Class-18

Date: 18.9.20

Metal forming
• Elastic deformation
• Plastic deformation: permanent and
beyond the elastic range of the material
• Deformation of the metal caused by slip
or twinning of atoms
• In plastic deformation metal flow in solid
state along a specific direction, which
depends of type of processing and
direction of applied force.
 Why Metal forming?
• The grains of the metal elongated in the direction of metal flow
• As the are elongated in the direction of flow, they are able to
more resistance to stress across them.
• As a result they exhibit better mechanical strength in specific
direction
• The wastage of material also negligible
 Hot working and cold working
HOT WORKING OF METALS:
•The mechanical working of a metal above the recrystallization temperature but below the
melting point is known as hot working.

• The recrystallization
temperature is temperature at
which recrystallization can occur
for a given material and
processing conditions. This is not
a set temperature and is
dependent upon various factors Recrystallization is a process by which deformed grains are
• The recrystallization temperature replaced by a new set of defect-free grains that nucleate
of metal is about 30 to 40% of its and grow until the original grains have been entirely
melting temperature. consumed. Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a
reduction in the strength and hardness of a material and a
simultaneous increase in the ductility.
Types of Hot working Process:
Hot forging -Hammer forging, Drop forging, Upset forging, Press forging, Roll forging
Hot extrusion
Drawing
Swaging
Hot spinning.
Advantages of Hot Working:
•Force requirement is less when compared to cold working process.
•Toughness, ductility and resistance can be improved.
•Quick and economical process.
•Porosity is eliminated and density of the metal is increased.
•Suitable for all Metals.
Disadvantages of Hot Working:
•Surface finish is poor.
•Close tolerances and automation cannot be achieved due to high working temperature.
•Tooling and handling cost are high.
•Sheets and wires (thin section) cannot be produced.
Cold Working:
•The plastic deformation of a metal to the required shape being performed below the recrystallization
temperature is known as Cold working process.
•The recrystallization temperature is about melting temperature but generally cold working is carried out only
at room temperature.
Cold Working Processes:
Drawing - Blank drawing, Wire drawing, Tube drawing, Embossing
Squeezing- Coining, Sizing, Swaging, Knurling, Extrusion
Bending- Plate bending, Roll forming, Angle bending,
Materials used for Cold Working Processes:
Low and medium carbon steel, Copper and light alloys, Materials such as Al, Mg, Titanium.

•Advantages of Cold Working: Limitations:

•Widely applied as a forming process for steel. • The surface finish may be poor.
•Better surface finish is being obtained. • Close tolerances cannot be achieved.
•Provides higher dimensional accuracy • Stress formation in the metal during cold
•Thin material can be obtained working is higher.
•Suitable for mass production
•Semi Hot Working (Warm Working): The drawbacks of both
cold working and hot working processes are eliminated by this
method of working. In this method the metal are deformed under
the conditions of temperature and strain rate. The Ductile,
Tolerance, Yield Strength factors should be considered for the
selection of temperature and strain rate.
Primary Metal Forming Processes

• Forging
• Rolling
• Extrusion
• Tube and wire drawing
• Deep drawing
• Punching and Blanking (Although these operations are not metal
forming processes however these will be covered due to similarity
with deep drawing process.)
Class-19
Date: 21.9.20

Rolling
 Rolling
• Rolling is the most extensively used metal
forming process (roughly 90% of metal forming
work)
• The material to be rolled is drawn by means of
friction into the two revolving roll gap
• The compressive forces applied by the rolls
reduce the thickness of the material or changes
its cross sectional area
• The geometry of the product depend on the
contour of the roll gap
• Rolls are made of cast iron, cast steel and forged
steel due to the requirement of high strength
and wear resistance
• Hot rolls are generally rough so that they can bite
the work, and cold rolls are polished for good
finish
• In rolling the crystals get elongated in the rolling
direction. In cold rolling crystal more or less retain Neutral point
the elongated shape but in hot rolling they start
reforming after coming out from the deformation
zone
• The peripheral velocity of rolls at entry is more than
the strip
• In the deformation zone the thickness of the strip V2
V1
gets reduced and elongates. This increases the linear
speed of the at the exit.
• Thus there exist a neutral point where roll speed
and strip speeds are equal. At this point the
direction of the friction reverses.
• When the angle of contact exceeds the friction
angle the rolls cannot draw fresh strip
• Roll torque, power etc. increase with increase in roll
work contact length or roll radius
 Rolling

• Ingots: 600x 600 mm

• Bloom: 150x150 mm to 400x 400 mm
• Slab: Rectangle cross section
thickness 50 to 300 X width 500 to 1800 mm
• Billet: 40x40 to 150x150

• Plate: thickness > 6 mm.

• Sheet: thickness < 6 mm and width > 600
mm.
• Strip: thickness < 6 mm and width < 600
mm.
 Various Roll Configurations

• Two-high and three-high mills

are generally used for initial
and intermediate passes
during hot rolling, while four-
high and cluster mills are used
for final passes.
• Cluster arrangements are
preferred for cold rolling
because in this configuration
is supported by back-up rolls
which minimize the
deflections and produce better
tolerances.
• Two-high non-reversing mill simplest design from which material can only pass in one
direction
• Two-high reversing mill permits back-and-forth rolling, rolls may stop, reversed, and
brought back to rolling speed between each pass
• The three-high mill eliminates need for roll reversal but requires some form of elevator
on each side of mill to raise or lower material and mechanical manipulators to turn or
shift product between passes
– smaller-diameter rolls produce less length of contact for a given reduction and
therefore require lower force and less energy to produce a given change in shape
– smaller cross section provides reduced stiffness and pressed apart by the metal
passing through the middle
• Four-high and cluster arrangements use backup rolls to support the smaller work rolls
– used in hot rolling of wide plate and sheets, and in cold rolling, where small
negligence would result in an unacceptable variation in product thickness
– Foil is rolled on cluster mills since small thickness requires small-diameter rolls
 Planetary mill
• Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls
surrounded by a large number of planetary
rolls.
• Each planetary roll gives an almost constant
reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular
path between the backing rolls and the slab.
• As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have
contact with the work piece, another pair of
rolls makes contact and repeat that reduction.
• The overall reduction is the summation of a
series of small reductions by each pair of rolls.
Therefore, the planetary mill can reduce a slab
directly to strip in one pass through the mill.
• The operation requires feed rolls to introduce
the slab into the mill, and a pair of planishing
rolls on the exit to improve the surface finish.
 Continuous Rolling Mills
• Billets, blooms, or slabs are heated and fed through an integrated series of non-reversing stands
• Continuous mills consist of a roughing train of approximately four four-high mill stands and a finishing train
of six or seven additional four-high stands.
• Same amount of material must pass through each stand in a given period of time. If cross section is reduced,
speed must be increased proportionately.
• Thus rolls of each successive stand must turn faster than those of preceding one by an amount equal to
change in cross-sectional area
• Computer control is important to successful rolling, and modern mills are equipped with numerous sensors
to provide the needed information.
• Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping metal by passing it through rollers
• Rolling mills requires very rigid construction, large motors to supply enough power (MN).
• Modern rolling mill requires huge capital investment, skills, and complex engineering
design
• A rolling mill consists of rolls, bearings, a housing for containing these parts, a drive (motor)
for applying power to the rolls and controlling the speed
Rolling Passes
• Break down pass
• Rolling pass
• Finish pass
Box passes are generally used for medium and
large sections of blooming and billet mills. The
rolls used in these series are stronger. The top
roller can be adjusted to different reduction sizes.

In Diamond-square series, the square produced in

a larger roll is turned over by 90° and passes
through the diamond rolls, the Output of which is
again turned over by 90° and put through smaller
square rolls.
The advantages of Diamond-square series:
(a) Slow cooling of entire material.
(b) Accurate square produced.
(c) Larger elongation can be achieved (1.20 to 1.45).
(d) Used in finishing passes.
In Oval-square series, the diamond is
replaced by oval shape. The stock after
going through the oval pass is turned over
by 90° into the square pass, the output of
which is then turned over by 45° to feed into
the next oval pass. The large elongation can
be obtained (1.35 to 1.75) compared to the
other breakdown passes.
The limitations of oval-square series are:
(a) Non-uniform deformation along the
width of the roll.
(b) Higher roll wear.
(c) ‘Fold’ problems occurs when higher
reductions are used.
Roll passes to get a 12 mm rod from
100 x 100 mm billet

Sequence of operations to obtain different shapes

Class-20
Date: 22.9.20

Rolling…
Forging..
Hot-rolling
• The first hot-working operation for most steel products is done on the primary
roughing mill
• These mills are normally two-high reversing mills with 0.6-1.4 m diameter rolls
• The objective is to breakdown the cast ingot into blooms or slabs for subsequent
finishing into bars, plate or sheet.

Cold-rolling
•Cold rolling is carried out under recrystallization temperature and introduces work
hardening.
•The starting material for cold-rolled steel sheet is preserved hot-rolled breakdown coil from
the continuous hot-strip mill.
• The total reduction achieved by cold-rolling generally will vary from about 50 to 90%.
• The reduction in each stand should be distributed uniformly without falling much below the
maximum reduction for each pass.
• Generally the lowest percentage reduction is taken place in the last pass to permit better
control of flatness and surface finish.
Rolling defects
Forging Processes
 Forging
• Forging is the process of mechanical working of metals.
• Desired shape is obtained by the application of a compressive force.
• In Hot forging, the metal is heated above the recrystallization temperature.
• Then, it is compressed and squeezed to the required shape by using hammer or press
tool.
Classification of Forging:
1. Smith forging
2. Drop forging
3. Press forging
4. Machine Forging
 Classification of Forging:
1. Open die forging:
2. Closed die or impression forging:
3. Roll forging

Roll forging
Open Die Forging/Smith forging:
• In this process, the forging is done in a heated work
at the proper temperature by placing on flat surface
of anvil through hammering the metal piece.
• Hammering is done by giving repeated blows
manually using a hammer.
• Heavy forging weighing upto 25,000 Kg can produce.
• The method is very simple and flexible.
• Useful for producing simple shapes such as ‘U’ bolts,
chisels, Rectangular, circular and hexagonal shapes.

Hand/Manual Forging:
The metal is heated and placed over the anvil by using
tong.
The repeated blows are given by a sledge hammer to
obtain the metal into required shape.
Power Forging:
Power hammer or power presses are used.
Machines, which work on forging by blow are
called hammers, where working by pressure
are called presses.
A sudden falling weight which strikes on the
metal makes into required shape.
The compressive force is used to shape the
metal.
Power forging is used in mass production.
Closed Die Forging:
Drop Forging:
• Impression dies called closed dies are used.
• The upper die is fitted on the ram and the lower
die is fitted on the anvil.
• Both the dies have impressions.
• Two Rollers are fixed on the board when both
rolls rotate opposite to each other.
• It drives the board upward and lifting the ram.
• When the rolls are released, the ram will fall
down and produce a working stroke.
• Single blow of press makes small and simple
parts and large complicated shapes are made by
number of steps.
Applications: Used for making spanner,
automobile parts, and machine parts.
Press Forging:
Press forging is done in a press. Operated by either mechanically or hydraulically. It
is a closed die forging operation. Slow squeezing rather than heavy blows. Anvil to
fix the lower die and the upper die is fixed in the ram. Ram is allowed to move
slowly and presses the metal slowly with high pressure.
Open Die forging Closed Die forging
Steps of open forging
• Fullering
• Flattening
• Edging
• Bending
• Upsetting (a) Fullering, (b) edging

• Swaging

Swaging
Upsetting
Class-22
Date: 28.9.20

Forging..
Extrusion…
Steps of press forging
• Fullering
• Edge impression
• Bending
• Blocking
• Finishing
• Trimming

Example: Forging of connecting rod

Forging defects
 EXTRUSION
• In extrusion process, metal is compressed and forced to flow
through a suitably shaped die to form a product with reduced
but constant cross section.
• Extrusion may be performed either hot or cold condition; Hot
extrusion is commonly employed for many metals to reduce
the forces required.
• The process is like squeezing toothpaste out of a tube. In case
of metals, a common arrangement is to have a heated billet
placed inside a confining chamber. As ram continues to
advance, pressure builds until material flows plastically
through the die.
• Due of relatively low yield strengths and low hot-working
temperatures Lead, copper, aluminum, magnesium, and alloys
of these metals are commonly extruded,.
• Steels, stainless steels, and nickel-based alloys are difficult to
extrude.
 Attractive features of extrusion process
• Extrusion dies is relatively inexpensive, and only
one die be required to produce a product. So small
quantities of a desired shape can be produced
economically.
• Extruded products have good dimensional acuracy.
• For most shapes, tolerances with a minimum of +
0.003in. are easily attainable.
• Grain structure is typical of other hot-worked
metals, but strong directional properties are usually
observed.
• Standard product lengths are about 20 to 24 ft, but
lengths in excess of 40 feet have been produced.
• Major limitation of process- cross section to be
uniform for entire length of product.
 Extrusion Methods
• Hot and cold extrusion
• Hot extrusion is usually done by either the direct or indirect method

Direct or Forward extrusion:

• a solid ram drives entire billet to
and through a stationary die,
• must provide additional power
to overcome frictional resistance
between surface of moving
billet and confining chamber.

Direct or Forward extrusion

Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion or Backward extrusion

• In indirect extrusion process metal

flows in the opposite direction of the
ram.
• It is more efficient since it reduces
friction losses considerably.
• A hollow ram drives die back through
a stationary, confined billet.
• The process is not used extensively
because it restricts the length of the
extruded component
Extrusion of Hollow Shapes
• Hollow shapes, and shapes with more than one longitudinal cavity, can be
extruded by several methods. For tubular products, the stationary or moving
mandrel processes of are quite common.
• For products with multiple or more-complex cavities, a spider-mandrel die
(also known as a porthole, bridge, or torpedo die) may be required.
• Process is limited to materials that can be extruded without lubrication and
that can easily be pressure welded.
• Hollow extrusions will obviously cost more than solid ones as additional tooling
is required
• However, a wide variety of shapes can be produced that cannot be made
economically by any other process.
(a) Mandrel and ram have
independent motions

(b) Mandrel and ram move

as single unit
Using spider die
 Impact Extrusion
• The method is similar to indirect
extrusion.
• Here the punch descends rapidly
on to the blank which gets
indirectly extruded on to the
punch and give a tubular
section.
• The length of the tube formed is
controlled by the amount of
metal in the slug or by the blank
thickness.
• Collapsible tubes for pastes are
extruded by this method.
Class-23
Date: 29.9.20

Forging..
Extrusion…
 Hydrostatic Extrusion

• In this process the friction

between the container wall and
billet is eliminated.
• The process has limited
applications in industry due to
specialized equipment & tooling
and low production rate due to
high set up time.
Metal Flow in Extrusion
• The flow of metal during extrusion is often quite complex and some care must be
exercised to prevent surface cracks, interior cracks, and other flow-related defects.
• Metal near center of chamber can often pass through die with little distortion, while
metal near surface undergoes considerable shearing.
• In direct extrusion, friction between forward- moving billet and stationary chamber and
die serves to further impede surface flow.
• If surface regions of billet undergo excessive cooling, the deformation is further
impeded and cracks tend to form on the product surface.
• If quality is to be maintained, process control must be exercised in the areas of design,
lubrication, extrusion speed, and temperature.
Defects in extrusion

• Surface cracking
• Piping
• Internal cracking
 Drawing
• Drawing is a plastic deformation process in which a flat sheet
or plate is formed into a recessed, three-dimensional part
with a depth more than several times the thickness of the
metal.
• As a punch descends into a mating die (or the die moves
upward over a mating punch), the metal assumes the desired
configuration.
• A punch then descends, pushing metal through die,
converting circular blank to a cylindrical cup.
• Height of cup walls is determined by difference between the
diameter of original blank and diameter of punch.
• Hot drawing is used for forming relatively thick-walled parts of
simple geometries, usually cylindrical. As the material is hot,
considerable thinning is possible as it passes through the
dies.
• Cold drawing uses relatively thin metal, changes thickness
very little or not at all, and produces parts in a wide variety of
shapes.
 Drawing
• If gap between punch and die is less than thickness of
incoming material, cup wall is thinned and elongated
simultaneously (a process often called ironing or wall
ironing).
• If this thinning is objectionable, an intermediate shape
can be produced, with the further reduction in
diameter (and concurrent increase in wall height) being
taken in a subsequent redrawing with a smaller punch
and die,
• Some drawn products are designed to utilize part of
original disk as a flange around the lip of the cup.
• In this case the punch does not push the material
completely through the die, but descends to a
predetermined depth and then retracts.
• The partially drawn product is then ejected upward,
and the perimeter of the remaining flange is trimmed
to the desired size and shape
Drawing
Defects in deep drawing

(a) Flange wrinkle (b) wall wrinkle (c) tearing (d) earing (e) surface scratches
 Wire Drawing
• Large quantities of wires, rods, tubes and other sections are produced by drawing
process which is basically a cold working process.
• The material is pulled through a die in order to reduce it to the desired shape and size.
• In a typical wire drawing operation, once end of the wire is reduced and passed through
the opening of the die, gripped and pulled to reduce its diameter.
• By successive drawing operation through dies of reducing diameter the wire can be
reduced to a very small diameter.
• Annealing before each drawing operation permits large area reduction.
• Tungsten Carbide dies are used to for drawing hard wires, and diamond dies is the choice
for fine wires.
 Tube drawing
Tube drawing is also similar to wire drawing, except that a mandrel of appropriate diameter
is required to form the internal hole.
Here two arrangements are shown in figure (a) with a floating plug and (b) with a moving
mandrel
The process reduces the diameter and thickness of the tube.