Dairy and Beef cattle Breeding

Breeding methods
Selection Programmes
(i) Selection within breed:
Phenotypic selection
Involves identification of individual superior genotypes of a trait or more and multiplying
them in the next generation. This method of breed improvement is appropriate for traits with
high degree of heritability and when culling rate (intensity of selection) and the variability of
the trait is very high
Table: Heritability of traits of dairy cattle:
Trait Heritability Trait Heritability
Milk yield 0.2-0.3 Mature weight 0.4-0.6
Milk fat yield 0.2-0.3 Wither height 0.4-0.6
Protein yield 0.2-0.3 Heat tolerance 0.0-0.2
Total solids yield 0.2-0.3 Conception rate 0.0-0.1
Milk fat percentage 0.5-0.6 Reproductive efficiency 0.0-0.1
Protein percentage 0.5-0.6 Calving interval 0.0-0.2
Persistency 0.3-0.5 Life span 0.1-0.3
Peak milk yield 0.2-0.4 Feed efficiency 0.3-0.4
Milking rate (peak or average flow) 0.3-0.6 Mastitis resistance 0.2-0.3
Gestation length 0.3-0.5 Overall type score 0.1-0.3
Birth weight (non-maternal) 0.3-0.5 Dairy character score 0.1-0.3
Weaning weight 0.25-0.30 Post-weaning daily gain 0.40-0.55
Weaning conformation score 0.2-0.25 Yearling weight 0.50-0.55
Post-weaning feed conversion 0.35-0.40 Final feedlot weight 0.50-0.55
Dressing percentage 0.35-0.40 Tenderness score 0.50-0.60

The presence of many important traits necessitates the consideration of the association
between the different traits while selecting for a single trait.
Milk yield, fat yield, and protein yield are genetically fairly closely related (high and
positive genetic correlations). However, there is a genetic negative correlation between milk
yield and fat percentage and milk yield and protein percentage.

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Selection procedures in developed countries

The two major selection procedures used in ruminant livestock are:

(i) Performance testing: It is used for characters of high heritability and easily
measured in both sexes, e.g. growth rate.
(ii) Progeny testing: For characters that have a low heritability or are measurable in
only one sex (e.g. milk yield) or after slaughter (e.g. carcass quality), when based on
adequate information, gives an accurate estimate of breeding value and is therefore
preferred when an animal is to be used widely for breeding as in AI.
 Information on other relatives is often used as a selection aid, particularly in
choosing young males for progeny testing, e.g. dairy cattle. For this purpose, the
information that is most valuable is that of the sire and dam.
 The gain in accuracy by using information from ancestors further back in the
pedigree is relatively small
Testing stations:

 Animals from different herds are assembled in testing stations and measured under a
uniform environment.
 The influence of the herd environment is therefore minimized and the population under
comparison is vastly increased. .
 Testing stations can be used either for performance testing, e.g. growth rate, or for
progeny testing, e.g. milk yield.
Progeny testing schemes:

Its accuracy depends on:

 Having a large progeny group per sire.

 When each sire has equal number of progeny in each of the herds under
experimentation.
 The scheme usually operates by having a central station from where semen of the
different sires on test is distributed to a network of AI centers which carry out the
inseminations.

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(iii) Nucleus or group breeding scheme:

 This scheme is based on the principle that in each herd there is a small number of
genetically very superior animals which if brought together will form a nucleus
whose average genetic merit is far greater than that in any of the contributing herds
(Nicoll, 1976).
 The important element in this scheme is therefore for a group of farmers to agree to
pool their high performing animals.
 Once the nucleus herd is assembled, an efficient system of recording and selection is
implemented.
 The best males are kept for breeding in the nucleus while other selected males are
given to the base herds for breeding.
 By this means, improvements are quickly spread throughout the group.
 The nucleus may remain open to animals from the base herds, the best females from
the latter being admitted periodically and compared with those in the nucleus.
 Usually, only females are transferred from the base to the nucleus since sire selection
will not be practicable in base herds due to managerial reasons.
 The main advantage in the nucleus scheme is that the genetic superiority of sire
replacements coming into the base herds from the nucleus is far greater than what is
achievable in each of the base herds.
 It is particularly attractive in situations where within-herd selection programmes are
ineffective due to small population size or inadequate technical skill.

Dairy Cattle Breeding

Disadvantages/ Problems:
1. One of the disadvantages with the dairy cow, in attempts to make genetic
progress, is that most of the economically important traits can be measured only
in the female.
2. Another disadvantage is that heritabilities are low or close to zero in several
cases. Zero heritability would mean that no genetic change could be expected
from usual selection techniques.

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Selection programs in dairy cattle:

The importance of selection programmes in tropical breeds. The performance of most

indigenous breeds shows:
Late age at maturity,
Short lactation, long dry period,
Low average daily milk yield and
Lack of dairy temperament.
Most of these characters are expressed even under conditions of improved husbandry, thus
demonstrating that poor productivity is attributable to low genetic merit. Breeding schemes
to raise their genetic potential are therefore fully justified.
In formulating a breeding programme for dairy cattle in the tropics, the ultimate objectives
of the programme and the environment and production system under which these
objectives are to be realized should be defined. Thus, the objectives should clarify whether
it is milk alone or milk and beef or milk and draught or all three that are to be improved.
Further, depending on market demands, the importance to compositional quality should
also be clarified.
Similarly, the production system, which can range from nomadism through small herds to
large commercial farms, will determine the importance given to adaptation traits,
particularly those concerned with disease resistance and reproduction.
The maximum rate of genetic gain in milk yield achievable by selection even in temperate
breeds is of the order of 2.0 percent per annum.
This low rate of improvement has discouraged implementation of selection schemes for
indigenous breeds, since the overall increase in production attainable by selection in cows
yielding 500–1 000 kg is not of any great magnitude
It should, however, be recalled that even European breeds were as unproductive as the
tropical breeds before the application of selection programmes and it is the application of
planned selection programmes that has brought the advance that we see today.
Since the techniques for genetic improvement are even more developed today than when
they were first used on European cattle, it is possible that similar achievements could be
made in tropical dairy breeds.

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Where positive selection efforts have been made to improve tropical breeds, the results
have been encouraging.
Annual genetic gains of approx. 2.5 % of the herd mean yield have been reported by in
Haryana (zebu) cattle in India and in Australian Milking Zebu (Jersey x zebu cross).
The high rate of genetic gain in both populations was partly attributed to the high
coefficient of variation for milk yield in the populations, which is characteristic of most
dairy cattle in the tropics.
It is also clear that, in populations that failed to show significant gains, it was the inefficient
selection procedures that were responsible, e.g. East African zebu.

Selection in institutional herds in the tropics:

Institutional herds have an important role in the tropics since these may be the only herds
where genetic improvement of indigenous stock can be carried out.
Institutional facilities are also necessary in selection programmes for exotic breeds which
are required in pure or crossbreeding programmes.
Artificial insemination should be employed for breeding even in institutional herds so that
large sire progeny groups are obtained for accurate progeny tests.
Where the institutional herd is too small, it is necessary to enlist the support of the
progressive farmers in the area to participate in the progeny testing scheme.
In situations where only natural mating can be employed, progeny testing loses much of its
efficiency since the number of bulls required is so large that the selection intensity as well
as the accuracy of the test are much reduced.
Selection of bulls on their dams' records will then be equally efficient provided that bulls
are replaced annually to minimize the generation interval (Buvanendran, 1981).
The breeding plan given below is based on the description by Meyn and Wilkins (1974)
whose schematic diagram is also reproduced in Figure 4.1.
 The herd consists of about 500 cows.
 Breeding is done by AI with semen from the best two progeny tested bulls.
 Female selection is almost entirely on milk yield during the first two lactations.
 About 50 percent of the heifers that enter the milking herd annually are culled at the
end of the first lactation and a further 50 percent after the second lactation.

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 Thus only 25 percent of the heifers freshening annually are kept to the third and
higher parities/ lactations.
 These animals constitute the elite herd consisting of about 180 animals.
 They are bred only by progeny tested bulls while the balance of the herd (320
animals) consisting of heifers and first calvers is used for progeny testing young bulls.
 Figure- Breeding plan at the National Sahiwal Stud, Naivasha, Kenya. (Source:
Meyn and Wilkins, 1974)

 Bulls are selected from among those born in the elite herd.
 They are first performance tested for growth rate on pasture to 2 years of age and 15
bulls(out of the 70 born annually) are chosen on an index that combines growth rate
with dam's milk yield.
 A further five animals are removed for poor physical conformation and semen
quality and the remaining 10 are progeny tested.
 They are bred to females outside the elite group (about 320 animals) and each bull
is evaluated on the first lactation yields of about 14 daughters.
 The best two bulls are chosen for use in the elite herd and national AI scheme.
 The genetic progress with this type of programme is estimated at 3–4 % per year.

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Selection in new breed formation

• In programmes involving crossing of exotic and indigenous stocks for developing a

new breed, selection has an important role to play after the initial crossings are made to
establish the desired gene pool.
Traits of Economic Importance in Dairy Cattle:

1. Reproduction
2. Milk production
3. Butter fat production
4. Type
5. Productive life span

1. Reproduction:
 Normal and regular reproduction in dairy cows is of great importance, because the
lactation begins when a calf is born.
 The h2 and repeatability estimates for fertility are very low in both dairy and beef cattle.
 The low estimate indicate that most of the variations observed in fertility are due to
environment and selection to improve this trait would not be effective.
 The greatest improvement within herd would come from proper attention to
environmental factors such as nutrition, management and disease control.
 Includes; AFC, SP, NS/C, CI, LP, GP, Dry period

2. Milk and butterfat production:

 Improvement of milk and butterfat production has received the most attention by the
breeders.
 Breeds have been developed which differ significantly in the amount of milk and
butterfat production.
 These breed difference strongly suggest a genetic control of both milk and butterfat
production.
 Heritability and repeatability estimates of milk and butterfat production are medium
to high, suggesting that selection for these traits should show improvement.
 Selection for butterfat percentage should be effective, since h 2 of this trait is in
between 0.60 to 0.65

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 Records of M.Y. and Butterfat Yield should be adjusted for the following factors at
the time of comparision:
1. 305 - day lactation period
2. Mature Equivalent (i.e. for A.F.C.)

3. Two times a day milking

4. Correction factors recommended in a particular area may be obtained or

C.F. may be debveloped and used

5. Since breeds of dairy cattle differ in amount of milk and butterfat %, they
produce Milk Yield should be adjusted to 4% butterfat basis for comparison as
follows:
Fat Corrected Milk (at 4%) = (0.4 x Milk) + (15 x Fat)
For example:- If a cow produced 12000 lbs of milk of 3.5% fat, containing 420lbs of fat,
4% Equivalent record will be
FCM (4%) = (12000x 0.4) + ( 420 x 15)
= 4800 + 6300 = 11100 lbs.
3. Productive lifespan:
• This is another important economic trait
• Average productive life of dairy cow in a herd maintained mostly by purchased
replacements was 3.9 years after entering at 2 years of age and where the replacement
were home raised this was 4.7 years.
• The replacement/ disposal was 58% due to udder trouble, low production, and
reproductive disorders.
• The h2 of longevity in HF was 0.37 and of BE 0.32
• The association between productive lifespan and breeding efficiency was low and
insignificant.
4. Type and Conformation in dairy cattle:

• Type in dairy cattle is about 25% heritable and moderate progress can be made in
selection for improvement of this trait.

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Genetic Correlation among productive traits.

• There is strong relationship between M.Y. and butterfat yield, with an average value of
0.81 suggesting that many similar genes affect both traits and intensive selection for
one should bring improvement in other trait. This is desirable +ve rg.
• The genetic correlation between M.Y. and fat% was negative and averaged o.41,
suggesting that the genes responsible for high M.Y. cause lower fat % in the milk
• There is very low rg between fat yield and fat%
Selection of superior dairy cows:

• Dairy cows produce a limited number of progenies in their life time because of their
productive life span is short and their reproductive rate is slow (one calf/yr). For this
reason it is not possible to make much improvement through selection over a period of
years by placing emphasis on selection of cows for higher production.
• But it is important to determine the productivity of each cow in the herd for milk and
butterfat yield by determining her records on a 305 day LP, ME, 2xa day milking basis.
• Cows with poor records may be culled, which tend to raise the average production of
entire herd.
• Replacement stock may then be selected from the most highly productive cows that are
genetically superior, using selection indices.
• Prospective herd sire should also be selected from superior dams.
Selection of cows for future production:

• The superiority due to the cows own ability will tend to be repeated in subsequent
lactation according to the repeatability of the trait.
• Thus it involves the prediction of most probable producing ability (MPPA) of each
cow, using the repeatability as follows.
• When single record is available:
MPPA = Herd Av. + r (Cow Av.- Herd Av.)
• When Several records are available:
MPPA = Herd Av. + nr/ 1+ (n-1)r ( Cow Av.- Herd Av.)

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Selection of bulls for milk yield:

• The procedures used in selection for milk yield involve progeny testing.
• Testing of bulls is, however, not possible in the early generations of new breed formation
(F1 or backcross depending on the composition of the new breed, since young bulls are
required to mate with heifers of their own age and generation.
• Further, from a genetic view point, selection should commence only after segregation and
recombination of the gene combinations of the parental breeds have occurred.
• The opportunity for this to happen will arise after inter se mating starts.
• Progeny testing of bulls should therefore commence with bulls born after this stage.
Selection for Adaptability traits:

• Selection for adaptability traits should wherever possible proceed simultaneously with
improvement for milk yield.
• Measurements for these traits may, however, have to be limited to experimental herds
because of the facilities required.
• Young bulls can be first screened for heat tolerance and tick resistance and then selected.

Selection programs in the absence of either AI or milk recording or both

• In the absence of AI and milk recording programmes, institutional herds offer the only
opportunity to carry out recording and selection.
• Cunningham (1979) has proposed a kind of open nucleus breeding scheme that may be
suitable for this situation.
• The plan operates around a central herd which should preferably be under government
control and carry out proper recording and breeding practices.
• The supporting base population is the village herds which provide cows to replace about
10 percent of the cows in the central herd annually.
• Selection from village herds will be by simple procedures involving judgement by eye,
milking ability, size, conformation and condition.
• Wherever feasible, test milking may also be done.
• The selection of these animals will be done by officers who would tour many villages to
select the best animals from as wide a population as possible.

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Figure: Open nucleus breeding scheme (Cunningham, 1979)

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Selection programs in beef cattle:

Background

• Selection of beef animals was practised in developed countries even before the
genetic mechanisms of growth were known.
• In the early days, selection was based on visual appraisal (type and conformation
score) for desirable growth and carcass characteristics and was directed towards stocky,
early maturing animals.
• This resulted in an increase in the ability of the animals to fatten at younger ages
but there was no increase in growth rate or efficiency.
• In the last few decades, selection has been intensified for growth characteristics,
chiefly on the basis of performance tests

Traits of Economic Importance in Beef cattle:

• Reproductive efficiency
• Weight of calves at weaning
• Rate and efficiency of gain in feed lot
• Weight at one year of age
• Type and Size
• Carcass desirability
• Freedom from inherited defects
• Longevity
Reproductive efficiency:

• Reproductive efficiency is defined here as the pounds of calf weaned per cow
exposed to the bull during the breeding season.
This trait depends upon many factors such as-
(i) Conception rate – Low h2 and repeatabilty
(ii) Service period – low h2 and repeatabilty
(iii)Calving interval – low h2and repeatabilty
(iv) Survival to weaning

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 (v) Weight of the calf at weaning
• Both heredity and environment play an important role in breeding efficiency in beef
cattle and attention to both is necessary for profitable beef production.
• The ability to wean a heavy calf each year is important because a cow that does not
wean a calf eats almost as much feed as one does and she yields nothing.
• Within a herd the cost per calf weaned is strongly dependent upon the percentage
calf crop weaned
(i) Conception rate:
 It is one of the first phases of breeding efficiency
 It is lowly heritable ( 0 to 10%)- suggesting most of the variation in the trait is due to
environmental factors and non-additive gene action since it can be improved by out
breeding or crossbreeding
Environmental factors which lower conception rate in beef cows include
(i) disease,
(ii) poor nutrition, ( but fatness also be avoided)
(iii) injuries to reproductive tract and
(iv) exposure to bull of low fertility.
For good conception rate the following should be done:
• Cows should be checked for reproductive disease
• Should be fed an adequate ration ( but avoid fatness)
• Bull should be fertility tested before breeding season.
• Cows should be regularly observed for estrus till she conceives
(ii) Service period:-

• Trait has low h2 and repeatability and can be improved by improving the feeding and
management of the cows and bull
(iii) Calving interval –

 This trait has low h2and repeatabilty.

 This indicates that the effects of additive gene action on this trait are small and that
most variations are due to environment or non-additive genes
 This can be reduced by improving (reducing) the service period through good
management of the herd.

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(v) Survival to weaning and weight of the calf at weaning:
 These two traits are important factors in beef production.
 These traits depend more on the milk production of the cow and to a lesser extent on
the ability of the calf to make fast and efficient gains
 Heritability of weaning weight in beef calves is 30 – 35%, suggesting that the trait is
affected to a certain extent by additive gene action, but to a larger extent by
environmental factors
 Weaning weight is 40 – 45% repeatable. This means that the weaning weight of the
first calf from a cow is good indication of the weaning weight of her later calves.
 Culling heifers or cows that wean light calves will tend to improve the overall average
of the herd in later years with other factors remaining equal.
• The fact that the repeatability estimates average higher than the h2 estimate indicates
that the maternal influence of the cow is an important source of variation in the
weaning weight of the calves. This may be due to good prenatal ( embryo) and post
natal ( after birth) nutrition. .
• Weaning weight of calves may be used to evaluate the milk production level and
mothering ability of cows in a herd, and the difference in the growing ability of the
calves.
• Weaning weight is affected by factors like age of the dam, age of the calf at weaning
and sex of the calf and thus data on weaning weight should be adjusted for all these
factors at the time of evaluation.
• A standard weaning age of 205 days is recommended for beef calves and if it is not
practically practiced then records should be adjusted as follows:
Actual weaning wt. – birth wt.
Adj. 205 day wt. = (--------------------------------------) x 205 + B.WT.
Actual age in days
The producer may develop the factors to adjust the weaning weight for sex difference and
age of the dam.
• The MPPA of female farm animals may be computed for ranking of the beef cows with
different records for 205-day weaning weight of their calves using the following MPPA
formula

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 MPPA = Herd Av. + {nr / ( 1+(n-1)r } ( Cow Av. – Herd Av)

3. Rate and efficiency of gain in feed lot:

• The ability to make fast and efficient gains in the feed lot is an important trait in beef –
cattle production.
• The ability to make fast and efficient gain in feed lot is highly heritable trait.
• Therefore, bull calves that make fast gains should sire calves that make fast gains
under the same conditions.
• This has led to the feeding of bull calves under standard period and conditions for
performance testing of bull calves to asses their inherent ability.
• A strong correlation exist between the ability to make rapid gains and the ability to
make efficient gains in feed lot suggesting that bulls selected for rapid gains are likely
to make efficient gains
4. Weight at one year of age:

• Yearling weight is a trait that is of value for selection of both heifers and bull
replacements for the breeding herd.
• It is particularly valuable for heifers grown under practical conditions on the farm or
ranch where they are not full fed.
• If weights were not recorded at 365 day then records should be adjusted at 365 day for
comparison.

5. Type and Size:

• Type means the body form and structure supposed to be ideal for the purpose for which
animal is reared.
• Type is estimated by visual appraisal and can not be measured by scale or tape but can
be scored.
• Type score is generally taken at weaning time and for bulls at the end of feeding period
when they have been on test.
• A potentially large mature size of cattle in the feed lot may be economically desirable
as the calves with a large size potential will tend to gain faster and probably more
efficiently and will tend to produce lean and less fat at slaughter.

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 • Medium sized cow with superior milk producing and mothering ability should be used
for calf production to minimize the maintenance cost.
6. Carcass desirability:

• Carcass desirability was being assessed by the quantity and quality of meat
produced at slaughter and it was only possible after slaughtering the animal.
• Selection for improved carcass desirability was based on progeny or sib tests.
• Now a days carcass desirability in live animal can be assessed using some ultrasonic
devices and by visual appraisal.
7. Freedom from inherited defects:
• Certain inherited defects that interfere with performance and fertility are
probably inherited as recessive traits and will be of no great significance unless the
heterozygote is preferred in selection.
8. Longevity:

• This is another trait on economic importance to the cattle breeder.

• It is desirable that cows have a long ,productive life span in the herd to produce more
offsprings in her life.
• The av. generation interval( Anerage age at the time their calves are born) for beef
cows was found 4.6 years.
• Little is known about the h2 of the trait and automatic selection has been practiced for
this trait.
Genetic Correlations:
• Most of the genetic correlations among the performance traits of beef cattle are
desirable and no antagonism is reported.
Heritability and repeatability estimates in percent (Approx. Range) for various economic
traits in beef cattle.
_________________________________________________________-_
Trait h2 (%) Repeatyability
Conception rate 0 -10 0 -10
Calving interval 0 - 10 0 -10
Length of gestation 30 - 40 20 -30
Birth weight 30 - 40 20 - 30
Weaning weight 30-35 40-45
Weaning score 25 - 30

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Post weaning rate of gain 50 - 55
Yearling weight 50 - 55
Post weaning efficiency of gain 35 - 40
Slaughter grade 40 - 45
Dressing % 35 - 40
Carcass grade 45 - 50
Fat thickness 30 - 35
Loin eye area 55 - 60
Tenderness 50 - 60
Marbelling 40 - 45

The breeding programmes in developed countries have as their chief objective,

(i) The improvement of growth rate,

(ii) Feed conversion and
(iii) Carcass quality.

• The heritabilities of these characters are relatively high and therefore individual
performance testing is used, sometimes combined with sib testing for characters that can
be measured only after slaughter

Important traits for tropical beef cattle

The most important trait required is:
1. Adaptability: The ability to survive and reproduce under the total impact of heat, parasites,
infectious diseases, periodic malnutrition and shortage of water. in this environment.
• Thus, the indigenous breeds of beef cattle which possess some of these characteristics
will have to be relied on to make the major contribution to beef production.
• Among the important adaptability traits of tropical breeds are disease resistance qualities
and to resist tick infestations
• the tolerance shown by certain African breeds such as the N'Dama to trypanosomiasis are
well documented
2. Fertility: this trait is very important not only in the economics of beef production but
also in genetic improvement because of its influence on selection intensity
• Though, the heritability of the various measures of reproduction is low, rigid culling to
eliminate animals with low fertility has improved fertility in zebu cattle
3. Mothering ability: Mothering ability is an important trait as it determines survival rate

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 and preweaning growth rate of the calf.
• Increased milk yield may increase weaning weight but it may be detrimental to the
overall economics of beef productivity if the subsequent conception of the cow is
delayed
• To avoid such problem a cow index combining reproductive rate, calf survival and
weaning weight may be preferred for selection.
4. Growth rate:
• Selection for growth-rate is usually done on the basis of the final weight at a constant
age such as 18 or 24 months.
• The problem of concurrent increase in mature size consequent to selection for growth
rate is equally applicable to tropical cattle, this can be minimized by selection on the
basis of relative growth rate (RGR).
• It is measured as the daily gain relative to the average size over the time interval tested
• Where Ln denotes the natural logarithm of weight W at time 1 (t1) or time 2 (t2).
5. Longevity:
• The length of productive life is important since the relative cost of raising a calf
decreases with the increase in its productive life

• However, as selection for longevity increases generation interval, males may be

selected at younger ages on their own structural soundness and the longevity of close
relatives.
Selection programmes in the tropics:
• A clear definition of the environment in which offspring of the selected populations are
expected to perform is necessary because of a wide variations in nutritional level and
environment in beef cattle production systems which can range from grazing on natural
grasslands to feedlot fattening and there may be significant G x E interaction.
• A practical approach when the environment cannot be defined, would be to select
animals on a moderate plane of nutrition. This may be grazing on natural or improved
pasture during the rainy season and minimum supplementation with conserved forages
during the dry season.

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 • Genetic improvement programmes similar to those used in developed countries are
suitable in the tropics if the herds are large and facilities for performance recording are
available.
• However, in most cases, either herd sizes are too small or where they are large,
recording may be impossible, e.g. nomadic herds.
CROSSBREEDING
• Crossbreeding refers to mating parents of two or more different breeds.
• In the tropics the use of temperate dairy breeds for crossbreeding with indigenous
breeds has been widely accepted aiming at combining the superior performance in M.Y.
of specialized dairy breeds with the superior adaptability of the local stock / btrreds.
Importance of crossbreeding dairy cattle breeding:
• In temperate climate, C.B. for improved milk yield has less significance.
• However, for non-milk traits like disease resistance, it is an important breeding method.
• However, in tropical regions, where indigenous animals have less potential for milk
yield, C.B. is a very important breeding method to improve M.Y. of dairy animals
Effects of crossbreeding
1. The average breed effect of crossbred individuals is often an average of parental breed
effects.
2. Crossbred individuals often exhibit heterosis: they perform better than the average
of their parent breeds.
a). The percentage of increase in performance differs markedly between traits,
species, and the breed or line involved. The more diverse the parent breeds are, the
greater the heterosis will be.
b). Heterosis for production traits is usually in the range of 0-10%
c). Heterosis for traits related to fertility is usually in the range of 5-25%.
3. The adoption of a crossbreeding policy provides the opportunity to make full use of all
available genetic resources (breed complementarity).
No breed of cattle is perfect; thus crossbreeding allows the opportunity to mix breeds to
create a breed mix that is more ideal than any of the parent breeds would have been.

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The genetic basis of crossbreeding effects
The genetic basis of crossbreeding effects can be divided into two:
• Additive and
• Non-additive:
(i) The additive genetic effect is due to the averaging of merit in the parental lines or breeds,
with simple weighting according to level of representation of each parental line in the crossbred
genotype.
(ii) The non-additive genetic effect of crossbreeding is heterosis. This is the amount by which
merit in crossbred deviates from the additive component. Heterosis is usually attributed to
genetic interactions within loci (dominance) and interactions between loci (epistasis).
• However, the delicate balance between genetic performance ability and adaptability is
determined by the degree of exotic inheritance.
• Many reports on the performance of crossbred cattle indicated that crossbreeding
results in a performance improvement only until 50% inheritance of Bos taurus genes.
• Further upgrading more than 50% Bos taurus inheritance has negative effects on age at
first calving, calving interval, survivability and herd life.
• The possible explanation for the low productivity of upgraded crosses is the idea that
blocks of genes giving favorable epistatic effects in the parental breeds and the F1 may
broken up in the F2 subsequent generations
New breed formation

• This is also called the formation of a gene pool.

• After the first cross, F1 animals are mated together to form an F 2 followed by an F3, and
so on.
• If the desired proportion of European blood is 75% then a backcross is made before the
inter se mating starts.
• The advantage of the gene-pool approach is that the population is self-replacing and after
the initial cross no further outside blood is needed.
• However, people are afraid that breeding from crossbreds will lead to excessive variation,
and therefore that formation of a new breed is only possible if immense resources of
animals are available.

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 • Secondly, the obvious effects are due to segregation of colour, colour pattern and
morphological characters (e.g. horns) which are controlled by single genes.
• The increase in variation between F1 and F2 for such quantitative characters as growth
rate and milk yield will be very small and, in view of other sources of variation, may not
be detectable and thus there is no scope of further selection.
• Indeed it is essential at the outset to have as much variation as possible in order to allow
scope for selection.
• The aim of crossbreeding is to combine the high yield of the European breed with the
resistance of the local breed, and intense selection is needed to find the few animals
combining both characters.
• If a breed is to be formed in a single experimental herd it is therefore essential to use a
large number of unrelated sires (at least 10–15) in the formative stages.
• As early as possible the programme should be extended to other herds and sires should be
exchanged between herds.
• In dairy cattle a large cow population will be needed for progeny testing the bulls.
• Above all, animals should not be selected according to color, conformation or other fancy
points but for important economic characters.
• The advantage of the single breed approach is that in an unsophisticated social
environment it is easier for the farmer to deal with one type of animal.
• Certainly, there is a danger that if the initial crossing is not done on a large enough scale
then problems of inbreeding may be encountered on inter - se mating.
• The major disadvantage of new breed formation is that it is a long-term programme and
by the time it yields results the environment or market demand may have changed so that
a different type of animal is needed.
• A systematic crossbreeding system is much more flexible
Maintaining a crossbred population
• When it has been established that in a given environment (including climate, disease
situation, feeding and management systems) the most productive animal is one
containing a proportion of local blood and a proportion of imported genes, then an
appropriate breeding system must be chosen which will maintain this intermediate type
after the initial crossing.

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 • There are several possibilities.
Systematic crossbreeding
• The systematic crossbreeding system is that breeding animals of both pure breeds
involved (local adapted and temperate improved) are used in each generation.
• There are two main categories –
(i) Terminal crossing and
(ii) Rotational crossing.
(i) Terminal crossing: in this type of crossbreeding the crossbred progeny are not used for
breeding. It is therefore not suitable for dairy animals but is important for meat animals.
There are several varieties:
a) Re-creation of the F1 in each generation: Since it is the commercial F1 animals
which are produced every generation this is also called “commercial crossing”. Both sexes
are slaughtered (for meat) without being used for breeding.
b) Three-way crossing: commercial crossing exploits only the hybrid vigour in the
growing animal. In order to cash in also on that in maternal ability a second stage of
crossing is needed so as to breed from a crossbred dam.
• This is very important because a major proportion of the total advantage may come
from the use of crossbred dams.
• The second cross may be a backcross to the sire breed or a cross to a third breed.
(ii) Rotational crossing:
• In crisscrossing (or reciprocal backcrossing) sires of the temperate and tropical breeds
are used in alternate generations
Fig: Crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing) between temperate and tropical breed

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 • At equilibrium two-thirds of the hybrid vigour of the F1 is retained.
• In alternate generations progeny will be two-thirds tropical or two-thirds temperate in
their genotype.
• This system is very flexible; if more than an average of 50 percent temperate blood is
needed then there can be two generations of crossing with the temperate breed alternating
with one cross with the tropical breed.
• In this case at equilibrium succeeding generations will have 3/7, 5/7 and 6/7 of the
temperate blood (see Figure). Or the tropical breed can be replaced by a half-bred
either a new intermediate breed or a half-bred sire.

Fig. Rotational crossing between temperate and tropical breeds

• A similar result can be achieved by using three different breeds in the crossing.
• It then becomes rotational crossing and 87 percent of the maximum heterosis is retained.
Combination of terminal crossing and rotational crossing
• A meat sire can be used on the crossbred females which emerge in a crisscrossing or
rotational crossing system.
• It is terminal because the offspring of this sire are not used for breeding but are all
slaughtered for meat.

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Use of crossbred sires

• In this scheme half-breed sires are produced in each generation and used to grade up the
local females.
• It is thus suitable for situations in which it is desired to stabilize a 50:50 mixture of local
and exotic strains.
• The half-bred female population will in a few generations approach 50 percent European
blood.
• Another variant of this scheme is called the “repeated hybrid male cross”.
• The first cross on to the local females is by a pure European sire and the specially bred
F1 bulls are then used on these F1 cows.
• The population is then 50 percent European from the first generation.
• Sires would have to be bred in a special herd and supplied to the local farmer either on a
loan system (so that each was not used too long in one herd) or by means of AI.
• It is a breeding plan which starts with the pure local breed and uses F1 sires on these
females.
CHOICE OF BREEDING SYSTEM

• The various options available in choosing a breeding system are shown in Figure below.
This includes the questions - whether

- to select in the local population or

- to cross with an exotic breed & which exotic to use,
- to grade up completely to the exotic or
- to maintain a crossbred population.
• However, in conditions too adverse to maintain any proportion of European blood, the
best breeding system may be to cross two tropically adapted breeds. Examples of this are
given in figure below..

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 Figure: Strategic options involving crossbreeding and selection (Cunningham, 1981)

The gains from crossbreeding arise from:

(i) Complementarity(The additive genetic effect): the combination of the adaptation of
the tropical breed with the productivity of the improved temperate breed, and
Heterosis or hybrid vigour (The non-additive genetic effects): which demands a
heterozygous genotype.
If heterosis is important then one of the following systematic crossing systems should
be used.

• The commercial crossing system exploits 100 percent of the heterosis,

The 3-breed rotational cross 87 percent and
The criss-cross 67 percent.
A new breed, on the other hand, retains only half the heterosis of the first cross (F1) and
this is the genetically preferable system if complementarity is important rather than
heterosis.
In theory heterosis should be greater for those characters which are related to “fitness” and
have therefore been under the influence of natural selection for a long time and now
have a low heritability.
It is also expected to be higher in a stressful environment.

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In practice it is necessary to test each cross in each situation.
Cunningham (1981) has presented a model which would explain the common experience
that heterosis is greater in a stressful than in a favorable environment.
Figure below shows a model for differential heterosis and additive effects of two breeds in
good and poor environments. (Cunningham, 1981)
HET= Heterosis, ADD = Additive effect

In a very unfavorable environment the local breed and the improved exotic breed
may not differ greatly in production.
The F1 often shows a high performance, indicating heterosis.
In a favorable environment, on the other hand, the improved breed will yield nearer
to its genetic potential but the local breed does not significantly improve in
performance.
The F1 is improved by an intermediate amount which may put it only slightly above the mid-
parent indicating very modest heterosis.
On this model the difference between the F1 and the local strain is largely due to heterosis in
the poor environment and to the additive genetic difference between the breeds in the
favorable environment.

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This might be explained by the physiological limitations of stress in the poor environment
and of genetic potential in the good one.
Cross breeding in dairy cattle

With dairy cattle crossbreeding has the longest history and has been most extensive in India.
Following have been reported.
The highest milk yields were usually reached when the proportion of European blood was
between one-half and three-quarters.
The curves for body weight at one and at two years closely followed that for milk yield,
indicating a lack of adaptation in animals of more than ¾ Friesian breeding.
At younger ages body weight increased with increasing Friesian blood.

However, on Military Dairy Farms, age at first calving, calving interval and service period
were generally lowest in the half breds and 5/8 breds.
Striking results are quoted on mortality to first calving: it was 28 percent in purebred
Sahiwals, and 47 percent in 31/32 bred Friesians; in half-breds and 5/8 breds on the other
hand it was only 3–4 percent.

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Indeed in the semi-arid and coastal areas of Kenya and mainland Tanzania it is now clearly
established that the Sahiwal x European dairy cross out yields both purebreds and has a
better reproductive record and lower mortality.
The optimum proportion of European blood varies according to management between one-
half and three-quarters).
Even in the high potential areas of Kenya under conditions of poor feeding and management
the crossbred often has an advantage in reproductive rate (including fertility, abortions
and calf mortality) and may even out yield the purebred European.
There is now good evidence for hybrid vigour when zebu and temperate cattle are crossed in
the humid tropics.
The results of European x zebu crossbreeding in the coastal region of Tanzania also favored
the half-breeds; they were significantly better than both ¼ breds and ¾ breds when
evaluated on the basis of the average daily yield of milk between calving
Table: PERFORMANCE OF DANISH RED, INDIAN ZEBU (SAHIWALAND RED
SINDHI) AND THEIR CROSSBREDS IN THAILAND
Trait Purebred Sahiwal Half Purebred Danish
and Red Sindhi bred Red

First lactation yield (kg) 1 000 2000 2300

Percent abortions 4.6 1.8 21.5

Percent abortions 6.6 4.4 5.1

Mortality to 6 month (%) 15.5 5.9 7.3

Calving (%) 5.4 0 23.7

Total Calving 467 443 525

• There is now good evidence for hybrid vigor when zebu and temperate cattle are crossed
in the humid tropics.
• It is most often revealed by the decline in yield and reproductive rate as the crossing
proceeds from F1toF2, from F1 to backcross or from the ¾ bred to the 7/8 bred.

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 If the improvement in yield were entirely due to additive effect of genes the yield should
increase as the proportion of European blood increased and the F2 should have the same
yield as the F1.
This decline from F1 to F2 is shown clearly in the figures that Katpatal (1977) quotes from
India. It is particularly striking in Sri Lanka

Table: HYBRID VIGOUR IN DAIRY CATTLE CROSSES IN SRI LANKA AS SHOWN

BY DECLINE FROM F1 TO F2
Milk yield Calving interval
(kg) (days)
Friesian x Sinhala
F1 1 573 393
F2 987 448 
Jersey x Sinhala
F1  1 215 370
F2 809  412
Jersey x Sindhi
F1 1 929  368
F2 1 115 430

This same decline will occur as soon as the first crosses are interbred in the second stage of
forming a new breed.
A reformation of the F1 every generation is not applicable to dairy cattle; nor is a two-stage
crossing system.
The generation interval is too long and it is the breeding animal which is important, not its
progeny for slaughter.
All these crossing systems are fairly sophisticated and some are highly so.
When the first cross has been successful and the question arises, what to do next, the
simplest solution is to use crossbred bulls and it is also satisfactory genetically.
Many development projects which started with purebred dairy bulls are now using half
breds on the crossbred cows e.g. in India, Ethiopia.

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Cross breeding in beef cattle
For beef cattle it has been clearly demonstrated that there are many pastoral areas in Africa,
Australia and tropical America, where the European crossbred performs better than the
local adapted cattle or the purebred European beef breed.
For instance, Sacker et al. (1971b) showed that Red Poll x Boran crossbred calves were 26–
30 percent heavier than the mean of their purebred parents at 3–12 months of age (see
Figure).

The most striking results have come from Queensland, Australia, where the zebu x European
crossbred has excelled the purebred European breed in growth rate, fertility and viability.
In these experiments the zebus were Africanders and Brahmans and the European breed was
a Shorthorn x Hereford cross.
Most of the experimental work compared the crossbreds only with the European parent.
Smaller trials showed them to be superior also to the zebu parental breeds except in
postweaning and adult mortality (Turner, 1975).

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Since beef cattle are more exposed to the environment than are dairy cattle, crossbreeding for
beef is advantageous even in climates where the best dairy breed would be a pure
European
For instance in the southern United States cows which are crosses between the American
Brahman and European beef breeds exceed the average of purebred controls by 27–46
percent when productivity is measured as weight of weaned calf per cow mated.
All these examples show the high degree of heterosis exhibited when European beef breeds
and zebus are crossed in the tropics and subtropics.
• These examples would suggest that systematic crossbreeding is the best breeding system
for beef cattle in the tropics (and indeed probably also in temperate regions). This is now
generally accepted.
• Nevertheless some new breeds have been formed in the past but they have been subjected
to several generations of selection to reach the performance level of the original F1.
• The simplest crossing system is a straight cross between zebu and European breeds with
the slaughter of all the F1 progeny.
• Example: Hereford x Boran cross in East Africa, and Hereford or Simmental x Sanga
cross in southern Africa, and so on.
• However, the genetically most efficient system is a terminal cross; this exploits the
hybrid vigour in the cows in such characters as fertility and mothering ability
• In many situations crisscrossing or rotational crossing is to be preferred to terminal
crossing. It has the great advantage that young females are not slaughtered for meat.
• A crisscrossing system has been in operation among beef cattle breeders in southern
Africa for many years on an ad hoc basis.
• For harsher conditions a cross between two unrelated tropical breeds would probably give
the best results, for instance, Brahman x Tswana in Botswana, Zebu x Criollo in Latin
America
• The terminal crossing and crisscrossing systems can be combined by using a crisscross
between two tropical breeds to produce the cow herd.
• They will combine tropical adaptation and hybrid vigour and so should be hardy, fertile,
long lived and good mothers.

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Information needed to formulate effective mating and selection systems
To develop a breeding program the breeder must first decide the following:
1. What traits are the most important to select for from economic stand point:-This depends
upon:
a) The species of farm animals
b) The feeding program to be used
c) The kind of product to be produced
d) The price of that product
2. The amount of weight he gives each trait in the index:- which depends upon:
a) Heritability of the trait
b) Its relative economic importance (value) and
c) The genetic correlation of that trait with other traits of economic importance.
3. The method that has been devised to make accurate measurements and records to distinguish
more satisfactorily between genetic and environmental effects.
4. The actual measurement of such traits as weight, milk production or percentage of lean cuts
should be made and not estimated.
5. The use of correction factors to adjust records of all animals in the herd to a comparable age
to the same age of dam basis for sex, and other variables, whenever applicable for making
comparisons more accurately.
6. Accuracy in choosing genetically superior animals for breeding purposes and in evaluating
the progress of breeding program will be increased if written records are maintained and
used.
7. Which kind of gene action, additive or nonadditive has greater influence on each of the
important economic traits? This can be known from the following:
(i) Additive gene action: is indicated when
(a) The heritability of the trait is high :
(b) When the crossing of breeds results in an average of the F1 that closely
approximates the
average of the parents
(c) Additive gene action is also indicated when sex differences for a trait are large (but not
yet proved.

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 When additive gene action has more influence than mass selection (mating best to best)
would be effective.
(ii) Non additive gene action: is indicated when
(a) Heritability of a trait is low
(b) When inbreeding has had detrimental effects
(c) When out breeding or crossbreeding has had beneficial effect.
(d) When the average of the F1 individuals differs from the average of the two parental
groups ( heterosis).
When nonadditive gene action has more influence on a trait, the greatest improvement in
performance will come from crossing of strains or lines known to have good nicking or
combining ability.
What to do when a breeder want to breed and select for several different traits of which
some are affected by additive and some by non-additive gene action: In such cases the
recommended program here would be to form pure lines or breeds by selection for
improvement in those traits that are highly heritable and then to cross these lines or breeds to
improve those traits that show heterosis.
8. The breeder should also know whether genetic correlations are important among the
different traits selected for and whether the correlations are positive or negative.
9. Whether or not genetic environmental interaction influence the traits being selected.
When to use inbreeding and line breeding
1. Inbreeding and line breeding are used to produce seed stock.
2. Intensive inbreeding is done (as a general rule) with the intention of using inbred animals
for crossing purposes. If this is not the breeders object, intensive inbreeding might not be
desirable for the main phenotypic effect of inbreeding and line breeding is a decline in the
performance traits that are affected greatly by non additive gene action. Much of this
decline must be due to the fact that detrimental recessive genes are revealed by increased
homozygosity. In general the traits affected most by inbreeding are those associated with
physical fitness.
3. If inbreeding is practiced for the production of purebreds for show ring purposes the
degree of inbreeding should be held to a minimum and should be increased slowly, with
intensive culling and selection of breeding animals that produce that line.

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 4. Theses methods should not be used by the commercial livestock producer, who is an
animal multiplier and not a producer of seed stock.
5. Inbreeding and line breeding should not be used in herds made up of average or mediocre
breeding stock, for several undesirable recessive genes may be present and frequently will
be brought together and appear phenotypically. This may result in discarding of the whole
inbred line sooner or later.
6. The building of superior inbred lines of livestock is a slow, time consuming and
methodological process and probably should be undertaken only by the breeder who has
the knowledge, the time and the necessary capital to continue the process to its completion.

When to use out breeding and crossbreeding:

Out breeding: Is the form of mating system most often used by the present day purebred breeders
in the production of purebreds. It will probably continue to be widely used because, by mating
females in his herd or flock to non related males the breeder avoids the effect of inbreeding.
In out breeding the breeder must attempt to purchase the best genetic material he can fined at a
price he can afford to pay and he must always try to find a male that is superior to the females in
his herd. The use as superior males proved by performance test should improve the overall
performance of the herd and produce superior seed stock to sell to the commercial livestock
producers.
Crossbreeding is the mating system that should be used by the livestock multiplier or the
commercial livestock producer. This is useful in swine breeding.

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