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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
provided by Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department...

Marine Fish Hatchery: Developments and Future Trends

Clarissa L. Martea and Joebert D. Toledob*

a
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA)
b
Marine Finfish Seed Production Specialist, Feedmix Specialists Inc II
* [email protected]

Abstract

The basic procedures for producing marine fish fry in hatcheries developed for milkfish fry
production nearly 3 decades ago are the basis of fry production systems for all other marine fish
species that are now reared in hatcheries in the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries.
These include large-scale microalgae production in outdoor tanks, feeding of appropriate sized
rotifer grown on microalgae such as Nannochlorum during the first feeding phase, and shifting to
larger prey such as Artemia towards the latter stages of production.

In recent years, the increasing demand for high-value species such as groupers, sea bass, red
snapper, and pompano in both local and export markets has encouraged a number of hatcheries
to produce fry to supply the requirements of fish cage farmers. Techniques are modified using
information from research institutions and multi-national firms active in developing products
and equipment to improve commercial production of these species. Larval feeds of appropriate
sizes, forms and presentation for various larval stages incorporating essential nutrients,
micronutrients, and feed stimulants are now available in the market. Diseases in marine fish
hatcheries have become common occurrences such that various chemotherapeutants, vaccines,
and immunostimulants are now available and increasingly being applied in fish hatcheries.
Technological developments in hatchery systems, such as the use of recirculating systems, water
pretreatment protocols (ozonation, mircrofiltration, UV light treatment) are also increasingly
being adopted by commercial establishments.

A critical link between fry production and production of marketable fish is fingerling/
juvenile production in nurseries. Fry are commonly grown in brackishwater fishponds to
appropriate size for stocking in fish cages. Methods to improve growth through proper feeding and
nutrition, eliminate or reduce disease occurrence and parasite infestation, reduce cannibalism in
cannibalistic species such as sea bass, grouper and snappers are active areas of research. Nursery
production is integrated with fry production in large commercial facilities but is also done by
small-scale fish farmers who have access to fry either from the wild or hatcheries. Commercial
hatcheries adopt fingerling production from well-studied species in developed countries. Small-
scale farmers however still rely on zooplanktons collected from the wild such as copepods,
Moina, mysids, and trash fish as feed. Production is dependent on availability of feed sources and
susceptibility to pathogens and parasites that come with the feed. It can also be erratic since small-
scale farms are vulnerable to changes in climate and weather conditions.

Further technological advancement in marine fish hatcheries will increasingly be led by

commercial establishments and industries developing equipment like photobioreactor for
microalgae to produce algal paste, or methods to develop intensive systems for rotifer culture.
Research institutions will however need to support the needs of the small-scale farmers and

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hatchery operators who may not be able to apply costly products from these companies by
developing innovative simple techniques that can improve culture systems such as producing fry
and fingerlings in mesocosm pond system, appropriate use of probiotics as water stabilizer, and
production of zooplankton in ponds.

Keywords: marine fish, hatchery, larval rearing, nursery, broodstock

Introduction

Fish farming has been practiced for technologies (Juario et al., 1984; Gapasin
centuries in Southeast Asia with production and Marte, 1990). Through the years, these
coming mainly from freshwater culture. technologies were continuously improved
Brackishwater culture of milkfish however and refined with research on nutrition,
was a major activity in the Philippines, physiology, behaviour, disease prevention
Indonesia and Taiwan, with milkfish and management. The broodstock and
contributing a sizable percentage of the hatchery technology developed for milkfish
food fish consumed by the population. was subsequently modified and applied
Milkfish culture has been and continues to in developing breeding andlarval rearing
be the main aquaculture enterprise in the methods for other marine fish that have
Philippines with fry traditionally sourced high commercial value such as sea bass,
from the sea. Milkfish is the staple food grouper, snapper, pompano and rabbitfish
fish in the Philippines, and contributes (Marte, 2003).
the largest share in fish produced from
aquaculture in the Philippines and Fry production is the first stage in
Indonesia. However, since more than the fish farming cycle that ends in the
three decades ago, fry supply had been production of marketable fish. A necessary
difficult to procure for some months of the and crucial stage however is the production
year because of seasonal changes, adverse of fingerlings to supply the requirements
climatic conditions and actual decrease of fishponds and marine and freshwater
in volume caught by fry gatherers even cages. While pond culture of fingerlings for
during peak months. To assure continuous stocking in grow-out farms is traditionally
and reliable fry supply, milkfish breeding practiced by milkfish farmers as part of
research was initiated at the Southeast the farming cycle, recent innovations in
Asian Fisheries Development Center nursery rearing has improved production.
Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC The nursery subsector of the milkfish
AQD)in the 1970s. In collaboration with industry is now emerging as a lucrative
other international research institutions, business enterprise.
the research effort led to the development
of broodstock management technologies The basic techniques in larval rearing
including induced spawning (Liao et developed for milkfish, modifications
al., 1979), spontaneous maturation adopted for carnivorous species and
and spawning in floating cages (Marte those with long larval gestation phases,
and Lacanilao, 1986) and tanks (Emata technologies developed by multinational
and Marte, 1994), and larval rearing companies and the private sector to
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improve production in the hatchery, and for spawning readiness and induced
recent innovations in nursery production to spawn with hormones or allowed to
are described in the following sections. spawn naturally. Facilities for rearing
and maintaining marine fish broodstock
Broodstock Development and are either cages located in clean, safe
Management environments such as marine coves, or in
land-based canvas or concrete tanks. For
Aquaculture had been dependent on practical and economic considerations,
wild-caught fry and juveniles for stocking young adults are first reared in cages or
in fishponds or cages. The practice was ponds to reduce maintenance cost and later
unsustainable particularly for species such transferred to land-based facilities when
as groupers that are often caught using the fish are ready for spawning. Milkfish
destructive methods such as the use of farmers often leave juveniles and young
cyanide. Even for species such as milkfish adults in brackish or marine ponds for 2-4
whose fry is traditionally caught along years before these are transferred to either
the shoreline using fine-meshed nets, the cages or tanks.
numerous other fry species caught together
with milkfish that are discarded contribute For many marine fish, most of
to the depletion of important species that the nutritional requirements of the
are part of the marine food chain making broodstock have been determined or are
the capture method ecologically unsound. currently being refined by nutritionists
The development of marine fish broodstock in research institutions. Commercial
and establishment of commercial hatcheries feed companies or broodstock operators
has long been recognized as a primary use the information in formulating
means of reducing pressure on wild appropriate broodstock feeds. Nutritionists
juvenile stocks and supply the demand for determine basic protein, lipid and energy
seedstock of fish farmers. requirements of broodstock and focus on
some of the essential nutrients such as
Source of breeders: farmed or wild highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) and
vitamins that directly affect egg production
Fish broodstock may be caught as and quality.
adults from the wild and brought to the
broodstock/hatchery facility for spawning Marine fish broodstock spawn during
if these are reproductively ripe. Spawning their natural breeding season although
techniques developed in research facilities they may be induced to spawn at other
such as injection of human chorionic times of the year using hormonal and/
gonadotropin (HCG) or luteinizing or environmental triggers. Sea bass for
hormone releasing hormone (LHRHa) is instance may spawn outside their natural
applied at the appropriate dose and the breeding season when maintained at 30-35
fish are either strip-spawned or allowed ppt, 29-30°C and day light regime of 13
to spawn naturally. Young adults are hours. Temperature is reduced to 23-24°C
reared for several years and acclimated for 8-10 weeks a year to simulate cold
to captive conditions of the facility until months and to allow gamete development
they show signs of reproductive readiness. (Fielder, pers. comm.). Changes in climate
As with ripe adults, breeders are checked patterns appear to have an effect on

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spawning and egg production as observed increased to 10-20 individuals per ml

recently for milkfish that have been as the larvae grow. Water management
spawning almost year round. involves replacing 10-20% of the rearing
water with fresh seawater during the first
Marine fish Larval Rearing- then and week of larval rearing and increasing the
now volume to about 50% towards the later
phase of rearing. Microalgae density is
The specifications and requirements maintained at 1-3 x 105 cells per ml during
for a small-scale marine fish hatchery are the entire rearing period. With information
detailed in Sim, et. al (2005). Figure 1 on nutritional requirements of larvae,
illustrates the basic design of a hatchery microparticulate diets have been developed
suitable for rearing various marine and these are given at 0.5-2g/ton/day as
fish such as milkfish, sea bass, grouper, supplemental feed for larvae as early as the
rabbitfish, pompano and others. Various 8th day of rearing until harvest. Milkfish
modifications are made by hatchery larvae have a short gestation period and fry
operators, depending on their projected are harvested on the 18th to 20th day (Figure
production targets, availability of 2).
construction materials, financing, market,
etc. Site requirements and availability of Modifications based on the larval
support services will be the same for small- rearing scheme developed for milkfish
scale and large commercial hatcheries. were adopted for the rearing of seabass,
rabbitfish, grouper, snapper and pompano
Hatchery production technologies for larvae. Larval rearing of these species takes
marine fish in the Philippines started with from 50 to 60 days that may be divided
the development of breeding methods for into two phases: 1) an early rearing phase
milkfish in the 1980s. With the successful lasting 20 days and following the procedure
hatchery production of milkfish fry, used for milkfish larval rearing; and 2) an
research efforts to develop technologies extended second phase lasting until the
for other marine fish such as sea bass, 60th day of rearing where larger plankton
rabbitfish (Ayson et al., 2014), snapper prey such as Artemia nauplii, on-grown
(Duray et al., 1996), grouper (Sugama et Artemia, copepods, or mysids are added as
al., 2012) and pompano (Reyes et al., 2014) live food for the increasingly cannibalistic
were done resulting in the production of larvae (Toledo et al., 1999). Artificial diets
fry in commercial hatcheries. are also provided, at increasing amounts
of up to 3-5g/ton/day. Similar water
The basic milkfish larval rearing management methods, such as siphoning
scheme is shown in Figure 2. Newly of tank bottom to remove debris and excess
hatched larvae are stocked at 10-20 larvae feeds from the 5th day onwards and water
per liter in concrete or canvas tanks filled change from 20-30% until the 20th day,
with seawater that has been seeded with increasing to 50-70% until the 35-40th day,
the microalgae Nannochlorum. Rotifers are are employed. Continuous flow-through
added on the second or third day, initially water exchange is done from the 40th day
at 2-3 rotifers per ml, and then gradually until harvest (Figure 3).

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Figure 1. Layout of a typical small-scale milkfish hatchery (Gapasin and Marte, 1990).

Figure 2. Larval rearing scheme for milkfish.

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Figure 3. Larval rearing scheme for high value fish (sea bass, grouper, rabbitfish, snapper and
pompano).

Recent Developments in Fish Hatchery the conventional system. Because intensive

and Nursery Technologies rotifer systems may reach a density as
high as 10,000 ind/ml, a system is used to
Microalgae and rotifers are essential remove solid wastes, neutralize ammonia
first food for marine fish larvae and culture levels and maintain dissolved oxygen levels
techniques continue to be improved. Since higher than 4ppm (for review, see Dhert
microalgae and rotifer production requires et al., 2001). A high-density continuous
more than half of the tank facilities of a recirculating system using sodium
hatchery, ways to increase cell densities, hydroxymethanesulfonate to neutralize
and methods to produce and to preserve ammonia was recently reported to produce
concentrated microalgal paste or slurry large quantities of rotifers on a daily basis
are active areas of research although some without the use of a biofilter and with a
products from commercial companies are lower production cost than a batch culture
already available to big hatchery operators. system (Bentley et al., 2008).
Aside from the conventional method of
rotifer culture in outdoor tanks using Rotifers and Artemia are deficient in
microalgae as sole food, rotifers may now highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) that
be grown using a combination of Baker’s are essential for normal growth and survival
yeast, commercially available Nannochlorum of marine fish fry (Ogata et al., 2006).
or Chlorella paste, and live microalgae. Methods to enrich rotifers and Artemia have
These innovations led to the development been developed and products for boosting
of super intensive rotifer system with a fatty acid levels are now available. Various
production efficiency of more than 50 times formulations containing docosahexaenoic

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 PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014

acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) seawater pumps, an aeration system, and a
arachidonic acid (ARA) and Vitamin C power generator as a back-up. Integrated
can be used to enrich rotifers and Artemia. broodstock and hatchery support facilities
Enriched rotifers and Artemia fed to may, in addition, include systems to filter
milkfish and other marine fish larvae result incoming water, UV facilities, or other
in improved fry survival rates and reduced water sterilization equipment such as
morphological deformities (Gapasin ozonators to disinfect seawater. These
and Duray, 2001). Microorganisms that additional equipment are usually included
produce high levels of HUFA such as in recirculating systems to control entry of
Thraustocrytrids have been shown to predators, and pathogens.
improve survival rate of milkfish fry and
was comparable to commercial products Mesocosm Systems
when used to supplement larval food
(Estudillo-del Castillo et al., 2009). To These are culture systems for fish larvae
date, there are a number of commercial with water volume ranging from 1 to 10,000
enrichment products available but these are m3 where a pelagic ecosystem is developed
costly. consisting of multi-species, natural food
chain of phytoplankton and zooplankton
Growing microalgae and rotifers for fish larvae. Most common systems used
to feed to marine fish larvae is labor- are the pond and tank mesocosm. Cement
intensive. Natural food production is also 50-100 m3 tanks or 300-1000 m2 earthen
unpredictable and affected by changing ponds are cleaned and sun dried for 3-4
weather patterns especially for small-scale days and filled with filtered seawater rich
hatcheries that have little or no effective in phyto- and zooplankton. The tanks are
protection against unfavorable weather. then fertilized with commercial sources
With the development of larval diets based of nitrogen and phosphorus. Fish larvae,
on the known nutritional requirements just before complete yolk absorption,
of larval and juvenile stages, microbound, are introduced into the system when the
and microencapsulated feeds are fed to the abundance of the plankton is enough to
larvae midway during the rotifer feeding support the population. It is important
period and in most cases may completely to have proper timing of the availability
replace live food during the latter phases of larvae for stocking and the available
of rearing. Artificial diets should be of quantity and quality of zooplankton
appropriate size for the stage of the larvae, population. Stocking densities vary
attractive to the larvae, digestible and from 0.1 to 1.0 larva per liter. In a pond
contain nutrients needed by the larvae. mesocosm system in Taiwan, a 500 m2
In addition, the physical properties of the pond is stocked with 500,000 larvae of
larval diet is critical in ensuring efficient the giant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus.
utilization of the nutrients it contains. The pond is provided with moderate
aeration during the first 2 weeks using a
Hatchery facilities range from low-cost single propulsion-type aerator from the
canvas tanks of backyard hatcheries to large 3rd week until harvest. Harvest is done
industrial type integrated broodstock and by seine between days 30-35 when total
hatcheries. Support facilities for backyard length (TL) is about 1.8-2.5 cm. Additional
hatcheries consist mainly of at least two zooplankton (rotifer, copepod, or mysids)

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are supplied when needed. Separate ponds for nursery of metamorphosed snapper
may also be prepared to culture these food and seabass fry. The fry at this stage are
organisms. Formulated feeds are given in weaned to formulated feeds from live food
increasing amounts from third week after such as copepods, mysids or on-grown
stocking. Probiotics are widely used to Artemia. There is an increasing trend
maintain the desired water quality. About in using probiotics in nursery tanks to
50,000 giant grouper fry may be harvested improve the water quality and reduce water
from this system depending on the quality consumption for flow-through system.
of the larvae stocked, abundance of natural Size grading is done at least once a week
food and weather conditions (Toledo, to control cannibalism and to check for
personal observation). parasite and bacterial infection.

Nursery Phase A major disease problem encountered

in marine fish hatcheries and nurseries
Larval rearing ends after the larvae is infestations from the dinoflagellate
achieve full metamorphosis. Fry harvested Amyloodinium that occur during certain
from larval tanks or mesocosm system months. Small-scale hatchery operators are
are often not large nor strong enough mainly affected by the infestation because
for stocking directly in grow-out farms. of lack of filtration facilities, improperly
Milkfish fry are usually stocked in nursery located hatchery (close to rivers and other
ponds until they reach a size of about polluting establishments) and perhaps poor
2-3cm. Nursery ponds are prepared by water management. If uncontrolled, this
complete drying to eliminate predators and can cause large mortalities in larvae and
application of appropriate fertilization to considerable loss in harvestable fry (Cruz-
promote growth of natural food. Once the Lacierda et al., 2004). Amyloodinium affects
natural food are depleted, the “hatirin” are milkfish, seabass, grouper and pompano
harvested and transferred to a prepared larvae as early as a week after hatching
pond to grow further to 10-15 cm for and may cause massive mortalities if not
stocking in grow-out farms. Formulated controlled. Overnight bath at the larval
feed is introduced when the natural food in stage in 0.50 ppm copper sulphate may
the pond is almost consumed. eliminate the free swimming dinospore
stage of the parasite but may not eradicate
Other high value marine species the trophonts attached to larvae nor the
achieve complete metamorphosis at reproductive cysts (Toledo, personal
various age and size. Seabass and snub- observation). The parasite can be controlled
nose pompano metamorphose between at the fry stage by application of low
days 21-25 at a size of 1.6 to 2.2 cm TL. concentration of formalin or hydrogen
Mangrove snapper and tiger and green peroxide and freshwater bath.
groupers metamorphose into juveniles
from 2.0-2.5 cm TL at days 35-45. Newly- Fish with long gestation periods such as
metamorphosed groupers and pompano seabass, grouper, rabbitfish, pompano and
are usually reared in cement tanks of snapper are susceptible to Viral Nervous
about 2-5 tons in a flow-through system. Necrosis (IVNN), a viral disease that is
Net cages in brackishwater ponds or transmitted from broodstock, plankton, or
coastal waters may alternately be used infected food organisms. The disease was

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 PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014

first reported in 2002 in 35 day-old orange Future directions

spotted grouper (Maeno et al., 2002) and
in 14 day-old seabass larvae (Maeno et Farming of marine fish will increasingly
al., 2004). VNN is now a major disease rely on hatchery-produced seeds with
problem occurring in most fish reared in new species added to the roster of
the hatchery, nursery and grow-out culture. available species that are being cultured.
Ways to prevent and control the disease Research institutions and commercial
has been a continuing research effort. Since establishments will actively pursue various
VNN is transmitted from broodstock to avenues to improve production of marine
eggs and larvae, steps to prevent VNN fish fry. These will include improvement
infection in the hatchery starts with of the design of hatchery facilities by
screening broodstock using molecular tools developing more cost-efficient filtration
(RT-PCR) and selection of VNN negative and sterilization facilities, improved
fish as spawners. Further screening of biosecurity measures, and nutritionally
eggs, feeding of broodstock with artificial superior broodstock, larval and nursery
diets, and periodic sampling of larvae for feeds. For species that are currently being
the presence of the virus, need to be done produced in hatcheries, future directions
to ensure prevention of the disease (de la will include undertaking breeding
Peña, 2010). Husbandry procedures such programs to improve growth rates, improve
as thorough cleaning and disinfection feed quality for breeders to increase
of tanks and hatchery paraphernalia, egg production and adopt broodstock
discarding dead fish and reducing stressors management procedures that will promote
to broodstock and larvae also need to be extension of the spawning season of
followed. A promising method to prevent seasonal breeders. Many carnivorous fish
viral infection in hatcheries is by enhancing are still fed fish by-catch, hence, good
the immune response of broodstock quality artificial diets that are attractive to
resulting in virus-resistant breeders that mature breeders still need to be developed.
produce VNN-free eggs (Pakingking et Studies to enhance resistance to diseases,
al., 2010). An annual vaccination regimen identify new disease agents, and prevent
using a formalin inactivated virus applied vertical transmission of disease agents
to seabass enhanced neutralizing antibody from breeders to fry are active research
titers against VNN in broodstock and areas. However, cost-effective vaccines and
antibodies transmitted to spawned eggs vaccination procedures especially for fry
(Pakingking et al., 2012). Development and and fingerlings still need to be developed
maintenance of VNN-free broodstock as to make these available to small-scale
source of spawned eggs will be an essential hatchery operators. There are numerous
step to ensure disease free larvae in the feed supplements currently available but
hatchery. Commercial vaccines currently these are costly and may not be affordable
being developed and tested by a number of to small-scale operators. Natural food
pharmaceutical companies (e.g. AquaVac) candidates that are nutritionally superior
are expensive and only large-scale hatchery to the currently available food items, and
and farm operators may be able to afford natural sources of feed additives can reduce
these once these become available in the production cost. Efforts to identify, isolate,
market. and develop culture techniques for these

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organisms need to be pursued. There are de la Peña L. 2010. Prevention and control
already available concentrated preserved measures against viral nervous necrosis
microalgal products that are mainly used (VNN) in marine fish hatcheries.
for the production of biofuels or food Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 44.
supplements for animals but there are very SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department,
few microalgal species used in marine Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines 26 pp.
fish larval rearing that are amenable to
preservation. Methods to concentrate, Dhert P, Rombaut G, Suantika G and
preserve and extend the shelf life of these Sorgeloos P. 2001. Advancement of
preserved microalgae for hatcheries will rotifer culture and manipulation
need to be developed. These technologies techniques in Europe. Aquaculture 200:
will considerably reduce requirement for 129–146.
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potential by utilizing tanks intended for Duray MN, Alpasan LG and Estudillo
microalgae production but these need to CB. 1996. Improved hatchery rearing
be cost-effective and made available to of mangrove red snapper, Lutjanus
commercial and small-scale operators. argentimaculatus, in large tanks with
small rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) and
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Gapasin RSJ and Duray MN. 2001. Effects Ogata HY, Chavez DR, Garibay ES, Furuita
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Sugama K, Rimmer MA, Ismi S,

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A. 1999. Use of copepod nauplii
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Suggested Readings

Gapasin RSJ, Bombeo R, Lavens RP,

Sorgeloos P and Nelis H. 1998.
Enrichment of live food with essential
fatty acids and vitamin C: Effects
on milkfish (Chanos chanos) larval
performance. Aquaculture 162: 269-
286.

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