The computer hardware

Parts of Computer hardware

These parts include the physical, tangible parts or components of a computer. They consist of the
following.
Computer Case – often described as the CPU
The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main elements of the computer,
including the motherboard, central processing system (CPU), and power supply. The front of the case
has an On/Off button and several optical drives.
Computer cases have been available in various shapes and sizes. A desktop case lies flat on a desk, and
the screen generally sits on top of it. A tower case is high and sits beside the monitor or on the
flooring. All-in-one computer systems come with the internal parts constructed into the display,
which eliminates the requirement for a different case.
The 5 Main Parts of a Computer
These are the brains of the computer. They are the fundamental parts that need to be present before
we define it as a computer. They are all housed in the computer case.
a. Central Processing Unit
The CPU  makes up the “brain” of the computer, and it provides the computations and adjustment of
data entry from someone using the computer. Whenever the user clicks a key, executes an application
or searches the Web, the CPU checks out the code involved and returns the reaction to the user. The
CPU works carefully with memory, which is the component that sends stored information to the unit.
b. Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is variable in a computer. Older computer systems had just a few dozen megabytes of RAM
installed. When computers ended up being popular in the 1990s, computer systems had 32 megabytes
of memory. Motherboards and software now need at least one gigabyte to function. RAM contains the
info throughout the time the computer is on. After the machine is turned off, the info in RAM
disappears.
c. Hard Drive
Unlike RAM, the hard disk shops information even after the maker is shut off. A hard disk is the
storage unit for the maker. Conserved documents and applications are stored on the hard drive using
magnetism. The hard disk contains small plates with a rotating head. The platters spin as the head
moves front and back to obtain and save data.
d. Video Card
The video card offers the image seen on the monitor. The video card is attached to a display utilizing a
VGA cable television. Some video cards have two monitor connections. This design allows the user to
connect two screens to the computer so that the desktop can be spread out across both screens for
much better usability.
e. The Motherboard
Every element attaches to the motherboard; this component receives power from the computer’s
power supply. The motherboard permits all the parts to interact, consisting of the CPU. The
motherboard likewise includes controllers, which are circuits that assist the operating system work
with hardware such as the disk drive.
Monitor
The monitor functions through a video card, it is situated inside the computer case that displays
images and text on the screen. Many screens have control buttons that allow you to alter your screen’s
screen settings, and some screens also have built-in speakers.
Newer screens generally have LCD (liquid crystal display screen) or LED (light-emitting diode)
screens. These can be made thin, and they are typically called flat-panel display screens. 
Older screens utilize CRT (cathode ray tube) display screens. CRT monitors are much bulkier, and
they use up more desk area.
Keyboard
The keyboard is among the main ways to interact with a computer. There are several kinds of these
devices, but a lot of is comparable and allow you to accomplish the same fundamental jobs.
Mouse
The mouse is another essential tool for interacting with computers. Commonly known as a pointing
device, it lets you point to things on the screen, click, and move them.
There are two primary mouse types: optical and mechanical. The optical mouse utilizes an electronic
eye to spot movement and is much easier to clean. The mechanical mouse uses a rolling ball to
identify motion and needs routine cleaning to work correctly.
Mouse alternatives
Other gadgets can do the same thing as a mouse. Lots of people find them more straightforward to
utilize, and they likewise need less desk area than a conventional mouse. The most common mouse
options are listed below.
Trackball: A trackball has a ball that can rotate smoothly. Instead of moving the gadget
like a mouse, you can roll the ball with your thumb to control the tip.
Touchpad: A touchpad– likewise called a trackpad– is a touch-sensitive pad that lets you
control the guideline by making a drawing motion with your finger. Touchpads are
standard on a notebook computer.
The most standard computer setup usually includes the computer case, display, keyboard, and mouse.
However, you can plug several kinds of devices into the extra ports on your computer. These devices
are called peripherals. The most common examples are here:
Printers
A printer is used to print files, pictures, and anything else that appears on your screen. There are
numerous kinds of printers, including inkjet, laser, and picture printers. There are even all-in-one
printers, which can likewise scan and copy files — a canon printer.
Scanners
A scanner enables you to copy a physical image or document and save it to your computer as a digital
(computer-readable) image. Lots of scanners are included as part of an all-in-one printer, although
you can likewise buy a separate flatbed or portable scanner.
Speakers / Headphones
Speakers and earphones are output gadgets, which means they send out info from the computer to the
user– in this case, they permit you to hear sound and music. Depending upon the model, they may
connect to the audio port or the USB port. Some screens likewise have integrated speakers.
Microphones
A microphone is a type of input device or a device that receives information from a user. You can link
the device to record sound or talk with another person over the Internet. Numerous laptop computers
feature built-in microphones.
Web cameras
A Webcam- is a type of input gadget that can record videos and take images. It can also transmit video
over the Internet in real time, which enables video chat or video conferencing with another person.
Lots of cams also consist of a microphone for this reason.
Video game controllers and joysticks
A video game controller is utilized to manage video game. There are lots of other kinds of controllers
you can use, including joysticks, although you can also use your mouse and keyboard to control most
games.
Digital cameras
A digital camera lets you catch pictures and videos in a digital format. By linking the camera to your
computer’s USB port, you can transfer the images from the camera to the PC.
Mobile phones, MP3 players, tablet computer systems, and other gadgets: Whenever you buy an
electronic device, such as a mobile phone or MP3 gamer, check to see if it features a USB cable. If it
does, this implies you can most likely link it to your computer.
Expansion cards
The majority of computer systems have growth slots on the motherboard that allow you to include
numerous kinds of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI (peripheral part adjoin) cards.
You might never require to include any PCI cards since the majority of motherboards have integrated
video, noise, network, and other abilities.
Nevertheless, if you wish to boost the efficiency of your computer or update the abilities of an older
machine, you can continuously include one or more cards. Below are a few of the most typical types of
expansion cards.
Video card
The video card is accountable for what you see on the monitor. Most computers have a GPU (graphics
processing unit) developed into the motherboard instead of having a different video card. If you like
playing graphics-intensive games, you can add a much faster video card to one of the growth slots to
get better efficiency.
Sound card
The sound card – likewise called an audio card– is accountable for what you hear in the speakers or
earphones. Most motherboards have incorporated noise. However, you can upgrade to a devoted
sound card for higher-quality noise.
Network card
The network card enables your computer to interact over a network and access the Internet. It can
either connect with an Ethernet cable television or through a wireless connection (frequently called
Wi-Fi). Many motherboards have built-in network connections, and you can also include a network
card to a growth slot.
Bluetooth card (or adapter)
Bluetooth is a technology for cordless interaction over short ranges. It’s frequently used in computer
systems to communicate with cordless keyboards, mice, and printers. It’s commonly developed into
the motherboard or included in a wireless network card. For computers that don’t have Bluetooth,
you can purchase a USB adapter, often called a dongle.

The Computer Software

Parts of a Computer Software

The software is a program that makes it possible for a computer to perform a particular task, rather
than the physical elements of the system (hardware).
This program consists of application software such as a word processing program, which enables a
user to carry out a task, and system software such as an operating system, which allows other software
to run correctly, by interfacing with hardware and with other software.
Practical computer systems divide software into three major classes:
 System software
 Application software
 Programming software
The difference, however, is arbitrary and typically blurred.
Computer software has to be “packed” into the computer’s storage (such as a hard disk drive,
memory, or RAM). When the software loads, the processor can perform the software. These machines
run by executing the computer program.
These tasks include passing instructions from the application software, through the system software,
to the hardware which eventually gets the direction as machine code.
Each direction triggers the computer to carry out an operation– moving information, performing a
computation, or altering the control circulation of paths.
 System Software
The system handles other software and gadgets inside the computer. The primary example of system
software is the operating system (OS).
What is an Operating System?
This component is the most crucial software that operates on a computer. It manages the computer’s
memory and processes, along with all of its software and hardware. It likewise enables you to
communicate with your PC without knowing how to speak the computer’s language. Without an
operating system, the machine is worthless.
The Operating System’s Task
Your computer’s operating system (OS) handles all of the software and hardware on the computer.
Most of the time, several different computer programs are performing at the very same time, and they
all require access to your computer’s CPU, memory, and storage. The OS coordinates all of this to
make sure each program gets what it entails.
Kinds of Operating Systems
Operating systems generally come pre-loaded on any computer you purchase. The majority of people
utilize the operating system that features their PC; however, it’s possible to upgrade or perhaps
change operating systems. The three most common os for desktop computers is Linux, Microsoft
Windows, and Mac OS X.
Modern operating systems utilize a graphical user interface, or GUI (pronounced as gooey). This
interface lets you use your mouse to click icons, buttons, and menus, and everything shows on the
screen utilizing a mix of graphics and text.
Each operating system’s GUI has a distinct look, so if you change to a different operating system, it
might appear unknown initially. Nevertheless, contemporary operating systems are developed to be
easy to utilize, and most of the fundamental concepts are the same.
a.) Microsoft Windows
It was mid-1980’s that Microsoft came up with the functioning Windows Operating System. As
decades have passed, there have been various variations of Windows, but the most recent ones are
Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8 (2012 ), Windows 7 (2009 ), and Windows Vista (2007 ).
Windows comes preloaded on most brand-new PCs, which assists to make it the most popular
operating system worldwide.
b.) Mac OS X
Apple company came up with the Mac OS line of Operating Systems.
It comes preloaded on all brand-new Macintosh computer systems or Macs. All of the current
versions are called OS X (pronounced O, S Ten), and the specific variations consist of El Capitan
(released in 2015), Yosemite (2014 ), Mavericks (2013 ), Mountain Lion (2012 ), and Lion (2011 ).
According to StatCounter Global Stats, Mac OS X users account for less than 10% of global os– much
lower than the percentage of Windows users (more than 80%). One factor for this is that Apple
computer systems tend to be more costly. Nevertheless, many people do prefer the feel and look of
Mac OS X over Windows.
c.) Linux
Linux (pronounced as LINN-UX) is a household of the open-source OS, which suggests they can be
customized and dispersed by anyone around the globe. This type is different from exclusive software
like Windows, which can only be modified by the company that owns it. The benefits of Linux is that it
is complementary, and there are many different variations you can choose.
According to StatCounter Global Stats, Linux users represent less than 2% of the worldwide os.
Nevertheless, a lot of servers run Linux since it’s relatively easy to personalize.
This section is developed for end users to carry out a specific assignment to useful output details.
 Application Software
What is an Application?
You may have heard individuals discussing utilizing a program, an application, or an app. But
precisely what does that mean? Put simply; an app is a type of software that allows you to perform
specific tasks. Applications for desktop or notebook computer are known as desktop applications,
while those for mobile devices are called mobile apps.
When you open an application, it runs inside the operating system until you close it. Most of the time,
you will have more than one app open at the very same time, which is called multi-tasking.
An app is a typical term for an application, particularly for simple applications that can be
downloaded inexpensively or perhaps free. Lots of apps are likewise available for mobile phones and
even some TVs.
Some Desktop Applications
There are numerous desktop applications, and they fall into multiple classifications. Some are more
full-featured (like Microsoft Word), while others may only do one or two things (like a clock or
calendar app). Below are just a couple of kinds of applications you might use.

Word processors
A word processing program allows you to compose a letter, style a flyer, and create lots of other kinds
of documents. The most well-known word processing program is Microsoft Word.
Web browsers
A web internet browser is a tool you use to access the Internet. Most computer systems feature a web
browser pre-installed, but you can also download a various one if you choose. Examples of web
browsers include Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari.
Media players
If you wish to listen to MP3s or watch motion pictures you’ve downloaded, you’ll need to utilize a
media player. Windows Media Player and iTunes are favorite media gamers.
Games
There are lots of kinds of video games you can use your computer. They range from card video games
like Solitaire to action games like Halo. Numerous action games require a great deal of computing
power, so they may not work unless you have a newer computer.
 Programming Software
These are the tools used by developers to develop all types of software like Windows OS and Word
processing. Also called languages, they are utilized to compose source code, debug errors, maintain
and produce brand-new software for computer systems and write malicious scripts like infections and
trojans.
Famous examples of high-level languages are Java, Javascript, BASIC, PHP, Visual Basic, Visual C++,
Visual Basic, Python, Ruby, Perl, Java.

Charles Babbage, who was born in 1791, is regarded as the father of computing because of his research into
machines that could calculate. Babbage's Difference Engine Number 1 was the first device ever devised that
could calculate and print mathematical tables.

How transistors revolutionized the tech world

Invented at Bell Laboratories in 1947, the transistor rapidly replaced the bulky vacuum tube as an electronic signal
regulator. Considered one of the most significant developments in the history of the PC, the invention of the
transistor fueled the trend toward miniaturization in electronics. Because these solid-state devices were
significantly smaller, lighter and consumed significantly less power than vacuum tubes, electronic systems made
with transistors were also much smaller, lighter, faster and more efficient. Transistors were also stronger, required
significantly less power and, unlike vacuum tubes, didn't require external heaters.

Transistors explained

A semiconductor, which conducts electricity in a "semi-enthusiastic" way, falls somewhere between a real
conductor like copper and an insulator such as the plastic wrapped around wires). Although most transistors are
made from silicon (Si), they can be made from other materials such as germanium and gallium arsenide (GaAs).

How transistors work

A transistor can act as a switch or gate for electronic signals, opening and closing an electronic gate many times per
second. It ensures the circuit is on if the current is flowing and switched off if it isn't. Transistors are used in
complex switching circuits that comprise all modern telecommunications systems. Circuits also offer very high
switching speeds, such as hundreds of gigahertz or more than 100 billion on-and-off cycles per second.

Transistors can be combined to form a logic gate, which compares multiple input currents to provide a different
output. Computers with logic gates can make simple decisions using Boolean algebra. These techniques are the
foundation of modern-day computing and computer programs.

A Brief Introduction to Switching Theory and Logic Design

Early computers relied on many switches to perform the logical operations needed for computation. This was true
as late as the 1970's when early personal computers such as the Altair ( Figure 13.7.1) started to appear.
Pioneering computer scientists such as Claude Shannon realized that the operation of these computers could be
simplified by making use of an isomorphism between computer circuits and boolean algebra. The term Switching
Theory was used at the time. Logical gates realized through increasingly smaller and smaller integrated circuits
still perform the same functions as in early computers, but using purely electronic means. In this section, we give
examples of some switching circuits. Soon afterward, we will transition to the more modern form of circuits that
are studied in Logic Design, where gates replace switches. Our main goal is to give you an overview of how
boolean functions corresponds to any such circuit. We will introduce the common system notation used in logic
design and show how it corresponds with the mathematical notation of Boolean algebras.

Series vs Parallel Circuit Review:

In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for current flow. In a
parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming exactly two sets of electrically
common points.

Basic Terms

Vacuum tube – an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a vacuum. It used as a switch,
amplifier, or display screen in many older model radios, televisions, computers, etc.

 
Transistor – an electronic component that can be used as an amplifier or as a switch. It is used to control
the flow of electricity in radios, televisions, computers, etc.

Integrated circuit (IC) – a small electronic circuit printed on a chip (usually made of silicon) that contains
many its own circuit elements (e.g. transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.).

Microprocessor – an electronic component held on an integrated circuit that contains a computer’s

central processing unit (CPU) and other associated circuits.

CPU (central processing unit) – It is often referred to as the brain or engine of a computer where most of
the processing and operations take place (CPU is part of a microprocessor).

Magnetic drum – a cylinder coated with magnetic material, on which data and programs can be stored.

Magnetic core – uses arrays of small rings of magnetized material called cores to store information.

Machine language – a low-level programming language comprised of a collection of binary digits (ones
and zeros) that the computer can read and understand.

Assembly language is like the machine language that a computer can understand, except that assembly
language uses abbreviated words (e.g. ADD, SUB, DIV…) in place of numbers (0s and 1s).

Memory – a physical device that is used to store data, information and program in a
computer.

 
 Artificial intelligence (AI) – an area of computer science that deals with the simulation and creation of
intelligent machines or intelligent behave in computers (they think, learn, work, and react like humans).

First Generation of Computers

Classification of generations of computers

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations.

Five Generations of Computers

Generations of
Generations timeline Evolving hardware
computers

First generation 1940s-1950s Vacuum tube based

Second generation 1950s-1960s Transistor based

Third generation 1960s-1970s Integrated circuit based

Fourth generation 1970s-present Microprocessor based

Fifth generation The present and the future Artificial intelligence based

The main characteristics of first generation of computers (1940s-1950s)

 Main electronic component – vacuum tube

 Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
 Programming language – machine language

 Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.

 Speed and size – very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and paper tape.
 Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701, etc.
 Quantity – there were about 100 different vacuum tube computers produced between 1942 and1963.
 Second Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of second generation of computers (1950s-1960s)

Main electronic component – transistor

 Memory – magnetic core and magnetic tape / disk


 Programming language – assembly language
 Power and size – low power consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size (in comparison with the first
generation computers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the first generation computers).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and magnetic tape.
 Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, etc.

Third Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of third generation of computers (1960s-1970s)

 Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)

 Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk

 Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, C, etc.)
 Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers (they were called minicomputers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second generation computers).

 Input / output devices – magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.

 Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers (1970s-present)

 Main electronic component – very large-scale integration (VLSI) and microprocessor.
 VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
 Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
o RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data storage (memory element) used in computers that temporary
stores of programs and data (volatile: its contents are lost when the computer is turned off).

o ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage used in computers that permanently
stores data and programs (non-volatile: its contents are retained even when the computer is turned off).
 Programming language – high level language (Python, C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin, etc.).
o A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
 Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
 Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with the third generation computers).

 Input / output devices – keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer,
etc.

 Network – a group of two or more computer systems linked together.

 Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.

Fifth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the present and the future)

 Main electronic component: based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale
Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel processing method.
o ULSI – millions of transistors on a single microchip
o Parallel processing method – use two or more microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously.
 Language – understand natural language (human language).
 Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
 Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability (in comparison with the fourth generation
computers).
 Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge storage capacity.

 Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse, trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen,
pen, speech input (recognise voice / speech), light scanner, printer, etc.
 Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.