table below and fill in the missing
2. Identify the causes of such a mass information.
movement of people like those in the
photograph. Table 12.5
3. What are the challenges that such Source Receiving Type of migration
people face during and after such area area
undesirable movement? Rwanda USA __________
4. Suggest what can be done to stop such Bugesera Musanze __________
movements from happening in our Musanze Kinigi __________
country. Town village
Migration is a term used to refer to the DRC Kenya __________
movement of people from one place to Uganda Rwanda __________
another for specific purposes. The purposes
could be to search for jobs, search for
pasture, search for better living conditions Other types of migration
or as a result of civil war. (a) Voluntary migration
This is where an individual moves from one
Types of migration place to another without being forced. A
There are different types of migration. person moves out of his or her own free
The types are classified based on the will. The movement could be between
original location of a person and their final continents, countries or certain parts
destination. They include the following. of the same country. This is sometimes
referred to as “analysed migration”. The
(a) Internal migration parties involved study the advantages and
This is the movement of people from one disadvantages of moving and decide to
place to another within the same country. leave willingly.
It does not include crossing of borders of a
country. (b) Involuntary migration
This is forced migration where an individual
(b) External migration shifts from a place to another due to
This refers to the movement of people from unfavourable factors. A person moves against
one country to another. It involves crossing his or her will. For example, the government
the borders of a country. This means that may decide to resettle a given population
they emigrate from one country to another. due to a need. The need could be such as
infrastructural development. Other factors
When someone migrates from one country
that can force people to move include war,
to another, the person is known as an
genocide or civil unrest in a country.
emigrant. The same person in the receiving
country is known as an immigrant. The
processes of movement are known as
emigration and immigration respectively.
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(c) Permanent migration or long-term
Did you know?
migration
This is the movement of people from • About 50% of the world population is
the source area to another place with no under 25 years old.
intention of returning back to their origin. • The average life expectancy is 80 years
(d) Temporary migration or short-term old for people in industrialized nations,
migration and 53 years old for Sub-Saharan Africa.
This is the movement of people from • The continent with highest population
the source area to another part with an is Asia that accounts for 60% of world’s
intention of returning to their homes. It is population.
also referred to as a “return migration” or • Early human migrations are thought to
short-term migration. This form of migration have begun when Homo Erectus first
is practised by businessmen, tourists and migrated out of Africa to Eurasia.
students. • The largest migration corridor in the
There are other types of migration that world is the Mexico – USA.
are found on villages and towns. They are
presented in Table 12.6.
Table 12.6 Types of migration.
1. Define population.
(a) Rural – This is the movement 2. Explain the meaning of the following
urban migration of people from villages terms:
to cities and towns.
(a) population structure
(b) Rural – rural This is the movement (b) population distribution and density.
migration of people from one 3. Why is it important for governments to
village to another carry out census in their countries?
village.
4. Differentiate between:
(c) Urban – This is the movement
urban migration of people from one (a) birth, death and growth rates.
city to another. (b) natural increase and decrease.
(d) Urban – This is the movement 5. (a) Define settlement.
rural migration of people from cities (b) List and briefly describe three types
or towns to villages. of settlements.
6. (a) Define migration.
Activity 12.17 (b) Mention and briefly explain the
Use Geography textbooks, the Internet, two main types of migration.
maps and other documents. (c) Give four reasons why people
1. Find out the types of migration that migrate.
exist in Rwanda. Give examples.
2. Note them down and discuss your
findings in a class presentation.
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Topic area:
Human and economic
geography
Sub-topic area:
Economic activities and
development studies
Number of periods : 5
269

UNIT
Economic activities
13
Key unit competence An economic activity is an action that

involves the production, distribution and
By the end of this unit, you must be
consumption of goods and services.
able to categorise the types of various
economic activities and their importance
Types of economic activities
on development.
There are three main categories of economic
Unit objectives activities.
By the end of the unit, you must be able to: • Primary
(a) define an economic activity • Secondary
(b) state the types of economic activities • Tertiary
(c) identify the importance of various (a) Primary economic activities
economic activities.
Activity 13.2
Economic activities In pairs, study the following photographs
and answer the questions that follow.
Activity 13.1
Work in groups of three under the guidance
of your teacher.
1. Go outside the school and look around.
2. Identify and describe the activities that
people do to earn some money. (a)
3. Tell your teacher what the people who
live near you at home do to earn some
money.
4. Why do the people do the activities that
you have mentioned above?
5. Record your findings in class.
6. Present your findings in a class (b)
discussion.
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• In mining, the mineral resources are
obtained from the ground through
different means. They are then taken
for further processing.
• Forestry involves tree harvesting where
mature trees are cut down for timber.
(c) • Fishing entails the catching of fish in
water using nets and other fishing
equipment.
(b) Secondary economic activities
Activity 13.3
Study the photographs below and answer
(d)
Fig 13.1
1. Identify the activities taking place in
each of the photographs.
2. Give the products of each activity
shown in the photographs.
3. Identify an area in Rwanda where each
of the activities shown is carried out.
(a)
Primary economic activities are those that
involve the extraction of natural resources
from the earth. These activities produce
food and raw materials for other industries.
In most cases, people who are involved in
primary economic activities live closer to
the areas where the resources are found.
Examples of primary economic activities (b)
include crop cultivation, livestock farming,
mining, forestry, fishing and quarrying.
• In crop cultivation, farmers dig the
ground and plant seeds. The seeds later
germinate into crops that mature. The
crops are harvested to obtain food.
• In livestock farming, farmers keep a (c)
variety of livestock like cows, sheep,
goats and pigs. These animals are kept
for their meat, wool and skin.
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(c) Tertiary economic activities
Activity 13. 4
Study the photographs below and answer
(d)
Fig 13.2
1. Identify the economic activities shown
in each of the photographs.
2. Give examples of some of these
economic activities found in Rwanda. (a)
Secondary economic activities are those
that utilise the products from the primary
economic activities. Secondary economic
activities change the raw materials into
semi-processed or finished products. This
is done by processing or manufacturing.
The raw materials are made more valuable
through processing. (b)
Table 13.1 Secondary and primary
economic activities.
Secondary Primary
economic activity economic activity
1 Milk production Livestock farming
2 Textile production Cotton farming
3 Steel making Iron ore-mining (c)
• In milk production, raw milk from the

cows is processed into different milk
products that include treated milk,
skimmed milk and cheese.
• In textile production, raw cotton from
farms is processed into cloth.
• In steel making, iron ore is refined into (d)
fine steel. Fig 13.3
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1. Identify the services provided in the of tertiary economic activities include
photographs. transport and communication, tourism,
2. For each activity, identify one area in banking, trade, insurance, administration
Rwanda where it is carried out. and entertainment. Professionals who
Tertiary economic activities are those provide services include teachers, lawyers
that provide services to people. Examples and medical officers.
Activity 13. 5
1. Classify the economic activities in the pictures below as either primary, secondary or
tertiary.
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(a) Economic activities provide food for the
population, for example, fishing and
farming.
(b) Economic activities provide employment
to people, for example, those working
in plantations or factories.
(c) The sale of products from primary
and secondary activities is a source of
income to people. This helps to raise the
people’s standards of living. Products
such as milk are sold to the consumers
and earn the farmers an income.
(d) Economic activities such as processing
activities are a source of revenue to the
government. This revenue is earned
through taxation. The revenue is used
Fig 13.4 for economic development of various
2. Do you see some of these activities areas of the economy.
taking place near your home or school? (e) Commodities from the economic
3. Discuss their importance to the activities are exported to earn foreign
community. exchange. This revenue is in turn used
for economic development of the
Importance of economic country.
(f) The economic activities such as dairy or
activities tea farming have led to development of
Activity 13.6 transport and communication networks
in the rural areas. For example, the
Work in groups of three. construction of roads has led to
1. Discuss the importance of the economic improved accessibility.
activities that take place near your (g) The economic activities lead to
school or home. production of commodities required by
people for use. This has enabled people
2. Do you think they are of importance to
to have access to the basic needs
the country? Discuss their importance.
and services. This leads to improved
3. Write them down in your note book. standards of living.
4. Discuss them in your groups and (h) The primary economic activities are
then present your findings in a class a major source of raw materials for
presentation. industries.
Economic activities play a very significant (i) Some economic activities such as tea
role in the sustainable development of a processing and mining have led to the
country. growth of towns.
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(j) Economic activities have led to equitable • Agriculture remains the main primary
distribution of goods and services. People activity undertaken by developing
who do not produce a commodity are still nations.
able to get them easily. This is because • Developing countries export raw
they can buy the commodities that they materials to developed countries for
do not have in exchange for money or for processing then buy them back as
other goods and services. Services such finished products.
as banking, insurance come close to the • All the three types of economic activities
people who need them. have a positive economic impact to a
Improved standards of living and continuos country.
investment into various economic activities
leads to sustainable development. • Tertiary activities offer support to both
the primary and secondary economic
Activity 13.7 activities.
1. Name some of the economic activities End of unit revision task

that take place in Rwanda. 1. (a) Give examples of primary economic
2. List the products of the activities. activities in Rwanda.
3. State the importance of the activities (b) List some of the employment
and products produced to the country opportunities in the primary
and to the immediate community that economic activities.
engages in the activity. 2. (a) What are secondary economic
4 Record your findings and present them activities?
in class for discussion. (b) Give examples of secondary
Activity 13.8 economic activities that take place
in your country.
1. Discuss how the government of Rwanda 3. (a) Define tertiary economic activities.
utilises the revenue from the economic
activities. (b) Explain the importance of tertiary
economic activities to primary and
2. Why is it important for the government secondary activities.
to develop all areas of the country?
(c) List some of the employment
3. Discuss within your group and record opportunities in the tertiary
your findings in your notebook. economic activities.
4. Present your findings in a class 4. Outline the main economic activities in
discussion. Rwanda.
5. Giving examples, explain the importance
Did you know? of the three economic activities to the
• Most developing countries still engage economy of Rwanda.
in primary activities.
275

GLOSSARY
• Aeration – is the process by which air • Cartographer – a person who creates

is circulated through, mixed with or maps.
dissolved in a substance. • Census – an official count or survey of
• Aerosol – a substance that is released a population.
from a container as a spray. • Ceramics – things made of clay and
• Afforestation – establishment of a forest hardened by heat.
in an area where there was no forest. • Chlorofluorocarbon – a chemical
• Agroforestry – agriculture that involves containing atoms of carbon, chlorine,
cultivation and conservation of trees. and fluorine. It is mostly used in the
• Alluvial soils – fertile soil deposited by manufacture of aerosol sprays.
water flowing over flood plains or in • Constriction – a place where something
river beds. has become tighter or narrower; an
• Altitude – the height of an object or obstruction.
point in relation to sea level or ground • Consumption – using up of a resource.
level. • Continental movement – movement of
• Aquatic – relating to water, living in or the earth’s continents relative to each
near water. other
• Aquifer – an underground layer of • Continents – part of the earth’s crust
water-bearing permeable rock. that rises above the oceans .
• Aspect – the compass direction that a • Convectional currents – the transfer of
slope faces. heat by the mass movement of heated
• Axis - an invisible line around which an particles.
object such as a planet rotates, or spins. • Coordinates – each of a group of
• Base – a substance that is slippery to numbers used to indicate the position
touch, tastes bitter and changes the of a point, line or plane.
colour of indicators. • Core – central and innermost part of the
• Biodiversity – variety of life in the world. earth or other planet.
• Calibrate – mark with a standard scale • Coriolis effect – the force that causes
of readings. a moving object to change direction,
• Canopy – the cover formed by the leafy towards the right in the Northern
upper branches of the trees in a forest. Hemisphere and the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
• Capillarity – the process in which a
liquid flows in narrow spaces like soil • Cosmic – relating to the universe.
pores. • Crest – the top of a mountain or a hill.
• Crust – outer layer of the earth.
276

• Crystals - a small piece of a substance • Emigration – the act of leaving one’s
that is formed when the substance turns native country with the intent to settle
into a solid. elsewhere.
• Data – facts and statistics collected • Equatorial trough – the low atmospheric
together for reference or analysis. pressure zone that lies between the
• Decay – rotting of organic matter subtropical high-pressure belts of the
through the action of bacteria or fungi. Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
• Decomposition – the process of rotting. • Erosion – Weathering in which surface
• Deflect – to cause something to change soil and rock are washed away by the
direction. action of glaciers, water and wind.
• Degree of inclination – the angle at • Exotic – originating in a distant or
which a piece of land is raised in relation foreign country.
to a point of reference. • Extrusive – relating to rock that has
• Demography – the study of populations been forced out onto the earth’s surface
with emphasis on statistics such as as lava or other volcanic deposits.
births, deaths and income. • Farmyard manure – the traditional
• Density – the mass per unit volume of manure that is mostly readily available
a substance . to the farmers. It is made using cow
dung, cow urine, waste straw and other
• Deploy – to spread out or arrange dairy wastes.
strategically.
• Fauna – the animals of a particular
• Deposition – the act or process of region.
depositing.
• Fieldwork – practical work conducted by
• Digital – electronic technology that a researcher in the natural environment.
generates, stores and processes data.
• Flora – the plants of a particular region.
• Dinosaur – an ancient reptile of
enormous size. • Foreign exchange – currency from other
countries.
• Disintegration – the process of breaking
into pieces. • Forest reserve – forests that have been
set side and protected by law in a certain
• Drainage – the process of removing country.
excess water from a substance.
• Fossils – preserved remains of things
• Drizzle – light rain falling in very fine of the old times.
drops.
• Gender – the state of being male or
• Ecosystem – a biological community of female with reference to social and
interacting organisms and their physical cultural differences.
environment.
• Geography – the study of the physical
• Elevation – the height of a geographical features of the earth and its atmosphere.
location above or below a point of It also studies human activities as they
reference. affect and are affected by the physical
277

features. This includes the distribution It provides the raw material for the
of populations and resources, land use, formation of new stars.
and industries. • Intrusive – of or relating to igneous rock
• Glacial – relating to ice. that while molten, is pushed into cracks
• Granule – a small grain or particle of or between other layers of rock.
something. • Ionosphere – a part of earth’s
• Gravity – the force that attracts a body atmosphere that has a lot of ions from
towards the centre of the earth. It can the solar radiation.
also attract a body towards any other • Isotope – a different version of a
physical body with mass. chemical element.
• Green manure – a fertiliser consisting • Jovian planets – outer planets away
of growing plants that are plowed back from the sun.
into the soil. • Landform – a natural feature on the
• Haze – a slight obscuration of the lower earth’s surface.
atmosphere, caused by fine suspended • Landscape – all the visible features of
particles. an area of land.
• Heath – a short shrub with small leaves • Laterally – extending from side to side.
and pink or purple bell-shaped flowers. • Lava – hot molten or semi-fluid rock
• Horizon – a zone or layer erupted from a volcano or fissure.
• Hydrological cycle – this is a continuous • Lava ejecta – material ejected out of a
cycle where water evaporates, into the volcano such as pumice, ash and tuff.
air and becomes part of the clouds. It • Lava flow – a mass of flowing or solidified
then falls down to earth as precipitation lava.
and evaporates again. This repeats again
and again in a never-ending cycle. • Lay of the land – the natural features of
a geographic area
• Immigration – the action of coming to
live permanently in a foreign country. • Light years – The distance that light
travels in a vacuum in one year.
• Impervious – not allowing fluid to pass
through. • Loess – a loamy soil deposit formed by
wind.
• Infiltrate – to cause a liquid to enter
something like soil through its pores. • Louvre – a structure on a roof or window,
with side openings for ventilation.
• Inorganic – not consisting of living
matter • Lumbering – the process of cutting
down trees and turning them into
• Insolation – a measure of solar radiation timber.
energy received on a given surface area
in a given time. • Macro-nutrients – nutrients that
provide energy and are required in
• Interstellar gas – gases, and dust that large amounts.
occupy the space between the stars.
278

• Mafic rocks – a silicate mineral or rock • Oceanic bed – the bottom of the ocean.
rich in magnesium and iron that is dark • Offshore – situated at sea some distance
in colour. from the shore.
• Magma – hot fluid or semi- fluid material • Onshore – situated or occurring on land.
below or within the earth’s crust. • Organic – relating to or derived from
• Mantle – a layer in the interior of Earth living matter.
or another planet. • Organic farming – a form of agriculture
• Maritime – relating to the sea. that depends on techniques like crop
• Matter – a physical substance that rotation, green manure, compost and
occupies space and has mass. biological pest control.
• Metamorphism – alteration of the • Orographic – resulting from the effects
composition or structure of a rock by of mountains.
heat or pressure. • Oxides – a mixture of oxygen and
• Meteorologist – scientists who study another element.
the atmosphere. They examine its • Ozone layer – a layer in Earth’s
effects on the environment, predict the stratosphere that absorbs most of the
weather, or investigate climate trends. ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth from
• Micro-climate – the climate of a small the sun.
area that is different from the area • Ped – a soil particle.
around it. • Percolate – of a liquid; filter gradually
• Micro-nutrients – nutrients required in through a porous surface or substance.
small amounts. • Perennial – lasting or existing for a long
• Micro-organism – a living organism that time.
is too small to be seen with the naked • Permeability – the state of a material
eye e. g bacteria. that causes it to allow liquids or gases
• Molten – in a semi-liquid state by means to pass through it.
of heating. • Photosynthesis – a process used by
• Moorland – an area of low-growing plants to convert light energy from
vegetation of grass and bushes on acidic the sun, into chemical energy that can
soils. be later released to fuel the plant’s
• Murram – a form of clay material used activities.
for road surfaces. • Physical features – the environment:
• Muslin – lightweight cotton cloth. landforms, water bodies, climate,
• Natural resources – materials or natural vegetation and soils of the earth.
substances that occur in nature and can • Planetoid – minor planet
be used for economic gain. They include • Plankton – the small and microscopic
forests, fertile land, water, minerals etc. organisms drifting or floating in the sea
• Oblique – aerial photographs taken or fresh water.
from a high point at a slope angle.
279

• Plutonic – igneous rock formed by • Ribbon – a long narrow strip of
solidification below the earth’s surface. something.
• Population pyramid – a graphical • Run-off – draining away of water from
illustration that shows the distribution the land surface.
of various age groups in a population. • Satellite – a body that orbits around
• Porous – relating to a rock having spaces Earth, any other planet or a star.
or holes through which liquid or air may • Scarp – a very steep bank or slope.
pass. • Sea level – an average level for the
• Precipitate – cause (a substance) to be surface of the earth’s oceans from which
deposited in solid form from a solution. heights are measured.
• Pressure belt – A pressure belt is a band • Sea waves – a disturbance on the
of high and low pressure found every surface of the sea or lake. It is usually
30 degrees. in the form of a moving ridge or swell.
• Quarrying – extraction of stones from • Sediments – solid fragments of inorganic
rocks on the ground. or organic material that settle at the
• Rain shadow – a region with little bottom of lakes or ocean beds. They are
rainfall because it is sheltered from rain- carried and deposited by wind, water,
bearing winds. or ice.
• Ratio – a relationship between two • Sediments – the accumulation of sand
quantities showing the number of times and dirt that settles at the bottom of
one value is contained in another. lakes or oceans.
• Raw materials – a basic material that • Semi-processed – a product that has
is used to produce goods, finished not been fully processed to completion
products and energy. to create a product.
• Reforestation – restocking of existing • Sensitise – make an object or substance
forests that have been depleted or sensitive to light.
destroyed. • Slide – an image on a transparent base
• Refugee – a person who has been forced for projection on a screen.
to leave their country in order to escape • Soil aggregate – groups of soil particles
war, persecution or natural disaster. that bind to each other strongly.
• Regolith – the layer of loose material • Solidification – to make something into
covering the bedrock of the earth. a hard compact mass or a solid.
• Relief – the highest and lowest elevation • Soluble – of a substance able to dissolve
points in an area. Mountains and ridges in water.
are the highest elevation points, while • Sub-surface water – water beneath
valleys are the lowest. earth’s surface as part of the water cycle.
• Revenue – a country’s income from • Sublimation – a chemical process where
which public expenses are met. a solid turns into a gas without going
through a liquid stage.
280

• Submarine canyons – is a steep-sided • Twilight – the soft light from the sky
valley cut into the sea floor . when the sun is below the horizon. It
• Tectonic plate movement – theory usually occurs at daybreak to sunrise or
which states that the Earth’s lithosphere from sunset to nightfall.
is divided into plates that float over the • Ultra-violet – electromagnetic radiation.
mantle. • Undulating – to have a wavy shape that
• Terrain – a tract of land considered with rises and falls such as in hills and valleys.
its physical features. • Vacuum – empty space.
• Terrestrial planets – inner planets closer • Volcanic lava – the molten rock expelled
to the sun. by a volcano during an eruption.
• Tillage – preparation of land for growing • Vulcanicity – the process through which
crops. gases and molten rock are forced out
• Topographical map – a detailed, accurate onto the earth’s surface or into the
graphic representation of features that earth’s crust.
appear on the earth’s surface. • Waterlogged – saturated with or full
• Tra n sve rs e – ex te n d i n g a c ro s s of water.
something. • Watershed – a ridge of high land
• Tributaries – rivers or streams flowing dividing two areas that are drained by
into a larger river or lake. different river system.
• Tsunami – a very large ocean wave • Zone – an area distinguished from
caused by an underwater earthquake other parts by a distinct feature or
or volcanic eruption. characteristic.
281

References
1. Allaby, A. and M. Allaby. (Editors). 1999. Dictionary of Earth Sciences. 2nd Edition.
Oxford University press, London
2. Bunnet R.B (2004): Physical Geography in Diagrams for Africa, Longman
3. Christopherson, R. W. 2005. Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography.
5th Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
4. Citation: Pidwirny, M. (2006). “Introduction to Geography”. Fundamentals of
Physical Geography, 2nd Edition
5. Collin Buckle (2007): Landforms and Landscapes in Africa. An introduction to
Geomorphology, Pearson Education Limited; Edinburgh
6. F. J. Monkhouse (2008): Principles of Physical Geography, Hodder Education; London
7. Goh Cheng Leong (1996): Certificate Physical and Human Geography, Oxford
University Press; Hong Kong
8. Gregory, K.J. (2001). The Changing Nature of Physical Geography, Edward Arnold;
London
9. Harvey, M. E. and B.P. Holly, B. P. (Editors). (1981). Themes in Geographic Thought,
Croom Helm; London
10. Holt-Jensen, A. (2000). Geography - History and Concepts: A Student’s Guide,
3rd Edition; Sage Publications
11. Jane Crispin and Francis Jegede (2000). Population, Resources and Development,
Collins Publishers; London
12. Johnston, R. J. (1997). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Geography
since 1945, 5th Edition. Arnold Publishers; London
13. Lanegran, D.A. and R. Palm (Editors). (1978). An Invitation to Geography, 2nd
Edition. McGraw-Hill Publishing; New York
14. Livingston, D.N. 1992. The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a
Contested Enterprise, Basil Blackwell; Cambridge, Mass
15. Lukermann, F. (1964). Geography as a formal intellectual discipline and the way in
which it contributes to human knowledge. The Canadian Geographer, 8(4): 167–172
16. Martin, G.J. and P.E. James. (1993). All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical
Ideas, 3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons; New York
17. McKnight, T. L. and D. Hess. (2002). Physical Geography: A Landscape
Appreciation. 7th Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River; New Jersey
18. Michael Senior (1987). Tropical Lands: A Human Geography, Longman Group UK
Limited; Essex
19. Monkhouse F. J. (2007): A Dictionary of Geography, 2nd Edition, Transaction
Publishers; New Brunswick (U.S.A)
20. Morrill, R.L. (1983). The Nature, Unity and Value of Geography. Professional
Geographer 35(1): 1-9
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Achievers Secondary

For Rwandan Schools

Kigali • Nairobi • Kampala • Dar es Salaam • Lilongwe • Lusaka

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East African Publishers Rwanda Ltd.

© Richard Barekye, Daniel K. Sugut, 2016

First published 2016

All rights reserved

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Key unit competence Geography

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Task 1.1 Physical geography

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Human and economic geography includes (b) suggest reasons why it is

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Sources of geographical information refer Fig 1.8 Geographical magazines.

Fig 1.9 Atlases.

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Fig 1.10 A map of Rwanda showing administrative district boundaries.

(e) Graphs This is shown by means of a line, curve, a

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Fig 1.14 A resource person guiding students

These people usually have relevant

Fig 1.13 Students studying inside the Kigali

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Museums are places selected for storing

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Physical features of Rwanda

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Borehole Water hole Well Spring

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Religious centre Trigonometrical

Power The features shown in Table 2.2 are only

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Below is an example of a sketch map of Mt. St. Helens

Fig 2.5 Sketch map.

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Fig 2.6 (a) Sketch map of a school.

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Fig 2.6 (b) Sketch map of a school.

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Savannah or pasture Papyrus Natural forest

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