Cell structure

Light and electron microscopes allow us to see inside cells. Plant, animal and bacterial cells
have smaller components each with a specific function.

Light Microscope

We need microscopes to study most cells. Microscopes are used to produce magnified images.
There are two main types of microscope:

 light microscopes are used to study living cells and for regular use when relatively low
magnification and resolution is enough
 electron microscopes provide higher magnifications and higher resolution images but
cannot be used to view living cells

How have light microscopes developed?

Glass was developed by the Romans in the first century. Since then, scientists have been trying
to magnify objects. No-one knows who first invented the microscope, but there have been key
stages in their development:

1590s: Dutch spectacle maker Janssen experimented with putting lenses in tubes. He made the
first compound microscope. None of these microscopes have survived, but they are thought to
have magnified from ×3 to ×9.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's first microscope

1650s: British scientist, Robert Hooke (also famous for his law of elasticity in Physics) observed
and drew cells using a compound microscope.

Late 1600s: Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek constructed a microscope with a single
spherical lens. It magnified up to ×275.

The optical quality of lenses increased and the microscopes are similar to the ones we use
today. Throughout their development, the magnification of light microscopes has increased,
but very high magnifications are not possible. The maximum magnification of a light microscope
is around x2000. However, most of the microscopes that are used in schools can only reach
x400 magnification.

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Components of light microscopes

The components of a light microscope and their functions

Calculating the magnification of light microscopes

The compound microscope uses two lenses to magnify the specimen: the eyepiece and an
objective lens.

In most microscopes, there is a choice of objectives to use. Magnification can therefore be

varied, according to the size of the specimen to be viewed and the level of detail required.

The magnification of a lens is shown by a multiplication sign followed by the amount the lens
magnifies. So a lens magnifying ten times would be ×10. The total magnification of a
microscope is:

Magnification of the microscope = magnification of eyepiece × magnification of objective

So, if the magnification of an eyepiece is ×10 and the objective is ×4, the magnification of the
microscope is:

Magnification of eyepiece × magnification of objective = 10 × 4 = 40

Question

If the magnification of an eyepiece is ×10 and the objective is ×40, what is the
magnification of the microscope? ×400. Because 10 × 40 = 400.

Calculating the magnification of an image

Microscopes use lenses to magnify the image of a specimen so that it appears larger.

The formula to calculate magnification is:

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The same formula shown in a magnification triangle:

The real size of the cell shown above is 0.05 mm (= 50 μm).

In a book, a photomicrograph of the cell measured 100 mm.

To calculate the magnification:

It is important to work in the same units when calculating magnification.

Sizes of most cells are given in micrometres, symbol μm.

Calculating the magnification, working in micrometres:

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Suggested practical - preparing light microscope slides

Aims

To prepare and stain cells for examination with a light microscope.

Method for animal cells - human cheek cells

Method for plant cells - onion

epidemal cells

A small square or circle of thin glass called a coverslip is placed over the specimen. It prevents
the slide from drying out when it's being examined. Iodine stain can be used to stain plant cells
to make the internal structures more visible.

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Most cells are colourless. Stains are used to add contrast. Certain stains are also used to stain
specific cell structures or cell products.

With cheek cells the stain methylene blue can be used. This stains the nucleus blue.

Risks

 Care must be taken when looking down the microscope if the illumination is too bright.
 Care when using microscope stains.
 Care when handling coverslips and microscope slides.

Electron microscopes

The limits of the light microscope

The magnification of a microscope is not the only factor that is important when viewing cells.
The detail that can be seen, or resolution, is also important.

The ability to see greater detail in an image depends on the resolution or resolving power. This
is the ability to see two points as two points, rather than merged into one. Think about a digital
photo. It can be enlarged, but over a certain size, you won’t be able to see any more detail.

The resolution of a light microscope is around 0.2 μm, or 200 nm. This means that it cannot
distinguish two points closer than 200 nm. One nm, or nanometre, is one billionth of a metre.
This is written as or in standard form as 1 × 10−9 m.

The electron microscope

Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of beams or rays of light.

Living cells cannot be observed using an electron microscope because samples are placed in a
vacuum.

There are two types of electron microscope:

 the transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to examine thin slices or sections of
cells or tissues

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  the scanning electron microscope (SEM) has a large depth of field so can be used to
examine the surface structure of specimens

TEMs have a maximum magnification of around ×1,000,000, but images can be enlarged
beyond that photographically. The limit of resolution of a TEM is now less than 1 nm. The TEM
has revealed structures in cells that are not visible with the light microscope.

SEMs are often used at lower magnifications (up to ×30,000). The limit of resolution of a SEM is
lower than that of a TEM (approximately 50 nm).

Maths - quantitative units

When writing and working with very large or very small numbers, we use standard form.
Standard form shows the size of numbers as powers of ten.
Standard from numbers are written as:
A × 10n
where: A is a number greater than 1 but less than 10 and n is the index or power.

We use standard form with:

Use Example

Large numbers A population of 120,000,000 microorganisms could be written as 1.2 × 10 8

A red blood cell's diameter of 7 μm or 0.000007 m could be written as 7 × 10 −6

Small numbers
m

Calculations When multiplying: add powers. When dividing: subtract powers.

Four small numbers you need to know:

1. milli (10−3) 0.001

2. micro (10−6) 0.000001
3. nano (10−9) 0.000000001
4. pico (10−12) 0.000000000001

Maths - number, size and scale

Comparing sizes

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We can compare size using a straightforward calculation.
For instance, the length of a leaf cell is ten times the diameter of a red blood cell.
That is:

In scientific calculations it is essential to remember that you must work in the same units. In the
calculation above both measurements are in micrometres. However in the calculation below it
is much easier if both values are shown in the same units. So 1 micrometre is converted into
1000 nanometres.

When comparing the size of a bacterium with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV):

The length of the bacterium = 1 μm = 1000 nm.

The diameter of the HIV = 100 nm.

The length of the bacterium is = 10 times that of the virus.

Question
What is the width of a cheek cell compared with a Salmonella bacterium?

Order of magnitude

When two numbers are similar, we say they have the same order of magnitude.

Differences in size can be described as differences in order of magnitude. The difference is often
calculated in factors of 10.

If you increase a number by one order of magnitude, you are multiplying the number by 10.

For example, we would say that the numbers 200 and 300 are of the same order of magnitude
whereas the numbers 200 and 2000 are of different orders of magnitude.

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200 and 300 are both in the magnitude of 102 whereas 2000 is in the magnitude of 103.

If you decrease a number by one order of magnitude, you are dividing the number by 10, or
multiplying by 0.1.

For instance, there is a one order of magnitude difference between a person 2 m tall, and an
oak tree, 20 m tall.

The person's height = 2 m = 2 × 100

The oak tree's height = 20 m = 2 × 101

The oak tree is approximately 10 times bigger than the person. We can also say this as there is
an order of magnitude between the height of a human being (2 m) and the height of an oak
tree (20 m).

When comparing orders of magnitude, actual distances can be approximated. It's the relative
difference that is important.

How to convert between different scientific units

Unit How many in a metre? In standard form

Centimetre 100 1/100 or 1 × 10−2
Millimetre 1000 1/1000 or 1 × 10−3
Micrometre 1 000 000 1/1 000 000 or 1 × 10−6
Nanometre 1 000 000 000 1/1 000 000 000 or 1 × 10−9

Centimetres are odd units in they don't fit the pattern of reducing in size by 1000 each time.
There are one thousand micrometres in one millimetre, and one thousand nanometres in one
micrometre.

Core practical 1 - analysing biological specimens using microscopes

Investigating biological specimens using microscopes

Aims

 To use a light microscope to examine animal and/or plant cells.

 To make observations and draw scale diagrams of cells.

Method

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Risks
 Care must be taken when looking down the microscope that the illumination is not too
bright as eye damage could be caused.
 Care when using microscope stains as some are harmful.
 Care when handling coverslips and microscope slides as broken glass could cut skin.

Drawing the image

A low power magnification is used to show the arrangement of cells in a tissue. This includes
regions of the tissue but not individual cells.

A diagram of the slide under high power will be a detailed image of a part of the specimen
which shows individual cells.

Measuring cell size

Cell size can be measured using an eyepiece graticule, which is a glass or plastic disc fitted into
the eyepiece. The graticule has a scale ruled on it.

You must find out the distance measured for each division of the graticule. You can then use
the graticule to measure cells. The distance will be different for each objective.

To do this, you will use a stage micrometer. This is a glass slide etched with an accurate scale on
it. You will use this to calibrate the eyepiece graticule. Once it's calibrated, you can use the
eyepiece graticule every time you use the microscope.

1. Place a stage micrometer on the stage of the microscope.

2. Line up one of the divisions on the eyepiece graticule with a fixed point on the stage
micrometer.
3. Count the number of divisions on the eyepiece graticule that correspond with a set
measurement on the stage micrometer.
4. Calculate the distance in micrometres of one division on the eyepiece graticule.

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61 − 10 = 51 divisions on the eyepiece graticule are equivalent to 250 μm on the stage
micrometer.

1 division on the eyepiece graticule is equivalent to 250/51 μm on the stage micrometer:

= 4.9 μm (to two significant figures)

Using the calibrated eyepiece graticule to measure a cell:

The width of the cell shown = 52 − 40 = 12 eyepiece graticule divisions.

The real width of the cell is 12 × 4.9 μm = 59 μm (to two significant figures).

Question

What would be the length of a plant cell, to two significant figures, that was 35 divisions
on this graticule?

70 μm

Each eyepiece graticule division is 4.9 μm

The real width of the cell is 35 × 4.9 μm = 171.5 μm

To two significant figures, this is 170 μm

Question

How many graticule divisions would a single celled organism that was 240 μm take up?

49

Each graticule division is 4.9 μm

An organism that measured 240 μm would take up

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divisions = 49 divisions

Animal cells

Animals are made up of cells. These cells are eukaryotic. This means they have a nucleus and
other structures which are surrounded by membranes.

A generalised animal cell and its components

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are visible with a light microscope but can't be seen in
detail. Ribosomes are only visible with an electron microscope. Preparing cheek cell slides to
view using a light microscope is described in page 6 of this guide.

Cell structure How it is related to its function.

A jelly-like material that contains dissolved nutrients and salts and structures
Cytoplasm
called organelles. It is where many of the chemical reactions happen.

Nucleus Contains genetic material, including DNA, which controls the cell's activities.

Cell It is permeable to some substances but not to others and so controls the
membrane movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Organelles that contains the enzymes for respiration, and where most energy is
Mitochondria
released in respiration.

Ribosomes Tiny structures where protein synthesis occurs.

Most cells are specialised and are adapted for their function. Animals and plants therefore
consist of many different types of cell working together.

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Plant cells

Plants are made up of cells. These cells are eukaryotic. This means they have a nucleus and
other structures which are surrounded by membranes.

A generalised plant cell and its components.

Animal and plant cells have certain structures in common: the nucleus, cell
membrane,mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have some additional structures:

Structure How it is related to its function

Organelle that contains the green pigment, chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Chloroplast
energy for photosynthesis. Contains the enzymes needed for photosynthesis.
Plant and bacterial cell walls provide structure and protection. Only plant cell
Cell wall
walls are made from cellulose.
Permanent
Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell swollen.
vacuole

Animal cells may also have vacuoles, but these are small and temporary.

Bacterial cells

Bacteria are all single- celled. The cells are all

prokaryotic. This means they do not have a
nucleus or any other structures which are
surrounded by membranes. Larger
bacterial cells may be visible using a light

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microscope, however an electron microscope would be needed to see the details of the cell
organelles.

Plant and animal cells have some components in common with bacterial cells. These include the
cytoplasm and cell membrane. Bacteria have other components that are unique:

Structure How it is related to its function

Chromosomal The DNA of bacterial cells is found loose in the cytoplasm. It is called
DNA chromosomal DNA and is not contained within a nucleus.
Bacteria also have small, closed-circles of DNA called plasmids present in their
Plasmid DNA cytoplasm. Unlike the chromosomal DNA, plasmid DNA can move from one
bacterium to another giving variation.
Bacteria can have one or more flagella (singular: flagellum). These can rotate
Flagella
or move in a whip-like motion to move the bacterium.
Plant and bacterial cell walls provide structure and protection. Only plant cell
Cell wall
walls are made from cellulose.

Bacteria are amongst the simplest of organisms. Their cells do not divide by mitosis. Instead
they copy themselves by binary fission. The process is similar, but we use a different name for it
because prokaryotic bacteria are very different from other eukaryotic plant and animal cells.

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells can be compared:

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 Eukaryotic cell (plant and animal
Feature Prokaryotic cell (bacterial cell)
cell)
Size Most are 5 μm – 100 μm Most are 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm
Outer layers Cell membrane. Surrounded by cell
Cell membrane. Surrounded by cell wall.
of cell wall in plants and fungi.
Cytoplasm. Cell organelles include
Cell Cytoplasm. Ribosomes present. There are no
mitochondria, chloroplasts in plants
contents mitochondria or chloroplasts.
and ribosomes.
DNA in a nucleus. Plasmids are DNA is a single molecule, found free in the
Genetic
found in a few simple eukaryotic cytoplasm. Additional DNA is found on one
material
organisms. or more rings called plasmids.
Type of cell
Mitosis Binary fission
division

Specialised animal cells

There are many different types of cells in animals. Each type is specialised to do a particular
role. These ensure that the organism functions as a whole.

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References:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zg9mk2p/revision/5

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