Module 2

Pharmacognosy

Plant Chemistry, Biochemistry

Kathreen Mae D. Cascabel

BSPharmacy
 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy – knowledge of drugs and pharmaceuticals | Greek: pharmakon (drugs) and gnosis (knowledge)

BRIEF HISTORY
Babylonians – made clay models of man
Egyptians – very apt in the practice of
embalming Greeks
 Pedanios Dioscorides – De materia medica libre cinque (five volumes), 600 plants
 (Rome) Galen – described the method of preparing formulas containing plant and animal drugs and the term
”Galenical pharmacy” originated (Cold cream – Galen’s cerate)
Germans
 C.A. Seydler – coined the term pharmacognosy in his dissertation in 1815 (title: Anaclectica pharmacognosthica)
 Fluckiger –most comprehensive definition of pharmacognosy : “simultaneous application of various
scientific disciplines with the object of acquiring knowledge of drugs from every point of view”
 J.A. Schmidt – Lerbuch der Materia medica

Pharmacognosy – “an applied science that deals with the biologic, biochemical and economic features of natural drugs and
their constituents that originate in the plant and animal kingdom”

General Process of Extraction Appropriate

 Removes substances that can be dissolved by the solvent/menstruum Solvents: Hexane
Fats Alcohol
 The undissolved portion of the drug is known as the marc Resins Acetone
 Product of extraction process: Percolate/Extractive Chlorophyll Hot benzene
Chrysarobin
Crude Drugs – undergone only collection and drying
Natural Substances – have not had changes made in their molecular structure as found in nature
Derivatives/ Extractives – chief constituents obtained by extraction
Geographic source & Habitat – region in which the plant or animal yielding the drug grows
Indigenous – growing in their native countries
Naturalized – growing in foreign land

PREPARATION OF DRUGS FOR THE COMMERCIAL MARKET

1. Collection – (small scale) collection time: part of the plant that constitutes the drug is highest in its content of AI

2. Harvesting – (large scale) Collection time

 Mechanical devices : pickers, mowers, binders, swath, steel  Pectin – citrus fruits
 Manual – for potent constituents Unripe fruits -
protopectin Just ripe -
3. Drying (Air Drying and Artificial Air Drying) pectin
• remove moisture • fixes the constituents Overripe - pectic acid
• prevent molding • facilitate grinding and milling
 Marijuana
• prevent action of bacteria • prevent environmental hydrolysis
Young leaves - cannabidiol
4. Garbling – final stage; removal of extraneous matter (other parts of the plant, dirt, added adulterants)

5. Packaging, Storage and Preservation

 To avoid insect attacks:
a. SIMPLEST METHOD: Expose the drug to 65°C
b. Fumigation with methyl bromide
c. Add adrop of chloroform or carbon tetrachloride
 Examples of Plants in De Materia Medica
Aloe Emollient, tx for burns
Belladonna (beautiful lady) Atropine – mydriatic (SE: cycloplegia)
Tamoxifen For breast CA (SE: endometrial CA) Bioassay
Colchicum Acute gout
Allopurinol Chronic gout (Xanthine Oxidase inhibitor) Digoxin - pigeon
Ergot (“fingers” Claviceps purpurea) Ergotamine (migraine), Ergonovine (oxytocic), Atropine - cats
LSD (hallucinogen) Glucagon - cats
Opium (stone of immortality) Oxytocin - chicken
Premarin Estrogen derivative from MARE (F) Head drop test -
rabbits/rats PTH -
Digoxin (Digitalis lanata)
dogs
Digitoxin (Digitalis purpurea) Lipid soluble, Long half life
Heparin - sheep plasma

Street names of illegal drugs

1. Shabu Ice, Meth
2. Ecstacy Sky
3. Marijuana Hashish, MJ/Maryjane, Pot, Grass, Weed, Cannabis, Indian hemp

EVALUATION OF DRUGS (determine the quality (intrinsic property) and purity (absence of adulterants) of drugs)
1. Organoleptic - by means of the organs of sense; macroscopic appearance
2. Microscopic - essential in the study of adulterant in powdered plants (identity and purity)
3. Biologic - pharmacologic activity of certain drugs has been applied to their evaluation or standardization
4. Chemical - assay of AC using chemicals (titration); best method of determining official potency
5. Physical - physical constants (solubility, spec grav, optical rotation, congealing point, refractive index, MP)

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
 Morphology – forms
 Taxonomy – phylogeny (natural relationship or among plants and animals)
 Pharmacologic or Therapeutic – based on effect on the body
 Chemical classification – based on active constituents; Preferred Method of Classification

CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL DRUG PRODUCTS

1. Pharmaceutically active – cause chemical changes in the preparation
2. Pharmacologically active – responsible for the therapeutic activity
3. Inert constituents – no definite pharmacologic activity
4. Secondary plant substance – extracted, crystallized and purified; presence of inert matter which may
modify or prevent absorbability or potency of AC

Drug biosynthesis/Biogenesis – study of the biochemical pathways leading to formation of secondary constituents (drugs)

Primary metabolites to Secondary metabolites

Carbohydrates Glycosides
BIOGENESIS
Proteins OR
Tannins DRUG
BIOSYNTHESIS
Fats Volatile oils or
Fixed oils

3 Principal factors that influenced the secondary constituents of drug plants

1. heredity (genetic composition)
2. ontogeny (stage of development)
3. environment (soil, climate, associated flora and method of cultivation)
 CHO 4
CARBOHYDRATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS cal/g
CHON 4
 polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones containing C, H and O; same ratio as in H2O (2:1)
 1st products of photosynthesis (glucose)
 General formula: CnH2nOn | Cn(H2O)n | (CH2O)n

MONOSACCHARIDES
Cannot be hydrolyzed to simple sugar substances that is ketonic or aldehydic substitution product of a polydroxy alcohol

C Name Aldose Ketose

2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde
3 Triose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
4 Tetrose Erythrose Erythrulose
5 Pentose Arabinose, Xylose, Ribose Ribulose
6 Hexose Glucose, Galactose Fructose
7 Heptose Sedoheptose
8 Octulose D-glycero-D-mannoctulose

HEXOSES (most important monosaccharides found in plants)

Other names Uses Identification Test
Glucose D-glucose Nutrient (parenteral), Excipient Moore’s Test
(aldohexose) Dextrose Ca gluconate/gluceptate/levulinate – Ca replenisher (caramel)
Blood sugar Ferrous gluconate – hematinic
Grape sugar
Physiologic sugar
Fructose Fruit sugar Food for diabetics Seliwanoff’s Test
(ketohexose) Levulose (sweetest Ingredient in infant feeding formula
monosaccharide) Ingredient in fructose injection, nutrient

PENTOSES
Xylose (D-xylose, Wood Sugar)
 obtained by boiling corn cobs, straw or similar materials with dilute acid to hydrolyze the xylan polymer
 diagnostic aid in intestinal malabsorption

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARI
DES
Other N Origin Uses
Sucrose Saccharu Saccharum officinarum (cane) Demulcent, Sweetening, Coating, Preservative,
Glu + Fru m Cane Beta vulgaris (beets) Production of syrups, Retards oxidation
(non-reducing) sugar Beet Acer saccharum (maple)
sugar
Table sugar
Maltose Malt sugar From germination of barley
Glu + Glu
Lactose Milk sugar Cow’s milk (Bos Taurus) Isolation of Lactose
Glu + Butter – cream, united fat globules
Gal Lactulose (Alkaline lactose)
Buttermilk – liquid separating from butter
 lactic & acetic acid
(reducing) Skimmed milk – left after cream separates
(irritation, catharsis)
Dec serum NH3 in encephalopathy
Cheese – coagulum, skimmed m. +
rennin
Whey – liquid separated from coagulum
 POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides (sugar) linked together through glycosidic(ether) linkages
 Temporary storage form of photosynthetic products
 systematic nomenclature are given the ending “an”, glycan is another word

Amylos Amylopectin
e
Linear Branched
250-300 glucose units 1000 or more glucose units
25% 75-80%
α-1,4 glucosidic bonds α -1,4 and α-1,6 (every 25 glucose)
Soluble Insoluble (paste forming)
Blue Blue-violet or purple

HOMOGLYCANS
Use
Starch (Glucosan) Tablet filler, binder, and Enzymes that break down starches:
Zea mays (corn) disintegrant Antidote for iodine β amylase – pancreatic juice and saliva
Triticum aestivum (wheat) poisoning α amylase – hydrolyzes it to maltose
Solanum tuberosum (potato) Permanent reserve food material in plants
Starch

Gluten – tachy proteins Soluble

Pregelatinized Starch – binder
Na Starch Glycolate – disintegrant starch
Hetastarch – plasma expander
Dextrin

Maltose

2 glucose
Inulin (Fructosan) Ingredient in culture media
Used in evaluation of renal function
Dextran (Glucosan) dextran sucrase (from Leuconostoc mesenteroides)
- plasma expander Sucrose Dextran
Cellulose Purified/Absorbent Cotton – from the hair of the seeds of Gossypium hirsutum
Use: mechanical protection against bacteria; absorb mucus, pus, and blood

Soluble guncotton/Pyroxylin – formed by action of nitric acid & sulfuric acid on

cotton Other ingredients: Castor oil (flexibility) | Camphor (proof)
Use: topical protectant

Other derivatives:
Cellulose Acetate Pthalate (CAP) – film coating, Methyl/Ethylcellulose
HETEROGLYCANS (yield more than one type of monosaccharide units upon
hydrolysis) Gums and Mucilages
 Natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as anionic or non-ionic polysaccharides
 Produced by plants as a protective after injury
 Upon hydrolysis, they yield arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose, and other uronic acid derivatives
 USES: suspending agents, dental adhesives, laxatives

PLANT
EXUDATES
Tragacanth Astragalus gummifer Bassorin (swells) Suspending agent,
Best Tragacanthin (thickener) Emulsifier,
mucilage Adhesive,
(resistant to Demulcent,
acid hydrolysis) Emollient
5-6% dispersion in H2O
Acacia Gum arabic Acacia senegal Arabin Incompatible with OH
35-36% dispersion
Ghatti Indian Gum Anogeissus latifolia Acacia substitute
Karaya Sterculia Gum Sterculia urens D-galacturonic acid Laxative, Suspending
(fetid odor) D-glucoronic acid agent, Adhesive
MARINE
GUMS
Agar Japanese Gelidium cartilagineum Agarose Laxative, tablet
Insinglas/Gelatin (Red algae) Agaropectin diluents/disintegrant
Algin Macrocystis pyrifera Sodium alginate Suspending agent, tablet
(brown seaweed) binder, thickener
Carageenan Irish Chondrus crispus Kappa- & Iota- Demulcent, bulk laxative
Moss, Gigartina carageenan
Chrondus mamillosa (swelling) Lambda-
carageenan
(nonswelling)
Danish agar Furcerallan Furcellaria fastigiata k-carrageenan Suspending agent

SEED GUMS
Plantago Psyllium, Plantago psyllium (Spanish) Bulk laxative
Plantain Seed P. ovate (Blonde/Indian)
Cydonium Quince seed Cydonia vulgaris
Guar Gum Guaran Cymopsis tetragonolobus 1,4 linked D- Laxative, thickener, binder
mannopyranosyl
Locust Bean Carob pulp Ceratonia siliqua Chocolate substitute
Gum St. John’s bread
MICROBIAL
GUM
Xanthan Xanthomonas campestris Peudoplastic activity
Gum which enables toothpaste
and ointment both to hold
shape and spread readily

PECTIN – purified carbohydrate product obtained from the dilute acid extract of inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or
from apple pomace
Active Constituent : linear 1,4 linked D-galacturonan
Uses : protectant, s.a., ingredient in many antidiarrheal formulations
[O] PLANT ACIDS
a. Cherry Juice or Succus cerasi
 Ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus
 Contains pectin (incompatible with OH)
 Constituent: Malic acid (present in cherry, apple, pear)
 Use: preparation of cherry syrup

b. Plant Acids
Uses: Acidulants in effervescent formulations, Component of buffer systems
a. Citric acid - (2-hydroxy 1,2,3, propane trioic acid) isolated by Scheele from lemon juice in 1784
b. Lactic acid - (alpha-hydroxy propionic acid) acidulant in infant feeding formula
c. Tartaric acid - (1,2,3, dihydroxy butane dioic acid) by product of wine industry
d. Fe fumarate - hematinic

c. Alcohol or Ethanol
 95% ethanol by volume @15.56°C
 Product of fermentation
 Undergo the process of distillation to concentrate the alcohol content to 40-55%
brandy - distilled wine
whiskey- malted
grain rum - molasses
wine - mild stimulant and tonic

[H] SUGAR ALCOHOLS

 Mannitol (D-mannitol)
 From Manna, Fraxinus ornus
 Osmotic diuretic and Osmotic laxative

 Sorbitol (D-glucitol)
 From the ripe berries of mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia
 half as sweet as sucrose
 has humectant properties (ingredient in toothpaste, chewing gums and various dietetic products)
 not absorbed on oral ingestion that is why it is used in the manufacture of chewing gums

TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Test for Composition Positive result
Molisch’s General for carbohydrates α-naphthol Purple/Red
Fehling’s Reducing sugars A – CuSO4 Brick red ppt
B – K Na tartrate
Benedict’s Reducing sugars NaOH + CuSO4 Brick red ppt
Barfoed’s Reducing sugars; Cupric acetate + acetic acid Brick red ppt
Monosaccharides
Tollen’s Reducing sugars (Aldehydes) Silver + Ammonia Silver mirror
Picric acid Reducing sugars Picric acid Mahogany red
Nylander’s Reducing sugars Na K tartrate + K/NaOH + Bi Brown
Osazone/Kowarsky Mannose Phenylhydrazine Yellow ppt (ozone)
Seliwanoff’s Ketohexose (Fructose) Resorcinol Red
Keller-Killiani Test Deoxysugars (cardiac glycosides) Acetic acid, Fe chloride, Sulfuric Reddish brown
acid
Moore’s Reducing sugars (Glucose) Heat with alkali Caramel
Mucic acid Test Galactose Nitric acid Insoluble ppt
Bial’s Pentoses Resorcinol + Fe Blue green
 GLYCOSIDES
 Heteroglycans (yield one ore more sugars among the products of hydrolysis); simple glycosides: sugar ethers
 The most frequently occurring sugar is Beta-D-glucose (plants)
 Aglycone or genin – nonsugar component, Glycone – sugar component

CARDIOACTIVE OR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES

MOA: inhibits Na/K/ATPase pump  increased influx of Ca2+ ions  (+)
inotropy 2 types of steroidal aglycones or genin:
 Cardenolides - most prevalent in nature
 Bufadienolides - are homologs of the cardenolides and an unsaturated 6-membered lactone ring
DOC: control rapid ventricular rate in px with atrial fibrillation/atrial flutter
Keller-Killiani Test - Detects presence of 2-deoxysugars

Other Names Origin Active Constituent

Grecian Foxglove Digitalis lanata Digoxin
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea Digitoxin (lipid soluble, long t½)
Convallaria Lily-of-the-Valley Convallaria majalis Convallatoxin
Adonis Pheasant’s eye Adonis vernalis Adonitoxin
Strophanthus Strophanthus kombe k-strophanthoside/Strophanthidin
Apocynum Black Indian Hemp Apocynum cannabinum Cymarin
Dog bane, Canadian Hemp
Oleander/Adelfa Rose bay Nerium oleander Oleandrin
Squill Urginea maritime Scillaren A
Cactus Night blooming cereus Selenicereus grandiflorus
Grandiflorus
Black Hellebore Christmas rose Hellebborus niger hellebrin

ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDES
Cathartics (except
chrysarobin) Aglycone:
Anthracene
ID test: Borntrager’s test

Origin Active Constituent

Cascara Sacred bark Rhamnus purchianus D glycosides – based on emodin
Sagrada C glycosides – based on aloin
Cascarosides A&B – barbaloin
isomers Cascarosides C&D –
chrysaloin isomers
Casanthranol – purified mixture of
anthranol glycosides from cascara
sagrada
Frangula Buckthorn bark Rhamnus frangula Frangulin A & B
Aloe Aloe barbadensis/Aloe vera (Curacao) Barbaloin
A. ferox + africana + spicata (Cape) Aloe-emodin
Rhubarb Rheum/Chinese Rheum officinale (Chinese) Rhein anthrones
Rhubarb R. emodi, R. webbianum (Indian/Himalayan)
Senna Cultivated on wet Cassia angustifolia (Tinnevelly) Sennosides A, B, C, and D
lands resembling Cassia acutifolia (Alexandria)
rice paddies *More potent than cascara
Chrysarobin Andira araroba Keratolytic agent
(Goa powder; hot benzene)
SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES
β-hemolytic substances – destroys RBC by hemolysis and are toxic to cold blooded animals (used as fish
poison) Soap-like (foam upon shaking)
o Steroidal in nature (cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene/CPPP nucleus)
o Sapotoxin – toxic aglycone
o Sapogenin – aglycone portion,
 2 types: Steroid (neutral saponin) and Triterpenoid (acid
saponin) Identification tests:
1. Froth test - (+) honeycomb froth that persists for 10 mins
2. Capillary test
3. BAM (Blood Agar Media) Test or Hemolysis Test
α hemolysis – partial hemolysis
β hemolysis – complete
hemolysis γ hemolysis – no
hemolysis

Origin Active Constituent Use

Glycirrhiza Glycyrrhiza glabra Glycyrrhizin/glycyrrhic acid Peptic ulcer and Addison’s
Licorice root (50x as sweet as sugar) Increases foaminess of beer.

Glycyrrhetic acid CI: cardiac problems & HTN

(anti-inflam) –
↑ Na retention and ↓K
Ginseng Panax quinquefolius (American) Ginsenosides Aphrodisiac
• fave remedy in Panax ginseng (Asian/Korean) Panaxosides Adaptogen (antistress)
Chinese Chikusetsusaponins
medicine
Dioscorea D. floribunda – best source of steroid Botogenin Cortisone precursor
Mexican Yam D. spiculiflora – contains diosgenin Diosgenin

CYANOPHORE OR CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES (Bound Poisons)

yeilds hydrocyanic acid as one of the products found in Rosaceae plants
amygdalin is the most widely distributed
derivatives of mandelonitrile (benzaldehyde-cyanohydrin)
Cyanide-containing compounds: Prunasin, Laetrile/Vitamin B17, Amygdalin

Amygdalin
Amygdalase *Amygdalase + Prunase =
EMULSIN Mandelonitrile glucose
Prunase
Mandelonitrile +

Glucose Benzaldehyde +

HCN

Origin Active Constituent Use

Bitter Almonds Amygdalus communis Amygdalin
Wild Cherry Prunus serotina Prunasin sedative expectorant
prunus virginiana,
wild black cherry
tree
Apricot Pits Prunus armeniaca, Laetrile/Vit. B17 controversial treatment for sickle cell
Rosaseae anemia (antiCA)
Cassava Manihot esculenta Mannihotoxin
GLUCOSINATES/ISOTHIOCYANATES (From family Cruciferae/Brassicaceae)
Black Mustard White mustard
Synonym Sinapis nigra Sinapis alba
Origin Brassica nigra Brassica alba
Active Sinigri Sinalbin
Constituent n myrosin
myrosin Acrinyl
Allyl isothiocyanate isothiocyanate
Uses Local irritant and emetic, Rubefacient, vesicant, and condiment

FLAVONO Rutin &Hisperidin (Vitamin P or Tx of capillary bleeding secondary to capillary

Hesperitin & Permeability fragility Tx of symptoms of common colds
L Naringen Factors)
ALCOHOL Salicin Salix Saligenin (salicyl alcohol)
(Salix and Populus) purpurea - antirheumatic (closely resembles salicylic acid)
Salix fragilis
ALDEHY Vanilla Vanilla plantifolia Vanillin
(4-hydroxy-3- methoxy benzaldehyde or methylprocatechuic aldehyde)
DE
Other sources of Vanillin:
Coniferin - glycoside present in cambium sap of
pine trees
Eugenol - phenol present in clove oil
Lignin - by product of the pulp industry

Gluco-vanillin (avenein) and glucovanillic alcohol

 hydrolyzed into glucose and vanillin and
glucovanillic alcohol which is oxidized to
vanillic aldehyde

PHENOL Uva Ursi (Bearberry) Arctotaphylos uva- Arbutin – antiseptic and astringent
ursi

LACTONE GLYCOSIDES
Origin Use
Coumarin Dicumarol, Dipteryx odorata Anticoagulant
Bishydroxycoumarin (tonka beans)

Cantharides Spanish flies, Cantharis vesicatoria AC : Cantharidin

Russian flies,
Blistering Effects:
flies  Blisters – irritant, vesicant, rubefacient
 Priapism (used as aphrodisiac)
Psoralens Ammi majus Methoxsalen – repigmentation in vitiligo
(photosensitizing Trioxsalen
furocoumarins)
 TANNINS
 A group of complex phenolic compounds capable of combining with proteins
 Polypeptides that are difficult to separate because they do not crystallize
 Precipitates proteins from solutions and can combine with proteins, rendering resistant to proteolytic enzymes
Medicinal use : astringent
Industrial use : manufacture of leather
tannin
Skin and Hides Leather
Tanning of leather

CHEMICAL CLASSES OF TANNINS

Hydrolyzabl Nonhydrolyzable/Condensed/Proanthocyan
e idin
(from condensation of catechin and
leucocyanidin)
Heating Gallic acid  Pyrogallol Catechol

Hydrolyzation Phenolic acids and Sugar Polymerization  Plobaphenes (insoluble,

Boil with HCl red colored products)
FeCl3 Test Bluish black precipitate Greenish black precipitate
Br Water No precipitate Precipitate
Lead Acetate Soluble
Leather Type Bloom Tanner’s red

Tests for presence of Tannins: Tannins can precipitate:

1. Goldbeater test Proteins
2. Gelatin test Alkaloids
Glycosides
Characteristics of Tannins
1. Acidic Tannic acid – antidote for alkaloidal
2. Sharp puckering taste
3. Precipitates alkaloids poisoning Universal antidote :
4. Precipitates proteins (tanning industry)
 Tannic acid - precipitant
5. Astringents – GI and skin
 Activated charcoal - adsorbent
6. Treatment of burns
 Magnesium Oxide - cathartic

Origin Active Constituent Use

Hamemelis Leaf Hammemelis virginiana Hamamelitannin Astringent
Hazel leaves Incorporated in
hemorrhoidal preparations
Tx: insect bites and stings
Nutgall Excrescence from the young Tannic acid/Gallotannic acid Used in tanning
twigs of Quercus infectoria, industry Astringent
Fagaceae Manufacture of inks

Insect: Cynips tinctoria

 LIPIDS
 ester of long chain of fatty acids and alcohols
Uses:
 emollients SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 vehicles for IM injection – Corn Cottonseed Peanut Sesame 10C Capric
 cathartic – castor oil 12C Lauric
 soap production 14C Myristic
 increase caloric value – TPN 16C Palmitic (most abundant
FA) 18C Stearic
20C Arachidic
CLASSES OF LIPIDS
1. Fixed Oils - Long chain fatty acids + Glycerol UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
o From vegetables 18:1 Oleic
o Liquid at room temperature (except theobroma) 18:2 Linoleic
18:3 Linolenic (dietary precursor of
2. Fats - Long chain fatty acids + Glycerol PGE) 18:4 Arachidonic (precursor of
o From animals PGE)
o Solid at room temperature (except cod liver oil)
Vitamin F (essential FAs): Oleic, Linoleic,
Linolenic
3. Waxes – long chain fatty acids + High MW alcohol such as cetyl or stearylalcohol

4. Sterols – alcohols containing cyclopentanophenanthrene nucleus (cholesterol)

5. Phospholipids (Phosphatides) – Ester consisting of glycerol in combination with fatty acids, phosphoric acid
and nitrogenous compounds (Lecithin)

6. Glycolipids (Cerebrosides) – Substances isolated from the brain and various sources which on hydrolysis yield
fatty acids, galactose and nitrogenous compounds (Phrenosin and kerasin)

Tests or constants based on the chemical constitution of the fatty acids:

1. Acid value or acid number

 # of mg. of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acids in 1 g of substance
 Indicates the presence of free fatty acids

2. Saponification value , saponification number or Koettsdorfer number

 # of mg. of KOH required to neutralize the free acids and saponify the ester contained in 1 g. of substance
 serves to detect the presence of the glycerides of acids

3. Iodine number
 # of grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of the substance
 indicates the degree of unsaturation of the fatty acids

Classification of Fixed oils base on Iodine Value

1 drying oils >120 Linseed, cod liver
oil
2 semidrying 100-120 Cottonseed, sesame
FIXED OILS
Origin Active Constituent Use

Coconut Oil Cocos nucifera Lauric & Myristic acid Solvent for IM injection

Palm Oil Elaeis guincenss Shortening, frying, soap & candle manu

Ricin (toxic) Stimulant cathartic (ricinoleic acid) from

Castor Oil Ricinus communis Ricinine (alkaloid) Tricinolein hydrolysis by lipase (duodenum)
Azeleic acid (anti-acne) CI: Pregnancy
Olive oil grades (extracted with):
1. First Grade Virgin – less pressure
Olive Oil 2. Second Grade Virgin – more P
Olea europaea Oleic acid
Sweet oil 3. Technical Oil – hot water
4. Sulfur Grade – CS2; low quality
5. Tournant Oil – fallen, decomp fruits
Peanut Oil
Arachis hypogaea Oleic acid, Linoleic acid Solvent for IM injection
Arachis Oil
Rapeseed Oil Brassica campestris Salad oil
Erucic acid
Canola Oil Brassica napus Shortening
Lecithin – useful in controlling
deranged lipid and cholesterol
Soybean Oil Glycine soja Linolenic Acid
metabolism.
Stigmasterol – from lipid fraction of
soybean; steroid hormone precursor
Linoleic, Oleic, Palmitic
Cottonseed Oil Gossypium hirsutum Make substitues for lard, soap
Myristic, Arachidonic
Sesamol – phenolic constituent which
Sesame Oil Oleic acid
Sesamum indicum owes the excellent stability of the oil
Teel oil, Benne oil Linoleic acid
produced by the hydrolysis of sesamolin
Almond Oil Oleic, Linoleic
Prunus amygdalus Emollient
Palmitic, Stearic
Persic Oil Prunus armeniaca
Apricot/Peach kernel oil Prunus persica

Corn Oil Zea mays embryo Solvent for IM injection

Safflower Oil Carthamus tinctoria Linoleic acid Dietary supp (False claim: ↓ cholesterol)

Sunflower Oil Helianthus annus Alternative to corn oil and safflower oil

Linseed Oil Linileic acid – inedible Linum means thread;

Linum usitatissimum
Flaxseed oil (drying oil in paint & varnish) usitatissimum means most useful

Theobroma Oil Cocoa syrup, Beverage

Theobroma cacao
Food for the Gods Cocoa butter – supp base
Iodine addition product of ethyl ester of the fatty
Ethiodized Oil Injection Diagnostic aid
acids of poppy seed
FATS
Origin Active Constituent Use
Lanolin Wool of Ovis Aries Hydrous Lanolin: 25% water H2O absorbable ointment base
Anhydrous lanolin/wool fat: Emollient
0.25% water
Cod Liver Oil Gadus morrhua Myristic acid Sodium morrhuate - sclerosing
- liquid animal fat (fresh livers) Palmitic acid agent (varicose)
Source of Vit. A and D
Undecylenic Acid Pyrolysis of Ricinoleic Antifungal
acid from castor oil

WAXES – stiffening agents

Origin Active Constituent Use
Spermaceti head of sperm whale, Synthetic Spermaceti (Cetyl Ester Wax) Emollient, Cold cream
Physeter macrocephalus
Jojoba Oil Simmondsia chinensis Eicosenoic acid Emollient
Beeswax Honeycomb of Myricyl palmitate Stiffening agent
Yellow wax Apis mellifera
Carnauba wax Copernicia prunifera Myricyl cerotate Candles, wax varnishes

Prostaglandins – class of natural products with potent and diverse biological activities
Lipid metabolites formed in the body from essential, unsaturated fatty acids from the diet.
Linoleic – most important dietary precursor of the prostaglandins
– converted by elongation and desaturation in the liver to arachidonic acid

Prostanoic acid – parent compound of all natural prostaglandins

Elcosonoids – arachidonic acids and most of the metabolites contain 20 carbon atoms
3 Main Classes of Major Prostaglandins
1 Prostaglandin A
2 Prostaglandin E
3 Prostaglandin F
 VOLATILE OILS
(Ethereal oils/Essences)
Physical Characteristics
 Possess characterisctic odor
 Evaporate when exposed to air
 High refractive index
 Optically active
 Immiscible in water but they can be sufficiently soluble to impart their odor in water
 May act as insect repellants or insect attractants

May occur in specialized secretory structures:

glandular hairs – Labiatae  Lamiaceae
modified parenchymal cells – Piperaceae
oil tubes called vittae – Umbelliferae  Apiaceae
lysigenous or schizogenous passages – Pinaceae, Rutaceae

Formed by: Decomposition of resigenous layer of cell

wall Hydrolysis of certain glycosides

2 classes:
Terpene derivatives - via acetate-mevalonic acid pathway
Aromatic compounds - via schikimic acid-phenylpropanoid route

Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Antiseptic , Antipruritic (camphor), Counterirritant (methyl salicylate)

Fixed Volatile
Oil Oil
Ester of Glycerol + Fatty Acid Made up of terpenes
Can be saponified Cannot be saponified
Permanent spot on brown paper No permanent spot on brown paper
Cannot be isolated by distillation Can be distilled from natural source
Become rancid Resinify on long standing

METHODS OF OBTAINING VOLATILE OILS

1. Distillation
a. Water distillation - for those not injured by boiling (turpentine oil)
b. Water and steam distillation - for those injured by boiling (clove oil, cinnamon oil)
c. Steam distillation - for fresh plant drugs (peppermint, spearmint)
d. Destructive distillation - empyreumatic oils (heat without the access of air)

2. Enzymatic Actions – mustard oil

3. Expression
a. Ecuelle - rolling the fruit over a trough lined with sharp projections (citrus oils)
b. Enfleurage - expression with the use of cold fat (perfume)

4. Extraction – using solvent systems based on volatile solvents (petroleum ether/benzene)

MEDICINAL AND COMMERCIAL USES
1. Fabrication of Perfumes

Definition Examples
Top Notes Most volatile products Lemon oil, Lavender oil, Anise oil
Leave the skin readily
Middle Notes Intermediate tenacity Thyme oil, Neroli oil, Rose oil
and volatility
Base Notes Low volatility and Musk
aka Fixatives high tenacity  Dried secretion from the preputial follicles
of the male musk deer of Asia (Moschus
spp)
Civet
 A glandular secretion appearing in an
outwardly discharging pockets of Civet cats
(Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)
Ambergris
 Most valuable material
 Pathologic product formed in the stomach of
spermwhale when it feeds on squid or cattlefish

Volatile oils generally consist of:

Eloptene – hydrocarbon portion, liquid
Stearoptenes – oxidized hydrocarbon portions, solid (generally obtained by freezing the oil)

CONSTITUENTS OF VOLATILE OILS

 Terpenes – natural products whose structures may be divided into isoprene units
 C5H8

Monoterpenes – most abundant in nature 2 isoprene units C10H16

Sesquiterpenes 3 isoprene units C15H24
Diterpenes 4 isoprene units C20H32
Triterpenes 6 isoprene units C20H48

Phenylpropanoids
– contain C6 phenyl ring with an attached C3 propane side chain
– those in volatile oils are phenol or phenol ethers

BIOSYNTHESIS OF VOLATILE OIL CONSTITUENTS

Isoprene units – building blocks for

terpenes Synthetically active isoprene
units:
🟃 isopentyl pyrophosphate
🟃 dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
Geranyl pyrophosphate – C-10 precursor of terpenes
Principal precursors of phenylpropanoid
compounds:
🟃 cinnamic acid
🟃 p-hydroxycinnamic acid (p-coumaric acid)
These compounds arise from phenylalanine and thyrosine, which in turn synthesized via shikimic acid pathway.
HYDROCARBON
1. Turpentine Oil (Spirit of Turpentine)
BO : Pinus palustris and from other species of Pinnus Linne
Use : Disinfectant, Deodorant, Counterirritant in Vicks Vaporub

Rectified turpentine oil - rectified by distillation from an aqueous solution of NaOH

Terpin hydrate/Terpinol/cis-p-menthane-1,8-diol hydrate
- formed by action of nitric acid on rectified turpentine oil in the presence of alcohol
- expectorant

ALCOHOL
Peppermint Oil Mentha piperita Menthol
Japanese Peppermint Mentha arvensis High menthol concentration than M. piperita but it has an
Oil inferior flavor
Cardamom Oil Elettaria cardamomum Flavor, carminative
Coriander Oil Coriandum sativum Flavor, carminative
Rose Oil Rosa gallica, R. damascena, Perfume
Otto of Rose R. alba, R. centifolia
Orange Flower Oil Citrus aurantium Perfume, flavor
Neroli Oil
Juniper Oil Juniperus communis Flavor, diuretic in the OTC drug, Odrinil®

ALDEHYDE
Cinnamon Oil Cinnamomum loureirii Flavoring, carminative, pungent aromatic. Antiseptic
Cassia Oil
Cinnamaldehyde
Natural: cassia oil
Synthetic: benzaldehyde + acetaldehyde (action of NaOH)

Lemon Peel Citrus limon Limonene & Citral (neral & geranial)

Lemon Balm Melissa officinalis Citral

Orange Oil Citrus sinensis Limonene

Cymbopogon
Citronella Oil Perfume, insect repellant
winterianus, C. nardus

Hamamelis Water Hamamelis virginia Astringent in the OTC hemorrhoid preparations

KETONE
Camphor Cinnamomun camphora Carvone Antipruritic

Synthetic: racemic
Natural: dextrorotatory
Spearmint Mentha spicata (+)Carvone has the same Flavor, carminative
odor as that of caraway Gums, toothpaste, mouthwash
Caraway Oil Carum carvi (+)Carvone Flavor, carminative
Barosma betulina, Diuretic in OTC drugs for
Buchu B. Crenulata *Diosphenol menstrual problems,
B. Serratifolia Fluidex,
Odrinil
Wormwood Oil
Artemisia absinthium Thujone Counterirritant in Absorbine Jr.
Absinthe Oil
Cedar Leaf Oil Thuja accidantalis Thujone, Fenchone Counterirritant in Vicks Vaporub

PHENOL VOLATILE OILS

Clove Oil Eugenia caryophyllus Eugenol (4-allyl-2- Dental analgesic
methoxyphenol)
Thymol Thymus vulgaris Thymol Antifungal
- synthetically from m- Antibacteria
cresol or p-cymene l
CREOSOTE Fagus grandiflora Gualacol, Creosol disinfectant in Dewitt’s
Beachwood creosote Toothache drops, expectorant in
Creomulsin
JUNIPER TAR Pinus palustris Antieczematic and anti-
Cade oil psoriasis (Packer’s Pine Tar,
Polytar),
Expectorant
Myrcia oil Pimenta racemosa

PHENOLIC-ETHER VOLATILE OILS

Biosynthesis of Phenolic Ethers – takes place from phenylalanine (schikimic acid-phenylpropanoid pathway)
Methionine – methyl donor for methoxylation reaction

Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Safrole Flavoring, Carminative

Myristica Oil Myristicin
Fennel Oil Foeniculum vulgare Anethole Flavoring, Carminative
Anise Oil Pimpinella anisum Anethole Flavoring, Carminative
(anise or aniseed),
Illicium varum
(chinese
anise or star anise)

OXIDE VOLATILE OILS

1. Eucalyptus Oil/Cineole
BO : Eucalyptus globulus
AC : Cineole/Eucalyptol/Cajuputol
Use : flavor, antiseptic, diaphoretic, expectorant
2. Ascaridol
ESTER VOLATILE OILS
Biosynthesis of Esters - terpene esters are generally formed from the respective alcohols by reaction with
aliphatic acid moieties (commonly acetic acid)

Gaultheria Oil Gaultheria procumbens Methylsalicylate Flavor (aromatic cascara

Wintergreen/Betula/ Betula lenta sagrada fluidextract
Sweet birch local irritant, antiseptic, antirheumatic

Lavender Oil Lavandula angustifolia Perfume

Pine Needle Oil

Pinus mugo Perfume
Dwarf pine needle oil
Allyl isothiocyanate
Mustard Oil Brassica nigra Acrinyl isothiocyanate Rubefacient in Musterolew

SESQUITERPENES
1. Chamomile Matricaria chamomila Carminative, spasmolytic
2. Artemisinin Artemisia annua Antimalarial
Quinghaosu
3. Valerian Valeriana officinalis Sedative and anxiolytic
4. Feverfew Tanasetum parthenium Antipyretic, migraine tx

DITERPENES
1. Taxol Taxus brevifolia Antineoplastic
2. Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Increases blood fluidity

TRITERPENES
Quassinoids – pediculocide
1. Neem Tree Azadirachta indica Antifeedant properties (mosquito repellant)
 RESIN AND RESIN COMBINATIONS
 Amorphous products with complex chemical nature
 Hard transparent or translucent and when heated they soften and melt

Resin Combinations:
1. Oleoresins – resins + volatile oils
2. Oleo-gum-resins – resins + volatile oils + gum
3. Balsams – contain cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, or both
4. Glucoresins or glycoresins – glycosidal combinations (ex. jalap and podophyllum)

Resin Acids (abietic acid, copaivic & oxycopaivic acid, commiphoric acid)
RESINS• contain large proportion of oxyacids, usually combining the properties of carboxylic acids and phenols
• resinates – metallic salts of resin acids (some
Other Name are used in soaps
Origin and varnishes)
Constituent Use
Rosin
Resin AlcoholsColophony Pinus Palustris
(benzoresinol, storesinol) Stiffening agent
• do not give a tannin reaction with iron salts
Podophyllum peltatum
• occur in Mayapple
free state and as esters in combination with simple aromatic acids Drastic purgative
Podophyllum Indian Podophyllum Podophyllin
Mandrake Antimitotic
– rhizome of P.siaresinotannol and sumaresinotannol,
Resinotannols (aloeresinotannol, peruresinotannol, and toluresinotannol)
(papilomas)
• gives a tannin reaction with ironemodi
salts
Eriodictyon Disguise Quinine bitterness
Eriodictyon Yerba santa
Resenes – B-complex natural substances californicu Stimulating expectorant
devoid of characteristic chemical properties
m (1g)
Glycoresins – yields sugars and complex resin acids on hydrolysis
Jalap Jalap root Exogonium purga Jalap resin Hydragogue cathartic
Pharmaceutic Resins are usually obtained by:
Mastic - extracting
Mastiche, Mastich& precipitating
with alcohol Pistacia lentiscus Dental varnish to seal cavities
the resins in water (jalap & podophyllum)
- separating the oil from oleoresin by distillation (copaivic resin)
Centrally acting muscle
Kava Kava-kava
- collecting the natural product Piper methysticum
throught natural or artificial punctures (mastic)
relaxant Antipyretic, local
anaesthetic
Indian hemp THC – euphoric agent
Cannabis Cannabis sativa Hashish
Marihuana, Pot Cannabidiol – manuf of
rope
OLEORESINS
Other Name Origin Constituent Use
Gum turpentine
Turpentine Pinus palustris Counterirritant
Gum thus
Irritant, carminative,
Capsicum Cayenne pepper Capsicum frutescens Capsaicin
Rubefacient, Stimulant,
Condiment
Flavor, condiment,
Ginger Zingiber Zingiber officinale
stimulant, carminative,
ginger ale
White Pine Pinus srobus Coniferin Expectorant
Genitourinary disinfectant,
Copaiba Balsam of Copaiba Copaifera spp.
Diuretic, Expectorant,
Laxative

OLEO-GUM-RESINS
1. Myrrh/Gum myrrh Commiphora molmol Astringent, Embalming
2. Asafetida/Devil’s Dung

BALSAMS
Origin Use
Storax Liquidambar orientalis Pharmaceutic aid for compound benzoin tincture
Liquid Storax Stimulant, Expectorant, Antiseptic
Styrax
Peru Balsam Myroxylon pereirae Local protectant and rubefacient, Antiseptic
Tolu Balsam Myroxylon balsamum Pharmaceutic aid in compound benzoin tincture
occurs as plastic solid Expectorant, Flavoring in syrups, confectionery, chewing
that gradually gum, perfumery
hardens
Benzoin Styrax benzoin Antiseptic
Compound Benzoin Tincture (benzoin, aloe, storax, tolu)
Benzoic acid (synthetic product; first obtained by
sublimation from Sumatra benzoin; antifungal)
 ALKALOIDS
 Bitter, basic nitrogenous compounds, sparingly soluble in water
 Most of them end in –ine
 All are solids except:
o Coniine
o Nicotine
o Sparteine
 Form double salts with compounds of mercury, gold, platinum, and other heavy metals

Alkaloidal reagents/precipitants:
1. Mayer’s Mercuric potassium iodide White or slightly yellow ppt.
2. Marmers Potassium-cadmium iodide White ppt.
3. Dragendorff’s Potassium-bismuth iodide Orange
4. Wagner’s Iodine TS Reddish brown or red brown ppt.
5. Scheibler’s Phosphotungstic acid
6. AuCl
7. Valser’s KI and mercuric White ppt.
8. Tannic acid
9. Hager’s iodide Yellow
10. Sonnenscheins
Picric acid
Phosphomolybdic
acid

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALOIDS
1. Free alkaloids - sparingly soluble in H2O
2. + acids --> salts
3. + salts of heavy metals --> highly insoluble precipitates
4. nitrogenous, physiologically active
5. alkaloidal salt + Na2CO3 --> free base
6. Solid alkaloid - white, soluble or slightly soluble in H2O, soluble in organic solvents
7. Pure alkaloids - insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents
8. alkaloids + acids = alkaloidal salts (soluble in water)

Alkaloid yielding plants: Pharmacologic Action of Alkaloids

1. Leguminosae 1. Analgesic and narcotics -morphine, codeine
2. Solanaceae 2. Central stimulant - strychnine, brucine
3. Rubiaceae 3. Mydriatics - atropine
4. Ranunculaceae 4. Miotics - physostigmine, pilocarpine
5. Papaveraceae 5. Cause a rise in B.P - ephedrine
6. Berberidaceae 6. Excessive hypertension - reserpine

The names of the alkaloids are obtained in various ways:

1. generic name (Hydrastine, Atropine)
2. specific name (Coccaine, Belladona)
3. common name (Ergotamine)
4. physiologic activity (Emetine, morphine)
5. discoverer (Pelletietine)

FUNCTIONS OF ALKALOIDS IN PLANTS

1. poisonous agents – protect plants againts insects & herbivores
2. end products of detox representing metabolic locking up of compounds otherwise harmful to the plant
3. Regulatory growth factor
4. Reserve substance capable of supplying nitrogen or others
 PYRIDINE-PIPERIDINE
Origin Use
Nicotine Nicotiana tabacum Nicotine (smoking deterent)
Arecoline Anthelminthic
Areca Betel nut Areca Catechu
Tannin content causes esophageal CA
Lobelia Indian tobacco Lobelia inflata Lobeline (smoking deterent)

TROPANE/SOLANACEOUS
Origin Use
Atropa belladonna Parasympathetic depressant
Belladonna Deadly nightshade
Atropos – fate that cuts the thread of life Adjunct in tx of peptic ulcer

Hyoscyamus Henbane Hyoscyamus niger Hog + Bean  toxic to swine

Jimson Weed Datura stramonium

Stramonium Treatment of asthma (vapor)
Jamestown Weed D. metel (Talumpunay/Thorn apple)

Mandragora European mandrake Mandragora officinarum Has folkloric uses

Psychomotor stimulant with a strong

Cocaine Coca Erythroxylum coca
abuse potential, vasoconstrictor

Principal Solanaceous Alkaloids:

1. Atropine
o Antispasmodic
o Antisialogogue – decrease production of secretion
o Mydriatic and cycloplegic
o Antidote for cholinesterase inhibitors

2. Scopolamine or Hyoscine
o Hyoscyamus niger
o Treatment of motion sickness
o Trans-scoop or transderm Scop – 4 hours before anti-emetic effect

QUINOLINE
Cuprea
o Remijia purdieana

Cinchona or Peruvian bark

o Cinchona succirubra (Red
cinchona)
Cinchona calisaya (Yellow cinchona)
o Quinidine - anti-arrthythmic
Quinine - antimalarial
o Identification of the quinine /quinidine by Thalleioquin test
ISOQUINOLINE – emerald green color of thalleioquin (Joseph Caventou with Pelltier)
Other Name Origin Constituent Use
Ipecac syrup – emetic
Ipecac Cephalis ipecacuanha Emetine Fluidextract – 14x more potent
Ipecac + Opium - diaphoretic
Sanguinaria Bloodroot Sanguinaria canadensis Sanguinarine Expectorant & emetic

Tubocurarine Curare Strychnus toxifera Tubocurarine Skeletal muscle relaxant

Astringents in inflammation
Hydrastis Golden seal Hydrastis canadensis Hydrastine
of the mucous membrane

Opium Stone of immortality Papaver somniferum Stimulate and depresses CNS

Alkaloids of Opium
1. morphine most abundant, most important
2. codeine heroin Papaverine
methyl morphine most widely used; antitussive
3. Hydromorphine diacetylmorphine
Hydrocodone Apomorphine
hallucinogen
4. relief of ischemia & arrhythmias
5.
6.
7. emetic
8. Narcotine/Noscapine ANARCOTINE, antitussive
9. Paregoric camphorated opium tincture
10. Dover’s powder Ipecac + opium

IMIDAZOLE
Pilocarpine (Pilocarpus, Jaborandi)
BO : Pilocarpus jaborandi
Use : Cholinergic drug used in the Tx of glaucoma; miotic

STEROIDAL
Veratum Viride (American or Green hellebore)
BO : Veratrum viride
Uses : hypotension, cardiac depressant, Black hellebore – cardiac stimulant

White Hellebore (European hellebore)

BO : Veratrum album
Use : Hypotensive, Insecticide (crude drug)
INDOLE
Other Name Origin Constituent Use
Rauwolfia Rauvolfia serpentina Reserpine  Snake bites
serpentina  Insanity
Rescinnamine (Psychotherapy)
Deserpidine (II-  Hypotensive
desmethoxyreserpine)  Sedative,
Yohimbine - TX: Tranquilizin
impotence (Serpasil) g
Catharanthus Vinca Catharanthus roseus Vincristine and Vinblastine
Chichirica - antineoplastic/oncolytic
Nux Vomixa Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnine – toxic central stimulant
Brucine – alcohol denaturant
Physostigmine Calabar bean Physostigma venenosum Physostigmine/Eserine - Tx glaucoma, miotic
Ordeal bean
Ergot Rye ergot Claviceps purpurea Ergonovine – oxytocic
Secale cornutum Ergotamine – migrane
Lysergic acid Diethylamide (LSD)
 most specific and most active hallucinogen
 discovered by A. Hoffman in 1943

ALKALOIDAL AMINES
Constituent Use
Ephedrine Ephedra, Mahuang Ephedra sinica Sympathomimetic

Plant genetics: doubles the chromosomes

Colchicine Colchicum autumnale
Gout suppressant: Acute

Khat Abyssinian tea Catha edulsis Cathinone - alleviate sensation of hunger and fatigue
Mescaline (3,4,5 trimethoxy-ẞ-phenylethylamine)
Peyote Mescal buttons Lophophora williamsii
 Hallucinogen and euphoric

PURINE OR METHYLXANTHINES
1. Caffeine 1,3,7 trimethylxanthine
o Does not react with or ppt with alkaloidal reagnents
o Kola (dried cotyledon of Cola nitida) Caffeine is detected by
o Cofee bean (dried seeds of Coffea arabica) means of a Murexide test
o Guarana (Paullinia cupana)  purple color
o Mate/Paraguay tea (Ilex paraguariensis)

2. Theophylline 1,3 dimethylxanthine

o Camella sinensis
o Treatment of bronchial asthma, Tocolytic agent
o Aminophylline – semisynthetic theophylline derivative

3. Theobromine 3,7 dimethyl xanthine

o Theobroma cacao
o Diuretic in cardiac & pulmonary edema (preferred over caffeine - little action on the CNS)
 BIOLOGICS 1.
Types of Immunity
Natural (Innate) Immunity
2. Acquired Immunity
 Any product derived from a living plant or animal source Active Immunity
 Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin or analogous product a. Naturally Acquired Active
 Not chemotherapeutic nor an antibiotic b. Artificially Acquired Active
 Uses of biologics: Passive Immunity
o Prophylactic or Preventive Therapy a. Naturally Acquired Passive
o Therapeutic or Curative Measures b. Artificially Acquired Passive

2 GENERAL CATEGORIES Epitope

 Antigen  simplest form of
 provokes the immune response antigenic determinant
 Chemically: Antigens are usually protein present on a complex
antigenic molecule
 Biologically: causes formation of antibodies when introduced to tissue
 Physically: H molecular weight (more than 10,000
Hapte
daltons) 2 properties: ns
Immunogenicity – capacity to induce Ab  compounds with m.w
formation Specificity lower than 10,000
daltons
 Antibody  partial antigens
 predominant in the serum fraction of the blood  lack immunogenicity but
 4 fractions obtained when serum proteins are separated by electrophoresis:
1. serum albumin
2. alpha globulin
3. beta globulin
4. gamma globulin 4 subsets of T cells

Immunoglobulins/Antibodies/Serum Globulin Cell-mediated immunity:

 Ab that occur predominately in the gamma globulin TC cells – cytotoxic, attack cell
fraction membranes bearing their
 Attacks specific antigen
TD cells – delayed hypersensitivity cells
antigens 5 subclasses of – releases lymphokines, which
recruit & activate macrophages
IgA External secretions (tears, saliva, respiratory, GI)
Ig:
IgD Found in surface of B lymphocytes (no fxn yet) Immunoregulatory:
IgE Allergy TH (helper) cells – interaction with B cells
IgG Smallest (passes through placenta) is essential for optimal humoral immunity
IgM Largest TS (supressor) cells – diminish activity of B cells
First Ig to be formed during infection (newborn)
Macrophages and Major cellular components of immune system
Lymphocytes
B cells Orgin of serum antibodies (humoral immunity)
T cells  originate in bone marrow but depend on thymus gland for differentiation
 cellular immunity, delayed hypersensitivity
 sentinels of immune surveilance against cancer and mediators of graft rejection
B memory cells  some progeny of the selected clones that remain as circulating B cells
 serve as immune system’s memory
Plasma cells  other member of selected B-cell clones
 grow larger, stop reproduction, & continuously secrete large quantities of Ab
 AE: fever, malaise, soreness at injection
VACCINES site rubella vaccine: arthralgia and
 living, attenuated, or killed viruses, killed rickettsiae, or attenuated or killed bacteria arthritis pertussis vaccine:
 must be induced prior to infection (prophylactic) – exception: rabies vaccination convulsions
 Nonliving vaccines provide protection for a limited time: typhoid fever, cholera, plague,
typhus With living agents (single vaccination): measles, rubella, or mumps vaccine
Multiple immunizations: polio
 CI: immunosupressed patients

VIRAL VACCINES • cultures: chick embryo, monkey kidney, or human diploid cells
Description Grown on
Smallpox Vaccine (Dr. Edward Jenner) Living virus of vaccinia (cowpox) Skin of a vaccinated bovine calf
Rabies Vaccine Sterile lyophilized preparation of: Human diploid embryo lung tissue
Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine  Whole virion (Wistar (whole virion)
(HDCV) rabies virus) Human diploid cell cultures
(Imovax , WYVAC )
® ®
 Subvirion rabies virus (subvirion)
 Pasteur was able to “fix” (Pasteur- derived Pitman- *Brain tissue – formerly used
rabies virus Moore virus) for preparing the vaccine;
myelin
(“paralytic factor”)
Yellow Fever Vaccine Attenuated strain of living yellow Living embryo of domestic fowl
(YF-VAX ) ®
fever virus (Vector: Aedes mosq) (Gallus domesticus)
Influenza Virus Sterile, aqueous solution of Extra-embryonic fluid of
Vaccine (Fluzone®, suitably inactivated influenza influenza virus-infected chick
Fluogen®) virus types A and B embryo
 high strain specificity and
genetic instability (reevaluated
regularly)
Poliovirus Vaccine Inactivated Sterile suspension of inactivated Rhesus monkey kidney tissues
IPV, Salk poliomyelitis virus types 1, 2 and
3
Type 1 (Brunhilde) poliovirus – responsible for major Landsteiner and Popper – first
epidemics Type 2 (Lansing) poliovirus – sporadic transmitted poliovirus
Type 3 (Leon) poliovirus – less frequent epidemics John F. Enders – originated a method of
cultivating poliovirus
Improved strains: Jonas Salk – perfected the roller-tissue
Type 1 Mahoney strain method, as well as the detoxified form of
Type 2 MEF-1 strain vaccine
Type 3 Saukett strain

Poliovirus Vaccine Live Oral Preparation of one or a Monkey kidney tissue

(Orimune®) combination of the 3 types of
Trivalent Oral Polio Vaccine (TOPV) live, attenuated polioviruses
Albert Sabin, Harold Cox, Hilary
Koprowski – developed procedures for
manufacturing the vaccine (separately)
Measles virus vaccine live Attenuated viruses derived from Chick embryo tissue
Rubeola vaccine (Attenuvax®) the original Edmonston B strain
Rubella virus vaccine live (Meruvax Wistar Institute RA 27/3 strain Human diploid cell tissue
II®)
- For German measles, CI:Pregnancy
Mumps Virus Vaccine Live B-level Jeryl Lynn strain Chicken embryo tissue
(Mumpsvax®)
Hepatitis B Vaccine (Heptavax-B®) chemically inactivated hepatitis B plasma of healthy chronic HbsAg
surface antigens (HbsAg) particles carriers by plasmaphresis
Combination Virus Vaccines
o Live measles and rubella (M-R-Vax II), Live rubella and mumps (Biavax II), Live measles,
mumps, and rubella (M-M-R II)
RICKETTSIAL VACCINES
G : chick embryos or monkey kidney tissue cultures
Use : murine typhus, tsutsugamushi fever, rickettsial diseases, epidemic typhus

BACTERIAL VACCINES
 suspensions of attenuated, more commonly, killed pathogenic bacteria in isotonic NaCl soln
 “S”/smooth strains are more antigenic than “R”/rough strains

Typhoid Vaccine (Enteric vaccine) Killed Salmonella typhi (Type 2)

Cholera Vaccine Killed Vibrio cholerae (Inaba & Ogawa strains)
Plague Vaccine Killed Yersinia pestis (Reservoir: rats | Vector: fleas)
Killed Bordetella pertussis
Pertussis Vaccine
Adsorbed Pertussis Vaccine – pertussis vaccine + of AlOH3 or Al2(PO4)3
Tuberculosis Vaccine (BCG Vaccine) Dried, living M. Tuberculosis(Calmette-Guerin strain)
Meningitis Vaccine Capsular polyssacharides for Neisseria meningitidis (A, C, Y, and W-135)
Pneumococcal Vaccine Polyvalent Polysaccharide antigens from Streptococcus pneumoniae
Haemophilus b Polysaccharide Vaccine Capsular polyvalent polysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)

TOXINS AND TOXOIDS

o Toxins – (exotoxins) bacterial waste products that are considered poisonous to the animal body
o Toxoid – toxin whose toxicity has been inactivated or suppressed either by chemical (formalin) or heat
o Act as antigens because they stimulate certain cells of the body to produce antitoxins
o Culture medium: beef broth medium
o Clostridium botulinum – source of the most poisonous poison

Fluid Toxoids
- formaldehyde (reduces or eliminates toxic properties w/o affecting antigenicity)
- induces artificial active immunity

Adsorbed Toxoid
- precipitated or adsorbed with alum, aluminum hydroxide, or aluminum phosphate
- slower release of antigen, subsequent production of higher & more prolonged Ab titers
- more prone to produce local reactions at the injection site

ANTITOXINS (From blood of toxin-immunized animals, usually horses)

o Standardized in terms of “antitoxin units”
o Admin: prepare a syringe containing epinephrine injection and torniquet to counter anaphylactic reactions

Use
Diphtheria Antitoxin Passive immunity, curative
Tetanus Antitoxin Treatment & prophylaxis of tetanus if Tetanus Ig is not available (passive immunity)
Botulism Antitoxin (multivalent) treat all cases of toxemia caused by types of botulinus bacteria used
type A, B, E strains
VENOMS AND ANTIVENINS (From blood of venom-immunized animals, usually horses)
o Venoms – poisonous excretions produced by animals; equivalent to exotoxins in bacteria
o Snake venins or venoms – obtained by holding a poisonous snake over a conical glass container
covered with a sheet of thin rubber

Synonym Against venom

of
Antivenin North and South American Crotalus atrox (Western diamondback)
(Crotalidae antisnakebite serum C. adamanteus (Florida diamondback)
) C. durissis terrificus (S. American rattlesnake)
Polyvalent Bothrops atrox (S. Amarican fer-de-lance)
Antivenin North American coral snake Micrurus fulvius (eastern coral snake)
antivenin M. fulvius tenere (Texas coral snake)
Spider-Bite Antivenin (Latrodectus mactans) Latrodectus mactans (black widow spider)
Antivenin Black widow spider antivenin

ANTISERUMS (From blood of bacteria/virus-immunized animals, usually horses)

Antirabies Serum (more effective if administered with rabies vaccine)
D : sterile, nonpyrogenic solution containing antiviral substances
From : blood serum or plasma of a healthy horse immunized against rabies by vaccination

IMMUNE GLOBULINS (From immune humans (survived an attack or immunized)

Use
Immune Globulin Prophylactic in chickenpox, hepatitis A, and other diseases
Immune serum globulin
Immune globulin intramuscular Immune Globulin Intravenous/IGIV
Gamma globulin  provides immediate Ab levels
 tx of immunodeficiency syndrome
Pertussis Immune Globulin Prophylaxis and treatment of pertussis
Passive immunization against tetanus in individuals with wounds that
Tetanus Immune Globulin
may have been contaminated
Rabies Immune Globulin Used with rabies vaccine (best postexposure prophylaxis)
Hepatitis B Immune Globulin
Varicella-Zoster Immune Globulin Restricted to immunodeficient individuals
For unsensitized Rh-negative women who give birth to RH0 (D)- or Du-
RH0 (D) Immune Globulin
positive infant
Lymphocyte Immune Globulin Lymphocyte selective immunosuppresant
DIAGNOSTIC ANTIGENS
 positive response: localized, well-defined wheal accompanied by erythema

From Positive Response

Human or bovine strains of tubercle
Tuberculin redness or inflammation
bacillus
inflammation and palpable induration
Old Tuberculin M. tuberculosis
or edema (5 mm)
Purified Protein Derivative of
M. tuberculosis (free from protein) palpable induration (10 mm or more)
Tuberculin
Histoplasmin Histoplasma capsulatum (mycelial phase)
Coccidioidin Fungus Coccidioides immitis
Diphtheria Toxin Corynebacterium diphtheriae
circumscribed area of redness (≥1 cm)
(nlt 400 MLD/min lethal doses)
Formaldehyde-inactivated mumps virus
Mumps Skin Test Antigen
grown on extra-embryonic fluids of the erythema (at least 1.5 cm)
mumps virus-infected chicken embryo

BIOLOGICS RELATED TO HUMAN BLOOD

Whole Blood (human) From donor (+ citrate/heparin as anticoagulant) Blood replenisher
Red Blood Cells Whole blood minus plasma Blood replenisher in anemia
Plasma Protein Fraction Selected proteins derived by fractionating Blood volume restoration (in shock)
(human) material (source blood plasma, or serum)
Sterile protein from prothrombin (bovine)
Thrombin Hemostatic
+ thromboplastin in the presence of calcium

Antihemophilic Derivatives – control of 2 types of hemophilia

Antihemophilic factor sterile, freeze-dried concentrate of human Hemophilia A

antihemophilic factor (prepared from the factor VIII- (classic hemophilia)
rich
cryoprotein fraction of human venous plasma)
Antihemophilic factor IX dried plasma fraction comprising coagulation factors IX, Prevent dangerous
complex II, VII, X bleeding or to perform
surgery
Albumin Human sterile, nonpyrogenic preparation of serum albumin blood-volume supporter
obtained by fractionating material (source blood plasma,
serum, or placentas) from healthy human donors

Radio-Iodinated Serum Albumins

 contains serum albumin iodinated using mild conditions with either 125I or 131I
 sterile, buffered, isotonic solutions prepared to contain nlt 10 mg of radio-iodinated normal human
albumin per ml & adjusted to provide nmt 1 millicurie of radioactivity per ml

Iodinated 125I albumin injection and diagnostic aid to determine blood volume and cardiac output
Iodinated 131I albumin injection
Iodinated 131I aggregated injection diagnostic aid for determination of pulmonary clearance
 HERBS AND “HEALTH” FOODS
🟃 Natural – identifies only a source, not necessarily degree of superiority or inferiority
🟃 Organic – the produce was grown under conditions utilizing only natural fertilizers, no pesticides

Alfalfa lucerne Medicago sativa

Aloe A. barbadensis(Aloe vera) or Curacao, A. spicata (Cape aloe)
Angelica Angelica archangelica
Apricot Pits Prunus armeniaca
Arnica Arnica montana
Asafetida gum asafetida, devil’s dung Ferula assafoetida, F. rubricaulis, F. Foetida
Aveloz killwart Euphorbia heterodoxa
Black Cohosh Cimicifuga racemosa
Blessed Thistle Cnicus benedictus
Blue Vervain wild hyssop Verbena hastata
Boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum
Borage common borage Borago officinalis
Bran Triticum aestivum
Broom Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius
Buchu Barosma betulina, B. crenulata, B. Serratifolia
Burdock lappa Arctium lappa
Butcher’s-Broom box holly Ruscus aculeatus
Calamus sweet flag Acorus calamus
Canaigre wild red American ginseng Rumex hymenosepalus
Catnip Nepeta cataria
Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla (German), Anthemis nobilis (Roman)
Chaparral creosote bush Larrea tridentata
Chicory Cichorium intybus
Cholecystokinin CCK secreted by the duodenal mucosa
Cocillana Guarea rusbyi
Collinsonia stoneroot Collinsonia canadensis
Coltsfoot farfara Tussilago farfara
Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Cucurbita Seed Cucurbita pepo, C. maxima, C. moschata
Damiana Turnera diffusa
Devil’s Claw Harpagophytum procumbens
Echinacea Cone/purple cone flower Echinacea angustifolia
Eleuthero Siberian ginseng Acanthopanax senticosus/Eleutherococcus s.
Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis
Eyebright Euphasia officinalis
Fenugreek Trigonella foenumgraecum
Feverfew Chrysanthemum parthenium
Fo-ti-tieng Vitamin X Centella asiatica, Gillena trifoliata (meadowsweet), C.
nitida
Garlic Allium sativum
Onion Allium cepa
Gentian ( gentian root Gentiana lutea
Ginseng Panax quinquefolius, P. Pseudoginseng
Glucomannan Konjac mannan Amorphophallus rivieri
Glycyrrhiza licorice
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Gotu Kola Hydrocotyle, Indian pennywort Centella asiatica
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna
Hedge Hyssop Gratiola officinalis
Hibiscus Sudanese tea Hibiscus sabdariffa
Honey mel Apis mellifera
Hops homulus Humulus lupulus
Horehound Marrubium vulgare
Horse Chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum
Horsetail Equisetium arvense
Hydrangea Hydrangea arborescens
Hyssop Hyssopus officinale
Kelp Macrosystis, Nereocystis, and Laminaria spp.
Lecithin Phosphatide mixture that yield α- or β-glycerophosphoric
acid, fatty acids, and choline on hydrolysis
Life Root golden ragwort Senecio aureus
Linden Flowers Tilia species
Lovage Levisticum officinale
Marigold Calendula officinalis
Mistletoe American or European mistletoe Phoradendron tomentosum, P. serotinum, flavescens
Mormon Tea Mexican/teamster/squaw tea, popotillo Ephedra nevadensis
Muira Puama potency wood Ptychopetalum olacoides, P. uncinatum
Oregano wild marjoram Origanum vulgare
Pangamic Acid Ca pangamate, pangamic acid, vit B15 blood abnormalites, asthma, emphysema, alcoholism
Parsley Petroselinum crispum
Passiflora Passiflora incarnata
Pau d’ Arco taheebo, ipe roxo Tabebuia impetiginosa
Pennyroyal
Poke Root Phytolacca americana
Pollen microspores of seed-bearing plants
Propolis bee glue natural antibiotic
Red Bush Tea rooibos tea Aspalathus linearis
Rose Hips Rosa canina
Royal Jelly secretion from the paired salivary glands of Apis mellifera
Sarsaparilla Smilax aristolochiaefolia, S. regelii, S. Febrifuga
Sassafras sassafras bark Sassafras albidum
Schisandra schizandra Schisandra chinensis
Senega Snakeroot Polygala senega
Senna senna leaves Cassia spp. Leaflets
Spirulina Spirulina maxima
Super Oxide Dismutase SOD metal lipoprotein from the liver or RBC of ox, Bos taurus
Tamarind Tamarindus indica
Tarragon Artemisia dranunculus
Tienchi titnchi-ginseng, sanchi Panax notoginseng
Tonka Beans Dipteryx odorata
L-Tryptophan sleep-onset insomnia
Turmeric Curcuma longa
Valerian Valeriana officinalis
Wild Lettuce Lactuca virosa
Wormwood Artemisia absinthium
Yarrow midfoil Achillea millefolium
Yohimbe Pausinystalia yohimbe
Yucca Yucca spp.
 BIOCHEMISTRY/MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Parts of a Cell basic functional and structural unit of life

1. CELL MEMBRANE
CELL WALL
1. Phospholipds
2. Glycoproteins and Glycolipids Plants Cellulose
3. Cholesterol Bacteria
4. Arachidonic Acid Peptidoglycan Fungi
Chitin
2. ORGANELLES
1. Mitochondrion - powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP (energy)

2. Ribosomes - protein synthesis

Prokaryote: 30s, 50s = 70s
Eukaryote: 40s, 60s = 80s

3. Lysosomes - suicide bag of the cell

- has enzymes and free radicals (when released, will cause APOPTOSIS)

Red blood cells – 120 days

*Hemolytic anemia – <120

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

o Smooth ER - lipid synthesis
o Rough ER - protein synthesis
Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
Fetal Hydantoin Syndrome
5. Golgi Apparatus- packaging and storage of substances in the cell
-Caused by phenytoin

3. NUCLEUS – control center of the cell

1. Chromosomes - tightly coiled DNA strands (46 chromosomes)
2. Nucleolus - site of ribosome assembly
3. Nuclear Membrane
 CARBOHYDRATES
o Polyhydroxyaldehydes and polyhydroxyketones
o Aldehyde or ketone alcohols that contain C, H, O
o The H and O has the same ratio as that of water, thus they are named as carbohydrates
o First products of photosynthesis
Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar Glucose and Fructos
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed further
 Characterized by the number of C atoms in the molecules

Hexoses – most important

1. Glucose
 Aldohexose
 Dextrose, Blood sugar, Grape sugar, Physiologic sugar
Tests for Hexoses
2. Fructose
 Ketohexose GlucoseMoore’s
FructoseSeliwanoff’s
 Reducing sugar GalactoseMucic Acid
 Fruit sugar; sweet fruits and honey MannoseOsazone Test
 aka Levulose, the sweetest monosaccharide

3. Galactose – readily absorbed in the intestines; biosynthesized in mammary glands

4. Mannose

Pentoses Epimers
1. Arabinose - found in Gum Arabic/Acacia (isomers that differ in only 1
2. Ribose - found in RNA C)
3. Deoxyribose - found in DNA
Epimers of
Glucose: C2 –
DISACCHARIDES mannose
1. Sucrose - Glu + Fru
2. Maltose - Glu + Glu (α-1,4)
3. Cellybiose - Glu + Glu (β-1,4)
4. Lactose - Glu + Gal

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
1. Dextrin - product of starch degradation

POLYSACCHARIDES/GLYCANS
Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides
Starch α-1,4 / α-1,6 Hyaluronic acid
Glycoge α-1,4 and α-1,6 Dermatan (skin)
n β-1,4 Keratan (nails)
Cellulos NAG Agarose (seeweeds)
e Chitin Peptidoglycan (bacterial cell wall)
Schweitzer’s Reagent: only reagent that can dissolve cellulose
CARBOHYDR METABOLISM
ATE The sum total of all chemical reactions needed to maintain life

 Anabolism - building up  energy consuming <endergonic>

 Catabolism - breaking down  energy producing <exergonic>
 Amphibolism- combination [ex. Krebs cycle]

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

o Energy currency of the cell
o Links anabolic and catabolic reactions
o Composed of ADP + P +

Energy Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation Reduction
+ O2 - O2
-H +H
(dehydrogenation) (hydrogenation)
- e- + e-
In ETC,
Co-enzymes 1 mol NAD = 3 ATP
1. NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) - Nicotinamide/Niacin/Vitamin B3
2. FAD (Flavin Adenosine Dinucleotide) - Riboflavin/Vitamin B2
3. Coenzyme A - precursor: Pantothenic acid/Vitamin B5

Fates of Glucose
1. ATP production
2. Amino acid and triglyceride synthesis
3. Glycogen synthesis

SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

⚫ Entails the formation of 1 unit of ATP per unit of metabolite transformed
⚫ Ex. Succinyl CoA → succinate
Phosphoenol pyruvate → pyruvate
⚫ Does not need O2

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
⚫ Entails the formation of 2 or 3 units of ATP per unit of metabolite transformed
⚫ Uses co-enzymes: FAD and NAD
⚫ Substrate + NAD+  Substrate + NADH

Summary of oxidation of 1 mole of glucose

Number of units Number of ATP
Glycolysis Glucose → pyruvate 1 6-8
Intermediate step Pyruvate → Acetyl CoA 2 6
Krebs Cycle Acetyl CoA →CO2 + 2 24
ATP
GLUCOSE CATABOLISM
1. Glycolysis
2. Formation of Acetyl CoA; Intermediate Reaction
3. Kreb’s Cycle
4. Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis/Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
o Aerobic (mitochondria)
o Anaerobic (cytoplasm)
o End product: 2 pyruvic acid
Summary: 1 Glu  2 pyruvic
acid
6-8 ATP

Intermediate Reaction: Formation of Acetyl CoA

o In anaerobic reactions, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
o In aerobic reactions, pyruvic acid is converted to Acetyl CoA, which enters the Kreb’s cycle
o Removal of carbon dioxide: Decarboxylation
Kreb’s Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/ Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (mitochondria, aerobic cellular respiration)

Electron Transport Chain

o O2 – final electron acceptor
o Complete O2 reduction  H2O
o Partial O2 reduction  superoxide anions (O2-), hydroxyl radicals (OH-) and peroxides (H2O2)
o Products: ATP + H2O
GLUCOSE ANABOLISM
1. Glycogenesis
o Glucose  Glycogen
o Hormone responsible: Insulin

2. Glycogenolysis Pancreatic Hormones

o Occurs in emergency situations
α – Glucagon
o Glycogen  Glucose β – Insulin
o Hormone responsible: Epinephrine or Adrenaline
o Glycogen – glucose supply for 12-14 hours
o Stored in the liver, kidneys, and intestinal epithelium

3. Gluconeogenesis
o Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrate materials (lactate, glycerol, amino acids), proteins, fats,
and other sources
Pentose phosphate pathway/Phosphogluconate pathway/Hexose monophosphate shunt
o Occurs in the CYTOSOL
o To produce ribose – 5 – PO4 for nucleotide/DNA synthesis
o To produce NADPH from NADP+ for FA and steroid synthesis, maintaining reduced Glutathione inside RBCs
o To interconvert pentoses and hexoses
o ENZYME: Glucose – 6 – PO4 Dehydrogenase
o G6PD Deficiency stops PPP
o  production of NADPH  failure to maintain glutathione in the reduced state (maintains RBC integrity)
o results to hemolytic anemia upon taking oxidizing drugs (e.g. primaquine, sulfonamides, INH)

GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASES

0 Glycogen synthase
I Von Gierke Glucose-6-phosphatase
II Pompe Acid maltase/α-1,4-glucosidase
III Forbes-Cori Debranching enzyme
IV Andersen Branching enzyme
V McArdle Muscle phosphorylase
VI Hers Glycogen phosphorylase
VII Tarui Muscle phosphofructokinase
VIII Liver phosphorylase kinase

TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Test for Composition Positive result
Molisch’s General for carbohydrates α-naphthol Purple/Red
Fehling’s Reducing sugars A – CuSO4 Brick red ppt
B – K Na tartrate
Benedict’s Reducing sugars NaOH + CuSO4 Brick red ppt
Barfoed’s Reducing sugars; Monosaccharides Cupric acetate + acetic acid Brick red ppt
Tollen’s Reducing sugars (Aldehydes) Silver + Ammonia Silver mirror
Picric acid Reducing sugars Picric acid Mahogany red
Nylander’s Reducing sugars Na K tartrate + K/NaOH + Bi Brown
Osazone/Kowarsky Mannose Phenylhydrazine Yellow ppt (ozone)
Seliwanoff’s Ketohexose (Fructose) Resorcinol Red
Keller-Killiani Test Deoxysugars (cardiac glycosides) Acetic acid, Fe chloride, Sulfuric Reddish brown
acid
Moore’s Reducing sugars (Glucose) Heat with alkali Caramel
Mucic acid Test Galactose Nitric acid Insoluble ppt
Bial’s Pentoses Resorcinol + Fe Blue green
 LIPIDS
o Fewer covalent bonds due to decrease in oxygen concentration
o Hydrophobic: they are not soluble in plasma, thus, are covered with proteins (LIPOPROTEINS)

GROUPS OF LIPIDS
1. LIPOPROTEINS – carrying lipids in the body
 Chylomicrons
 VLDL
 HDL/Good cholesterol - Carries cholesterol from vessels to liver where it is metabolized
 LDL/Bad cholesterol - Deposits cholesterol to other parts of the body

2. TRIGLYCERIDES
 Energy storage
 Excess triglycerides are deposited in adipose tissues
 Functions: Protection (visceral organs), Insulation, Source of energy (9 cal/g)
 Components: Glycerol + Fatty acids

3. PHOSPHOLIPIDS/PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES
 Membrane lipids
 Glycerol + Fatty acid + Phosphoric acid + Organic molecule/Polar head group
 Hydrogen : Phosphatidic acid (parent compound of all phosphoglycerides
 Choline : Phosphatidylcholine (aka Lecithin) ID Test for choline: Rosenheim Test
 Ethanolamine : Phosphatidylethanolamine (aka Cephalin)
 Glycerol : Phosphatidylglycerol (aka Cardiolipin)

4. SPHINGOLIPIDS/GLYCOLIPIDS/GLYCOSPHINGOLIPDS
 Component of cell membrane, Component of myelin sheath
 Skeleton: Ceramide (Sphingosine + Fatty acid) + Phosphoric acid + Organic molecule/Polar head group
 Monosacch : Cerebrosides – component of myelin sheath
 Disacch : Globoside
 Charged group : Gangliosides
 Phosphocholine/Phosphoethanolamine: Sphingomyelin

5. STEROIDS – Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPPP) nucleus

STEROLS
A. Cholesterol – precursor of other steroids
AnimalCholesterol
B. Bile salts PlantPhytosterol or β-sitosterol
 Produced by liver, Stored in gallbladder FungiErgosterol
 Function: emulsification of fats SoybeanStigmasterol

C. Vitamin D – Sunshine vitamin, needed for calcium absorption

- Precursors:
1. 7-dehydrocholesterol  Cholecalciferol or Vit. D3
2. Ergosterol  Ergocalciferol or Vit. D2

D. Sex Hormones
 Estrogen, Progesterone - woman’s secondary characteristics
 Testosterone - man

E. Adrenocortical Hormones
 Vasopressin – regulates hormone & electrolyte imbalance (deficiency  Diabetes insipidus)
 LIPID METABOLISM Waste products of β oxidation:
Lipase
Lipids Glycerol + Fatty Acids (LIPOLYSIS) Acetoacetic acid
β-hydroxybutyric acid
Acetyl CoA (β-oxidation Acetone
pathway) GLyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
* The three are Ketone Bodies (acidic) DKA – Diabetic
Manifestation: acetone breath

Cholecystokinin (contracts gallbladder to release

bile) Cholelith (medical term for gallstones)

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS Rosenheim Test—used to detect the presence of choline Liebermann-Burchar
10CCapric Acrolein – glycerol
12CLauric
14CMyristic
16CPalmitic (most abundant FA) 18CStearic
20CArachidic
# of mg of KOH required to Acid valueNeutralize the free acids in 1g
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Ester valueSaponify the esters on 1 g
18:1Oleic SV/Koettsdorfer Neutralize free fatty acids and saponify esters Hydroxyl value #
18:2Linoleic Measures degree of unsaturation
18:3Linolenic (dietary precursor of PGE) 18:4Arachidonic (precursor of PGE)
Drying >120 (linseed, fish)
Vitamin F (essential FAs): Oleic, Linoleic, Linolenic Semidrying 100-120 (cottonseed, sesame)
Nondrying <120 (olive, almond)
 Most abundant biomolecule (70% of the body)
PROTEINS
C, H, O, N (S,P)

Amino Acids
 Building blocks of proteins
 Amphoteric; At physiologic pH (isoelectric point, pH 7.4), exists as zwitterions
 Peptide bond – the bond that joins each amino acid
 Uses of Amino Acids
 Tryptophan  5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)/Serotonin
 Glycin  Heme (hemoglobin)
 Tyrosine  Catecholamine (Dopamine, NE, E)
 Histidine  Histamine

Alcohol Basic (R+) Acidic (R-) Amide

Serine Histidine Glutamate Glutamine
Threonine Arginin Aspartate Aspargine
e Lysine

Essential Aliphatic or BCAAs Alkyl Group Nonpolar Uncharged Polar

Amino (Branched Chain)
Acids
Valine Leucin Leucin Glycine Serine
Methionine Isoleuci Isoleuci Alanine Threonine
Histidine n Valine n Valine Valine Tyrosine
Threonine Proline Isoleucine Asparagin
Phenylalanine Alanine Phenulalanine e Cysteine
Isoleucine *When in urine, Tryptophan Glutamine
Leucine MSUD – Maple Methionine
Lycine syrup urine disease Proline
Arginine
Tryp

Proline (Pro, P) – only amino acid without an amino group; It has an imino group (Imino acid)
Glycine (Gly, G) – simplest amino acid (R group is Hydrogen); only amino acid that is not optically active

Identification Tests Group responsible Example Positive Result

Ninhydrin (General) α-amino (except Pro) Blue/Lavender
Biuret Peptide bond Violet
Hopkins-Cole Indole Tryptophan Violet ring
Bromine water Tryptophan Violet layer
Nitroprusside Sulfhydryl Cysteine (thiol) Purple
Met (thioether)
Schiff’s Amino Lysine Pink-violet
Xanthoproteic Aromatic Phen Lemon yellow
(benzyl) Tyr
(phenol)
Tryp (indole)
Millon-Nase Phenol Tyrosine Red
Sakaguchi Arginine Intense red
Pauly-Diazo Histidine, Tyrosine Red
Basic Lead Test Cysteine Black ppt
Levels of Structural Organization of Proteins

Leve Determines Bonds Example

l
Primary Sequence of AA Peptide
Secondary Twisting and folding H-bond α helix, β pleated sheet
Tertiary Function Disulfide Fibrous
3D structure H-bond, Ionic Globula
Hydrophobic interaction r
Quaternary Specificity
Arrangement of polypeptide chains

Phe-Gly-Try-Tyr-Val-Gly

N terminal –
Phenylalanine C
terminal - Glycine
 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS

A. According to Composition

SIMPL Salt Dil. Dil. Other

H2O Δ NH3 EXAMPL
E sol’n acid base
ES
PROTEI
NS
Ovalbumin - egg
Albumins ✓ ✓ ✓ white Lactoalbumin -
milk
Serum albumin - blood
Ovoglobulin - egg
Globulins ✖ ✓ ✓ white Serum globulin -
blood
Lactoglobulin - milk
✓ ✓
Glutenin (wheat)
Glutelins ✖ ✖
80% alcohol Zein (corn)
Prolamines Gliadin
(wheat)
Only by Keratin (hair and horny
Albuminoids boiling tissue) Elastin (Tendons and
in arteries)
strong acids Collagen (Skin and tendons)
basic in Thymus histone
Histones ✓ ✖ reaction Hemoglobin
strongly basic Salmine - salmon
Protamines ✓ ✓ ✓ in reaction Sturine - sperms of
fish
Scombrine - mackerel

CONJUGATED PROTEIN
PROSTHETHIC GROUP EXAMPLES
nonprotein substances +
AA
Phosphoproteins Phosphoric acid Casein (milk), Ovovitellin (egg yolk)
Nucleoproteins Nucleic acid Nuclein (cell nuclei)
Glycoproteins Carbohydrate group Mucins (Vitreous humor and saliva)
Chromoproteins Colred prostethic group Hemoglobin (blood), Flavoproteins
Lipoproteins Lipids Fatty acid, Sterol, Lecithin
Metalloproteins metals Enzymes (tyrosinase, arginase, XO)

PRIMARY DERIVED
CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPL
PROTEIN
ES
Denatured Proteins
Proteans Acted upon by H2O/enzymes/acid Fibrin, Myosan
Metaproteins Acted upon by acid or alkali Acid or alkali albuminates
Coagulated Proteins Acted upon by alcohol or heat Coagulated albumin, Cooked meat
 SECONDARY DERIVED PROTEIN
CHARACTERISTICS
formed from progressive hydrolysis of protein
Proteoses Highest MW group
Peptones Intermediate MW
Peptides Lowest MW group
B. According to Conformation
a. FIBROUS
 Polypeptide chain arranged in tightly parallel fibers and sheets
 Make up the structural framework of the body
1. Collagen
2. Elastin
3. Keratin

b. GLOBULAR
 Polypeptide chains are arranged in compact, spherical forms; insoluble in water
1. Antibodies
2. Hormones
3. Albumin

C. According to Biological Roles

a. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
1. Collagen - skin and cartilage
2. Elastin - vessels, dermis, tendon
3. Keratin - hair and nails
4.Glycoproteins - cell membrane

b. CONTRACTILE OR MOTILE PROTEINS

1. Actin - thin & moving filament
2. Myosin - thick & stationary

c. NUTRIENT OR STORAGE
PROTEINS 1.Ovalbumin
- egg
white 2.Casein - milk

d. HORMONES
Chemical messengers
1.Insulin
2.Growth hormone/Somatropin

e. PROTECTIVE PROTEINS
1. Immunoglobulins/Antibodies/Serum globulin
o IgA - secretions
o IgG - smallest
o IgD - no function yet
o IgE - allergy
o IgM - largest ; first Ig produced during infection

f. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT

1. Myoglobin/Hgb - oxygen carriers
2. Transferrin - transport form of Fe
3. Ferritin - storage form of Fe
 ENZYMES
Common properties:
o Colloids that are soluble in water
o Work best at temperatures between 35-40°C (optimal: 37°C)
o Activity is dependent on pH of the medium
o Highly selective (follows the principle of Lock and Key)

Co-enzymes – vitamin cofactors

Zymogens or Proenzymes – inactive form of an
enzyme Apoenzymes – protein part of an enzyme
Cofactor – nonprotein part of an enzyme
Holoenzyme – catalytically active enzyme (P+NP)

PROTEIN + NONPROTEIN
Apoenzyme Cofactor

Oxidation-reduction metabolism
Oxidoreductases Ex. Dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxidases

Transfer of groups, such as phosphate & amino

Transferases Ex. kinases

Hydrolyze substrates
Hydrolases Proteolytic enzymes, amylases, esterases

Removal of functional groups by means other than

Lyases hydrolysis
Ex. Decarboxylases, deaminases

Catalyze the coupling of 2 molecules

Ligases Ex. DNA ligase

Catalyze various isomerizations, such as the change from

Isomerases D- to L- form
Carbohydrates
o Amylase and Diastase (Ptyalin) – found in salivary glands
o Amylopsin – pancreas
o Invertase
o Zymase – converts CHO to OH and CO2
o Emulsin – breaks down cyanogenic glycosides
o Myrosin – breaks down isothiocyanate glycosides

Esterases
o Lipase – breaks down lipids into glycerol + fatty acids (Lipolysis) Uric acid – waste
o Urease – Urea (waste product of breakdown of proteins)  ammonia product of breakdown
of PURINES

Proeolytic Enzymes

Pepsin (stomach) Trypsin (intestine)

Proteins Proteases & Peptones Polypeptides &
AA HCl

Others Found in Use

Rennin stomach of young animals Curdles the soluble casein in milk
Pepsin stomach of Sus scrofa Assist in gastric digestion
Pancreatin
pancreas of Sus scrofa or Bos Taurus Digestive aids
(amylase, lipase, protease)
Relieve symptoms of episiotomy, Cleaning
Papain latex of Carica papaya
solutions of soft contact lenses, Beef tenderizer
Reduce inflammation and edema
Bromelains juice of Ananas comosus
Accelerate tissue repair after episiotomy
Streptokinase group C β-hemolytic streptococci Embolism and thrombosis
Urokinase urine or from kidney cells Embolism and thrombosis
Sutilains Bacillus subtilis Wound debribement
Collagenase Clostridium histolytica Topically to debride dermal ulcers and burns
L-asparaginase E. coli Antitumor
 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Nucleic Acids
 Made up of chains of nucleotides
 Nucleotides consist of:
1. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic base
2. Phosphate
3. Pentose sugar
 Two types of nucleic acids in cells
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Glycosidic bond – links sugar and base
Phosphodiester bond – links sugar and phosphate

DNA vs RNA
DNA RNA
Sugar 2-deoxyribose Ribose
Double stranded Single stranded
Purine Bases Guanine, Adenine Guanine, Adenine
Pyrimidine Bases Cytosine, Thymine Cytosine, Uracil

2 Types of Nitrogen Bases

1. Purine (2 rings): Guanine, Adenine
2. Pyrimidine (1 ring)
a. Cytosine
b. Thymine- only found in DNA
c. Uracil - only found in RNA

Nucleoside vs Nucleotide
Nucleoside Nucleotide
Base Base (N)
(N) Sugar
Sugar Phosphate
 Nucleosides Nucleotides
Adenine Adenosine cAMP * cGMP *
Guanine Guanidine
Cytosin Cytidine
e Uracil Uridine
Tymine Thymidine * secondary messengers

DNA
 Double helix – Watson and Crick
 Coiled strands containing the genetic code
Helicases unwind the DNA double helix.
Structural Organization Primase creates a temporary RNA primer.
A. Primary - unique sequence of nucleotide DNA polymerase at the replication fork
- base or nucleotide sequence synthesizes DNA in a 5’→ 3’ direction.
≡Leading strand (continuous)
B. Secondary - DNA double helix ≡Lagging strand (discontinuous)
- H bonds DNA polymerase then removes the RNA primer and fills
DNA ligase then joins DNA fragments of the lagging stra
Properties: Further modified by topoisomerase
1. Complementarity
Pur Pyr

A T 2 H bonds

C G 3 H bonds

2. Antiparallelism
 The structure should be arranged in a 3’ 5’ fashion
 C1 – base
 C5 – phosphate

C. Tertiary - supercoiling  chromosomes

- DNA gyrase/topoisomerase II facilitates supercoiling

Information Transmission
 Information stored in DNA is transferred to RNA and then expressed in the structure of
proteins Two steps in process: Transcription, Translation

Types of RNA
o mRNA - messenger; “template” for transcription
o tRNA - transfer; carrying amino acids to sites of protein synthesis
o rRNA - ribosomal RNA
Translation (Protein Synthesis)
 Information in mRNA translated into primary sequence of a protein in 4 steps:
o Activation of tRNA
o Initiation - small ribosomal subunit attaches mRNA at the initiation codon site and the first tRNA attaches
o Elongation - Transfer RNA (tRNA) translates the mRNA into the amino acid sequence
o Termination - Elongation continues until a stop codon is encountered
 Start codon: AUG (methionine)
 Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA

MUTATION
 A change in shape, structure, and nucleotide sequence

Point Mutation
 Transitional Mutation
 Transversional Mutation

Results of Point Mutation

 Silent Mutation
- Codon containing the changed base may code for the same amino acid
- Example: UCA (serine)  UCU (serine)

 Missense Mutation
- Codon containing the changed base codes for a different amino acids
- Causes disease
- Example: UCA (serine)  CCA (proline)

 Nonsense Mutation
- Codon containing the changed base may become a stop codon
- Example: UCA (serine)  UAA (stop codon)

Frameshift Mutation
 Insertion Mutation
 Deletion Mutation
 VITAMINS AND VITAMIN-CONTAINING DRUGS
Vitamin
s
o Organic substances, not synthesized within the body, that are essential in small amounts for the maintenance of
normal metabolic functions
o Do not furnish energy and are not utilized as building units for cellular structure
o Term was derived in 1911 – vital amine
o Used as special dietary supplements or as drugs
 Vit. B2, B3, B5 – coenzymes
 Vit. B12, B9 – biosynthetic transfer of 1-C units
 Vit. C – biosynthesis of hydroxyproline
 Vit. B1, B6 – metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids
 Biotin – metabolic carboxylation
 Vit. D, E – influence membrane transport

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (A, D, E and K)

🟃 Absorption from the intestinal tract is associated with that of lipids and a deficiency state may be caused
by conditions that impair fat absorption

Function Source Deficiency

Vitamin A Vision, Tretinoin or all-trans retinoic acid (Retin-A) Fish liver oils Nyctalopia
(β-ionine, Retinol) growth, tissue  Highly teratogenic Xeropthalmi
- Most toxic vitamin differentiation  Treat acne vulgaris a
Hyperkeratosis
- Most stable vitamin Isotretinoin or 13-cis retinoic acid (Accutane)
 For cystic acne
 CI: Pregnancy
B-carotene (Solatene)
 Precursor (converted in small intestine)
Vitamin D Ca and PO4 Ergocalciferol/D2 - from ergosterol Fish liver oils Rickets
(Sunshine vitamin) absorption Cholecalciferol/D3----------7-dehydrocholesterol Osteomalacia
Calcifediol and Calcitriol- hypocalcemia
Dihydrotachysterol - tetany, hypoPTH
Vitamin E Antioxidant green veggies, Neurologic
(α-tocopherol) whole grains, dysfunctions
Test: Further-Meyer yolk, meat (rare)
Synergistic with Se
Vitamin K Prothrombin Vitamin K1 (phytonadione) Leafy Hemorrhage and
(2-methyl-1,4- formation Vitamin K2 (prenylmenaquinone-7) veggies Capillary
naphthoquinone) Vitamin K3 (menadione, menaquinone) – Dairy fragility
most active form
Vitamin K4 (menadiol)
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Function Deficiency
Beriberi
B1 Thiamine Decarboxylation (CHO, AA)
Wernicke-Korsakoff

Stomatitis
Chelitis
B2 Riboflavin Redox coenzyme, FAD
Glossitis
SE: yellow urine
Pellagra
Niacin/Nicotinic
Dementia
B3 acid/Niacinamide/ Redox coenzyme, NAD
Dermatitis
Nicotinamide
Diarrhea
Paresthesias of the
Pantothenic acid Acetyl CoA
B5 extremities or “burning
“chick antidermatitis factor” Secretion of hormones (cortisone)
foot” syndrome
Transamination, Decarboxylation (CHO, AA),
Pyridoxine
RBC metabolism Peripheral neuropathy
B6 RBC fragility
Pyridoxol – plants
Pyridoxine antagonists: chloramphenicol, Hypochromatic
Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine
cycloserine, hydralazine, isoniazid and microcytic anemia
– animals
oral contraceptives

Folic acid Folate  FH2  Tetrahydrofolic acid (liver Megaloblastic anemia

B9
Pteroylglutamic & plasma) Macrocytic anemia
acid
Pernicious anemia
Cobalamin
Cyanocobalamin – most RBC synthesis
Rapidly dividing cells of
B12 active Hydroxocobalamin – Metabolism of Folic
for CN toxicity associated Acid the hematopoietic system
with Na nitroprusside and irreversible
neurologic damage

B17 Laetrile

B15 Pangamic Acid

Impaired fat and CHO

metabolism, Dermatitis
H D-biotin Carboxylation (gluconeogenesis and FA synthesis)
* Biotin deficiency is
usually caused by avidin
Hydroxylation of pro and lysine (collagen Scurvy (impaired wound
C Cevitamic acid synthesis) Anti-oxidant healing, loss of dental
Enhances Fe absorption cement, SQ hemorrahge)
VITAMIN-RELATED FACTORS
Para-aminobenzoic Acid (PABA)
🟃 Precursor of folic acid
🟃 Added as an accessory food factor
🟃 Used for rheumatic fever and other conditions benefiting from salicylate therapy; UV sunscreen in
topical preparations
🟃 Interferes with the antibacterial action of sulfonamides

Choline (B-hydroxyethyltrimethylammonium hydroxide)

🟃 Occur in egg yolk, animal organs, fish, milk, cereal grains, fruits and root vegetables
🟃 Essential nutrient in certain higher animals
🟃 USE: lipotropic agent in conditions such as liver cirrhosis, Huntington’s chorea, presenile dementia
and tardive dyskinesia

Inositol (meso-inositol, myoinositol or cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol)

🟃 Dietary sources: legumes, cereal grains, nuts and animal organs
🟃 Implicated in membrane transport of amino acids and K and Na ions
🟃 Large doses may cause moderate diarrhea

MULTIVITAMIN THERAPY
Inadequate vitamin intake can result not only from a poor diet but also from alcoholism, increased needs during
pregnancy and lactation, prolonged broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy and the course of parenteral nutrition.
 Filipino/Tagalog Name English Name Scientific Name
Singkamas Mexican turnip Pachyrhizus erosus
Talong Eggplant Solanum melongena
Sigarilyas Winged beans Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Mani Peanuts Arachis hypogaea
Sitaw String beans Phaseolus vulgaris
Bataw Hyacinth bean Lablab purpureus
Patani Lima beans Phaseolus lunatus
Kundol Winter melon Benincasa hispida
Patola Sponge/vegetable gourd Cucunis acutangulus
Upo Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria
Kalabasa Squash Cucurbita maxima
Labanos White radish Raphanus sativus
Mustasa Mustard Brassica integrifolia
Sibuyas Onion Allium cepa
Kamatis Tomato Solanum lycopersicum
Bawang Garlic Allium sativum
Luya Ginger Zingiber officinale
Linga Sesame Sesamum indicum

Halamang Gamot Scientific Name

Lagundi Vitex negundo
Yerba Buena Clinopodium douglasii
Sambong Blumea balsamifera
Tsaang-gubat Ehretia microphylla Lam.
Niyog-niyogan Quisqualis indica
Bayabas Psidium guajava
Ulasimang bato Peperonia pellucida
Akapulko Cassia alata
Bawang Allium sativum
Ampalaya Momordica charantia
 Common Name Scientific Name
Santan Ixora chinensis
Common Scientific Name
Duranta Duranta repens
Gabi-gabi Monochoria hastata Name
Talisay Terminalia catappa Avocado Persea americana
Pechay Brassica pekinensis Grapes Vitis vinifera
Achuete Bixa orellana Pears Pyrus communis
Anis Foeniculum vulgare Olive Olea europaea
Balanoy Ocimum basilicum Peanuts Arachis hypogaea
Balatong (soy) Glycine soja Strawberry Fragaria ananassa
Balimbing Averrhoa carambola Pineapple Ananas comosus
Chico Achras zapota Apple Pyrus mallus
Dalandan Citrus sinensis Rice Oryza sativa
Dalanghita Citrus nobilis Mango Mangifera indica
Damong maria Artemisia vulgaris Coconut Cocos nucifera
Duhat Syzygium cumini Durian Durio zibethinus
Gugo Entada phaseoloides Carrots Daucus carota
Ikmo Piper betle Banana Musa acuminata
Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala Gumamela Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Kalamansi Citrus microcarpa Daisy Bellis perennis
Kamias Averrhoa bilimbi White orchid Dendrobium afinne
Kasoy Anacardium occidentale Corn Zea mays
Kintsay Apium graveolens Bougainvillea Bougainvillea glabra
Lansones Lansium domesticum Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus
Makabuhay Tinospora crispa Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana
Makahiya Mimosa pudica Date Phoenix dactylifera
Malungggay Moringa oleifera Atis Anona squamosa
Mansanilya Chrysanthemum indicum Papaya Carica papaya
Moras Vetiveria zizanioides Potato Solanum tuberosum
Pakwan Citrus vulgaris Orange Citrus aurantium
Patola Lufa acutangula San Francisco Codiaeum variegatum
Sampalok Tamarindus indica Rosy
Catharanthus roseus
Suha Citrus grandis periwinkle/chichirika
Tanglad Cymbopogon citratus Turmeric Curcuma longa
Grammatophyllum Jimson
Tawa-tawa Datura spp
scriptum weed/talumpunay
Picapica Mucana pruriens
Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia
 CARBOHYDRATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS

MONOSACCHARIDES
1 Dextrose (blood sugar, d-glucose, alpha-d (+) – glucopyranose)
2 Fructose (d-fructose, levulose. B-D (-) fructopyranose, fruit sugar)
3 Xylose (d-xylose, wood sugar)

DISACCHARIDES
4 Sucrose (saccharum, cane sugar, beet sugar, table sugar)
5 Maltose (malt sugar)
6 Lactose (cows milk, milk sugar)

POLYSACCHARIDES
HOMOGLYCANS
1 Starch
2 Dextran
3 Cellulose

HETEROGLYCANS
1 Tragacanth
2 Acacia (gum Arabic)
3 Ghatti Gum (Indian Gum)
4 Karaya Gum (Sterculia Gum)
5 Plantago Seed
6 Cydonium
7 Guar Gum
8 Locust Bean Gum
9 Agar (red Algae)
10 Sodium Alginate (brown Seaweeds)
11 Carrageenan (red Algae Or
Seaweeds) 12 Danish Agar (red Algae)
13 Xanthan Gum (microbial Gum)
14 Pectin

DRUGS CONTAINING COMPOUNDS METABOLICALLY RELATED TO SUGARS

1 Citric Acid ( 2-hydroxy 1,2,3, propane trioic acid)
2 Lactic Acid ( alpha-hydroxy propionic acid)
3 Tartaric Acid ( 1,2,3, dihydroxy butane dioic acid )
4 Mannitol (D-mannitol)
5 Sorbitol (D-glucitol)
6 Alcohol or Ethanol
 GLYCOSIDES

CARDIAC
1 Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
2 Grecian Foxglove (Digitalis lanata)
3 Convallaria (Lily-of-the-Valley)
4 Apocynum (black Indian hemp, dog bane or Canadian hemp)
5 Adonis (pheasant’s eye)
6 Cactus Grandiflorus (night blooming cereus)
7 Black Hellebore (Christmas rose)
8 Strophanthus
9 Squill (Squill bulb)

ANTHRAQUINONE
1 Cascara Sagrada (rhamnus purshiana)
2 Frangula (Frangula or buckthorn bark)
3 Aloe
4 Rhubarb (Rheum, or Chinese rhubarb)
5 Senna (Senna or senna leaves)
6 Chrysarobin

SAPONIN
1 Glycyrrhiza (licorice root)
2 Ginseng
3 Dioscorea (Mexican Yam)

CYANOPHORE OR CYANOGENIC (bound poisons)

1 Bitter Almonds
2 Wild Cherry (Prunus Virginiana, Wild Black Cherry Tree)
3 Apricot Pits

GLUCOSINOLATES OR ISOTHIOCYANATES
1 Mustard (black mustard, sinapis nigra or brown mustard)
2 White Mustard (white mustard or sinapis alba)

LACTONE GLYCOSIDES
1 Coumarin (dicumarol or Bishydroxycoumarin)
2 Cantharides (Spanish flies, Russian flies, blistering flies)
3 Psoralens

ALCOHOL: Salicin
ALDEHYDE: Vanilla (vanilla or vanilla bean)
PHENOL: Uva Ursi
 LIPIDS

FIXED OILS
SATURATED
1 Coconut Oil
2 Palm Oil

MONOUNSATURATED
1 Castor Oil
2 Olive Oil (sweet Oil)
3 Peanut Oil (arachis Oil)
4 Rapeseed Oil (canola Oil)

POLYUNSATURATED
1 Soybean Oil
2 Cottonseed Oil
3 Sesame Oil (teel Oil, Benne Oil)
4 Almond Oil (sweet And Bitter Almond)
5 Persic Oil (apricot Kernel Oil, Peach Kernel Oil)
6 Corn Oil
7 Safflower Oil (Safflower Seed Oil)
8 Sunflower Oil
9 Linseed Oil
10 Cod Liver Oil

FATS AND RELATED COMPUNDS

1 Theobroma Oil
2 Lanolin

FATTY ACIDS
1 Stearic Acid
2 Oleic Acid
3 Undecylenic Acid
4 Sodium Morrhuate

WAXES
1 Spermaceti
2 Jojoba Oil
3 Beeswax
4 Carnauba Wax
 VOLATILE OILS

HYDROCARBON: Turpentine Oil (Spirits Of Turpentine)

OXIDE: Cineole/Eucalyptol (cajuputol)

ALCOHOL
1 Peppermint Oil
2 Cardamom Oil
3 Coriander Oil
4 Rose Oil (otto Of Rose)
5 Orange Flower Oil (neroli Oil)
6 Juniper Oil
7 Pine Oil

ALDEHYDE
1 Cinnamon Oil (cassia Oil)
2 Lemon Peel
3 Orange Oil
4 Citronella Oil
5 Hamamelis Water

KETONE
1 Camphor
2 Spearmint
3 Spearmint Oil
4 Caraway Oil
5 Buchu
6 Wormwood Oil (absinthe Oil)
7 Cedar Leaf Oil

PHENOL
1 Thymol
2 Clove Oil
3 Myrcia Oil (bay Oil)
4 Creosote (beachwood Creosote)
5 Juniper Tar (cade Oil)

PHENOLIC ETHER
1 Nutmeg Oil (myristica Oil)
2 Fennel Oil
3 Anise Oil

ESTER
1 Gaultheria Oil (wintergreen Oil, Betula Oil, Sweet Birch Oil)
2 Lavender Oil
3 Pine Needle Oil (dwarf Pine Needle Oil)
4 Mustard Oil (allyl Isothiocyanate)
 RESIN AND RESIN COMBINATIONS

RESINS
1 Rosin (colophony)
2 Podophyllum (mayapple, Mandrake)
3 Eriodictyon (yerba Santa)
4 Jalap (jalap Root)
5 Mastic (mastiche, Mastich)
6 Kava (kava-kava)
7 Cannabis (Indian Hemp, Marihuana)

OLEORESINS
1 Turpentine
2 Capsicum (cayenne Pepper)
3 Ginger
4 White Pine
5 Copaiba

OLEO-GUM-RESIN: Myrrh

BALSAMS
1 Storax (liquid Storax, Styrax)
2 Peruvian Balsam
3 Tolu Balsam
4 Benzoin
 ALKALOIDS

PYRIDINE-PIPERIDINE
1 Areca (Areca Nut, Betel Nut)
2 Lobelia (Indian Tobacco)
3 Nicotine

TROPANE/SOLANACEOUS
1 Belladona (Deadly Nightshade Leaf)
2 Stramonium (Jimson Weed, Jamestown Weed)
3 Cocaine (Coca)

QUINOLINE: Cinchona (Peruvian Bark)

IMIDAZOLE: Pilocarpine (pilocarpus , Jaborandi)

ISOQUINOLINE
1 Ipecac
2 Hydrastis (Golden Seal)
3 Sanguinaria (Blood Root)
4 Opium (opium Or Gum Opium)

INDOLE
1 Rauwolfia Serpentina
2 Catharanthus (Vinca)
3 Nux Vomica
4 Physostigma (Physostigma, Calabar Bean, Ordeal Bean)
5 Ergot (rye Ergot, Secale Cornutum)

STEROIDAL
1 Veratum Viride (American Or Green Hellebore)
2 White Hellebore (European Hellebore)

ALKALOIDAL AMINES
1 Ephedrine (Ephedra, Mahuang)
2 Colchicine (Colchium Seed)
3 Khat (abyssinian Tea)
4 Peyote (mescal Buttons)

PURINE BASES
1 Caffeine (1,3,7 Trimethylxanthine)
2 Theophylline (Thea , Tea , 1,3 Dimethylxanthine)
3 Theobromine (3,7 Dimethyl Xanthine)