Bio Mod 6-2

1 MODULE V I AE 403 BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE VI
SYLLABUS
Recent trends: Medical imaging, X-rays, laser applications, ultrasound scanner, echo
cardiography, CT Scan MRI/NMR, cine angiogram, colour doppler systems, Holter
monitoring, endoscopy.
X-ray imaging:
Equipments that replace certain critical physiological functionalities, or provide needed
paintherapy.
Properties of X-rays
 The X-rays in the medical diagnostic region have wavelength of the order of 10-
l0m. They propagate with a speed of 3 x 1010 cm/ s and are unaffected by electric
and magnetic fields.
 They have short wavelength and extremely high energy.
 X-rays are able to penetrate through materials which readily absorb and reflect
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visible light.
 X-rays are absorbed when passing through matter. The extent of absorption depends
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upon the density of the matter.
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 X-rays produce secondary radiation in all matter through which they pass. This
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secondary radiation is composed of scattered radiation, characteristic radiation and

electrons.
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 X-rays produce ionization in gases and influence the electric properties of liquids
and solids.The ionizing property is made use of in the construction of radiation-
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measuring instruments.
 X-rays also produce fluorescence in certain materials to help them emit light.
Fluoroscopic screens and intensifying screens have been constructed on the basis of
this property. X-rays affect photographic film in the same way as ordinary visible
light.
Production of X-rays
 X-rays are produced whenever electrons collide at very high speed with matter and
are thus suddenly stopped. The energy possessed by the electrons appears from the
site of the collision as a parcel of energy in the form of highly penetrating
electromagnetic waves (X-rays) of many different wavelengths, which together
form a continuous spectrum.
 X-rays are produced specially constructed glass tube, which basically comprises,
(i) a source for the production electrons,
(ii) a energy source to accelerate the electrons,
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI
www.cecnotes123.blogspot.com
(iii) a free electron path,

(iv) a mean t focusing the electron beam and
(v) a device to stop the electrons.
Stationary mode tubes and rotating anode tubes are the two main types of X-ray
tubes:
Stationary Anode Tube
Fig. shows the basic components of a stationary anode X-ray tube. The normal tube is a
vacuum diode in which electrons are generated by thermionic emission from the filament of
the tube.
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 The electron stream is electrostatically focused on a target on the anode by means of

a suitably shaped cathode cup. The kinetic energy of the electrons impinging on the
target is converted into X-rays. Most electrons emitted by the hot element become
current carriers across the tube.
 Some X-ray tubes function as a triode with a bias voltage applied between the
filament and the cathode cup.
 The cathode block, which contains the filament, is usually made from nickel or
from a form of stainless steel. The filament is a closely wound helix of tungsten
wire, about 0.2 mm thick, the helix diameter being about 1.0-1.5 mm.
 The target is normally comprised of a small tablet of tungsten about 15mm wide,
20mm long and 3mm thick soldered into a block of copper. Tungsten is chosen
since it com bines a high atomic number (74)—making it comparatively efficient in
the production of X-rays. It has a high melting point (3400°C) enabling it to
withstand the heavy thermal loads.
 Copper being an excellent thermal conductor, performs the vital function of

carrying the heat rapidly away from the tungsten target. The heat flows through the
anode to the outside of the tube, where it is normally removed by convection.
Generally, an oil environment is provided for convection current cooling.
 In addition, the electrodes have open high voltages on them and must be shielded.
The tube will emit X-rays in all directions and protection needs to be provided
except where the useful beam emerges from the tube.
 In order to contain the cooling oil and meet the above-mentioned requirements, a
metal container is provided for completely surrounding the tube. Such a container is
known as a‘shield’.
X-RAY MACHINE
Block diagram of basic x-ray machine.
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Parts
1. X-Ray tube 2. High Tension Supply 3. Collimator 4. Patient Table. 5. Grid. 6.
Radiographic film
1. X ray Tube – For details refer stationary anode tube and rotating anode tube given
above.It is an important component of x-ray machine which is inaccessible as it is
contained in aprotective housing. It is a vacuum tube.
There are two primary parts.
1) the cathode
2) the Anode.
2. Operating Console
It is an apparatus in X-Ray machine that allows to control the x-ray tube current and
voltage.The Console Controls are: -
1. Voltage compensator. 2. kV Meter. 3. mA Meter. 4. Exposure time.
1. Voltage Compensator
Because of variations in power distribution to the hospital and in power consumption by the
various sections of the hospital, the voltage to the x-ray unit may vary by 5%, which will
result in large variations in x-ray output.
High Tension Supply with Rectifier.

Power supply system consists of Autotransformer .The power supplied to x-ray machine is
delivered to a special transformer called an Autotransformer. It works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction but is very different from conventional transformer.
 It has only one winding and one core. The single winding has number of
connections, or electric taps. The purpose to use the Autotransformer is to overcome
induction losses. Its value ranges from 0 to 400V.
 Used for producing high voltage which is applied to the tube’s anode and cathode
Self-Rectification Circuit for High Voltage Generation.

The high voltage is produced using a step-up transformer whose primary is connected to
auto-transformer. The secondary of the H.T. transformer can be directly connected to the
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anode of the x-ray tube which will conduct only during the half cycles when the cathode is
negative with respect to anode or target.
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The current through the tube follow, the H.T. pathway and is measured by a mA
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meter.
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 A kV selector switch enables to change voltage between exposures. The voltage is

measured with the help of a kV meter.
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 The exposure switch controls the timer and thus the duration of the application of
kV.
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 To compensate for mains voltage variations, a voltage compensator is used in the

circuit.
 The filament is heated with 6 to 12 V of ac supply at a current of 3 to 5 amperes.

The filament temperature determines the tube current or mA, and, therefore, the
filament temperature control has an attached mA selector. The filament current is
controlled by using, in the primary side of the filament transformer, a variable
choke or a rheostat. The rheostat provides a stepwise control of mA and is most
commonly used in modem machines.
 These machines have maximum tube currents of about 20 mA and a voltage of

about 100 kV.When self-rectification is used, it is necessary to use a parallel
combination of a diode and resistance, in series with the primary of the H.T.
transformer for suppressing higher inverse voltage likely to appear during the non-
conducting half-cycle of the x-ray tube. This helps to reduce the cost and
complexity of the x-ray machines.
 A preferred method of providing high voltage dc to the anode of the x-ray tube is
by using a bridge rectifier using four valve tubes or solid state rectifiers. This results
in a much more efficient system than with half wave of self-rectification methods.
 The kV meter is connected across primary of the H.T. transformer. It actually

measures volts whereas it is calibrated in kV by using an appropriate multiplication
factor of turns-ratio of the transformer.
 In order to obtain the load voltage which varies with the tube current, a suitable kV
meter compensation is provided in the circuit. The kV meter compensator is ganged
to the mA selector mechanically. Therefore, the mA is selected first and the kV
setting is made afterwards during operation of the machine.
 Moving coil meters are used for making current I (mA) measurements, for shorter
exposures, a mAs meter is used which measures the product I of mA and time in
seconds. The exposure time is generally controlled by using some form of timing
arrangement coupled with a contactor which supplies the H.T. to the anode of the x-
ray tube only during that time.
 Collimator: The Collimator is attached to the x-ray tube below the glass window
where the useful beam is emitted. Lead shutters are used to restrict the beam. Its
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purpose is to minimize field of view, to avoid unnecessary exposure by using lead
plates.
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Grid: By virtue of function and material, collimator and grid are same but they
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have different location. It is made up of lead. It is located just after patient. It is used
to destroy scattered radiation from the body.
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Radiographic Film: Two types of x-ray photon are responsible for density, contrast
and image on a radiograph. Those that pass through the patient without interacting
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and those that are scattered in the patient through compton interaction. Together
these x-rays that exit from the patient and intersect the film are called Remnant x-
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rays.
APPLICATIONS OF X-RAYS IN MEDICINE

1. X-rays are used in medicine for medical analysis. Dentists use them to find
complications, cavities and impacted teeth. Soft body tissues are transparent to the waves.
Bones and teeth block the rays and show up as white on the black background.
2. A mammogram:
(Also called a mammography exam) is a safe, low-dose x-ray of the breast. A high-quality
Mammogram is the most effective tool for detecting breast cancer early.
3. Skeletal system:
A standard radiograph is usually the first course of action when a patient is suffering from a
suspected bone injury. The excellent natural contrast provided by bone produces clear
images with good resolution. Two views at right angles to each other are generally required
and can lead to the diagnosis of fractures, dislocations, spinal injuries and so on. Other
abnormalities, ranging from tumours and cysts in the spine to arthritis (figure 2.23), can
also indicated.
4. The chest:
A standard chest X-ray is the commonest means of detecting lung cancer and other
abnormalities. Difficulties sometimes arise due to liie inevitable obstruction of the heart.
5. Circulatory system:
An artificial contrast medium, typically an organic iodine compound, is injected into the
blood vessel to be examined. The structure and effective flow diameter of both arteries and
veins can be examined, allowing the diagnosis of blood vessel blockages and heart disease
6. Dental studies: Most dental practices now have small X-ray units, to investigate
problems with the overcrowding or uneven growth of teeth, particularly in juveniles, or
with the growth of wisdom teeth. Surgery or orthodontal treatment may then be
recommended.
7. Foreign bodies: It is amazing what people, particularly children, will swallow! A
standard radiograph can help to identify the shape and position of such objects to assist
with their removal.
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPY
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Limitations of X-rays
1. The super-imposition of the three-dimensional information onto a single plane
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makes diagnosis confusing and often difficult.
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2. The photographic film usually used for making radiographs has a limited dynamic
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range and, therefore, only objects that have large variations in X-ray absorption
relative to their surroundings will cause sufficient contrast differences on the film
to be distinguished by the eye. Thus, whilst details of bony structures can be clearly
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seen, it is difficult to discern the shape and composition of soft tissue organs
accurately.
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3. In such situations, growths and abnormalities within tissue only show a very small
contrast difference on the film and consequently, it is extremely difficult to detect
them, even after using various injected contrast media.
4. The problem becomes even more serious while carrying out studies of the brain due
to its overall shielding of the soft tissue by the dense bone of the skull.
Basic Principle of CT
 In computed tomography (CT), the picture is made by viewing the patient via X-ray
imaging from numerous angles, by mathematically reconstructing the detailed
structures and displaying the reconstructed image on a video monitor.
 Computed tomography differs from conventional X-ray techniques in that the

pictures displayed are not photographs but are reconstructed from a large number of
absorption profiles taken at regular angular intervals around a slice, with each
profile being made up from a parallel set of absorption values through the object.
 In computed tomography, X-rays from a finely collimated source arc made to pass
through a slice of the object or patient from a variety of directions. For directions
along which the path length through-tissue is longer, fewer X-rays are transmitted
as compared to directions where there is less tissue attenuating the X-ray beam. In
addition to the length of the tissue traversed, structures in the patient such as bone
may attenuate X-rays more than a similar volume of less dense soft tissue.
 In principle, computed tomography involves the determination of attenuation

characteristics for each small volume of tissue in the patient slice, which constitute
the transmitted radiation intensity recorded from various irradiation directions. It is
these calculated tissue attenuation characteristics that actually compose the CT
image.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure below shows a block diagram of the system. The X-ray source and detectors
are mounted opposite each other in a rigid gantry with the patient lying in between, and by
moving one or both of these around and across the relevant sections, which is how the
measurements are made.
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The X-ray tube and the detector are rigidly coupled to each other. The system executes
translational and rotational movement and trans radiates the patient from various angular
projections. With the aid of collimators, pencil thin beam of X-ray is produced.
 A detector converts the X-radiation into an electrical signal. Measuring electronics

then amplify the electrical signals and convert them into digital values. A computer
then processes these values and computes them into a matrix-line density
distribution pattern which is reproduced on a video monitor as a pattern of gray
shade.
 In one system which employs 18 traverses in the 20s scanning cycle, 324,000 (18 x
30 x 600) X-ray transmission readings arc taken and stored by the computer. These
arc obtained by integrating the outputs of the 30 detectors with approximately 600
position pulses.
 The position pulses are derived from a glass graticule that lies between a light
emitting diode and photo-diode assembly that moves with the detectors. The
detectors arc usually sodium- iodide crystals, which are thallium-doped to prevent
an after-glow. The detectors absorb the X-ray photons and emit the energy as visible
light. This is converted to electrons by a photo- multiplier tube and then amplified.
Analog outputs from these tubes go through signal conditioning circuitry that
amplifies, clips and shapes the signals.
 A relatively simple analog-to-digital converter then prepares the signals for the
computer. Simultaneously, a separate reference detector continuously measures the
intensity of the primary X-ray beam .The set of readings thus produced enables the
computer to compensate for fluctuations of X-ray intensity. Also, the reference
readings taken at the end of each traverse are used to continually calibrate the
detection system and the necessary correction is carried out.
 After the initial pre-processing, the final image is put onto the system disc. This
allows for direct viewing on the operator’s console. The picture is reconstructed in
either a 320 x 320 matrix of 0.73 mm squares giving higher spatial resolution or in a
160x 160 matrix of 1.5 mm.squares which results in higher precision, lower noise
image and better discrimination between tissues of similar density.
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 Each picture clement that makes up the image matrix has a CT number, say between
-1000 and + 1000, and therefore, takes up one computer word. A complete picture
occupies approximately 100 K words, and up to eight such pictures can be stored on
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the system disc.There is a precise linear relationship between the CT numbers and
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the actual X-ray absorption values, and the scale is defined by air at -1000 and by
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water at 0.
Image Reconstruction
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The formation of a CT image is a distinct three phase process.

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1. The scanning phase produces data, but not an image.

2. The reconstruction phase processes the acquired data and forms a digital image.
3. Digital-to analog conversion phase: The visible and displayed analog image
(shades of gray) is produced by the digital-to analog conversion phase.
1. The scanning phase

During the scanning phase a fan-shaped x-ray beam is scanned around the body.
The amount of x-radiation that penetrates the body along each individual ray
(pathway) through the body is measured by the detectors that intercept the x-ray
beam after it passes through the body.The projection of the fan-shaped x-ray beam
from one specific x-ray tube focal spot position produces one view. Many views
projected from around the patient's body are required in order to acquire the
necessary data to reconstruct an image. Each view produces one "profile" or line of
data as shown here.
The complete scan produces a complete data set that contains sufficient information
for the reconstruction of an image. In principle, one scan produces data for one slice
image.
2. Image Reconstruction Phase

Image reconstruction is the phase in which the scan data set is processed to produce
an image. The image is digital and consist of a matrix of pixels.
Filtered back projection is the reconstruction method used in CT.
"Filtered" refers to the use of the digital image processing algorithms that are used
to improve image quality or change certain image quality characteristics, such as
detail and noise. "Back projection" is the actual process used to produce or
"reconstruct" the image.
SCANNING SYSTEM
 The purpose of the scanning system is to acquire enough information to reconstruct

a picture for an accurate diagnosis. A sufficient number of independent readings
must be taken to allow picture reconstruction with the required spatial resolution
and density discrimination for diagnostic purposes. The readings are taken in the
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form of ‘profiles’.
 When a plane parallel X-ray beam is passing through a required section, a profile is
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defined as the intensity of the emergent beam plotted along a line perpendicular to
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the X-ray beam.This profile represents a plot of the total absorption along each of
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the parallel X-ray beams. It thus follows that the higher the number of profiles
obtained, the better is the resulting picture.
Types of Scanning Systems

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1. First Generation—Parallel Beam Geometry: In the basic scanning process, a

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collimated X-ray beam passes through the body and its attenuation is detected by a
sensor that moves on a gantry along with the X-ray tube.The tube and detector
move in a straight line, sampling the data 180 times. At the end of the travel, a 1°
tilt is made and a new linear scan begins. This assembly travels 180°around the
patient’s position. This arrangement is known as Traverse and Index' and was used
in the earliest commercial system. This procedure results in 32,400 independent
measurements of attenuation, which are sufficient for the systems computer to
produce an image. Obviously, this is a fairly slow procedure and requires a typical
scan time of 5 minutes. It is essential for the patient to keep still during the entire
scan period and for this reason, the early scanners were limited in their use to only
brain studies.
2. Second Generation—Fan Beam, Multiple Detectors: An improved version of the
traverse-index arrangement consists in using a bank of detectors and a fan beam of
X- rays. This system effectively takes several profiles with each traverse and thus
permits greater index angles. For example, by using a 10° fan beam, it is possible to
take 10 profiles, at 1° intervals, with each traverse and then index through 10°
before taking the next set of profiles.
Therefore, a fu II set of 180 profiles can be obtained with 18 traverses. This method
has permitted a reduction in the scan time, and at the rate of approximately 1 s for
each traverse, it has led to the systems operating in the 18-20 s range.
3. Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating Detectors: The main obstacle for a
further increase in speed with the conventional computer tomographs arises from
the mechanically unfavorable multiple alterations between the translational and
rotational movement of the measuring system. But using a fan-shaped beam and an
array of detectors, larger steps can be taken and the scanning process speeded up
linear scanning movement can be avoided by using a sufficiently wide fan-shaped
X-ray beam which encompasses the whole object cross-section, and a multiple
detector system mechanically tied to the tube which permits a simultaneous
measurement of the whole absorption profile in one projection direction (Fig.
20.6(c)). Also, on account of the largeness of the measuring system consisting of X-
ray tube and detectors, the rotational movement must not be stepwise but
continuous.
Applications of CT
1. Unlike other medical imaging techniques, such as conventional x-ray imaging
(radiography), CT enables direct imaging and differentiation of soft tissue
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structures, such as liver, lung tissue, and fat.
2. CT is especially useful in searching for large space occupying lesions, tumors and
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metastasis and can not only reveal their presence, but also the size, spatial location
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and extent of a tumour.

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3. CT imaging of the head and brain can detect tumours, show blood clots and blood
vessel defects, show enlarged ventricles (caused by a build-up of cerebrospinal
fluid) and image other abnormalities such as those of the nerves or muscles of the
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eye.
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4. Due to the short scan times of 500 milliseconds to a few seconds, CT can be used
for all anatomic regions, including those susceptible to patient motion and
breathing. For example, in the thorax CT can be used for visualization of nodular
structures, infiltrations of fluid, fibrosis (for example from asbestos fibers), and
effusions (filling of an air space with fluid).
5. CT has been the basis for interventional work like CT guided biopsy and minimally
invasive therapy. CT images are also used as basis for planning radiotherapy cancer
treatment. CT is also often used to follow the course of cancer treatment to
determine how the tumor is responding to treatment.
6. CT imaging provides both good soft tissue resolution (contrast) as well as high
spatial resolution. This enables the use of CT in orthopedic medicine and imaging
of bony structures including prolapses (protrusion) of vertebral discs, imaging of
complex joints like the shoulder or hip as a functional unit and fractures, especially
those affecting the spine.
LASER APPLICATIONS
 Medical field – Where ever there is favorable interaction between the LASER
radiation and human tissue
 Success of this interaction – dependent on Radiation wavelength, ability of the

tissue to absorb this wavelength, delivered power on treatment area, total energy
incident on tissue and the area treated.
 LASERs are successfully used in the following medical fields:
 Treatment of detached retina
 Coagulation in diabetic retinopathy ( coagulation of lesions in the retina)
 Neurosurgery (Treatment of tissue in the skull and spine)
 Gastroentrology (Treatment by coagulation of the lower gastrointestinal tract)
 Dermatology (Removal of skin imperfections by laser irradiation)
 Most widespread medical application for laser technology: Opthalmology – This is
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due to easy accessibility of the human eye – It’s transparency – Absorption
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properties of its internal tissues.
ULTRASOUND SCANNER
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A very important property of ultrasonography is the short image reconstruction time

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of about 20 to 100 ms, permitting the real-time scanning and observation of processes
in the organs of the body. Consequently, sonography is well-suited to the fast,
interactive screening of even larger organ regions and the display of dynamic processes,
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such as cardiology. Ultrasound section scans are, by contrast with CT and MR, largely
free of kinetic blurring or motion artifacts (Haerten, 1994). On the other hand,
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ultrasound images are only section scans, and not whole body scans.
Ultrasonography (sonography) uses a probe containing multiple acoustic transducers to
send pulses of sound into a material. Whenever a sound wave encounters a material
with a different density (acoustical impedance), part of the sound wave is reflected back
to the probe and is detected as an echo. The time it takes for the echo to travel back to
the probe is measured and used to calculate the depth of the tissue interface causing the
echo. The greater the difference between acoustic impedances, the larger the echo is. If
the pulse hits gases or solids, the density difference is so great that most of the acoustic
energy is reflected and it becomes impossible to see deeper.
DISPLAY TYPES OR IMAGING MODES

Various imaging modes or display types found in today's ultrasound systems are:
1. A-mode (Amplitude Mode): A-scan mode uses a stationary transducer to fire a
pulse into tissue. The oscilloscope or hard-copy readout scans time along the
horizontal axis and plots the signal amplitude along the vertical axis. A large spike
at the left corner (unless it is suppressed) represents the transmit spike. The tissue at
the interface with the transducer will produce some near-field scatter immediately to
the right of the transmit spike. Other spikes represent reflections from targets within
the tissue.
2. B-mode (Brightness) imaging is the same as A-mode, except that brightness is
used to represent the amplitude of the sampled signal. B mode imaging is performed
by sweeping the transmitted sound wave over the plane to produce a 2D image.
A-Mode display is very difficult to interpret when many echoes are present
simultaneously and often potentially useful information is wasted. A pictorial
display can be conceived as a means of simultaneously presenting the echo
information as well as information about the position of the probe and the direction
of propagation of the sound. This is achieved in the B-scan display which results
from brightness modulation with amplitude of the echoes obtained for various probe
positions and orientations to produce a cross-sectional image of the object
integrated by a storage display from individual scans.
3. M-mode (Motion) display

M-mode (Motion) display refers to scanning a single line in the object and then
displaying the resulting amplitudes successively. This shows the movement of a
structure such as heart. Because of its high pulse frequency (up to 1000 pulses per
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second), this is useful in assessing rates and motion and is used extensively in
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cardiac and foetal cardiac imaging.
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to

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form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and
disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and field gradients to
generate images of the organs in the body that can't be seen as well with X-rays, CT scans
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or ultrasound. For example, it can help doctors to see inside joints, cartilage, ligaments,
muscles and tendons, which makes it helpful for detecting various sports injuries. MRI does
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not involve x-rays, which distinguishes it from computed tomography (CT or CAT). MRI is
based on the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). MRI has an advantage over
CT in being able to detect flowing blood and cryptic vascular malformations.
Principle
MRI is based on the magnetization properties of atomic nuclei. A powerful, uniform,
external magnetic field is employed to align the protons that are normally randomly
oriented within the water nuclei of the tissue being examined. This alignment (or
magnetization) is next perturbed or disrupted by introduction of an external Radio
Frequency (RF) energy. The nuclei return to their resting alignment through various
relaxation processes and in so doing emit RF energy. After a certain period following the
initial RF, the emitted signals are measured. Fourier transformation is used to convert the
frequency information contained in the signal from each location in the imaged plane to
corresponding intensity levels, which are then displayed as shades of gray in a matrix
arrangement of pixels. By varying the sequence of RF pulses applied & collected, different
types of images are created. Repetition Time (TR) is the amount of time between
successive pulse sequences applied to the same slice. Time to Echo (TE) is the time
between the delivery of the RF pulse and the receipt of the echo signal.
Tissue can be characterized by two different relaxation times – T1 and T2. T1 (longitudinal
relaxation time) is the time constant which determines the rate at which excited protons
return to equilibrium. It is a measure of the time taken for spinning protons to realign with
the external magnetic field. T2 (transverse relaxation time) is the time constant which
determines the rate at which excited protons reach equilibrium or go out of phase with each
other. It is a measure of the time taken for spinning protons to lose phase coherence among
the nuclei spinning perpendicular to the main field.
Basic NMR Components
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The basic components of an NMR imaging system are shown in Fig. These are:
 A magnet, which provides a strong uniform, steady, magnet field Bo;
 An RF transmitter, which delivers radio-frequency magnetic field to the sample;
 A gradient system, which produces time-varying magnetic fields of controlled

spatial non-uniformity;
 A detection system, which yields the output signal, and An imager system,
including the computer, which reconstructs and displays the images.
The imaging sequencing in the system is provided by a computer. Functions such as gates
and envelopes for the NMR pulses, blanking for the pre-amplifier and RF power amplifier
and voltage waveforms for the gradient magnetic fields are all under software control.
The computer also performs the various data processing tasks including the Fourier
transformation, image reconstruction, data filtering, image display and storage.
The Magnet: In magnetic resonance tomography, the base field must be extremely uniform
in space and constant in time as its purpose is to align the nuclear magnets parallel to each
other in the volume to be examined. Also, the signal-to-noise ratio increases approximately
linearly with the magnetic field strength of the basic field, therefore, it must be as large as
possible. Four factors characterize the performance of the magnets used in MR systems;
viz., field strength, temporal stability, homogeneity and bore size. The effect of the
magnetic field strength has been elaborated earlier. The temporal stability is important
since instabilities of the field adversely affect resolution The gross non homogeneities
result in image distortion while the bore diameter limits the size of the dimension of the
specimen that can be imaged. Such a magnetic field can be produced by means of four
different ways, viz., permanent magnets, electromagnets, resistive magnets and
superconducting magnets.
In case of the permanent magnet, the patient is placed in the gap between a pair of
permanently magnetized pole faces.
RF Transmitter System: In order to activate the nuclei so that the emit a useful signal,
energy must be transmitted into the sample. This is what the transmitter does. The system
consist of an RF transmitter RF power amplifier and RF transmitting coils. The RF
transmitter consists of an RF crystal oscillator at the Larmor frequency. The RF voltage is
gated with the pulse envelopes from the computer interface to generate RF pulses that
excite the resonance. These pulses are amplified to levels varying from 100 W to several
kW depending on the imaging method and are fed to the transmitter coil. The higher power
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levels are necessary for the large sample volumes encountered in whole body experiments.
The RF coils can be either a single coil serving as both transmitter and receiver or two
separate coils that are electrically orthogonal. The latter configuration has the advantage of
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reduced pulse breakthrough into-the receiver during the pulse. In both cases, all coils
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generate RF fields orthogonal to the direction of the main magnetic field. Saddle-and
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solenoidal-shaped RF coils are typical geometries for the RF coils. The coils are tuned to
the NMR frequency and are usually isolated from the remainder of the system by enclosure
in an RF shielding cage.
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Gradients: Gradients are loops of wire or thin conductive sheets on a cylindrical shell lying
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just inside the bore of an MR scanner. When current is passed through these coils a
secondary magnetic field is created. This gradient field slightly distorts the main magnetic
field in a predictable pattern, causing the resonance frequency of protons to vary in as a
function of position. The primary function of gradients, therefore, is to allow spatial
encoding of the MR signal. Gradients also are critical for a wide range of "physiologic"
techniques, such as MR angiography, diffusion, and perfusion imaging.
Detection System: The function of the detection system (receiver) is to detect the nuclear
magnetization and generate an output signal for processing by the computer. The receiver
coil usually surrounds the sample and acts as an antenna to pick-up the fluctuating nuclear
magnetization of the sample and converts it to a fluctuating output V(t). Hinshaw and Lent
(1983) explained that NMR signal where 𝑀(𝑡,𝑥)is the total magnetisation in a volume and
𝐵𝑐(𝑥) the sensitivity of the receiver coil at different points in sace
Advantages of NMR
The NMR image provides substantial contrast between soft tissues that are nearly identical
in existing techniques. NMR images that display T1 and T2 properties of tissue provide
tremendous contrasts between various soft tissues, contrasts approaching 150% are possible
in T1 and T2 images, while contrasts of only a few percent are possible between soft tissues
with X-rays.
 Cross-sectional images with any orientation are possible in NMR imaging systems
 The alternative contrast mechanisms of NMR provide promising possibilities of

new diagnostics for pathologies that are difficult or impossible with present
techniques NMR imaging parameters are affected by chemical bonding and,
therefore, offer potential for physiological imaging.
 NMR uses non ionizing radiations and has minimal, if any, hazards for operators of
machines and for patients.
 Unlike CT, NMR imaging requires no moving parts, gantries or sophisticated

crystal detectors. The system scans by superimposing electrically controlled
magnetic fields consequently, scans in any pre-determined orientation are possible.
 With the new techniques being developed, NMR permits imaging of entire
threedimensional volumes simultaneously instead of slice by slice, employed in
other imaging systems.
Larmor Frequency
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In NMR the energy is supplied in the form of a rotating magnetic field, denoted B1, which
is applied for a short time in the plane perpendicular to Bo. To supply energy to the spin
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system and tip the net nuclear magnetization (M), the B1 field must rotate very near the
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resonance (precession) frequency of the protons. If B1 rotates at any other frequency then it
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would be alternately in and out of phase with the spins which produce M. Only when the
rotation rate of B1 closely matches the precession frequency can M and B1 remained
locked together in the appropriate relation for tipping and energy exchange. The absorption
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and exchange of energy constitute a resonance phenomenon, sharply tuned to the natural
nuclear precession frequency. The natural precession frequency of a spin system is also
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known as the Larmor frequency.
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY
 Echocardiograph is a widely used and valuable instrument for carrying out cardiac
examination and assessment of many congenital and acquired cardiac diseases. By
using this instrument it is possible to detect intra-cardiac structures.
 The movement of these structures can also be recorded with the better resolution
than with angiographic diagnostic technique.
 The instrument presents time-versus-motion information about heart structures on

slow speeds normally used in electrocardiogram recordings
 The echocardiogram is currently the best method for the diagnosis of mitral
stenosis.
 Echocardiography is also often used for the study of the aortic valve, tricuspid valve
and pulmonary valve.
 Another very important use is in the detection of peri-cardial effusion, which is the
abnormal collection of fluid between the heart and the peri-cardial sac. These
examinations can be performed quickly and easily at the bedside, if necessary,
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without apparent risk to the patient.
VP
 In A-mode display, ultrasonic echoes produce vertical displacements of a

horizontal trace on CRT. Basically, the amount of vertical displacement is
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proportional to the strength of the echo, and the distance along the horizontal trace
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represents the time of sound travel in human tissue, thereby permitting accurate
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measurement of tissue depth between any two echo sources.
 By electronically rotating the A-mode echoes 90°towards the viewer, the echoes can
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be presented as bright dots of light along an imaginary horizontal base line. The
distance between the dots again represents time or tissue depth and the intensity of
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the dots represents the strength of the echoes.
 Figure shows the block diagram of an echocardiograph. Several circuit blocks are
common to the general echo measuring instrument, except for the addition of a slow
sweep circuit and recording arrangement. Since the advent of two-dimensional
echocardiography, ultrasonic examinations of the heart have been primarily
recorded and stored on video tape.
 This medium is inexpensive and readily available and it is possible to record

hundreds of cardiac cycles and multiple patients on a two hour video tape.
However, many problems have arisen with video tape when used for recording
echocardiogram.
 The major problem is that video tape technology limits the availability to quickly
review the echocardiograms.
 Digital echocardiography which involves recording, displaying and storing an

echocardiogram digitally has, therefore, largely replaced the video tape recording
procedure. Also, measurements and interpretation can be done more conveniently
using digital techniques of recording and manipulating imaging information.
 For echocardiography, the transducer is placed between the third and the fourth ribs
on the outer chest wall where there is no lung between the skin and the heart. From
this probe, a low intensity ultrasonic beam is directed towards the heart area and
echo signals are obtained. The probe position is manipulated to obtain echoes from
areas of interest in the heart.
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AB
 Pulsed Doppler echocardiography (Baker et al. 1976) depends on the sensing of

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blood flow velocity in contrast to M-mode echocardiography which is based on the

anatomical (dimensional) properties of the heart.
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 The technique is used as an adjunct to conventional M-mode echocardiography and

frequently information obtained from the pulsed Doppler examination compliments
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or reinforces the M-mode procedure.
 In many cases, pulsed Doppler findings provide useful diagnostic information

whereas M-mode findings may be nearly normal or suggestive.
ANGIOGRAPHY
 Angiography is a type of X-ray used to check the blood vessels.
 Blood vessels don't show up clearly on a normal X-ray, so a special dye needs to be
injected into your blood first.
 This highlights your blood vessels, allowing your doctor to spot any problems.
 The X-ray images created during angiography are called "angiograms".
 Angiography is carried out in a hospital X-ray or radiology department.
 For the test: you'll usually be awake, but may be given a medication called a
sedative to help you relax.
 You lie down on a table and a small cut is made over one of your arteries, usually
near your groin or wrist – local anaesthetic is used to numb the area where the cut is
made.
 A very thin flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into the artery.
 The catheter is carefully guided to the area that's being examined (such as the heart).
 A dye (contrast medium) is injected into the catheter.
 A series of X-rays are taken as the dye flows through your blood vessels.
 The test can take between 30 minutes and two hours. You'll usually be able to go
home a few hours afterwards.
 There are several different types of angiogram, depending on which part of the body
is being looked at.
 Common types include:

 Coronary angiography – to check the heart and nearby blood vessel
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 Cerebral angiography – to check the blood vessels in and around the brain
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 Pulmonary angiography – to check the blood vessels supplying the lungs

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 Renal angiography – to check the blood vessels supplying the kidneys.
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ENDOSCOPY
 Endoscopy is the insertion of a long, thin tube directly into the body to observe an
internal organ or tissue in detail.
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 It can also be used to carry out other tasks including imaging and minor surgery.
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 Endoscopes are minimally invasive and can be inserted into the openings of the
body such as the mouth or anus.
 Alternatively, they can be inserted into small incisions, for instance, in the knee or
abdomen. Surgery completed through a small incision and assisted with special
instruments, such as the endoscope, is called keyhole surgery.
 Because modern endoscopy has relatively few risks, delivers detailed images, and is
quick to carry out, it has proven incredibly useful in many areas of medicine.
 Today, tens of millions of endoscopies are carried out each year.
 Endoscopies are quick and relatively safe procedures.The first endoscope was
designed in 1806.
 The main reasons for endoscopy are investigation, confirmation, and

treatment.Endoscopy can be used to remove tumours or polyps from the digestive
tract.
LIST OF THE MAJOR TYPES OF ENDOSCOPY

GASTROSCOPY: To see the stomach and upper small intestine.
COLONOSCOPY: To see the large intestine.
LAPAROSCOPY: To see the "stomach cavity" and the organs therein.
CYSTOSCOPY: To see the urinary bladder.
BRONCHOSCOPY: To see the air passages to the lungs.
LARYNGOSCOPY: To see the larynx or voice box.
NASOPHARYNGOSCOPY: To see the nose and related cavities.
ARTHROSCOPY: To see inside joints such as the knee joint.
THORACOSCOPY: To see inside the chest cavity.
ENDOSCOPY PRINCIPLE
 Endoscope may have rigid or flexible tube inserted into the body.
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VP
 It has ability to looking inside the body using a variety of very small cameras
attached to flexible or rigid tube.
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 It facilitates direct viewing the interior of an organ is often very helpful in
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determining the cause of a problem.

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 An endoscope is flexible tube equipped with lenses and a light source.
 Illumination is done by the help of a number of optical fibers.

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 Video endoscopy performed by attaching in microchip camera at the insertion tube,

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setup image is viewed on a video monitor.
 DISTAL TIP OF INSERTION TUBE
Biopsy/or suction channel: It is used for suction of sample tissue. May be needed to
remove or may for diagnostic purposes.
Fiber optic light guide: They act as a light source.
Fiber optic image bundle/Objective lens: Allows visualisation of the inside part of
internal organs.
Air nozzle: To blow air.
Water nozzle: To clear the lens.
Water jet nozzle: Water introduced with a syringe through the forward water jet connector
comes to this port and gives a more powerful blast of water.
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VP
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AB
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1 MODULE V I AE 403 BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

 They have short wavelength and extremely high energy.

secondary radiation is composed of scattered radiation, characteristic radiation and

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

(iii) a free electron path,

 The electron stream is electrostatically focused on a target on the anode by means of

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 Copper being an excellent thermal conductor, performs the vital function of

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

High Tension Supply with Rectifier.

Self-Rectification Circuit for High Voltage Generation.

 A kV selector switch enables to change voltage between exposures. The voltage is

 To compensate for mains voltage variations, a voltage compensator is used in the

 The filament is heated with 6 to 12 V of ac supply at a current of 3 to 5 amperes.

 These machines have maximum tube currents of about 20 mA and a voltage of

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 The kV meter is connected across primary of the H.T. transformer. It actually

APPLICATIONS OF X-RAYS IN MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 Computed tomography differs from conventional X-ray techniques in that the

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 In principle, computed tomography involves the determination of attenuation

 A detector converts the X-radiation into an electrical signal. Measuring electronics

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

The formation of a CT image is a distinct three phase process.

1. The scanning phase produces data, but not an image.

1. The scanning phase

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

2. Image Reconstruction Phase

 The purpose of the scanning system is to acquire enough information to reconstruct

Types of Scanning Systems

1. First Generation—Parallel Beam Geometry: In the basic scanning process, a

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

and extent of a tumour.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 Success of this interaction – dependent on Radiation wavelength, ability of the

 LASERs are successfully used in the following medical fields:

 Treatment of detached retina

 Coagulation in diabetic retinopathy ( coagulation of lesions in the retina)

 Neurosurgery (Treatment of tissue in the skull and spine)

 Gastroentrology (Treatment by coagulation of the lower gastrointestinal tract)

 Dermatology (Removal of skin imperfections by laser irradiation)

 Most widespread medical application for laser technology: Opthalmology – This is

A very important property of ultrasonography is the short image reconstruction time

DISPLAY TYPES OR IMAGING MODES

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

3. M-mode (Motion) display

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

Basic NMR Components

 A magnet, which provides a strong uniform, steady, magnet field Bo;

 An RF transmitter, which delivers radio-frequency magnetic field to the sample;

 A gradient system, which produces time-varying magnetic fields of controlled

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION, SJCET, PALAI

 The alternative contrast mechanisms of NMR provide promising possibilities of

 Unlike CT, NMR imaging requires no moving parts, gantries or sophisticated

known as the Larmor frequency.