T.C.

MİLLÎ EĞİTİM BAKANLIĞI

MUHASEBE VE FİNANSMAN

FINANCIAL TERMS AND STOCK

EXCHANGE TERMS 1
222YDK136

Ankara, 2011
 Bu modül, mesleki ve teknik eğitim okul/kurumlarında uygulanan Çerçeve
Öğretim Programlarında yer alan yeterlikleri kazandırmaya yönelik olarak
öğrencilere rehberlik etmek amacıyla hazırlanmış bireysel öğrenme
materyalidir.
 Millî Eğitim Bakanlığınca ücretsiz olarak verilmiştir.
 PARA İLE SATILMAZ.
 CONTENTS
EXPLANATION.........................................................................................................iii
PREFACE .................................................................................................................... 1
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1........................................................................................... 2
1. TAX TERMS ........................................................................................................... 2
1.1. What Is Tax? ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Purposes and Effects ......................................................................................... 3
1.2.1. The Main Purpose Is Revenue ................................................................... 4
1.2.2. A Second Is Redistribution ........................................................................ 4
1.2.3. A Third Purpose of Taxation Is Repricing ................................................. 4
1.2.4. A Fourth, Consequential Effect of Taxation In Its Historical Setting Has
Been Representation............................................................................................. 4
1.3. Proportional, Progressive, and Regressive........................................................ 4
1.4. Direct and Indirect............................................................................................. 5
1.5. Tax Burden........................................................................................................ 5
1.6. Types of Taxes .................................................................................................. 6
1.6.1. Capital Gains Tax....................................................................................... 7
1.6.2. Consumption Tax ....................................................................................... 7
1.6.3. Corporation Tax ......................................................................................... 7
1.6.4. Excises........................................................................................................ 7
1.6.5. Income Tax................................................................................................. 8
1.6.6. Inheritance Tax........................................................................................... 9
1.6.7. Poll Tax ...................................................................................................... 9
1.6.8. Property Tax ............................................................................................... 9
1.6.9. Retirement Tax ........................................................................................... 9
1.6.10. Sales Tax .................................................................................................. 9
1.6.11. Tariffs ..................................................................................................... 10
1.6.12. Toll ......................................................................................................... 10
1.6.13. Transfer Tax ........................................................................................... 10
1.6.14. Value Added Tax ................................................................................... 11
1.6.15. Wealth (Net Worth) Tax ........................................................................ 11
1.7. Turkish Tax System ........................................................................................ 11
1.7.1. Income Taxes ........................................................................................... 12
1.7.2. Taxes on Expendıture............................................................................... 16
1.7.3. Taxes on Wealth....................................................................................... 18
EVALUATION...................................................................................................... 20
LEARNING ACTIVITY-2 ........................................................................................ 25
2. BUDGET TERMS ................................................................................................. 25
2.1. What Is A Budget? .......................................................................................... 25
2.1.1. Why Budget? Why Is It Important For An Organisation, Project Or
Department To Have A Budget? ........................................................................ 26
2.1.2. Who Should Be Involved In Budgeting? ................................................. 27
2.2. The Operational Plans ..................................................................................... 28

i
 2.3. Estimating Costs – Categories......................................................................... 29
2.4. Budgeting Rules .............................................................................................. 31
2.5. Defining Your Line Items ............................................................................... 32
2.6. Different Kinds of Budgets ............................................................................. 34
2.7. Different Budgeting Techniques ..................................................................... 34
2.8. Budget Format................................................................................................. 35
2.9. Addition........................................................................................................... 36
2.10. Notes.............................................................................................................. 36
2.11. Feedback........................................................................................................ 36
2.12. Finalise .......................................................................................................... 37
EVALUATION...................................................................................................... 38
EVALUATION CRITERIA .................................................................................. 40
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3......................................................................................... 41
3. BANKING TERMS ............................................................................................... 41
3.1. What Is A Bank? ............................................................................................. 41
3.2. Types of Banks................................................................................................ 42
3.2.1. Types of Retail Banks .............................................................................. 42
3.2.2. Types of Investment Banks ...................................................................... 43
3.3. Services Typically Offered By Banks ............................................................. 44
EVALUATION................................................................................................. 45
EVALUATION CRITERIA .................................................................................. 48
ANSWER KEYS........................................................................................................ 49
REFERENCES........................................................................................................... 52

ii
 EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
MODÜLÜN KODU 222YDK136

ALAN Muhasebe ve Finansman

MESLEK/DAL Finans Hizmetleri Elemanı

MODÜLÜN ADI Finans ve Borsa Terimleri 1

Finans ve borsa işlemlerinde kullanılan terimler hakkında bilgi

MODÜLÜN TANIMI
ve beceri kazandıran öğretim materyalidir.

SÜRE 40/32

Yabancı Dilde Kurallar ve Yabancı Dilde İletişim Modüllerini

ÖN KOŞUL
başarmış olmak.

Yabancı dilde mesleki konuları dinlemek, konuşmak, okumak

YETERLİK
ve yazmak.

Genel Amaç: Öğrenci, uygun ortam sağlandığında, borsalarda

kullanılan terimleri yabancı dilde hatasız olarak anlayabilecek
ve ayırt edebilecektir.

MODÜLÜN AMACI Amaçlar:

1-Vergi ile ilgili terimleri yabancı dilde yazılı ve sözlü olarak
ifade edebileceksiniz.
2-Bütçe ile ilgili terimleri yabancı dilde yazılı ve sözlü olarak
gerçekleştirebileceksiniz.
3-Banka ile ilgili terimleri yabancı dilde yazılı ve sözlü şekilde
yapabileceksiniz.
Ortam: Sınıf ve/veya işletme.
ÖĞRENME
ORTAMLARI VE Donanım: Form belgeler, SPK mevzuatı, İMKB bilgileri
DONANIMLAR tanıtım broşürleri, makaleler, süreli yayınlar, bilgisayar,
projeksiyon makinası, tanıtım CD leri.

Modülün içerisinde yer alan her faaliyetten sonra verilen

ölçme araçları ile kazandığınız bilgileri ölçerek kendi
kendinizi değerlendireceksiniz. Öğretmen modül sonunda size
ÖLÇME VE
ölçme aracı (Test, çoktan seçmeli, doğru yanlış, klasik,
DEĞERLENDİRME
uygulama, boşluk doldurma ve örnek olay inceleme)
uygulayarak, modül uygulamaları ile kazandığınız bilgileri
değerlendirecektir.

iii
 PREFACE

PREFACE

RİŞ
Dear Student;

Welcome to this module!

This module is intended for employees who will work at Finance and Stock Exchange
departments of the companies and who need to improve their Professional English.

Keeping the customer's satisfaction on top, Foreign Trade departments must increase
their market share continuously which will help them to venture into new areas. They also
follow up the recent technologies in different fields, integrate those to their business. This
enables them to get effective and efficient solutions.

The basic objective is to help Finance and stock exchange department staff improve
their foreign language skills in order to communicate with employees and customers who
speak English as well as to enable the staff to read all the documents (foreign trade or
finance books, magazines about their jobs, etc.) which are written in English.

This module is composed of typical explanations, pictures and, of course, some

practical tips which must be known to be able to read, understand, write and speak English in
your daily lives.

Warm regards.

1
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

AIM
At the end of this learning activity you will be able to learn

 Tax terms.
 Types of taxes in all regimes.
 Turkish tax system.

SEARCH

 Try to learn types of taxes in Turkey. Prepare a chart to show these different taxes.
 Try to learn the ratios of taxes in Turkey. Then explain this information to your
friends. Use some newspaper extracts or financial magazines to prove the ratios.

1. TAX TERMS
1.1. What Is Tax?
A tax is an amount of money that you have to pay to the
government so that it can pay for public services.You usually pay a
percentage of your income as tax, companies pay some of their
profits as tax, and the price of most goods and services includes a
certain amount of tax.

Taxes consist of direct tax or indirect tax, and may be paid in money or as corvée
labor.A tax "is not a voluntary payment or donation, but an enforced contribution, exacted
pursuant to legislative authority" and is "any contribution imposed by government whether
under the name of toll, tribute, tallage, gabel, impost, duty, custom, excise, subsidy, aid,
supply, or other name."

The method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly
debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such
as Revenue Canada, Revenue Administration in Turkey, the Internal Revenue Service in the
United States, or Her Majesty’s revenue and Customs in the UK. When taxes are not fully
paid, civil penalties (such as fines or forfeiture) or criminal penalties (such as incarceration)
may be imposed on the non-paying entity or individual.

2
1.2. Purposes and Effects
Funds provided by taxation have been used by states and their functional equivalents
throughout history to carry out many functions. Some of these include expenditures on war,
the enforcement of law and public order, protection of property, economic infrastructure
(roads, legal tender, enforcement of contracts, etc.), public works, social engineering, and the
operation of government itself. Most modern governments also use taxes to fund welfare and
public services. These services can include education systems, health care systems, pensions
for the elderly, unemployment benefits, and public transportation. Energy, water and waste
management systems are also common public utilities. Colonial and moderning states have
also used cash taxes to draw or force reluctant subsistence producers into cash economies.

Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates. This is done to
distribute the tax burden among individuals or classes of the population involved in taxable
activities, such as business, or to redistribute resources between individuals or classes in the
population. Historically, the nobility were supported by taxes on the poor; modern social
security systems are intended to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on
those who are still working. In addition, taxes are applied to fund foreign and military aid, to
influence the macroeconomic performance of the economy, or to modify patterns of
consumption or employment within an economy, by making some classes of transaction
more or less attractive.

The Four "R"s

Taxation has four main purposes or effects: Revenue, Redistribution, Repricing, and
Representation.

3
1.2.1. The Main Purpose Is Revenue

Taxes raise money to spend on roads, schools and hospitals, and on more indirect
government functions like good regulation or justice systems. This is the most widely known
function.

1.2.2. A Second Is Redistribution

Normally, this means transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer
sections, and this function is widely accepted in most democracies, although the extent to
which this should happen is always controversial.

1.2.3. A Third Purpose of Taxation Is Repricing

Taxes are levied to address externalities: tobacco is taxed, for example, to discourage
smoking, and many people advocate policies such as implementing a carbon tax as a way of
tackling global warming.

1.2.4. A Fourth, Consequential Effect of Taxation In Its Historical Setting Has Been
Representation

The American revolutionary slogan "no taxation without representation"

implied this: rulers tax citizens, and citizens demand accountability from their
rulers as the other part of this bargain. Several studies have shown that direct
taxation (such as income taxes) generates the greatest degree of accountability
and better governance, while indirect taxation tends to have smaller effects.

1.3. Proportional, Progressive, and Regressive

An important feature of tax systems is the percentage of the tax burden as it relates to
income or consumption. The terms progressive, regressive, and proportional are used to
describe the way the rate progresses from low to high, from high to low, or proportionally.
The terms can be applied to any type of tax.

4
 A progressive tax is a tax imposed so that the tax rate increases as the amount to
which the rate is applied increases.

The opposite of a progressive tax is a regressive tax, where the tax rate decreases as
the amount to which the rate is applied increases.

In between is a proportional tax, where the tax rate is fixed as the amount to which
the rate is applied increases.

1.4. Direct and Indirect

Taxes are sometimes referred to as direct tax or indirect tax. The
meaning of these terms can vary in different contexts, which can
sometimes lead to confusion.

In economics, direct taxes refer to those taxes that are collected

from the people or organizations on whom they are ostensibly imposed.
For example, income taxes are collected from the person who earns the
income.

By contrast, indirect taxes are collected from someone other than the person
ostensibly responsible for paying the taxes. In law, the terms may have different meanings.
Indirect taxes are imposed on rights, privileges, and activities. Thus, a tax on the sale of
property would be considered an indirect tax, whereas the tax on simply owning the property
itself would be a direct tax. The distinction can be subtle between direct and indirect
taxation, but can be important under the law.

1.5. Tax Burden

Diagram illustrating taxes effect

5
 Law establishes from whom a tax is collected. In many countries, taxes are imposed
on business (such as corporate taxes or portions of payroll taxes). However, who ultimately
pays the tax (the tax "burden") is determined by the marketplace as taxes become embedded
into production costs. Depending on how quantities supplied and demanded vary with price
(the "elasticities" of supply and demand), a tax can be absorbed by the seller (in the form of
lower pre-tax prices), or by the buyer (in the form of higher post-tax prices).

If the elasticity of supply is low, more of the tax will be paid by the supplier. If the
elasticity of demand is low, more will be paid by the customer. And contrariwise for the
cases where those elasticities are high. If the seller is a competitive firm, the tax burden
flows back to the factors of production depending on the elasticities thereof; this includes
workers (in the form of lower wages), capital investors (in the form of loss to shareholders),
landowners (in the form of lower rents) and entrepreneurs (in the form of lower wages of
superintendence).

1.6. Types of Taxes

Comparison of Taxes paid by a household earning the country's average wage

Single Married Single Married
Country Country
no kids 2 kids no kids 2 kids
Republic of
Australia 28.3% 16.0% 17.3% 16.2%
Korea
Austria 47.4% 35.5% Luxembourg 35.3% 12.2%
Belgium 55.4% 40.3% Mexico 18.2% 18.2%
Canada 31.6% 21.5% Netherlands 38.6% 29.1%
Czech New
43.8% 27.1% 20.5% 14.5%
Republic Zealand
Denmark 41.4% 29.6% Norway 37.3% 29.6%
Finland 44.6% 38.4% Poland 43.6% 42.1%
France 50.1% 41.7% Portugal 36.2% 26.6%
Slovak
Germany 51.8% 35.7% 38.3% 23.2%
Republic
Greece 38.8% 39.2% Spain 39.0% 33.4%
Hungary 50.5% 39.9% Sweden 47.9% 42.4%
Iceland 29.0% 11.0% Switzerland 29.5% 18.6%
Ireland 25.7% 8.1% Turkey 42.7% 42.7%
United
Italy 45.4% 35.2% 33.5% 27.1%
Kingdom
United
Japan 27.7% 24.9% 29.1% 11.9%
States
Source: OECD, 2005 data

6
 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) publishes
perhaps the most comprehensive analysis of worldwide tax systems. In order to do this it has
created a comprehensive categorisation of all taxes in all regimes which it covers:

1.6.1. Capital Gains Tax

A capital gains tax is the tax levied on the profit released upon the sale of a capital
asset. In many cases, the amount of a capital gain is treated as income and subject to the
marginal rate of income tax. However, in an inflationary environment, capital gains may be
to some extent illusory: if prices in general have doubled in five years, then selling an asset
for twice the price it was purchased for five years earlier represents no gain at all. Partly to
compensate for such changes in the value of money over time, some jurisdictions give a
favorable capital gains tax rate based on the length of holding.

1.6.2. Consumption Tax

A consumption tax is a tax on non-investment spending, and can be implemented by

means of a sales tax or by modifying an income tax to allow for unlimited deductions for
investment or savings.

1.6.3. Corporation Tax

Corporate tax refers to a direct tax levied by various jurisdictions on the profits made
by companies or associations and often includes capital gains of a company. Earnings are
generally considered gross revenue less expenses. Corporate expenses that relate to capital
expenditures are usually deducted in full (for example, trucks are fully deductable in the
Canadian tax system, while a corporate sports car is only partly deductable). They are often
deducted over the useful life of the asset purchase. Generally, industrialized countries also
use a regressive rate of tax upon corporate income.

1.6.4. Excises

An excise is not a function of the value of the product being taxed. Excise taxes are
based on the quantity, not the value, of product purchased. Excises on particular
commodities are frequently hypothecated. For example, a fuel excise (use tax) is often used
to pay for public transportation, especially roads and bridges and for the protection of the
environment. A special form of hypothecation arises where an excise is used to compensate a

7
party to a transaction for alleged uncontrollable abuse; for example, a blank media tax is a
tax on recordable media such as CD-Rs, whose proceeds are typically allocated to copyright
holders. Critics charge that such taxes blindly tax those who make legitimate and illegitimate
usages of the products; for instance, a person or corporation using CD-R's for data archival
should not have to subsidize the producers of popular music.

Excises (or exemptions from them) are also used to modify

consumption patterns (social engineering). For example, a high
excise is used to discourage alcohol consumption, relative to other
goods. This may be combined with hypothecation if the proceeds
are then used to pay for the costs of treating illness caused by
alcohol abuse. Similar taxes may exist on tobacco, pornography,
etc., and they may be collectively referred to as "sin taxes". A carbon tax is a tax on the
consumption of carbon-based non-renewable fuels, such as petrol, diesel-fuel, jet fuels, and
natural gas. The object is to reduce the release of carbon into the atmosphere.

1.6.5. Income Tax

An income tax is a tax levied on the financial income of persons, corporations, or

other legal entities. Various income tax systems exist, with varying degrees of tax incidence.
Income taxation can be progressive, proportional, or regressive. When the tax is levied on
the income of companies, it is often called a corporate tax, corporate income tax, or
corporation tax. Individual income taxes often tax the total income of the individual (with
some deductions permitted), while corporate income taxes often tax net income (the
difference between gross receipts, expenses, and additional write-offs).

The "tax net" refers to the types of payment that are taxed,
which included personal earnings (wages), capital gains, and
business income. The rates for different types of income may vary
and some may not be taxed at all. Capital gains may be taxed
when realized (e.g. when shares are sold) or when incurred (e.g.
when shares appreciate in value). Business income may only be
taxed if it is significant or based on the manner in which it is paid.
Some types of income, such as interest on bank savings, may be considered as personal
earnings (similar to wages) or as a realized property gain (similar to selling shares). In some
tax systems, personal earnings may be strictly defined where labor, skill, or investment is
required (e.g. wages); in others, they may be defined broadly to include windfalls (e.g.
gambling wins).

Personal income tax is often collected on a pay-as-you-earn basis, with small

corrections made soon after the end of the tax year. These corrections take one of two forms:
payments to the government, for taxpayers who have not paid enough during the tax year;
and tax refunds from the government for those who have overpaid. Income tax systems will
often have deductions available that lessen the total tax liability by reducing total taxable
income. They may allow losses from one type of income to be counted against another. For
example, a loss on the stock market may be deducted against taxes paid on wages. Other tax

8
systems may isolate the loss, such that business losses can only be deducted against business
tax by carrying forward the loss to later tax years.

1.6.6. Inheritance Tax

Inheritance tax, estate tax, and death tax or duty are the names given to various taxes
which arise on the death of an individual.

1.6.7. Poll Tax

A poll tax, also called a per capita tax, or capitation tax, is a tax that levies a set
amount per individual. Poll taxes are administratively cheap because they are easy to
compute and collect and difficult to cheat. Economists have considered poll taxes
economically efficient because people are presumed to be in fixed supply. However, poll
taxes are very unpopular because they are strongly regressive (poorer people pay a higher
proportion of their income than richer people). In addition, the supply of people is in fact not
fixed over time: on average, couples will choose to have fewer children if a poll tax is
imposed.

1.6.8. Property Tax

A property tax is a tax imposed on property by reason of its

ownership. A property tax is usually levied on the value of property
owned, usually real estate. Property taxes may be charged on a
recurrent basis (e.g., yearly). A common type of property tax is an
annual charge on the ownership of real estate, where the tax base is
the supposed value of the property.

1.6.9. Retirement Tax

Some countries with social security systems, which provide income to

retired workers, fund those systems with specific dedicated taxes. These often
differ from comprehensive income taxes in that they are levied only on
specific sources of income, generally wages and salary (in which case they
are called payroll taxes). A further difference is that the total amount of the
taxes paid by or on behalf of a worker is typically considered in the
calculation of the retirement benefits to which that worker is entitled.

1.6.10. Sales Tax

Sales taxes are a form of excise levied when a commodity is sold to its final consumer.
Retail organizations contend that such taxes discourage retail sales. The question of whether
they are generally progressive or regressive is a subject of much current debate. People with
higher incomes spend a lower proportion of them, so a flat-rate sales tax will tend to be
regressive. It is therefore common to exempt food, utilities and other necessities from sales

9
taxes, since poor people spend a higher proportion of their incomes on these commodities, so
such exemptions would make the tax more progressive. This is the classic "You pay for what
you spend" tax, as only those who spend money on non-exempt (i.e. luxury) items pay the
tax.

1.6.11. Tariffs

An import or export tariff (also called customs duty or

impost) is a charge for the movement of goods through a political
border. Tariffs discourage trade, and they may be used by
governments to protect domestic industries. A proportion of tariff
revenues is often hypothecated to pay government to maintain a
navy or border police. The classic ways of cheating a tariff are
smuggling or declaring a false value of goods. Tax, tariff and trade rules in modern times are
usually set together because of their common impact on industrial policy, investment policy,
and agricultural policy.

A trade bloc is a group of allied countries agreeing to minimize or eliminate tariffs

against trade with each other, and possibly to impose protective tariffs on imports from
outside the bloc.

A customs union has a common external tariff, and, according to an agreed formula,
the participating countries share the revenues from tariffs on goods entering the customs
union.

1.6.12. Toll

A toll is a tax or fee charged to travel via a road, bridge, tunnel or other route.
Historically tolls have been used to pay for state bridge, road and tunnel projects. They have
also been used in privately constructed transport links. The toll is likely to be a fixed charge,
possibly graduated for vehicle type, or for distance on long routes.

Shunpiking is the practice of finding another route to avoid

payment of tolls. In some situations where tolls were increased or felt to
be unreasonably high, informal shunpiking by individuals escalated into
a form of boycott by regular users, with the goal of applying the
financial stress of lost toll revenue to the authority determining the levy.

1.6.13. Transfer Tax

Historically, in many countries, a contract needed to have a stamp affixed to make it

valid. The charge for the stamp was either a fixed amount or a percentage of the value of the
transaction. In most countries the stamp has been abolished but stamp duty remains.

10
1.6.14. Value Added Tax

A value added tax (VAT), also known as 'Goods and Services

Tax' (G.S.T), or 'Impuesto Indirecto sobre la Prestacion de Servicios'
(I.S.I.), Single Business Tax, or Turnover Tax in some countries,
applies the equivalent of a sales tax to every operation that creates
value. To give an example, sheet steel is imported by a machine
manufacturer. That manufacturer will pay the VAT on the purchase
price, remitting that amount to the government. The manufacturer will
then transform the steel into a machine, selling the machine for a higher
price to a wholesale distributor. The manufacturer will collect the VAT on the higher price,
but will remit to the government only the excess related to the "value added" (the price over
the cost of the sheet steel). The wholesale distributor will then continue the process, charging
the retail distributor the VAT on the entire price to the retailer, but remitting only the amount
related to the distribution mark-up to the government. The last VAT amount is paid by the
eventual retail customer who cannot recover any of the previously paid VAT. For a VAT and
sales tax of identical rates, the total tax paid is the same, but it is paid at differing points in
the process.

1.6.15. Wealth (Net Worth) Tax

Some countries' governments will require declaration of the tax payers' balance sheet
(assets and liabilities), and from that exact a tax on net worth (assets minus liabilities), as a
percentage of the net worth, or a percentage of the net worth exceeding a certain level. The
tax is in place for both "natural" and in some cases legal "persons".

1.7. Turkish Tax System

In Turkey, multi-tax system is applied. The Turkish tax regime can be classified under
three main headings;

11
 2-TAXES ON
EXPENDİTURE
a)Value Added Tax
b)Special Consumption Tax
1-INCOME TAXES c)Banking and
a)Personal Income Taxes
InsuranceTransaction Taxes
b)Corporate Income Taxes
d)Stamp Duty
e)Special Communication Tax
f)Tax on Customs

TURKISH TAX SYSTEM

3) TAXES ON WEALTH
a)Inheritance and Gift Taxes
b)Property Tax
c)Motor Vehicle Tax

Figure 1.1: Turkish Tax System

1.7.1. Income Taxes

1.7.1.1. The Personal Income Tax

 The Subject and Elements of Income Tax

Income is described as the net amount of profits and earnings obtained by natural
persons in one calendar year. The elements of income are classified in seven categories.
These are;
 Income from commercial activities,
 Income from agriculture,
 Income from professionals,
 Wages and salaries,
 Income from capital investment (interest and dividends),

12
  Income from immovable assets and rights,
 Other income and earnings.
 The Taxpayer of Income Tax

Natural persons who earn one of or all of those kinds of income are subject to Personal
Income Tax. Those people who obtain these kinds of income are Personal IncomeTax
payers.

An individual in Turkey is liable for tax on his income as an employee and on income
as a self-employed person. In the case of an individual who answers the test of a “permanent
resident”, the tax will be calculated on his or her incomeearned in Turkey and overseas. A
foreign resident who is employed in Turkey pays tax only on his or her income in Turkey.
To be considered Turkish resident, residence of over 6 months inTurkey during any calendar
taxyear must be established. A foreigner who spends less than acontinuous period of six
monthsin Turkey during a calendar yearand whose customary home isnot in Turkey or who,
although staying for more than six months, has come to Turkey for a specific and temporary
assignment (e.g.businessman, expert, press or radio, TV correspondent) is regarded as non-
resident and is taxed only on his income from employment in Turkey.

 Declaration of Personal Income Tax

In Turkish Tax System taxation of income is based on declaration. There are three
types of tax return.

a)Annual Tax Return

The annual declaration is used for consolidation of the profits

and earnings derived from varioussources in the course of one
calendar year. An individual whose income is only from a wage is
not obligated to file an annual return.The employer deducts tax from
the employee and transfers it to the tax authority every month. The
annual tax return for each
calendar year shall be presented by the 15th day of the March of the
following year. The declarations of those who permanently leave
the country during a calendar year shall be presented 15 days prior
to departure, and in the event of death, within 4 months of the date
of decease.

b) Withholding Tax Return

Withholding is defined as a tax return which is used for declaring to tax office total
taxes withheld by employers and other people’s withholding taxes together with their
amounts of net taxable income.

Those are required to withhold taxes;

 Public administrations and institutions,
 Public commercial concerns and other incorporations,
13
  Commercial companies and business partnerships,
 Associations, religious and charitable foundations,
 The commercial operations of associations and religious and charitable
foundations,
 Those securing investment funds,
 Tradesman and self-employed individuals who are required to report their true
income,
 Farmers whose agricultural earnings are determined on the basis of a balance-sheet
or an agricultural trading account.

Taxes withheld at source are declared to the tax office by the evening of the 20th day
of the following month. These taxes are paid due to the evening of the 26th day of this
month.

c) Special Tax Return

Non-resident taxpayers do not have to give an annual tax return. They have to fill
special tax return. The special tax return is used for the reporting of certain profits and
earnings by taxpayers subject to limited tax liability.

1.7.1.2. The Corporate Income Tax

 The Subject of Corporate Income Tax

Earnings and profits of corporations are the subject of corporate tax.

The elements of income subject to corporate income tax are;

 Income from commercial activities,
 Income from agriculture,
 Income from professionals,
 Wages and salaries,
 Income from capital investment (interest and dividends),
 Income from immovable assets and rights,
 Other income and earnings. Taxable event is the obtainment of corporate
profits/earnings.

 Taxpayer of Corporate Income Tax

The following entities are the taxpayers of the corporation income tax:
 Capital companies,
 Cooperative companies,
 State Economic Enterprises (public corporations),
 Economic entities owned by foundations and associations,
 Joint Ventures.

14
 Whether a company is subject to full or limited tax liability depends on its status of
residence. A company, whose statutory domicile or place of management are established in
Turkey (resident company), will have full tax liability; in this case, worldwide income is
taxable. If a non-resident company conducts business through a branch or a joint venture, it
will have limited tax liability; i.e. fully subject to corporate tax on profits earned in Turkey
on an annual basis. If there is no presence in Turkey, withholding tax will generally be
charged on income earned; for example, for services provided in Turkey. However, if there
is an avoidance of double taxation treaty, reduced rates of withholding tax may apply.

Corporate income tax is appliedat 20 % rate on the corporate earnings. Taxpayers

(except income from commercial activities and agriculture in limited tax liability) pay
provisional tax at the rate of corporate tax, these payments are deducted from corporate tax
of current period.

 Declaration of Corporate Income Tax

In general, the Corporate Income Tax is assessed on the basis of the declaration (tax
return) by the person having the responsibility for his taxes.

The Corporate Income Tax declaration can be grouped into 3 categories:

a) The Annual Corporate Income Tax Return

The annual tax return is applicable for the reporting of net corporate profits realized in
the course of one accounting period. The corporate income tax returns are submitted to tax
office with which the taxpayer is associated during the fourth month following the month in
which the accounting period closes. Corporate income taxpayers have to fill and sign their
tax returns and submit them to tax offices between the 1st and 25th days of the forth month
following the close of the related fiscal year. Corporate income tax can be paid until the end
of the month in which the tax return is to be filled.

b) Special Tax Return

Non-resident foreign corporations which have limited tax

liability use special tax return for reporting certain profits and
earnings. Special tax return is given in 15 days from
the obtainment of earnings and profits.

c) Withholding Tax Return

Those who are obliged to make tax withholding are required to file a brief tax return to
tax Office associated with the place of payment or accrual of the payments which they have
made during the month, or of the profits and revenues on which they have caused accrual to
take place, as well as of the taxes which they have withheld from these, by the evening of the
20th day of the following month and they should pay by the evening of the 26th day of this
month.

15
1.7.2. Taxes on Expendıture

1.7.2.1.Value Added Tax (VAT)

The Turkish Tax System levies value added tax on the supply and the importation of
goods and services. The Turkish name for VAT is KDV and is introduced in 1985.

 The Subject of VAT

Transactions carried out in Turkey are the subject of the VAT.

Taxable transactions include the supply of goods and services,
importation of goods and services and other activities. The following
transactions carried out in Turkey are subject to VAT:

 Supply of goods and services within the scope of commercial, industrial,

agricultural or independent Professional activities,
 Importation of all kinds of goods and services,
 Other activities.

 The Taxpayer of VAT

VAT taxpayers are those engaged in taxable transactions, irrespective of their legal
status or nature and their position with regard to other taxes. Withholding agents are those
calculate and pay the tax to the related tax office on the name of taxpayer.

 Tax Rates in VAT

Three different rates are applied to varied goods and services groups in VAT.

 Declaration of VAT

Taxation in VAT is based on tax returns declared in writing by taxpayers. Even if they
do not have taxable transactions within taxation period they have to declare tax return.
Taxpayers who are subject to the monthly periods must file and submit their returns to the
related tax office by the evening of the 20th day of the following month. For quarterly
period, they must file and submit their returns by the evening of the 20th day of the
following three months.

1.7.2.2. Special Consumption Tax (Excise Duty)

Goods in the lists attached to the Special Consumption Tax Law are the subject of the
tax. For goods in the lists, Special Consumption Tax is charged only once.

There are mainly 4 different product groups that are subject to special consumption tax
at different tax rates:

16
  List I is related to petroleum products, natural gas, lubricating oil, solvents and
derivatives of solvents.
 List II is related to automobiles and other vehicles, motorcycles, planes,
helicopters, yachts.
 List III is related to tobacco and tobacco products, alcoholic beverages and cola.
 List IV is related to luxury products.

 The Taxpayers of the Special Consumption Tax

Taxpayers are different according to the lists. They are;

 For List I; manufacturers and importers of the petroleum products,
 For List II; merchants of motor vehicles, exporters for using or sellers through
auction,
 For List III; manufacturers, exporters or sellers through auction of tobacco,
alcoholic beverages and cola,
 For List IV manufacturers, exporters or sellers through auction of luxury
products.

1.7.2.3. Bankıng and Insurance Transaction Tax (BITT)

All transactions of bank and insurance companies and bankers

are the subject of the tax. There will be the tax upon the money,
which they collect under the name of interest, commission and
expenditure because of the services they produced on behalf of them.
Taxpayers are banks, insurance companies and bankers. Financing
companies, lenders and factoring companies are also taxpayers.
Taxation period in BITT is each month of the calendar year.
Taxpayers declare their taxable transactions up to the evening of the
15th day of the following month.

1.7.2.4. Stamp Tax

A wide range of documents in the List I attached to the Stamp Tax Law are the subject
of the tax. These documents are related to acts, conclusions, official reports, papers related to
commercial transactions, receipts. When these documents are prepared, tax arises. Taxpayers
are persons who have signed these documents. Tax is levied as a percentage of the value of
the document. Stamp tax can be paid in four ways by sticking revenue stamp, by putting
printed stamp, in respond of receipt and by stoppage.

1.7.2.5. Special Communication Tax

Services of cell phone, cable radio and television

broadcasts and telecommunication are generally the subject of
the tax. Taxable event is the carrying out these services.
Taxpayers are enterprises that present these services. Taxation
period is each month of the calendar year. Taxes collected in

17
each month are declared and paid by the evening of the 15th day of the following month.

1.7.2.6. Customs Duty

Goods imported from abroad are the subject of the tax. Taxable events are free
circulation of goods, registration of customs declaration, and temporary importation in case
of partial exemption. Taxpayer is principally person who declares to the customs office.
Customs duties are assessed on written declaration by the taxpayer and paid within 10 days
dating from communication.

1.7.3. Taxes on Wealth

1.7.3.1. Inheritance and Gift Tax

The transition of goods, which belong to Turkish citizens, and

goods, which are within Turkey from one to another without return, and
by inheritance or in another way are the subject of the tax. Taxpayer is
the person who acquires goods by inheritance or gratuitously. Turkish
citizens who gain possession outside of Turkey without payment are also
subject to this tax. Inheritance and gift tax is assessed on the declaration
submitted by respondent. In the case of inheritance, the declaration will
be submitted in four months starting with the date of death as a rule of
law. If the death occurs in Turkey and the taxpayer is outside of Turkey,
the declaration period is extended to six months. In the case of occurrence of death and being
of taxpayers outside of Turkey, the declaration period will be again four months. However,
when the death occurs in a foreign country and the taxpayer is in another foreign country, the
declaration period is extended eight months. In the case of transmissions by gratuitous, the
declaration will be submitted in one month following the date of acquirement of the
properties.

1.7.3.2. Real Estate Tax

a) Building Tax

Buildings in Turkey are the subject of the tax. Taxable events are the
ownership of the building, setting up usufruct or acting as owner of the
building. Taxpayer is owner of the building, if exist, owner of the usufruct,
or if no one of these exists, person who acts as owner of the building. Tax
assessment is made by the related municipality. The tax is 25 assessed and
accrued upon the annual declaration. The real estate tax is paid in two
installments. The first installment in the months of March, April and May
and the second one in December will be paid.

18
 b) Land Tax

Lands in Turkey are the subject of the tax. Taxable events are
the ownership of the land, setting up usufruct or acting as owner of
the building. Taxpayer is owner of the land, if exist, owner of the
usufruct, or if no one of these exists, person who acts as owner of the
land. Tax assessment is made by the related municipality. The tax is
assessed and accrued upon the annual declaration. The land tax is
paid in two installments. The first installment in the months of
March, April and May and the second one in December will be paid.

1.7.3.3. Motor Vehicle Tax

The subject of the tax is motor vehicle. Taxable event is

registration of the motor vehicles in the traffic, municipality and docks.
Taxpayers are real and legal persons who have motor vehicles that are
registered to their own names in the traffic, municipality and docks
register and the civilian air-vehicle register maintained by the Ministry of
Transportation. Tax is assessed and accrued annually in the beginning of
January. The Motor Vehicle taxes are paid in two equal installments, in
January and July, every year.

19
 EVALUATION
EVALUATION

A- QUESTIONS
Circle the correct answer

1. Taxation has four main purposes or effects. Which isn’t one of them?

A) Revenue
B) Redistribution
C) Repricing
D) Reproducing

2. …………………. is a tax imposed so that the tax rate increases as the amount to
which the rate is applied increases.

A) A regressive tax
B) A progressive tax
C) A proportional tax
D) Direct taxes

3. An import or export …...……….. (also called customs duty or impost) is a charge for
the movement of goods through a political border.

A) Tariff
B) Trade
C) Tax
D) Toll

4. A ……..…… is a tax or fee charged to travel via a road, bridge, tunnel or other
route.

A) Tariff
B) Trade
C) Tax
D) Toll

5. Which isn’t a type of taxes on expenditure in Turkish tax system?

A) Value Added Tax
B) Special Consumption Tax
C) Property Tax
D) Stamp Duty

6. Which is a type of tax on wealth in Turkish tax system?

20
 A) Motor Vehicle Tax
B) Special Consumption Tax
C) Property Tax
D) Stamp Duty

7. The elements of income are classified in seven categories in Turkish Tax system.
Which isn’t one of them?

A) Income from commercial activities,

B) Income from agriculture,
C) Income from professionals,
D) Income from public administrations and institutions

8. Non-resident taxpayers do not have to give an annual tax return. They have to fill
………………….

A) A balance-sheet
B) Special tax return.
C) Withholding tax return
D) Annual tax return

9. Which is a taxpayer of the corporation income tax?

A) Naturel Persons
B) Tradesman
C) Joint Ventures
D) Self-employed individuals

10. The Turkish Tax System levies ………….. on the supply and the importation of
goods and services.

A) Special tax return

B) Corporate Income Tax
C) The annual tax return
D) Value added tax

21
B. Write TRUE or FALSE

TRUE FALSE
LEARNING PROCESS
 
1- In economics, direct taxes refer to those taxes that are collected
from the people or organizations on whom they are ostensibly
imposed.
2- In Turkey, multi-tax system is applied. The Turkish tax regime can
be classified under four main headings.
3- Earnings and losses of corporations are the subject of corporate
tax.
4- Capital companies are taxpayers of corporate income tax.
5- All transactions of bank and insurance companies and bankers are
the subject of banking and ınsurance transaction tax.
6- Customs duties are assessed on written declaration by the taxpayer
and paid within 20 days dating from communication.
7- The motor vehicle taxes are paid in two equal installments, in
march and october, every year.
8- Stamp tax can be paid in four ways by sticking revenue stamp, by
putting printed stamp, in respond of receipt and by stoppage.
9- Importation of all kinds of goods and services is subject to vat.
10- Inheritance and gift taxes and special communication tax are
taxes on wealth.

22
EVALUATION CRITERIA
Evaluate yourself with a friend of yours. If you need, go to the learning activity and
repeat the subject that you believe you couldn’t learn.

The Student’s The examination’s

Name-Surname: Starting Time :

Class : Finishing Time :

Number : Used Time :

CRITERIA
YES NO
LEARNING PROCESS
 
Did you remember what tax is?
Did you remember purposes and effects of taxation?
Did you remember the four ‘R’s
Did you remember direct and indirect taxes?
Did you remember tax burden?
Did you remember capital gains tax?
Did you remember consumption tax?
Did you remember excises?
Did you remember income tax?
Did you remember inheritance tax?
Did you remember poll tax?
Did you remember property tax?
Did you remember retirement tax?
Did you remember sales tax?
Did you remember tariffs?
Did you remember toll?
Did you remember transfer tax?
Did you remember value added tax?
Did you remember wealth (net worth) tax?

23
Did you remember income taxes in Turkey?
Did you remember taxes on expenditure in Turkey?
Did you remember taxes on wealth in Turkey?

24
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

LEARNING ACTIVITY-2
AIM
At the end of this learning activity you will be able to

 Learn budget terms.

 Learn different budgeting techniques.
 Learn how to make a budget format.
 Learn the steps of a budgeting process.

SEARCH

 Try to make a budget for your imaginary company.Present your budget process to
your classmates.
 Make a presentation to prove that budgeting is very important for a company.

2. BUDGET TERMS
2.1. What Is A Budget?

A budget is a document that translates plans into money - money

that will need to be spent to get your planned activities done
(expenditure) and money that will need to be generated to cover the
costs of getting the work done (income). It is an estimate, or informed
guess, about what you will need in monetary terms to do your work.

A budget is not:

 Written in stone : where necessary, a budget can be changed, so long as you take
steps to deal with the implications of the changes. So, for example, if you have
budgeted for ten new computers but discover that you really need a generator, you
could buy fewer computers and purchase the generator.

 Simply a record of last year‘s expenditure, with an extra 15% added on to cover
inflation. Every year is different. Organisations need to use the budgeting process
to explore what is really needed to implement their plans.

25
  Just an administrative and financial requirement of donors. The budget should not
be prepared as part of a funding proposal and then taken out and dusted when it is
time to do a financial report for the donor. It is a living tool that must be consulted
in day to day work, checked monthly, monitored constantly and used creatively.

 An optimistic and unrealistic picture of what things actually cost - don‘t

underestimate what things really cost in the hopes that this will help you raise the
money you need. It is better to return unspent money to donors than to beg for a
‘bit more’ so you can complete the work.

Two key questions you should be able to answer about budgeting are:

 Why budget? and

 Who should be involved in budgeting?

2.1.1. Why Budget? Why Is It Important For An Organisation, Project Or Department

To Have A Budget?

The budget is an essential management tool. Without a budget, you are like a pilot
navigating in the dark without instruments.

 The budget tells you how much money you need to carry out your activities.
 The budget forces you to be rigorous in thinking through the implications of your
activity planning. There are times when the realities of the budgeting process force
you to rethink your action plans.
 Used properly, the budget tells you when you will need certain amounts of money
to carry out your activities.
 The budget enables you to monitor your income and expenditure and identify any
problems.

26
  The budget is a basis for financial accountability and transparency. When
everyone can see how much should have been spent and received, they can ask
informed questions about discrepancies.
 You cannot raise money from donors unless you have a budget. Donors use the
budget as a basis for deciding whether what you are asking for is reasonable and
well-planned.

2.1.2. Who Should Be Involved In Budgeting?

Budgeting is a difficult and responsible job. Your organisation‘s

ability to do what it has planned to do and to survive financially depends on
the budgeting process. Whoever does the budgeting must:

 Understand the values, strategy and plans of the organisation or

project;
 Understand what it means to be cost effective and cost efficient;
 Understand what is involved in generating and raising funds.

To ensure you have all these understandings, it is usually a good idea to have a small
budgeting team. This may only mean that one person does a draft budget which is then
discussed and commented on by the team.

Where staff are competent to take full responsibility for the financial side of the
organisation or project, the following would normally be involved in the budgeting process:

 The Finance Manager and/or Bookkeeper;

 The Project Manager and/or Director of the organisation or department.

Where staff lack confidence to do the budgeting, then Board

members can be brought in.

Some Boards have a Finance Committee or a Budget Sub-

Committee. It is a good idea to have someone on your Board with
financial skills. S/he can then help the staff with budgeting.

The budget is the business of everyone in the organisation. At the very least, senior
staff should understand the budget, how it has been drawn up, why it is important, and how
to monitor it.

Where an organisation has branches and/or regions, or several departments, then each
branch, region or department should draw up the budget for its own work. These budgets
then need to be consolidated (put together) in an overall budget for the organisation. Each
branch, region or department should be able to see how its budget fits into the overall
budget, and should be able to monitor its budget on a monthly basis. Financial monitoring
works best when those closest to the spending take responsibility for the budget.

27
2.2. The Operational Plans

Your operational plans are the plans for the actual work. They are also called action
plans or business plans. In a normal planning cycle, the organisation or project will begin
with a strategic planning process. Here you look at the problem that needs to be addressed
and the specific role of your organisation or project in addressing it. This then is related to
what actual activities need to be undertaken to achieve the planned impact. This is the
operational plan and it is the operational plan that needs to be costed. You cannot prepare a
budget until you know what it is you are planning to do. Operational costs will only be
incurred when you do the actual work. They are also known as direct costs.

The planning cycle should look something like this:

Implement plans, Review what you

monitor impact and have done in the past,
income and interms of impact,
expenditure - adjust effectiveness and
where necessary efficiency.

Draw up a budget
to cover the work. The Review and clarify
your vision, mission,
Discuss, amend and Operational strategy and
finalise the budget. objectives.
Plans Cycle

Assess the resources

you will need to meet Prepare your
the needs of the plan - operational plans.
estimate costs.

Figure 2.1:The operational plans cycle

28
2.3. Estimating Costs – Categories
The cost estimate is what helps you determine realistically what it will cost to
implement your operational plan.

When you carry out your plans you will probably need to make use of a wide range of
inputs. Inputs include people, information, equipment, skills. Most of these inputs will have
a cost attached to them. These are the costs you need to estimate in order to develop a
budget.

Careful cost estimation helps in the following ways:

 It helps you develop an accurate budget; and

 It helps you to monitor and control the actual costs of carrying out activities.

The costs you need to estimate fall into the following categories:

 Operational costs - the direct costs of doing the work e.g. the cost of hiring a
venue, or of printing a publication, or of travelling to the sites where fieldwork
needs to take place. Here you would include materials, equipment, transport and
services.

 Organisational costs (also called core costs) - the costs of your organisational
base, including management, administration, governance. Once you have decided
on the best organisational set-up to support your operational plans, you will incur
the organisational expenses on a regular basis - even if you do not carry out your
plans or have activity levels as high as you had hoped. So, for example, if you hire
premises for four projects but only manage to carry out two, you will still have to
pay rent for the extra space. If you have hired a full-time receptionist on the same
belief, you will still have to pay her salary, even if she is under-utilised.

 Staffing costs - these are the costs for your core staff - the people involved in
management, the people doing work that cuts across projects. These costs include
their salaries and any benefits such as medical aid or pension fund payments for
which the organisation is responsible. You can charge staff costs out to the various
projects on which the staff members work. So, for example, if your Publications
Officer is going to spend half her time working on publications for a particular
project, then you can include half her salary and benefits in your costing for the
project. If your Director is going to spend 15% of her time providing management
support to the head of the same project, then 15% of her time and benefits can also
be charged to the project.

 Capital costs - these are costs for large-investments“ which, while they may be
necessary because of a project or projects, will remain organisational assets even
after the projects are over. Vehicles and equipment such as computers and
photocopiers fit here. They may be used by all projects, or they might only be

29
 required for a specific project. Depending on how you intend to use the equipment,
you might budget for it under operational costs or under organisational costs.

Why does it matter which category you choose to estimate your costs under?

Because many donors prefer to fund operational costs (or, as they sometimes put it,
direct project costs) rather than core organisational or staffing costs.

Frameworks for estimating costs

NOTE: Depending on the needs of your organisation or project, your headings may
be a bit different. This should give you some guidelines.

Estimating operational costs:

Activity:
Total cost of
Unit cost Quantity
item
The unit cost is the This is the number of Multiply the total
cost of a single item, units (how many) number of units by
 Materials
or one unit. e.g. Cost you will need for the the unit cost.
 Equipment
per day, per activity. e.g. 200
 Services
kilometer, perperson training packs, 130
 Transport days of trainers.
time.
The sum of all the
Total cost for Activity
individual costs

30
 Estimating organisational cost:

Once you have done your estimates here, you may decide to assign a percentage of the
various items to specific departments or projects. This is acceptable practice.

2008 2009 2010

Management:
Salaries/benefits:
Donor liaison:
Governance liaison:
Public relations:
Fundraising:
Human resourcing
Administration:
Salaries/benefits:
Equipment:
Software:
Stationery:
Governance and organisational
development:
Board meetings:
Organisational processes:
Resource centre
Overheads:
Office rental:
Electricty and water:
Insurance:
Maintenance:
Legal fees and audit fees:
Annual totals:
Total:

2.4. Budgeting Rules

These are not rules that are fixed for all time. They offer some guidelines that will
help you deal with common situations.

 It is usual for long-term projects and organisations to prepare a budget which

makes projections for several years at a time. While it is usually only the budget
for the forthcoming year that is really quite accurate, the projections for the
following years gives some indication of the levels of funding that are likely to be
needed. Some allowance is usually made for inflation for subsequent years, as well
as for the anticipated activities which may differ from the first year. A three-year
budget should be based on a three-year plan.

 Contributions in kind (not money, but goods) should be included as a note to the
budget (for more on notes see the consolidated budget in the examples). Although
they are not part of the budget, they reduce budget costs and so should be

31
 indicated. This includes the contribution made by volunteers in the form of sweat
equity.

 Some costs that need to be estimated but that often get forgotten:
1. Start-up costs - for a new organisation or project, such as large-scale
recruitment, moving in, building alterations, launching the project or
organisation.
2. Research and development-consultation, needs assessment, planning
processes.
3. Democracy and governance - establishing the structures, recruiting for them,
getting a constitution developed and accepted, training members of voluntary
structures.
4. Marketing or public relations - building a professional image.
5. Replacement of capital goods.
6. Monitoring and evaluation costs for projects.

 Estimates are informed guesses, not just guesses. Do your homework, get quotes,
phone around to arrive at a likely cost. Check any figures you have from previous
years that may provide helpful information. Note down any price increases you
already know about (e.g. a salary increase of 10% may have already been agreed.)
Make notes of any unusual expenses that are likely to occur (e.g. moving your
offices). A few dollars may not seem a big amount, but multiplied many times
over this kind of discrepancy can make a big difference in your budget.

 Keep your notes! As you plan your budget and make decisions about how you will
estimate costs, keep your notes handy so that you can go back and check where the
amounts came from. You may, for example, work out your workshop costs on the
basis of a certain amount for photocopying, based on an estimated per page cost.
When, a year later, the costs are higher than anticipated, you should go back to
your notes and see where the discrepancy comes in. Or, in another scenario, a
donor make ask you to explain how you arrived at the cost per participant for
workshops.

 For your own management purposes, break the budget for the forthcoming year
into a monthly budget. This will help you when you are watching your cash flow.
It will also help you to pick up variances.

2.5. Defining Your Line Items

Line items are the actual items listed in your budget. So, for example, under the
category ‘training costs’, ‘stationery’ might be a specific line item. Under the category
‘governance’, ‘training for Board members’ may be a specific line item.

It is up to you to decide what your categories will be and to decide what the line items
under each category will be. So, for example, one organisation may include ‘governance’

32
under ‘management’, and ‘donor liaison’ under ‘fundraising’, while another may have them
as separate categories or line items.

How do you decide which categories and line items you should use in your expenditure
budget?

 If this is the first time you have done a budget, begin by listing all the items that
are going to cost the organisation or project money. Later on, you will have some
idea of the categories and items that make sense for your organisation or project so
you will be able to take short cuts when you list your line items.

 Once you have the list, group things into categories according to the emphasis you
put on categories in your management practices. So, for example, if you, as
management, think it is important to keep track of training costs, then ‘training
costs’ would be a category. Items such as stationery, venues, printing costs, food,
accommodation, transport, trainers‘ fees and so on would be line items under that
category. However, perhaps your organisation does not do much training and only
intends to run one training course as part of a bigger project. Then your category
might be ‘Project X’, and ‘training course’ might be one line item.

 Think in terms of cost centres. A cost centre is a grouping of activities that make a
coherent financial unit. So, for example, each project within your programme
might be a cost centre. You then budget both income and expenditure for that cost
centre and keep your financial records in terms of cost centres. This enables you to
assess each project, department or unit financially. If you opt for a cost centre
approach, your cost centres will determine the main categories under which you
list line items. If you go this route, then the ‘directorate’ would be a cost centre
and so, for example, would ‘training’ or ‘publications’ or ‘resource centre.’

 Sometimes it is possible to work out how much a category of expenses is costing

even if that category has not been listed as such, and the item is reflected as a line
item under a number of categories. So, for example, you may not have a category
‘transport’, but if you want to know how much transport is costing the project or
organisation, you can add up the transport line item listed under several categories.

 If you plan to raise funds to cover a particular category, then, obviously, that
category needs to be distinct in your budget. So, for example, if you want to raise
money for capacity building in communities, then you need a category in the
budget that is headed ‘Capacity building in communities’. Under it there might be
line items such as ‘workshops’, ‘fieldworker salary’, ‘transport’ and so on. Your
budget notes would explain how you arrived at the ‘workshops’ amount.

33
2.6. Different Kinds of Budgets

In addition to your main working budget ,you can also have some “what if” budget
options. Your “what if” budgets could include:

 A survival budget. This is the minimimum required in order for the organisation
or project to survive and do useful work.

 A guaranteed budget. This is based on the income guaranteed at the time the
budget is planned. Usually the ‘guarantees’ are in the form of promises from
donors. However, unexpected situations, such as a donor grant coming through
very late, may make it necessary to switch to your survival budget.

 An optimal budget. This covers what you would like to do if you can raise
additional money. Once extra money comes in or is promised, it becomes part of
your working budget.

2.7. Different Budgeting Techniques

The two main techniques for budgeting are incremental budgeting and zero based
Budgeting.

 Incremental budgets are budgets in which the figures are based on those of the
actual expenditure for the previous year, with a percentage added for an
inflationary increase for the new year. This is an easy method that saves time but it
is the ‘lazy’ way and is often inaccurate. This budgeting technique is only suitable
for organisations where each year is very similar to the previous one in terms of
activities. Very few dynamic organisations or projects are so stable that this
budgeting technique really works for them.

 In zero based budgets, past figures are not used as the starting point. The
budgeting process starts from ‘scratch’ with the proposed activities for the year.
The result is a more detailed and accurate budget, but it takes more time and
energy to prepare a budget in this way. This technique is essential for new
organisations and projects, but it is also probably the best route to go in a dynamic
organisation that is proactive in taking on new challenges.
The budget

It is useful to think about the process of drawing up a budget in steps. By now you
should have already gone through the first three steps as part of your preliminary work for
developing the budget:

1. List the items on which you spend money. You will know what these are from
your action planning process. Group the items under headings or cost centres.

34
 2. Estimate the unit cost of the line items and then the annual costs.
3. List your likely sources of income or revenue. Categorise them. This is the basis
of your income budget.
Now you are ready to begin putting your budget into a budget format. The remaining
steps are:

4. Prepare your budget format.

5. Do your addition.
6. Add in notes to explain items that may not be clear.
7. Get feedback on your budget.
8. Finalise your budget.

2.8. Budget Format

Your budget can be prepared using an ordinary word-processing programme. If you
have access to a spreadsheet programme such as Lotus 123 or Excel, and you know how to
use them, this will make your task easier. But it is not essential.

Your budget format must make allowance for both the

income and the expenditure to be reflected. Go to the example of
a consolidated budget to see how this is done there.

The budget format should reflect the categories and line

items you have decided are important for your organisation or
project.

Your budget format for an organisational budget should

allow you to put in projected amounts for about three years, as in
the example of the consolidated budget.

Your format must also allow for sub-totals and for a total expenditure and a total
income amount.

Remember that the format you use for a donor may be different from the format you
use for your own management purposes. In the example of the consolidated budget, you will
find a mangement version, rather than a donor version. For most donors, you will be able to
simplify to some extent. So, for example, you might put all ‘sales’ under ‘income’ into a
global amount under the line item ‘sales’. We have done the more detailed budget because
we believe that it is the management version that is most important.

The difference between your budgeted income and your budgeted expenditure shows
you whether you are likely to have a deficit (too little money) or an excess (more than you
need). If there is a large deficit, either you need to cut down on expenditure or to raise or
generate more money. If you have a large excess then you probably need to adjust the
amount that you are asking from donors. Donors are usually not keen to fund a surplus.
However, if you are trying to establish a capital fund for investment, then you need to

35
explain this to donors and ask them if they are prepared to make a contribution in the
interests of long-term sustainability of the organisation.
2.9. Addition

It is now time to insert actual costs into your budget. If you have already done the
preliminary estimating work this should not be difficult.

 Fill in the amounts you have estimated for each line item in the budget, across the
three years. Use your estimates and be careful to get the amounts right. Be sure
that your working notes will enable you to justify any amount if you are asked by
a donor or a Board member to do so.
 Add up your sub-totals. Check them.
 Add up your overall totals. Check them.
 Calculate whether you have a surplus or an excess. Decide how you are going to
handle this situation.

2.10. Notes

In your budget, you should include some notes. These should explain amounts or line
items that may puzzle a donor or a board member or another member of your staff or
management team. Anticipate questions that they may ask and use your notes to make
explanations. You do not need to litter your budget with notes, but where something may
well be puzzling, explain in a note. This will save you time responding to queries.

The point of including notes is to make the budget clearer and more transparent, and to
pre-empt questions. Read the budget as if you were a possible donor. This will help you
identify where notes will be helpful.

2.11. Feedback
Once you have written the budget, checked your addition and put in the explanatory
notes you think are necessary, it is time to get feedback.

From whom should you get feedback?

 From the people who worked with you on drawing up the budget.
 From others in the project or department.
 From your finance department, accountant or bookkeeper.
 From your Director (unless you are the Director).
 From your Board or the Finance Sub-Committee or Budgeting Sub-Committee of
the Board.

36
 What do you need feedback on?

 On the categories and line items - has everything that needs to be included been
included?
 On the notes - do they explain everything that needs a special explanation?
 On the addition - is it right?

2.12. Finalise
Once you have feedback, make necessary adjustments to the budget, check your
calculations once again, and finalise the budget.

Finalising your budget does not mean filing it away and never looking at it again.

Once the budget is finalised, it is time to implement it - both in terms of generating the
necessary income and carrying out the activities that incur expenses.

37
 EVALUATION
EVALUATION

A- QUESTIONS
Circle the correct answer

1. It is an estimate, or informed guess, about what you will need in monetary terms to
do your work.

A) Expenditure
B) Income
C) Budget
D) Document

2. The budget is an essential management tool. Because;

A) The budget tells you how much time you need to carry out your activities.
B) The budget tells you when you will need certain amounts of money to carry out your
activities.
C) You can easily raise money from donors unless you have a budget.
D) The budget prevents you to monitor your income and expenditure and identify any
problems.

3. Which isn’t a part of planning cycle?

A) Review and clarify your vision, mission, strategy and objectives.

B) Prepare your operational plans.
C) Assess the resources you will need to meet the needs of the plan -estimate costs.
D) Draw up a strategic plan to cover the work.

4. ……………………. is what helps you determine realistically what it will cost to

implement your operational plan.

A) The cost estimate

B) A strategic plan
C) An action plan
D) The budgeting process
5. Which isn’t a category of the costs you need to estimate?

A) Capital costs
B) Staffing costs
C) Strategic Costs
D) Organisational costs

38
6. ……………………. are the actual items listed in your budget.

A) Line items
B) The strategic plans
C) Staffing costs
D) Capital costs

7. Which isn’t a type of budget?

A) A survival budget
B) A Qualified budget
C) A guaranteed budget
D) An optimal budget

8. Which is a type of budgeting technique?

A) Incremental budget
B) Implementation budget
C) Organizational budget
D) Preliminary budget

9. From whom can’t you get feedback?

A) From the people who worked with you on drawing up the budget.
B) From others in the project or department.
C) From your finance department, accountant or bookkeeper.
D) From your customers

10. In …………………, past figures are not used as the starting point.

A) Zero based budgets

B) Incremental budget
C) Finalising the budget
D) Optimal budget

39
EVALUATION CRITERIA

Evaluate yourself with a friend of yours. If you need, go to the learning objective and
repeat the subject that you believe you couldn’t learn.

The Student’s The examination’s

Name-Surname: Starting Time :

Class : Finishing Time :

Number : Used Time :

CRITERIA
YES NO
LEARNING PROCESS
 
Did you remember what a budget is?
Did you remember why a budget is necessary?
Did you remember who should be involved in budgeting?
Did you remember the cost estimate?
Did you remember budgeting rules?
Did you remember different kinds of budgets?
Did you remember different budgeting techniques?
Did you remember budget format?

40
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3

AIM

At the end of this learning activity you will be able to

 Learn banking terms.

 Learn types of banks.
 Learn services offered by a bank.

SEARCH

 Try to prepare a chart to show the types of banks.

 Try to prepare a chart to show services typically offered by banks

3. BANKING TERMS

3.1. What Is A Bank?

A bank is a business that provides financial services,
usually for profit. Traditional banking services include receiving
deposits of money, lending money and processing transactions. A
commercial bank accepts deposits from customers and in turn
makes loans based on those deposits. Some banks (called Banks of
issue) issue banknotes as legal tender. Many banks offer ancillary
financial services to make additional profit; for example: selling
insurance products, investment products or stock broking.

Currently in most jurisdictions commercial banks are regulated and require permission
to operate. Operational authority is granted by bank regulatory authorities and provide rights
to conduct the most fundamental banking services such as accepting deposits and making
loans. A commercial bank is usually defined as an institution that both accepts deposits and
makes loans; there are also financial institutions that provide selected banking services
without meeting the legal definition of a bank.

A bank generates a profit from the differential between what level of interest it pays
for deposits and other sources of funds, and what level of interest it charges in its lending

41
activities. This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan
interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclic and dependent
on the needs and strengths of loan customers. In recent history, investors have demanded a
more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on transaction
fees, primarily loan fees but also including service charges on array of deposit activities and
ancillary services (international banking, foreign exchange, insurance, investments, wire
transfers, etc.). However, lending activities still provide the bulk of a commercial bank's
income.

3.2. Types of Banks

Banks' activities can be divided into retail banking, dealing
directly with individuals and small businesses; business banking,
providing services to mid-market business; corporate banking,
directed at large business entities; and investment banking, relating to
activities on the financial markets. Most banks are profit-making,
private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are
non-profits.

Central banks are non-commercial bodies or government agencies often charged with
controlling interest rates and money supply across the whole economy. They generally
provide liquidity to the banking system and act as Lender of last resort in event of a crisis.

3.2.1. Types of Retail Banks

 Commercial bank: the term used for a normal bank to

distinguish it from an investment bank. After the Great
Depression, the U.S. Congress required that banks only
engage in banking activities, whereas investment banks were
limited to capital market activities. Since the two no longer
have to be under separate ownership, some use the term
"commercial bank" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank
that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations
or large businesses.
 Community Banks: locally operated financial institutions that empower
employees to make local decisions to serve their customers and the partners.
 Community development banks: regulated banks that provide financial services
and credit to underserved markets or populations.
 Postal savings banks: savings banks associated with national postal systems.
 Private banks: manage the assets of high net worth individuals.
 Offshore banks: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation.
Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.
 Savings bank: in Europe, savings banks take their roots in the 19th or sometimes
even 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible
savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks
were created on public initiative, while in others socially committed individuals

42
 created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure. Nowadays,
European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings
products, credits and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized
enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks
by their broadly decentralised distribution network, providing local and regional
outreach and by their socially responsible approach to business and society.
 Building societies and Landesbanks: conduct retail
banking.
 Ethical banks: banks that prioritize the transparency of all
operations and make only social-responsible investments.

3.2.2. Types of Investment Banks

 Investment banks "underwrite" (guarantee the

sale of) stock and bond issues, trade for their
own accounts, make markets, and advise
corporations on capital markets activities such
as mergers and acquisitions.
 Merchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade financing. The
modern definition, however, refers to banks which provide capital to firms in the
form of shares rather than loans. Unlike Venture capital firms, they tend not to
invest in new companies.

Both combined

 Universal banks, more commonly known as a financial services company, engage

in several of these activities. For example, First Bank (a very large bank) is
involved in commercial and retail lending, and its subsidiaries in tax-havens offer
offshore banking services to customers in other countries. Other large financial
institutions are similarly diversified and engage in multiple activities. In Europe
and Asia, big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also
distribute insurance, hence the term bancassurance is the term used to describe the
sale of insurance products in a bank. The word is a combination of "banque or
bank" and "assurance" signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by
the same corporate entity.

Other types of banks

 Islamic banks adhere to the concepts of Islamic law. Islamic banking revolves
around several well established concepts which are based on Islamic canons. Since
the concept of interest is forbidden in Islam, all banking activities must avoid
interest. Instead of interest, the bank earns profit (mark-up) and fees on financing
facilities that it extends to the customers. Also, deposit makers earn a share of the
bank’s profit as opposed to a predetermined interest.

43
3.3. Services Typically Offered By Banks
Although the basic type of services offered by a bank depends upon the type of bank
and the country, services provided usually include:

 Taking deposits from their customers and issuing checking and savings accounts
to individuals and businesses
 Extending loans to individuals and businesses
 Cashing cheques
 Facilitating money transactions such as wire transfers and cashiers checks
 Issuing credit cards, ATM cards, and debit cards
 Storing valuables, particularly in a safe deposit box
 Cashing and distributing bank rolls
 Consumer & commercial financial advisory services
 Pension & retirement planning

Financial transactions can be performed through many different channels:

 A branch, banking centre or financial centre is a retail location where a bank or

financial institution offers a wide array of face to face service to its customers

 ATM (Automatic teller machine) is a computerised

telecommunications device that provides a financial institution's
customers a method of financial transactions in a public space
without the need for a human clerk or bank teller

 Mail is part of the postal system which itself is a system where in

written documents typically enclosed in envelopes, and also small packages
containing other matter, are delivered to destinations around the world

 Telephone Banking is a service provided by a financial institution which allows

its customers to perform transactions over the telephone

 Online banking is a term used for performing transactions, payments etc. over the
Internet through a bank, credit union or building society's secure website

44
 EVALUATION
EVALUATION

A- QUESTIONS
Circle the correct answer

1. ........................... is a business that provides financial services, usually for profit.

A) A bank
B) A firm
C) A deposit
D) An agency

2. ................................. a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and
loans from corporations or large businesses.

A) Community banks
B) Private banks
C) Offshore banks
D) Commercial bank

3. .................................... banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation.

A) Community banks
B) Ethical banks
C) Offshore banks
D) Commercial bank

4. .................................... banks that prioritize the transparency of all operations and

make only social-responsible investments.

A) Commercial bank
B) Ethical banks
C) Community banks
D) Offshore banks

5. .................................. more commonly known as a financial services company, engage

in several of these activities.
A) Ethical banks
B) Merchant banks
C) Savings banks
D) Universal banks

6. Which isn’t a service offered by banks?

45
 A) Cashing cheques
B) Cashing and distributing bank rolls
C) Consumer financial advisory services
D) Planning new strategies

7. .............................. is a computerised telecommunications device that provides a

financial institution's customers a method of financial transactions in a public space
without the need for a human clerk or bank teller .

A) ATM
B) A branch
C) Telephone banking
D) Online banking

8. ........................... is a term used for performing transactions, payments etc. over the
Internet through a bank, credit union or building society's secure website.

A) Online banking
B) ATM
C) Telephone banking
D) Mail

9. ....................... is part of the postal system which itself is a system wherein written
documents typically enclosed in envelopes, and also small packages containing other
matter, are delivered to destinations around the world.

A) Online banking
B) Mail
C) A branch
D) Telephone banking

10. ……………., banking centre or financial centre is a retail location where a bank or
financial institution offers a wide array of face to face service to its customers.
A) Online banking
B) Mail
C) A branch
D) Telephone banking

46
B. Write TRUE or FALSE
TRUE FALSE
LEARNING PROCESS
 
1. Central banks are non-commercial bodies or government agencies
often charged with controlling interest rates and money supply
across the whole economy.
2. Investment banks are retail banks.
3. A bank is a business that provides financial services, usually for
profit.
4. Community Banks are locally operated financial institutions that
empower employees to make local decisions to serve their
customers and the partners.
5. Postal savings banks are banks located in jurisdictions with low
taxation and regulation.
6. Merchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade
financing.
7. Instead of interest, Universal banks earns profit (mark-up) and
fees on financing facilities that it extends to the customers.
8. Cashing cheques is a type of services offered by a bank.
9. Financial transactions can be performed through Automatic teller
machine.
10. Telephone Banking is part of the postal system which itself is a
system where in written documents typically enclosed in envelopes,
and also small packages containing other matter, are delivered to
destinations around the world.

47
EVALUATION CRITERIA

Evaluate yourself with a friend of yours. If you need, go to the learning objective and
repeat the subject that you believe you couldn’t learn.

The Student’s The examination’s

Name-Surname: Starting Time :
Class : Finishing Time :
Number : Used Time :
YES NO
Evaluation Criteria
 
Did you remember what a bank is?
Did you remember what a commercial bank is?
Did you remember community banks?
Did you remember community development banks?
Did you remember postal savings banks?
Did you remember private banks?
Did you remember offshore banks?
Did you remember savings bank?
Did you remember ethical banks?
Did you remember investment banks?
Did you remember merchant banks?
Did you remember universal banks?
Did you remember islamic banks?
Did you remember services typically offered by banks?

48
ANSWER KEYS
ANSWER KEYS
LEARNING ACTIVITY-1
A- QUESTIONS
1 D

2 B

3 A

4 D

5 C

6 A

7 D

8 B

9 C

10 D
B- TRUE or FALSE
1 T

2 F

3 F

4 T

5 T

6 F

7 F

8 T

9 T

10 F

49
LEARNING ACTIVITY-2

A- QUESTIONS
1 C

2 B

3 D

4 A

5 C

6 A

7 B

8 A

9 D

10 A

50
LEARNING ACTIVITY-3

A- QUESTIONS

1 A

2 D

3 C

4 B

5 D

6 D

7 A

8 A

9 B

10 C

B- TRUE or FALSE
1 T

2 F

3 T

4 T

5 F

6 T

7 F

8 T

9 T

10 F

51
 REFERENCES
REFERENCES
 BERTRAND, Kate, With Customers, the Closer the Better, Business
Marketing, July 1989.

 BIERMAN, Harold. The Capital Budgeting Decision, Boston: Kluwer

Academic Publishers, 2003.

 HARRIS, Hilton. Artur Raviv, “Capital Structure and Informational Role of

Dept,” Journal of Finance, June 1990, 321-349.

 LEVY, Haim. Marshall Sarnat. Capital Investment and Financial Decisions,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994.

 CHANEY, Paul. “Moral Hazard and Capital Budgeting,” Journal of Financial

Research, Summer 1989, 113-128.

 ITC, Fulfilling Freight Operations, Enterprise Management Development Series

Draft Paper, International Trade Centre, 2003.

 ITC, TrainingHandbook on Export Documentation, International Trade Centre,

1995.

 KARAHAN, Kasım. Murat Canıtez, Uygulamlı İhracat ve İthalat, Gazi Kitapevi,

Ankara, 2005.

 PINEGAR, J. Michael. Lisa Wilbricht, “What Managers Think of Capital

Structure Theory: A Survey,” Financel Management, Winter 1989, 82-91.

 ONURSAL, Erkut. Dış Ticaret İşlemleri ve Uygulama, 1996.

 PHILIP, W. Byrd. American Export/Import Management Corporation, New

York, 1996.

 SACDEVA, Kanval. Lawrence Gitman, “Captive Finance Subsidiaries: The

Maneger’s View,” Financel Management, Spring 198, 36-42.

 SELEN, Ufuk. Gümrük İşlemleri, Ekin Kitapevi, Bursa, 2007.

 SOYSAL, İlhami. Osman Uysal, Murat Atabinici, Gümrük ve Dış Ticaret

Terimleri Sözlüğü, Gümrük Müfettişleri Derneği, İstanbul, 1999.

 WANSLEY, James. Fayez A. Elayan, Brain A. Maris, “Preferred Stock Returns,

Credit Watch, and Prefferred Stock Rating Changes” The Financial Review, May
1990, 265-285.

52
  www.allaboutturkey.com 18/10/2007

 www.bilgiyonetimi.org 18/10/2007
 www.civicus.org/new/media/Budgeting 24/10/2007
 www.deik.org.tr/bultenler/businessguide 20/10/2007
 www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Turkey-TAXATION
16/10/2007

53