FAR 23 Loadings

DOT/FAA/AR-96/46 User’s Guide for FAR23
Office of Aviation Research

Washington, D.C. 20591
Loads Program
March 1997
Final Report
This document is available to the U.S. public

through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Aviation Administration
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S.

Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The
United States Government assumes no liability for the contents or use
thereof. The United States Government does not endorse products or
manufacturers. Trade or manufacturer's names appear herein solely
because they are considered essential to the objective of this report.
Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
DOT/FAA/AR-96/46
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
USER’S GUIDE FOR FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM March 1997

6. Performing Organization Code
7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.
P. Miedlar UDR-TR-96-83
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
University of Dayton Research Institute RPD-510

Structural Integrity Division
11. Contract or Grant No.
300 College Park
Dayton, OH 45469-0120 93-G-051
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
U.S. Department of Transportation Final Report

Federal Aviation Administration
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Office of Aviation Research
Washington, DC 20591 AAR-432
15. Supplementary Notes
FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center Monitors: Thomas DeFiore, AAR-432; Terence Barnes, ANM-105N
16. Abstract
The FAR23 Loads program provides a procedure for calculating the loads on an airplane according to the Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 14Aeronautics and Space, Chapter IFederal Aviation Administration, Subchapter CAircraft, Part 23
Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Aerobatics, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart CStructures.
Most of the detail flight loads are developed from the flight envelopes specified in FARs 23.333 and 23.345. At every point
specified in the flight envelope, the airplane is balanced by a tail load reacting to the specified liner normal acceleration and the
aerodynamic lift, drag, and moment about the center of gravity. The data needed to make these balancing calculations consists of
(1) weight and center of gravity, (2) aerodynamic surface geometry, (3) structural speeds, and (4) aerodynamic coefficients.
After the balanced load data are developed, the critical structural loads are determined for each component. For the critical
conditions, the air loads, inertial loads, and net loads are calculated. Aileron, flap, tab, engine mount, landing, and one engine out
loads are also calculated. Landing loads are calculated from the landing gear geometry, landing load factor, weight, and center of
gravity data.
The FAR23 Loads program was developed by Aero Science Software to calculate the loads on an airplane using methods
acceptable to the FAA. The program includes 20 modules that are each self-contained programs designed for a specific
application.
17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement
FAR23, Airplane loads, Balanced tail load, Flight envelope, This document is available to the public through the National
Component structural load Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, Virginia
22161.
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 143
Form DOT F1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

PREFACE
This User’s Guide for the FAR23 Loads program was developed by the University of Dayton
Research Institute for use by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The FAR23 Loads
computer program was developed by Hal C. McMaster, under contract to the University of
Dayton Research Institute, as part of the FAA Grant No. 93-G-051 entitled “Research Leading
to the Development of Commuter Airlines Structural Integrity Management.” The program
monitor for the FAA is Mr. Thomas DeFiore of the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center
at Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey, and the Program Technical Advisor is Mr.
Terence Barnes of the FAA Aircraft Certification Office in Seattle, Washington. Dr. Joseph
Gallagher is the principal investigator for the University of Dayton. Mr. Daniel Tipps and Dr.
Alan Berens are co-principal investigators. Ms. Peggy Miedlar was the lead engineer for this
project.
iii/iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xv
1. INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 About FAR23 Loads 1-1

1.2 Federal Regulations 1-1
1.3 Using the Manual 1-1
2. GETTING STARTED SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS 2-1
2.1 Systems Requirements 2-1

2.2 FAR23 Loads Disks 2-1
2.3 Installing FAR23 Loads 2-1
2.4 Running FAR23 Loads Program 2-4
2.5 Running FAR23 Loads Modules 2-4
2.6 Special Cases and Exceptions 2-8
2.7 FAR23 Plot Programs 2-9
3. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 3-1
3.1 WTESTIMA Description 3-1

3.2 Running WTESTIMA 3-3
3.3 WTESTIMA Output 3-4
4. WEIGHT AND INERTIA 4-1
4.1 WTONECG Description 4-1

4.2 Developing the Weight Database 4-1
4.3 FAR 23 Regulations 4-2
4.4 Running WTONECG 4-3
4.5 WTONECG Output 4-6
5. ENVELOPE OF LOADING CONDITIONS 5-1
5.1 WTENV Description 5-1

5.2 Running WTENV 5-1
5.3 WTENV Output 5-3
5.4 Graphics 5-3
v
6. AERODYNAMIC SURFACE GEOMETRY 6-1
6.1 WINGGEOM Description 6-1

6.2 Running WINGGEOM 6-1
6.3 WINGGEOM Output 6-3
6.4 Graphics 6-3
7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN SPEEDS AND MANEUVERING LOAD FACTORS 7-1
7.1 STRSPEED Description 7-1

7.3 Running STRSPEED 7-4
7.4 STRSPEED Output 7-6
8. MACH LIMITATIONS 8-1
8.1 MACHLIM Description 8-1

8.2 Running MACHLIM 8-1
8.3 MACHLIM Output 8-2
8.4 Graphics 8-2
9. AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS 9-1
9.1 AIRLOADS Description 9-1

9.3 Running AIRLOADS 9-4
9.4 AIRLOADS Output 9-11
9.5 Graphics 9-11
10. ADDITIONAL AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS 10-1
10.1 AIRLOAD4 Description 10-1

10.3 Running AIRLOAD4 10-1
10.4 AIRLOAD4 Output 10-3
10.5 Graphics 10-3
11. FLIGHT ENVELOPE 11-1
11.1 FLTLOADS Description 11-1

11.3 Running FLTLOADS 11-4
11.4 FLTLOADS Output 11-9
11.5 Graphics 11-9
vi
12. SELECTION OF CRITICAL LOADS 12-1
12.1 SELECT Description 12-1

12.3 Running SELECT 12-10
12.4 SELECT Output 12-16
13. AILERON LOADS 13-1
13.1 AILERON Description 13-1

13.3 Running AILERON 13-3
13.4 AILERON Output 13-4
14. FLAP LOADS 14-1
14.1 FLAPLOAD Description 14-1

14.3 Running FLAPLOAD 14-2
14.4 FLAPLOAD Output 14-4
15. WING INERTIA 15-1
15.1 WINGINER Description 15-1

15.3 Running WINGINER 15-2
15.4 WINGINER Output 15-5
16. NET WING LOADS 16-1
16.1 NETLOADS Description 16-1

16.3 Running NETLOADS 16-1
16.4 NETLOADS Output 16-3
16.5 Graphics 16-3
17. ENGINE MOUNT LOADS 17-1
17.1 ENGLOADS Description 17-1

17.3 Running ENGLOADS 17-2
17.4 ENGLOADS Output 17-5
18. LANDING LOADS 18-1
vii
18.1 LANDLOAD Description 18-1
18.3 Running LANDLOAD 18-5
18.4 LANDLOAD Output 18-7
19. LANDING LOAD FACTOR 19-1
19.1 LGFACTOR Description 19-1

19.3 Running LGFACTOR 19-2
19.4 LGFACTOR Output 19-3
20. DISTRIBUTION OF TAIL LOADS 20-1
20.1 TAILDIST Description 20-1

20.2 Running TAILDIST 20-1
20.3 TAILDIST Output 20-9
20.4 Graphics 20-9
21. TAB LOADS 21-1
21.1 TABLOADS Description 21-1

21.3 Running TABLOADS 21-1
21.4 TABLOADS Output 21-2
22. ONE ENGINE OUT LOADS 22-1
22.1 ONENGOUT Description 22-1

22.3 Running ONENGOUT 22-2
22.4 ONENGOUT Output 22-4
23. REFERENCES 23-1
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 FAR23 Loads Main Menu Window 2-4
2.2 FAR Loads Window for Opening Files 2-5
3.1 WTESTIMA Input Window 3-3
4.1 WTONECG First Window 4-3
4.2 Message Window for WTONECG and WTENV 4-4
4.3 Size Option for WTONECG and WTENV 4-5
4.4 WTONECG Input Window 4-5
5.1 WTENV Input Window 5-2
5.2 Example of Useful Load Envelope and Structural Limits 5-3
6.1 WINGGEOM Input Window 6-1
6.2 Example of Aerodynamic Surfaces Plot 6-3
7.1 STRSPEED Input Window 7-5
7.2 STRSPEED Alternate Input Window 7-6
8.1 MACHLIM Input Window 8-1
8.2 Example of Flight Limit Diagram 8-3
9.1 AIRLOADS First Input Window 9-4
9.2 AIRLOADS Second Input Window 9-5
9.3 AIRLOADS Third Input Window 9-6
9.4a AIRLOADS Fourth Input Window 9-6
9.4b AIRLOADS Alternate Fourth Input Window 9-7
9.5 AIRLOADS Fifth Input Window 9-7
ix
9.6 AIRLOADS Sixth Input Window 9-8
9.7a AIRLOADS Seventh Input Window 9-8
9.7b AIRLOADS Alternate Seventh Input Window 9-9
9.8 AIRLOADS Eighth Input Window 9-9
9.9a AIRLOADS Ninth Input Window 9-10
9.9b AIRLOADS Ninth Input Window with Tau 9-10
9.10 Example of Lift Distribution Plot 9-12
10.1 AIRLOAD4 First Input Window 10-1
10.2 AIRLOAD4 Second Input Window 10-2
10.3 AIRLOAD4 Fifth Input Window 10-3
11.1 Flight Envelope from FAR 23.333(d) 11-2
11.2 FLTLOADS First Input Window 11-4
11.3 FLTLOADS Second Input Window 11-5
11.4 FLTLOADS Third Input Window 11-6
11.5 FLTLOADS Fourth Input Window 11-6
11.6 FLTLOADS Fifth Input Window 11-7
11.7 FLTLOADS Sixth Input Window 11-7
11.8 FLTLOADS Seventh Input Window 11-8
11.9 FLTLOADS Eighth Input Window 11-8
11.10 Example of a Flight Envelope 11-10
12.1 Geometric Relation Between Angle of Attack of Wing and Tail 12-3
12.2 SELECT Main Window 12-10
12.3 SELECT Secondary Window 12-11
x
12.4 SELECT “Search Critical Wing Loads” Window 12-12
12.5 SELECT “Search Critical Fuselage Loads” Window 12-13
12.6 SELECT “Search Critical Horizontal Tail Loads” Window 12-14
12.7a SELECT “Search Critical Vertical Tail Loads” Window 12-15
12.7b SELECT “Search Critical Vertical Tail Loads” Window 12-15
13.1 AILERON Input Window 13-3
14.1 FLAPLOAD Input Window 14-3
15.1 WINGINER First Input Window 15-2
15.2 WINGINER Second Input Window 15-3
15.3 WINGINER Third Input Window 15-4
16.1 NETLOADS Input Window 16-2
16.2 Example of Net Loads Plot 16-4
17.1 ENGLOADS First Input Window 17-3
17.2a ENGLOADS Second Input Window for Reciprocating Engines 17-4
17.2b ENGLOADS Second Input Window for Turboprop Engines 17-5
18.1 LANDLOAD First Input Window 18-5
18.2 LANDLOAD Second Input Window 18-6
19.1 LGFACTOR Input Window 19-2
20.1 TAILDIST Menu Window 20-1
20.2 TAILDIST “13 Critical Horizontal Loads” First Input Window 20-3
20.3 TAILDIST “13 Critical Horizontal Loads” Second Input Window 20-3
20.4 TAILDIST “13 Critical Horizontal Loads” Third Input Window 20-4
20.5 TAILDIST “Four Critical Vertical Loads” First Input Window 20-5
xi
20.6 TAILDIST “Four Critical Vertical Loads” Second Input Window 20-5
20.7 TAILDIST “Critical Horizontal Load Distributed on Stations” First Input Window 20-6
20.8 TAILDIST “Critical Horizontal Load Distributed on Stations” Second

Input Window 20-7
20.9 TAILDIST “Critical Vertical Load Distributed on Stations” First Input Window 20-8
20.10 TAILDIST “Critical Vertical Load Distributed on Stations” Second Input Window 20-8
20.11 Example of Rational Tail Loads Graph 20-10
21.1 TABLOADS Input Window 21-1
22.1 ONENGOUT First Input Window 22-2
22.2 ONENGOUT Second Input Window 22-4
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1 Summary of Modules in the FAR23 Loads Program 1-2

2.1 Summary of Files Extracted from FAR23 Loads Program Installation Disks 2-2
2.2 Summary of Modules in the FAR23 Loads Program 2-7
2.3 Summary of Plot Files 2-10
3.1 Adjustment Factors for K 3-2
3.2 Component Weight as Percentage of Takeoff Weight 3-2
7.1 Maneuvering Load Factor Limits 7-1
15.1 Description of Variables Used in the WINGINER Output File 15-5
16.1 Description of Variables Used in the NETLOADS Output File 16-3
22.1 Description of Variables Used in the ONENGOUT Output File 22-5
xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
At absolute angle at the tail

ARw aspect ratio of the wing
a speed of sound
b wing span
cg center of gravity
CD drag coefficient
CL lift coefficient
CL-ail lift coefficient of the aileron
CL-f lift coefficient of the flap
CL-w lift coefficient of the wing
CM pitching moment coefficient
Dx drag load
dy number of increments to divide the surface into
EAS equivalent air speed
h altitude
it incidence of tail, angle from waterline to zero lift line of tail
iw incidence of wing, angle from waterline to zero lift line of wing
IZZ moment of inertia about vertical axis (z-axis)
K ratio of empty weight to takeoff weight
KEAS knots, equivalent airspeed
L load
Lail load on the aileron
Lflap load on flap
Lt load at the 25% chord of the tail
MC Mach number at the design cruise speed VC
MD Mach number at the design dive speed VD
MAC mean aerodynamic chord (mean geometric chord)
n load factor (positive or negative)
nx horizontal load factor
nz normal load factor
P pressure
PLE pressure at the leading edge
q dynamic pressure (= ½ ρV2)
RN Reynolds number
Sail surface area of the aileron
Sail-aft surface area of aileron aft of the hinge line
Sail-fwd surface area of aileron forward of the hinge line
Sflap surface area of flap
xiii
St surface area of the tail
T temperature
TAS true air speed
V equivalent air speed
VA design maneuvering speed
VC design cruise speed
VD design dive speed
VF design flap speed
VH maximum speed at sea level
VS computed stalling speed
W weight
WTO takeoff weight
Wempty empty weight
Wuse useful load
WL water line
y wing station
Λ angle of sweepback
α angle of attack
αt angle of attack at tail
αwing angle of attack of wing
δA maximum deflection at VA
δail deflection of aileron
δC deflection at VC
δD deflection at VD
∆α change in angle of attack
∆CL-t change in lift coefficient of the tail
∆Tab maximum tab deflection
∆T time increment
ε downwash at the tail
ρ air density
ρ0 air density at sea level
σ ratio of density at altitude to density at sea level
τ correction factor for slope of lift curve
ψ yaw angle
ψ& yaw rate
ψ&& yaw acceleration
xiv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The FAR23 Loads program is designed to calculate loads for airplanes that will be
certified under FAR Part 23 requirements. The FAR23 Loads program was developed
for the FAA by Hal C. McMaster of Aero Science Software. This manual is a User’s
Guide for the program FAR23 Loads and is intended as a guide for running the individual
modules that make up FAR23 Loads. The theoretical development of FAR23 Loads is
explained in the manual “FAR23 Loads” by Hal C. McMaster.
xv/xvi
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1 ABOUT FAR23 LOADS.
The FAR23 Loads program was developed by Aero Science Software to calculate the loads on
an airplane using methods acceptable to the FAA. The program includes 20 modules that are
each self-contained programs designed for a specific application.
Most of the detailed flight loads are developed from the flight envelopes specified in the federal
requirements FARs 23.333 and 23.345. At every point specified in the flight envelope, the
airplane is balanced by a tail load reacting to the specified linear normal acceleration and the
aerodynamic lift, drag, and moment about the center of gravity. The data needed to make these
balancing calculations consist of (1) weight and center of gravity, (2) aerodynamic surface
geometry, (3) structural speeds, and (4) aerodynamic coefficients. These data are developed by
modules in the FAR23 Loads program.
After the data needed to calculate the balancing loads are developed, the critical structural loads
are determined for each component. For the critical conditions, the air loads, inertia loads, and
net loads are calculated. Aileron, flap, tab, engine mount, landing, and one engine out loads are
also calculated.
The landing loads are calculated from the landing gear geometry, landing load factor, weight,
and center of gravity data.
1.2 FEDERAL REGULATIONS.
The program FAR23 Loads provides a procedure for calculating the loads on an airplane
according to the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14Aeronautics and Space, Chapter I
Federal Aviation Administration, Subchapter CAircraft, Part 23Airworthiness Standards:
Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart CStructures. This is
referred to as FAR Part 23. The regulations through Amendment 42 have been included in the
FAR23 Loads program.
1.3 USING THE MANUAL.
This manual is a guide to run the FAR23 Loads program and is intended to be a supplement to
reference 1. Reference 1 provides the theoretical development of the equations used in the
computer program.
Section 2 tells the user how to install the program and run FAR23 Loads. Section 2 also
includes general information on how to run the individual modules, how to enter data, how to
save the results, and how to print the output.
Sections 3 through 22 are each devoted to a separate module of the FAR23 Loads program and
are organized according to the order that the modules appear in the main menu. Each section has
up to five sections: description, FAR 23 regulations, running the module, output, and graphics.
1-1
The section on FAR 23 regulations is included only if there are applicable regulations. The
graphics section is included only if the output can be plotted with the FAR23 Plot modules.
Table 1.1 is a summary of the modules in FAR23 Loads.
TABLE 1.1 SUMMARY OF MODULES IN THE FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM
MODULE SECTION DESCRIPTION

WESTIMA 3 Weight estimate of airplane and components
WTONECG 4 Weight, center of gravity, and inertia
calculations
WTENV 5 Envelope of discretionary loading
WINGGEOM 6 Calculate geometric properties for aerodynamic
surfaces
STRSPEED 7 Determine structural design speeds
MACHLIM 8 Determine Mach limitations
AIRLOADS 9 Calculate aerodynamic coefficients and wing air
loads
AIRLOAD4 10 Calculate aerodynamic coefficients and wing air
loads
FLTLOADS 11 Calculates loads within the flight envelope
SELECT 12 Selects the critical flight loads
AILERON 13 Calculates loads on the aileron
FLAPLOAD 14 Calculates loads on the flaps
WINGINER 15 Calculates spanwise inertia loads for critical
wing conditions
NETLOADS 16 Calculates the net wing loads
ENGLOADS 17 Calculates engine mount loads
LANDLOAD 18 Calculates landing loads
LGFACTOR 19 Calculates landing load factor
TAILDIST 20 Calculates the chordwise distribution for tail
loads
TABLOADS 21 Calculates tab loads
ONENGOUT 22 Calculates loads with one engine out
1-2
2. GETTING STARTED.
2.1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS.
The program FAR23 Loads is designed to run on a personal computer. The minimum system
requirements are:
• a DOS-compatible personal computer with at least an 80286 processor,

• minimum 640K RAM,
• 580K of free conventional memory,
• MS-DOS version 3.1 or higher,
• a hard drive, not bigger than 2GB, with at least 720K of free space,
• a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive, and
• a mouse is recommended, but not required.
For best performance, it is recommended that you exit Windows before running FAR23 Loads.
If you are running Windows, most of the modules in FAR23 Loads can be run by opening a DOS
window. Some of the modules require a full-window DOS window.
2.2 FAR23 LOADS DISKS.
The FAR23 Loads program is contained on nine disks. Five of the disks are the installation
disks for the FAR23 Loads program, two data disks contain the data files and output for the
sample airplanes, one disk contains the plotting modules FAR23 Plot and related files, and the
final disk includes the Qbasic programs for the modules in FAR23 Loads. Table 2.1 lists the
files included in the FAR23 Loads program disks and provides a description of each file.
2.3 INSTALLING FAR23 LOADS.
The FAR23 Loads program must be installed on your computer using the DOS setup program
provided. To do this, follow these steps.
• Insert the disk labeled “Disk 1 Setup” into your disk drive. This drive is assumed to be
the “a” drive in these instructions.
• From DOS: At the DOS prompt, type the following: a:setup.
• From Windows 3.1: Go to the File menu of the Program Manager and select Run. At the
command, type: a:setup, then press Enter.
• From Windows 95: Go to Start, select Run, then type: a:setup and press Enter.
• You will be asked to “Specify the source directory containing the FAR23 Loads Program
files.” This is “a:\”.
2-1
TABLE 2.1 SUMMARY OF FILES EXTRACTED FROM THE FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM
INSTALLATION DISKS
FILE NAME DESCRIPTION

FAR23LDS.EXE FAR23 Loads start-up program
WTESTIMA.EXE Weight estimate for empty, gross, and components
WTONECG.EXE Weight vs. c.g. for a single loading
WTENV.EXE Weight vs. c.g. for a range of loadings
WINGGEOM.EXE Aerodynamic surface geometry
STRSPEED.EXE Structural design speeds and load factors
MACHLIM.EXE Mach limits
AIRLOADS.EXE Aerodynamic coefficients and air loads
AIRLOAD4.EXE Aerodynamic coefficients and air loads for sweepback and
high Mach air loads
FLTLOADS.EXE Balancing calculations for flight envelope
SELECT.EXE Selection of critical loads
AILERON.EXE Selection of critical aileron loads
FLAPLOAD.EXE Selection of critical flap loads
WINGINER.EXE Wing inertia loads
NETLOADS.EXE Net wing loads
ENGLOADS.EXE Engine mount loads
LANDLOAD.EXE Landing loads for tricycle gear
LGFACTOR.EXE Estimate landing load factor
TAILDIST.EXE Rational tail loads
TABLOADS.EXE Tab loads
ONENGOUT.EXE One engine out vertical tail loads
TAU.EXE Correction factor for lift curve of wing
M2002576 Sample data file for input to WTONECG and WTENV
WTENV356 Sample data file for input to WTENV
WTAFTCG Sample data file for input to WTONECG
BBFLTLDR Sample data file for input to FLTLOADS
BBSELECT Sample data file for input to SELECT
PHAABB36 Sample data file for input to NETLOADS
ACCELROL Sample data file for input to NETLOADS
TORBB36 Sample data file for input to NETLOADS
2-2
• Next you will be asked to “Specify destination directory for FAR23 Loads program
files.” Enter the full path of the directory where you want the files, such as
C:\FAR23LDS. If the directory does not exist, it will be created.
• Follow the on-screen instructions to continue the installation. You will be prompted to
insert disks 2, 3, 4, and 5.
• The input and output data files for two sample airplanes are included on the data disks. If
you want to copy this data to your hard drive, you should use a separate subdirectory for
each set of data. Note that some of the files names are the same for the two airplanes,
and if you copy both sets of data to the same directory, you will overwrite some data
files.
• Insert the disk labeled “Data Disk 1” into your disk drive. From the DOS prompt, type
XCOPY A:*.* C:\FAR23LDS\DATA1\*.*. This command assumes that you installed
the FAR23 Loads programs in the directory C:\FAR23LDS. The XCOPY command will
create the directory DATA1 if it does not exist.
• Insert the disk labeled “Data Disk 2” into your disk drive. From the DOS prompt, type
XCOPY A:*.* C:\FAR23LDS\DATA2\*.*. This command assumes that you installed
the FAR23 Loads programs in the directory C:\FAR23LDS.
• If you are running from Windows 3.1, you can create an icon for the program. First,
create a program group, then create a program item. To do this, from Program Manager,
select the File menu. Select the New option, then choose Program Group. Enter the
following information, then click OK:
Description: FAR23 Loads

Group File: (you can leave this blank)
To create the program item, from Program Manager, select the File menu. Select the
New option, then choose Program Item. Enter the following information and click OK:
Description: FAR23 Loads
Command Line: C:\FAR23LDS\FAR23LDS.EXE
Working Directory: C:\FAR23LDS
The installation of the plotting programs is described later in this section.
To install the Qbasic programs, copy the files from the disk to a directory on your hard drive.
You can run these programs by typing the filename at the DOS prompt.
2-3
2.4 RUNNING FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM.
To run the program FAR23 Loads, at the DOS prompt, type
FAR23LDS
When the program starts, the main menu appears as shown in figure 2.1. This window has two
options: File and Color.
The File menu has only one item, which is to exit FAR23 Loads. Selecting this option returns
you to the DOS prompt.
The Color option allows you to change the color scheme displayed on your window.
From the main menu window, the individual modules are selected. You can use the mouse to
select the module. Or you can use the TAB key to move to the appropriate module, then press
Enter to start the module.
FIGURE 2.1 FAR23 LOADS MAIN MENU WINDOW
2.5 RUNNING FAR23 LOADS MODULES.
After selecting the module from the main menu, the input window for that module will appear.
2.5.1 Input Windows.
The input window is displayed when the module starts and is used to specify the parameters for
the analysis. This window usually includes three menu options: File, View (or Notepad), and
Color. If there are multiple windows for input, these appear as menu options. For WTONECG
and WTENV, there are two other options, Size and Edit.
2-4
The File menu is used to store and retrieve data from the program. The New command generates
a new input window. Open allows you to retrieve a previously created and saved input file.
Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As will allow the
output file to be saved to a file. Print Output allows you to perform the calculations and print the
output file. Return to Main Menu exits the module and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Open command is used to retrieve a previously created and saved file. When you select
Open, a window appears as shown in figure 2.2. There are three main areas of the window. At
the top, the File Name appears. Below this, the current path name is given, and below that are
two boxes. The box on the left lists the files in the directory, and the box on the right is the
directory tree. Each box has a scroll bar so that you can move through the list. To select a file,
move the cursor to the file so that it is highlighted, then click the mouse button. The file should
appear in the File Name box. Use the “OK” button when you find the file you want to open, or
“Cancel” to close this window without opening a file. Note that when you select “OK”, the file
that appears in the File Name box will be opened.
FIGURE 2.2 FAR23 LOADS WINDOW FOR OPENING FILES
In the file name field, you can specify the file that you want. Enter the name or *.*, then press
enter. In the left box, the list of files will appear. To change directories, in the right box, select
the appropriate directory. When you change directories, the file list in the left box will be
updated.
To search for all files, enter *.* for the file name and press Enter. Now all files in the directory
will appear Note that if you enter “*”, only files without a file name extension will appear. For
example, if you enter “*”, AILERON.INP will not appear, but BBFLTLDR will. If you use
“*.*”, then both files will appear. For the sample airplanes, there are files without file
extensions.
2-5
The Notepad (or View) option opens a Notepad program where you can review your input and
output files on the window.
The input data that is required depends on the module. Each input that is required will be
displayed with a field for entering the data. Some of the modules have more than one page of
required input. Be sure to enter all required data before calculating the results, as most modules
will calculate the results even without all the input.
Some of the fields will have default values. If you want to change this value, delete the data in
the field first before entering your new data.
The input can usually be printed by selecting the print option from the File menu. You can save
your input data to a file by selecting this option from the File menu.
As mentioned, several modules have more than one input window. These modules are
AIRLOADS, AIRLOAD4, FLTLOADS, AILERON, FLAPLOAD, WINGINER, ENGLOADS,
LANDLOAD, TAILDIST, and ONENGOUT. In these modules, there is no indication as to
which page you are on or which pages you have already filled in. However, you should enter the
data in all the windows before doing the analysis. If you do the analysis before entering all the
data, you may get error messages, such as divide by zero, or you may get incorrect results since
all input data was not entered.
The SELECT module also includes multiple input windows. In this module, the analysis must
be run while you are on the appropriate input window. You will have to run the analysis four
times, once for each component (wing, fuselage, horizontal tail, and vertical tail).
Some input data must be entered on more than one input window in more than one module.
However, the input format may not be consistent. For example, sometimes area is entered as in2,
while other times it’s entered as ft2. And, for tail areas, sometimes the total area is needed, and
other times the required area is the area for only one side. Some modules require angles as input,
but the convention for positive and negative angles is not consistent throughout the program.
Note: It is recommended that you use Tab to move to the next input field. If you use the mouse
to move between fields, you may get a “Divide by zero” error. In STRSPEED, if you open a
previously created file, you must tab through all the fields even though you are not changing
every field to complete the data entry. Otherwise the program will give a “Divide by zero” error.
2.5.2 Running the Analysis.
For most modules, after all input are entered in the input window, the analysis is started by
opening the File menu and selecting Save Output As or Print Output. Either selection will
calculate the results; the first option saves the output to a file, and the second option sends the
output data to a printer or file.
2-6
For the modules with more than one input window, you can run the analysis from any window.
Be sure you have filled in the data for all input windows before doing the analysis.
The output from some of the modules will be used as input for other modules. Table 2.2 lists
each module, the section that describes it, the module that the input comes from, and the modules
that use the output.
TABLE 2.2 SUMMARY OF MODULES IN THE FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM
MODULE SECTION INPUT FROM OUTPUT TO

WESTIMA 3 WTONECG, WTENV
WTONECG 4 WTESTIMA FLTLOADS, SELECT,
LANDLOAD, ONENGOUT
WTENV 5 WTESTIMA FLTLOADS
WINGGEOM 6 STRSPEED, AIRLOADS,
AIRLOAD4, FLTLOADS,
SELECT, ONENGOUT
STRSPEED 7 WINGGEOM MACHLIM, FLTLOADS,
AILERON, FLAPLOAD
MACHLIM 8 STRSPEED
AIRLOADS 9 WINGGEOM, SELECT SELECT, NETLOADS
AIRLOAD4 10 WINGGEOM, SELECT SELECT, NETLOADS
FLTLOADS 11 WTONECG, WTENV, SELECT, WINGINER
WINGGEOM STRSPEED,
AIRLOADS, AIRLOAD4
SELECT 12 WTONECG, AIRLOADS, AIRLOAD4,
WINGGEOM, WINGINER, TAILDIST
FLTLOADS
AILERON 13 STRSPEED
FLAPLOAD 14 STRSPEED
WINGINER 15 FLTLOADS, SELECT NETLOADS
NETLOADS 16 AIRLOADS, AIRLOAD4,
WINGINER
ENGLOADS 17
LANDLOAD 18 WTONECG, LGFACTOR
LGFACTOR 19 LANDLOAD
TAILDIST 20 SELECT
TABLOADS 21
ONENGOUT 22 WINGGEOM,
WTONECG
2-7
2.5.3 Saving and Printing Results.
Each module can create an output file which contains the input and the results of the analysis.
This output can also be sent directly to the printer, in which case no output file is created. This
choice is made when you run the analysis.
To save the results of the analysis to a file, select Save Output As from the File menu. Then
enter the name of the file. If this file already exists, it will be overwritten. You will not be
warned before this happens. For most modules, you can also select Print Output from the File
menu, and then send the output to a file.
To print the results of the analysis, select Print Output from the File menu. Generally, this
option lets you print to LPT1, LPT2, LPT3 or a file. If you send the output to a printer, you can
select the number of copies to print.
If you want to print the results and save the output to a file, you must select both options.
Notes: In TAILDIST and LANDLOAD, the Print Output option does not work. You should
save the output to a file, then print the file from DOS or from a program such as Notepad.
Some of the output files, especially from LANDLOAD, contain data strings that are longer than
80 columns. Depending on the printer, these lines will either wrap to the next line or be cut off.
If your printer has options such as condensed print mode or landscape mode, use these to get a
better printout. The FAR23 Loads program has no printer options for changing fonts or page
orientation, so all changes must be made using your printer controls. Another option for printing
the files is to bring the output file into word processor and then change font size or page
orientation so the data fits on the page.
2.6 SPECIAL CASES AND EXCEPTIONS.
In AIRLOADS and AIRLOAD4, if you open an existing data file, you may get an error message
about reading past the end of file. This means that the data file does not have enough data for all
the input windows, and is probably missing data for the seventh and eighth windows. As much
data as possible will be filled in. You should check all the windows to verify the data before
running the analysis.
In SELECT, the data from FLTLOADS must be read in before any analysis can be done, so the
File menu includes only the options Read V-n FLTLOAD data from disk and Return to Main
Menu.
In TAILDIST, the only option in File menu is Return to Main Menu. The options for the types
of analysis are included in the window.
If you have trouble running any of the FAR23 Loads modules from the main menu, you may
have a problem with memory. The program requires enough memory for the main program
FAR23LDS plus the module that you are running. A minimum of 580K of free conventional
2-8
memory is required to run all modules. If your computer does not have enough memory
available, the module will not run. To check your memory, at the DOS prompt type
C:\ MEM
If you have problems running the modules from the main menu, try running them as stand-alone
programs. To do this, at the DOS prompt, type
C:\ program password
where program is the name of the module, and the password is 8191995.
2.7 FAR23 PLOT PROGRAMS.
The graphics programs FARPLOT and GEOMPLOT are stand-alone programs for plotting data
and drawing airplane geometries. These programs read the output data from FAR23 Loads
programs and graph it using a variety of options. The plotting programs are designed so that the
user can customize the graphs for use in reports.
GEOMPLOT is used to plot the geometric surfaces using the data from WINGGEOM
(section 6). FARPLOT is used to plot all other results. Table 2.3 shows the data that can be
plotted.
In this manual, the plotting programs are discussed in each section if there are results that can be
plotted. Detailed instructions for using the plotting programs are included in the appendix of
reference 1.
2.7.1 Installing FAR23 Plot.
To install the plotting programs, follow these steps:

• Insert the disk labeled “FAR23 Plot” into your disk drive. This drive is assumed to be
the “a” drive in these instructions.
• DOS prompt: At the DOS prompt, type the following: a:setup.
• Windows 3.1: Go to File menu option in the Program Manager and select the “RUN”
option. At the command line field, type a:setup, then press Enter.
• Windows 95: Go to Start, select Run, then type a:setup at the prompt.
• You will be asked to specify the source directory containing files. This is “a:\”.
• Next you will be asked to specify the destination directory. Enter the full path of the
directory where you want the files. If the directory does not exist, it will be created.
2-9
• If you are running from Windows 3.1, you can create an icon for the program. This icon
can be in the FAR23LDS program group. To create the program item, from Program
Manager, select the File menu. Select the New option, then choose Program Item.
Enter the following information:
Description: FAR23 Plot

Command Line: C:\FAR23LDS\FAR23PLT.BAT
Working Directory: C:\FAR23PLT
If you want to print your plot, you need to select your printer before running either FARPLOT or
GEOMPLOT. Two batch files, FAR23PLT and PLOT, are set up to select the printer and run
the plotting program. FAR23PLT will run FARPLOT, and PLOT will run GEOMPLOT.
When plotting your results, the file containing the analysis results must have the correct filename
extension. If the file is not correctly named, the plotting program can not open it. These
filename extensions are given in table 2.3.
To print the plot, hold down the shift key and press the print screen key.
After you plot your data, press any key to return to the main window.
TABLE 2.3 SUMMARY OF PLOT FILES
FILE
EXTENSION DESCRIPTION CREATED BY SECTION
*.WTS Plots the useful load envelope for an airplane. WTENV 5
Weight versus fuselage station.
*.WT~ Plots the useful load envelope for an airplane WTENV and 5
with labels saved from a previous session. FARPLOT
*.PLT Geometry file. Plots the airplane’s geometry. WINGGEOM 6
*.SPD Structural speeds file. Plot altitude versus the MACHLIM 8
operating limit speeds MC, MNE, MD, and MFC.
*.AIR Airloads file. Plots the spanwise aerodynamic AIRLOADS, 9, 10
coefficients CL, CDI, CPD, CD, and CM. AIRLOAD4
*.LDS V-n diagram file. Plots the basic V-n diagram FLTLOADS 11
data and the V-n diagram data from the critical
loads program.
*.NET Netloads file. Plots the spanwise net load for NETLOADS 16
both the dimensional values and the coefficients
of Mxx, Myy, Mzz, Sx, Sz, Fx, and Fz.
*.TLD Rational tail loads file. Plots the rational tail TAILDIST 20
loads for the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces.
2-10
3. WEIGHT ESTIMATION.
3.1 WTESTIMA DESCRIPTION.
There are three weight estimation modules in the FAR23 Loads program. The first module,
WTESTIMA, estimates the weight of the airplane and its major components. The other two
modules, WTONECG and WTENV, are discussed in sections 4 and 5, respectively.
To estimate the weight of the airplane and components, the following information is required:
• number of engines,
• total horse power,
• type of engine (4-cycle reciprocal, 2-cycle reciprocal, turbocharged, turboprop, liquid-

cooled),
• hours of endurance at cruise speed,
• number of seats,
• total baggage weight, and
• whether the cabin is pressurized.
The takeoff weight is a function of the useful load, and the useful load consists of three items:
the weights of passengers, baggage, and fuel. The passenger weight is assumed to be 170
pounds per seat. The fuel weight is calculated for the chosen endurance time at cruise altitude
and is based on the total horsepower and engine type.
Statistically, the ratio of empty weight to takeoff weight has been found to be 0.62. The empty
weight (Wempty) is calculated as the takeoff weight minus the useful load, Wempty=WTO- Wuse . By
knowing the useful load (Wuse), the takeoff weight (WTO) can be determined as
Wuse
WTO =
(1−K )
where K is 0.62 plus a factor to adjust for the engine type and pressurized cabins. For an
unpressurized 4-cycle reciprocal single engine, the adjustment factor is zero. Table 3-1 lists the
adjustments to K for various engine types.
3-1
TABLE 3.1 ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR K
FACTOR FOR
ADJUSTING K
single engine K - 0.0
multiengine K + 0.01
liquid-cooled engine K + 0.01
super or turbo charge engine K + 0.01
turboprop engine K - 0.05
if pressurized cabin K + 0.02
if one seat K - 0.04
The component weights, except for the powerplant, follow statistical percentages of the takeoff
weight. Table 3-2 shows the percentage of takeoff weight that is used for each component.
These percentages are derived from data on typical airplanes under 12,500 pounds takeoff
weight [1].
The weight of the powerplant and its components are a percentage of the installed engine weight,
which is a function of the rated horsepower of the engine.
TABLE 3.2 COMPONENT WEIGHT AS PERCENTAGE OF TAKEOFF WEIGHT
COMPONENT PERCENTAGE OF TAKEOFF WEIGHT

Fuselage 9.82%
Wing 10.36%
Tail 2.34%
Nacelle 1.46%
Landing gear 5.71%
Controls 1.50%
1 Engine 2 Engines
Instruments and navigational equipment 0.44% 1.18%
Pneumatics 0.099% 0%
Electrical 2.41% 2.69%
Electronics 0% 0.24%
Furnishings and equipment 4.41% 4.58%
Environmental and anti-ice 0.31% 1.18%
Miscellaneous other systems 0.22% 0.79%
3-2
3.2 RUNNING WTESTIMA.
To run WTESTIMA, select the module from the main menu window. You will see the main
input window as shown in figure 3.1.
FIGURE 3.1 WTESTIMA INPUT WINDOW
3.2.1 Input Window.
the analysis. This window also includes the three menu options: File, Notepad, and Color.
Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As will perform
calculations and allow the output data to be saved to a file. Print Output allows you to perform
the calculations and print the output data to a printer or a file. Return to Main Menu exits from
WTESTIMA and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Notepad option opens a Notepad program, where you can review your input and output files.
The input that is required includes the title, maximum continuous horsepower, number of
engines, number of seats, endurance at cruise power, total baggage weight, if the cabin is
pressurized, and the type of engine.
3-3
After all input are entered in the input window, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
selecting Save Output As or Print Output. Either selection will calculate the results and save the
output to a file. The second selection can also print the output.
3.3 WTESTIMA OUTPUT.
The output from the program WTESTIMA consists of the maximum takeoff weight, empty
weight, and weights of the major components of the airplane. The components are grouped into
structure, powerplant, and systems.
The results of WTESTIMA are used in the programs WTONECG (section 4) and WTENV
(section 5) to determine the envelope of useful loadings and to calculate weight, center of
gravity, and inertia of the airplane.
3-4
4. WEIGHT AND INERTIA.
4.1 WTONECG DESCRIPTION.
WTONECG calculates the weight, center of gravity, and inertia of the airplane for any specific
loading configuration. These calculations are done at the four c.g. locations defining the weight
structural limits diagram. These c.g. locations are the aft gross weight, the forward gross weight,
the most forward reduced weight, and the minimum weight. On an airplane with retractable
landing gear, it is usually necessary to account for the shift in c.g. due to retraction of the gear
with a second set of four loading conditions.
The weight limits are defined in FAR 23.25. The maximum weight must not be less than the
empty weight plus 170 pounds for each seat for normal and commuter categories (or 190 pounds
for utility and acrobatic category airplanes) plus oil at full capacity and a half hour of fuel at
maximum continuous power. Also, the maximum weight must not be less than the empty
weight plus minimum crew and full tank capacity of fuel and oil.
The minimum weight is not more than the empty weight (including unusable fuel, full oil, and
fluids) plus the minimum crew (usually the pilot) and a half hour of fuel at maximum continuous
power. For turbojet powered airplanes, the required fuel is 5 percent of the total fuel capacity.
The location of the weight components can be established from the three-view drawing or
inboard profile drawing. The weight can be obtained from the component manufacturer, from
actual weighing of the part, by calculation from drawing dimensions and material density, or
from WTESTIMA (see section 3).
The input data that are required are the coordinates, weight and moment of inertia for each of the
components of the airplane, and useful loads for the loading. The inertia of small components
may be neglected with no appreciable effect on the total inertia of the airplane.
The component data is entered in the weight database. This is the same database file use by
WTENV. The database file can be created and modified in either WTONECG or WTENV.
4.2 DEVELOPING THE WEIGHT DATABASE.
The database contains the component weight data and the location dimensions for all
components that you wish to consider. The same database is used for both WTENV and
WTONECG.
The default value for the maximum number of components in the database is 100, although the
user may change this value. The database is divided into three sections: empty weight items,
minimum weight items, and discretionary items. Fifty percent of the items are considered empty
weight items, ten percent are minimum weight items, and forty percent are discretionary items.
The type of item is indicated by the item number. If you use the default value of 100 items, then
items 1 through 50 are empty weight items, items 51 through 60 are minimum weight items, and
4-1
items 61 through 100 are discretionary items. When you enter data into the database, you must
enter it at the proper item number, or you can use the Edit option to move items.
4.3 FAR 23 REGULATIONS.
The regulations for weight limits are defined in FAR 23.25, and repeated here for convenience.
4.3.1 FAR 23.25 Weight Limits.
4.3.1.1 Maximum Weight.
The maximum weight is the highest weight at which compliance with each applicable
requirement of Part 23 (other than those complied with at the design landing weight) is shown.
In addition, for commuter category airplanes, the applicant must establish a maximum zero fuel
weight. The maximum weight must be established so that it is
a. not more than
(1) the highest weight selected by the applicant;
(2) the design maximum weight, which is the highest weight at which compliance
with each applicable structural loading condition of Part 23 (other than those
complied with at the design landing weight) is shown; or
(3) the highest weight at which compliance with each applicable flight requirement is
shown, except for airplanes equipped with standby power rocket engines, in
which case it is the highest weight established in accordance with Appendix E of
Part 23; or
b. not less than the weight with
(1) each seat occupied, assuming a weight of 170 pounds for each occupant for
normal and commuter category airplanes, and 190 pounds for utility and acrobatic
category airplanes, except that seats other than pilot seats may be placarded for a
lesser weight; and
(a) oil at full capacity, and
(b) at least enough fuel for maximum continuous power operation of at least
30 minutes for day-VFR approved airplanes and at least 45 minutes for
night-VFR and IFR approved airplanes; or
(2) the required minimum crew, and fuel and oil to full tank capacity.
4-2
4.3.1.2 Minimum Weight.
The minimum weight (the lowest weight at which compliance with each applicable requirement
of Part 23 is shown) must be established so that it is not more than the sum of
a. the empty weight determined under FAR 23.29,
b. the weight of the required minimum crew (assuming a weight of 170 pounds for each
crewmember), and
c. the weight of
(1) (for turbojet powered airplanes), 5 percent of the total fuel capacity of that
particular fuel tank arrangement under investigation and
(2) (for other airplanes), the fuel necessary for one-half hour of operation at
maximum continuous power.
4.4 RUNNING WTONECG.
To run WTONECG, select WTONECG from the main menu window. The first WTONECG
window is shown in figure 4.1. You must open an existing file before you can enter data.
FIGURE 4.1 WTONECG FIRST WINDOW
4.4.1 First Window.
The first window is displayed when the module starts; it includes four menu options: File,
Notepad, Size, and Color. When the WTONECG module is first opened, the File menu includes
only two options: Open Weight Database or Return to Main Menu. You must select Open
Weight Database to open an existing database or to create a new database.
4-3
4.4.2 Input Window.
When you open a file, you will see the message shown in figure 4.2. Click OK to continue. The
file that you select is not checked to be sure it is a database file. If the data in the input window
appears strange, then you may not have opened a database file. Two example database files,
WTENV36 and M2002576, are included on the installation disk.
After the database file is opened, there are five menu options: File, Notepad, Edit, Size, and
Color.
FIGURE 4.2 MESSAGE WINDOW FOR WTONECG AND WTENV
After a database file is opened, the File menu can be used to store and print data. Open Weight
Database allows you to retrieve a previously created and saved database file. Save Weight
Database As will allow the data to be saved with a new name. Save Weight Calculation As will
allow the calculations to be saved with a new name. Print Weight Database and Calculation
allows you to perform the calculations and print both the database and the results of the
calculations to a file or printer. Print Weight Calculation only allows you to perform the
calculations and print only the results to a file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from the
WTONECG program and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Notepad option opens a Notepad program where you can review your input and output files.
The Edit option allows you to move or delete items in the database. To move an item in the
database, scroll through the database to that item. Then select Edit, select Move Current Item
To, and enter the new number to move to. Select OK to complete the move. To delete an item
from the database, scroll through the database to that item. Then select Edit and select Delete
4-4
Current Item. The current item is immediately deletedyou will not be asked to confirm the
deletion!
The Size option sets the number of items in the database. Figure 4.3 shows this option. The
default value is 100. The Color option allows you to change the color scheme displayed on your
window.
FIGURE 4.3 SIZE OPTION FOR WTONECG AND WTENV
Figure 4.4 shows the input window. The data that is required are the coordinates, weight,
moment of inertia for each of the components of the airplane, and useful loads for the loading.
The inertia of small components may be neglected with no appreciable effect on the total inertia
of the airplane.
FIGURE 4.4 WTONECG INPUT WINDOW
4-5
After all data are entered in the database, run the analysis by opening the File menu and selecting
Save Weight Calculation As, Print Weight Database and Calculation, or Print Weight
Calculation only. Any of these options will calculate the results and save the output to a file.
The last two options will also print the output.
4.5 WTONECG OUTPUT.
The WTONECG output includes the weight, center of gravity, the inertias with respect to
airplane coordinates, the inertias with respect to principal axes, and the angle θ for a single load
configuration. Inertias are given in both slugs-ft2 and lbs-in2. The airplane weight and center of
gravity are needed for the calculation of balanced flight and landing conditions in modules
FLTLOADS and LANDLOAD (sections 11 and 18). The airplane inertia is needed for the
calculation of maneuver and gust flight conditions and unbalanced landing conditions in modules
SELECT and ONENGOUT (sections 12 and 22).
4-6
5. ENVELOPE OF LOADING CONDITIONS.
5.1 WTENV DESCRIPTION.
The module WTENV calculates the envelope of discretionary useful loading. It uses the same
database as WTONECG (section 4). The database contains the component weight data and
location dimensions. This weight data comes from WTESTIMA or actual known weights; the
location dimensions come from the three-view drawing.
WTENV can be used to create or modify the database by adding, deleting, changing, and moving
component data. The minimum flight weight is calculated, and the envelope of enclosing all
possible loadings is calculated. From the plot of the envelope of useful loadings, the four
structural limit points can be selected to include the most desirable and practical loadings. See
section 4 for additional discussion of the weight database.
5.2 RUNNING WTENV.
To run WTENV, select it from the main menu window. The first window for WTENV (as in
WTONECG) is used to open a database; it includes four menu options: File, Notepad, Size, and
Color.
WTENV uses the same database file as WTONECG. When the WTENV module is first opened,
the File menu includes only two options: Open Weight Database or Return to Main Menu. You
must select Open Weight Database to open an existing file or to create a new database. When
you open a file, you will see a message shown in figure 4.2. Click OK to continue. The file that
you select is not checked to be sure it is a database file. If the data in the input window appears
strange, then you did not open a database file. Two examples of database files, WTENV36 and
M2002576, are included on the installation disk.
5.2.1 Input Window.
After a file is opened, the input window appears as shown in figure 5.1. The window also
includes five menu options: File, Notepad, Edit, Size, and Color.
After a database file is opened, the File menu is used to store and print data. Open Weight
Database allows you to retrieve a previously created and saved database file. Save Weight
Database As will allow the database to be saved to a file. Save Weight Envelope As allows the
calculations to be saved to a file. Print Weight Database and Envelope allows you to perform
the calculations and print both the database and the results of the calculations to a printer or file.
Print Weight Envelope only allows you to perform the calculations and send only the results to a
file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from WTENV and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main
Menu.
5-1
FIGURE 5.1 WTENV INPUT WINDOW
The Edit option allows you to move or delete items in the database. To move an item in the
database, scroll through the database to that item. Then select Edit, select Move Current Item
To, and enter the new number to move to. Select OK to complete the move. To delete an item
from the database, scroll through the database to that item. Then select Edit and select Delete
Current Item. The current item is immediately deletedyou will not be asked to confirm the
deletion!
The Size option sets the number of items in the database. The default value is 100. The Color
option allows you to change the color scheme displayed on your window.
The input for the weight database consists of the component description, weight, and location
coordinates. To enter the data, use the mouse to move to the appropriate cell. To move through
the database, use the up and down arrows or use the mouse to move the scroll bar. The tab key
will move between input cells.
To start a new weight database file, open an existing file and remove all the existing data. Then
you can enter the data for the new airplane. Two files, WTENV36 and M2002576, are included
on the installation disk as sample database files.
After all data are entered in the database, run the analysis by opening the File menu and selecting
Save Weight Envelope, Print Weight Database and Envelope, or Print Weight Envelope. Any of
these options will calculate the results and save the output to a file. The last two options print
the output. After selecting an option to do the calculations, you will be asked to enter the
airplane designation. This designation is written in the output file.
5-2
If you want to plot the flight envelope, you should save the database and envelope to a file. To
use the FAR23 Plot program, the filename must have the extension .WTS.
5.3 WTENV OUTPUT.
The output from WTENV is the envelope of useful loads and includes the weight and c.g. of the
airplane for given loading conditions. This data is used in FLTLOADS (section 11).
5.4 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to draw the weight envelope of
discretionary useful loading and the envelope of structural weight limits. An example of this
plot is shown in figure 5.2. The FAR23 Plot program is described in the appendix of reference 1.
To use the FAR23 Plot program, the filename must have the extension .WTS.
FIGURE 5.2 EXAMPLE OF USEFUL LOAD ENVELOPE AND STRUCTURAL LIMITS
5-3/5-4
6. AERODYNAMIC SURFACE GEOMETRY.
6.1 WINGGEOM DESCRIPTION.
The geometric properties for all aerodynamic surfaces on the airplane are calculated by the
program WINGGEOM. The aerodynamic surfaces include the wing, aileron, aileron tab, flap,
horizontal tail, elevator, elevator tab, vertical tail, rudder, and rudder tab.
WINGGEOM must be used to analyze each aerodynamic surface. For each surface, the user
enters the coordinates to define the leading and trailing edges of the surface. The program
divides the surface into elements, and calculates the area of each element.
The input required for this program includes the coordinates of the leading and trailing edge of
the aerodynamic surface. Two points define a straight leading or trailing edge. Three points can
be used to define the leading edge of a wing with a leading edge extension at the inboard end of
the wing. Three points would also be used to define a straight leading edge with a raked tip. A
complex or curved leading or trailing edge can be defined by a series of points assuming short
straight lines between points.
6.2 RUNNING WINGGEOM.
To run WINGGEOM, select the WINGGEOM button from the main menu window. You will
see the main window for this program as shown in figure 6.1.
FIGURE 6.1 WINGGEOM INPUT WINDOW
6-1
6.2.1 Input Window.
the analysis. This window also includes three menu options: File, Notepad, and Color.
Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As will allow the
output data to be saved to a file. Print Output allows you to perform the calculations and print
the output file to a printer or a file. Return to Main Menu exits from WINGGEOM and returns
to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input that is required is the name of the aerodynamic surface, whether the surface is
symmetrical about the x-x axis (y=0), the number of increments to divide the surface into, and
the coordinates for the leading and trailing edge of the surface. For the coordinates, the x value
is the fuselage station and the y value is the wing station. Start your input with the lowest
fuselage station.
To enter the leading edge points, first enter the number of points. Move to the area for the x and
y coordinates. For the first point, enter the x value, then the y value. Now using the mouse, click
on the bar next to the y-coordinate entry field. The point number should advance to the next
number. Now enter the next pair of x-y coordinates. Be sure to press Enter or <TAB> after
entering your value, before using the mouse. Continue until all data are entered. If you make an
error, you can go back to review the data or make corrections by clicking at the top of the bar.
The data for the trailing edge are entered in the same way as the leading edge.
The final input is the number of increments to divide the surface into. Enter Y or N if you want
the element data printed out.
After all inputs are entered in the input window, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
selecting either Save Output As or Print Output. Both options will calculate the results and save
the output to a file. The second option will also print the output.
To do the calculations for multiple aerodynamic surfaces, enter the data for the first surface, and
save your input and output. Then, from the File menu, select New to clear the data from the
window. Now enter the data for the next surface.
6-2
6.3 WINGGEOM OUTPUT.
The module WINGGEOM calculates the area, aspect ratio, mean aerodynamic chord (MAC),
and the butt line and fuselage station of the leading edge of the MAC. This output data is needed
as input to the modules STRSPEED for structural speeds (section 7), AIRLOADS and
AIRLOAD4 for air loads (sections 9 and 10), FLTLOADS for the flight envelope (section 11),
SELECT for the selection of critical loads (section 12), and ONENGOUT for the one-engine-out
loads (section 22).
The output echoes the input parameters, including the coordinates of the leading and trailing
edges, then prints the results. Optional output includes the data for the sections that the surface
was divided into. Appendices A and B of reference 1 show the output of WINGGEOM for two
example airplanes. WINGGEOM was used to generate output for the following components:
wing, aileron (forward and aft of the hinge line), flap, vertical tail, rudder, horizontal tail,
elevator (forward and aft of the hinge line), and elevator tab.
6.4 GRAPHICS.
The aerodynamic surfaces can be drawn with the GEOMPLOT graphing program. This program
is described in the appendix of reference 1, and examples of the figures are shown in appendices
A and B of reference 1.
The output files from WINGGEOM are read by the plotting program. The filenames must have
the extension .PLT.
The results from several surfaces can be plotted together. For example, the wing, aileron, and
flap can be plotted together. To do this, plot the wing first and overlay the aileron and flaps. An
example of this plot is shown in figure 6.2.
FIGURE 6.2 EXAMPLE OF AERODYNAMIC SURFACES PLOT
6-3/6-4
7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN SPEEDS AND MANEUVERING LOAD FACTORS.
7.1 STRSPEED DESCRIPTION.
The structural design speeds and maneuvering load factors are calculated by the module
STRSPEED. This module lets you choose the category in which you will certify the airplane:
normal, utility, or acrobatic. STRSPEED calculates the minimum structural design speeds and
load factors and then verifies that the chosen structural design speeds are greater than the
minimum requirements and that the margins between speeds are greater than the requirements.
If necessary, the speeds are adjusted to meet the requirements relative to cruise speed.
The structural design speeds and maneuver load factors must be selected so that they are greater
than the minimum values specified in FAR 23.335 (design air speeds) and FAR 23.337 (limit
maneuvering load factors). Also, the relationships between the structural design speeds must
meet the minimum margins between speeds that are specified in FAR 23.335.
The module STRSPEED calculates the minimum structural design speeds and load factors and
then verifies that the chosen structural design speeds are greater than the minimum requirements
and that the margins between speeds are greater than the requirements. If necessary, the speeds
are adjusted to meet the requirements relative to cruise speed.
The maneuvering loads factors are defined in FAR 23.337 and summarized in table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1 MANEUVERING LOAD FACTOR LIMITS
CATEGORY POSITIVE LOAD FACTOR NEGATIVE LOAD FACTOR

2.1 + [24000/(W+10000)]
Normal but not greater than 3.8 -0.4 x positive load factor
Utility 4.4 -0.4 x positive load factor
Acrobatic 6.0 -0.5 x positive load factor
After the design speeds are determined, the Mach limitations at shoulder altitude are calculated
for VC and VD. To calculate the limiting values of MC and MD, the temperature and speed of
sound at altitude are calculated from
T = 59.0 − 0.003566 h
a = 29.02( T + 459.4)0.5
where:
T = temperature at altitude (ºF)

h = altitude (feet)
a = speed of sound (knots)
7-1
Then the air speed and Mach number can be calculated:
σ = (1− 0.000006879 h )4.258

VC − EAS
VC − TAS =
σ 0 .5
VD − EAS
VD − TAS =
σ 0 .5
VC − TAS
MC =
a
VD − TAS
MD =
a
where:
σ = ratio of density at altitude to density at sea level

VC = design cruise air speed (knots)
VD = design dive air speed (knots)
MC = Mach number at the design cruise speed VC
MD = Mach number at the design dive speed VD
EAS = equivalent air speed
TAS = true air speed
The requirements for the design air speeds are defined in FAR 23.335, and the limit maneuvering
load factors must meet the requirements of FAR 23.337.
7.2.1 FAR 23.335 Design Air Speeds.
Except as provided in paragraph a.(4) of this section, the selected design air speeds are
equivalent air speeds (EAS).
a. For design cruising speed, VC , the following apply:
(1) VC (in knots) may not be less than
(a) 33 W / S (for normal, utility, and commuter category airplanes) and

(b) 36 W / S (for acrobatic category airplanes).
(2) For values of W/S more than 20, the multiplying factors may be decreased linearly
with W/S to a value of 28.6 where W/S = 100.
(3) VC need not be more than 0.9 VH at sea level.
7-2
(4) At altitudes where an MD is established, a cruising speed MC limited by
compressibility may be selected.
b. For design dive speed, VD, the following apply:
(1) VD /MD may not be less than 1.25 VC /MC .
(2) With VCmin (the required minimum design cruising speed) VD (in knots) may not
be less than
(a) 1.40 VCmin (for normal and commuter category airplanes);

(b) 1.50 VCmin (for utility category airplanes); and
(c) 1.55 VCmin (for acrobatic category airplanes).
(3) For values of W/S more than 20, the multiplying factors in paragraph b.(2) of this
section may be decreased linearly with W/S to a value of 1.35 where W/S = 100.
(4) Compliance with paragraphs b.(1) and (2) of this section need not be shown if
VD /MD is selected so that the minimum speed margin between VC /MC and VD /MD
is the greater of the following:
(a) the speed increase resulting when, from the initial condition of stabilized
flight of VC /MC,K the airplane is assumed to be upset, flown for 20 seconds
along a flight path 7.5° below the initial path, and then pulled up with a
load factor of 1.5 (0.5 g acceleration increment). At least 75 percent
maximum continuous power for reciprocating engines, and maximum
cruising power for turbines, or, if less, the power required for VC /MC for
both kinds of engines must be assumed until the pullup is initiated, at
which point power reduction and pilot-controlled drag devices may be
used, and
(b) mach 0.05 (at altitudes where an MD is established).
c. For design maneuvering speed, VA , the following applies:
(1) VA may not be less than V s n where
(a) VS is a computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the design weight,
normally based on the maximum airplane normal force coefficients, CNA;
and
(b) n is the limit maneuvering load factor used in design.
(2) The value of VA need not exceed the value of VC used in design.
d. For design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB, the following apply:
7-3
(1) VB may not be less than the speed determined by the intersection of the line
representing the maximum positive lift Cn max and the line representing the rough
air gust velocity in the gust V-n diagram, or n g V s1 , whichever is less, where:
(a) ng is the positive airplane gust load factor due to gust at speed VC (in
accordance with FAR 23.341) and at the particular weight under
consideration, and
(b) VSl is the stalling speed with the flaps retracted at the particular weight
under consideration.
(2) VB need not be greater than VC.
7.2.2 FAR 23.337 Limit Maneuvering Load Factors.
a. The positive limit maneuvering load factor n may not be less than
(1) 2.1+[24,000/(W+10,000)] for normal and commuter category airplanes, except

that n need not be more than 3.8,
(2) 4.4 for utility category airplanes, or
(3) 6.0 for acrobatic category airplanes.
b. The negative limit maneuvering load factor may not be less than
(1) 0.4 times the positive load factor for the normal utility and commuter categories or
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor for the acrobatic category.
c. Maneuvering load factors lower than those specified in this section may be used if the
airplane has design features that make it impossible to exceed these values in flight.
7.3 RUNNING STRSPEED.
To run STRSPEED, select the STRSPEED button from the main menu window. You will see
the main window for the module as shown in figure 7.1.
7.3.1 Input Window.
Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As will perform the
the calculations and print the output file to a serial or parallel printer. Return to Main Menu exits
from STRSPEED and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
7-4
FIGURE 7.1 STRSPEED INPUT WINDOW
The input required for STRSPEED includes the category of airplane (normal, utility, or
acrobatic), the takeoff weight, wing area, maximum speed at sea level (VH), and the shoulder
altitude.
The stalling speed with flaps extended and with flaps retracted can be entered if known, or they
can be calculated by STRSPEED. If you know the stalling speed, answer Y to the question, then
enter the speeds. If you want to calculate the stalling speeds, answer N. You will then be asked
to enter the maximum lift coefficients, CL-w and CL-f, as shown in figure 7.2.
The design speeds (VC, VD, VA, VF) and load factors (+n, -n) can be entered, or you can allow the
program to calculate these. Enter 1 for any value you want calculated. You can enter some of
the design speeds and let the program calculate the remaining values.
Note: In this window, it is recommended that you use Tab to move from field to field. If you
open a previously created file, you must tab through all the fields after they are filled to complete
the data entry. Otherwise the program may give a “Divide by zero” error. Also, if you use the
mouse to move between fields, you may get the same error message.
7-5
FIGURE 7.2 STRSPEED ALTERNATE INPUT WINDOW
selecting Save Output As or Print Output. Either selection will calculate the results. The first
option saves the output to a file, and the second option prints the output.
7.4 STRSPEED OUTPUT.
STRSPEED calculates the design speeds, load factors, and Mach numbers (MC, MD). The
minimum values are calculated for VC, VD, VA, and VF, and for the positive and negative load
factors. If you chose a design speed, then the other speeds are adjusted to meet the requirements.
The calculated values are used in MACHLIM, FLTLOADS, AILERON, and FLAPLOAD
(sections 8, 11, 13, and 14 respectively).
7-6
8. MACH LIMITATIONS.
8.1 MACHLIM DESCRIPTION.
The MACHLIM module determines the Mach limitations for the flight envelope diagram. For a
constant Mach number, the equivalent air speed is calculated at altitudes from the shoulder
altitude to the maximum operating altitude. The equations for calculating equivalent air speed
are given in section 7.
8.2 RUNNING MACHLIM.
To run MACHLIM, select the MACHLIM button from the main menu window. The main input
window for MACHLIM is shown in figure 8.1.
FIGURE 8.1 MACHLIM INPUT WINDOW
8.2.1 Input Window.
The input window is displayed when the module starts, and is used to specify the parameters for
the calculations and send the output data to a file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from
MACHLIM and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
8-1
The input for MACHLIM includes the Mach number at design cruising speed (MC), the Mach
number at design dive speed (MD), the shoulder altitude, and the maximum operating altitude.
An altitude increment is also required; this is used to determine the altitudes of interest between
the shoulder and operating altitudes. The altitudes are entered in feet.
The Mach numbers at design cruise and dive speeds are calculated in STRSPEED (section 7).
output to a file. The second selection also includes the option to send the output directly to a
printer.
8.3 MACHLIM OUTPUT.
The output from MACHLIM includes the air speeds at altitudes between the shoulder altitude
and the operating altitude. This data can be plotted on the flight limits diagram using FAR23
Plot.
All speeds are given in knots equivalent air speed (KEAS), and the altitude is in feet.
8.4 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to draw the Mach limits lines on the
flight limit diagram. The FAR23 Plot program is described in the appendix of reference 1.
To plot the data, the output file from MACHLIM must have a filename with the extension .SPD.
An example of a flight limit diagram is shown in figure 8.2.
8-2
FIGURE 8.2 EXAMPLE OF FLIGHT LIMIT DIAGRAM
8-3/8-4
9. AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS.
9.1 AIRLOADS DESCRIPTION.
The AIRLOADS module is used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients and wing air loads.
AIRLOADS is used twice. First, it is used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients. Then, after
determining the critical wing load conditions (section 12), it is used to calculate the actual air
loads for the critical wing load conditions.
The AIRLOADS and AIRLOAD4 (section 10) modules are similar in function. However,
AIRLOAD4 should be used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients and wing air loads if the
sweepback of the 25% chord is greater than 15°. If the Mach number is greater than 0.5, then
AIRLOAD4 should be used to calculate the air loads. Either AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 can be
used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients if the sweepback is less than 15°.
9.1.1 Aerodynamic Coefficients.
AIRLOADS calculates the basic and additive spanwise aerodynamic lift coefficient distributions
for the wing. It combines these with the spanwise lift coefficient distribution for any specific
total wing lift coefficient and then calculates the associated spanwise drag and moment
coefficients for that wing CL.
AIRLOADS calculates the stall lift coefficient and angle of attack for the wing. The pitching
moment coefficient of the fuselage and nacelle is calculated and added to the total wing moment
coefficient to provide lift, drag, and moment coefficients for the airplane-less-tail condition for
any CL. The drag and moment of the extended landing gear are calculated and added to the
airplane-less-tail. The sea level equations for lift, drag, and moment are formulated. These
equations are used to make the balancing calculations for the V-n diagrams (see section 11).
The spanwise lift distribution on the wing is determined by Schrenk’s method [1]. For additive
lift, the Schrenk method averages the chordwise distribution with an elliptical chord distribution
of the same wing area as if there was a constant airfoil and no aerodynamic twist. For the basic
lift, the Schrenk method averages the zero lift distribution and the elliptical distribution for zero
lift. The zero lift distribution is the local chord times slope of the lift times the angle of attack
relative to the zero lift line of the wing.
Tau (τ) is a correction factor for the slope of the lift curve that accounts for the deviation of the
wing plan form from an ellipse [1]. This factor is required input for AIRLOADS and can be
calculated during data input.
If the sweepback of the quarter chord is greater than 15º, then the lift distribution is calculated
from [3]:
 ccl   ccl  2y
  =  − 1 −  [ 2(1 − cos Λ )]
 c C L  Λ  cC L  Λ = 0  b
9-1
where:
ccl = local chordwise lift distribution

c CL = chordwise lift distribution for the wing
Λ = angle of sweepback
y = wing station
b = wing span
9.1.2 Air Loads.
After determining the critical conditions for the wing (see section 12), the actual air loads can be
calculated. The lift coefficient, CL, and speed for each critical wing condition is calculated by
FLTLOADS (see section 11). Using this data, AIRLOADS calculates the spanwise air load
distributions for lift, drag, and pitching moment for each of the critical wing conditions. Then
the shear, bending moments, and torsion air loads are calculated along the quarter chord.
The regulations for air loads are defined in FARs 23.301, 23.349, and 23.455 and repeated here
for convenience.
9.2.1 FAR 23.301 Loads.
a. Strength requirements are specified in terms of limit loads (the maximum loads to be
expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied by prescribed factors of
safety). Unless otherwise provided, prescribed loads are limit loads.
b. Unless otherwise provided, the air, ground, and water loads must be placed in
equilibrium with inertia forces, considering each item of mass in the airplane. These
loads must be distributed to conservatively approximate or closely represent actual
conditions. Methods used to determine load intensities and distribution on canard and
tandem wing configurations must be validated by flight test measurement unless the
methods used for determining those loading conditions are shown to be reliable or
conservative on the configuration under consideration.
c. If deflections under load would significantly change the distribution of external or

internal loads, this redistribution must be taken into account.
d. Simplified structural design criteria may be used if they result in design loads not less
than those prescribed in FARs 23.331 through 23.521. For conventional, single-engine
airplanes with design weights of 6,000 pounds or less, the design criteria of Appendix A
of Part 23 are an approved equivalent of FARs 23.321 through 23.459. If Appendix A is
used, the entire appendix must be substituted for the corresponding sections of Part 23.
9-2
9.2.2 FAR 23.349 Rolling Conditions.
The wing and wing bracing must be designed for the following conditions:
a. Unsymmetrical wing loads appropriate to the category. Unless the following values
result in unrealistic loads, the rolling accelerations may be obtained by modifying the
symmetrical flight conditions in FAR 23.333(d) as follows:
(1) For acrobatic category, in conditions A and F, assume that 100 percent of the
semispan wing air load acts on one side of the plane of symmetry and 60 percent
of this load acts on the other side.
(2) For normal, utility, and commuter categories, in Condition A, assume that 100
percent of the semispan wing air load acts on one side of the airplane, and 70
percent of this load acts on the other side. For airplanes of more than 1,000
pounds design weight, the latter percentage may be increased linearly with weight
up through 75 percent at 12,500 pounds to the maximum gross weight of the
airplane.
b. The wing and wing bracing must be designed for the loads resulting from the aileron
deflections and speeds specified in FAR 23.455, in combination with an airplane load
factor of at least two thirds of the positive maneuvering load factor used for design.
Unless the following values result in unrealistic loads, the effect of aileron displacement
on wing torsion may be accounted for by adding the following increment to the basic
airfoil moment coefficient over the aileron portion of the span in the critical condition
determined in FAR 23.333(d):
∆Cm = -0.01δ
where:
∆Cm is the moment coefficient increment, and

δ is the down aileron deflection in degrees in the critical condition.
9.2.3 FAR 23.455 Ailerons.
a. The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected
(1) in the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions and
(2) by the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort) during

unsymmetrical flight conditions:
(a) Sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA. Suitable

allowance may be made for control system deflections.
9-3
(b) Sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to produce a rate of
roll not less than obtained in paragraph a.(2)(a) of this section.
(c) Sufficient deflection at VD to produce a rate of roll not less than one-third
of that obtained in paragraph a.(2)(a) of this section.
b. [Reserved]
9.3 RUNNING AIRLOADS.
To run the module AIRLOADS, select the button from the main menu window. The first input
window will be displayed as shown in figure 9.1.
FIGURE 9.1 AIRLOADS FIRST INPUT WINDOW
9.3.1 Input Window.
the analysis. This window also includes twelve menu options: File, Notepad, Color, and Pg1-
Pg9.
the calculations and send the output data to a printer or file. Return to Main Menu exits from the
AIRLOADS program and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Notepad option opens a Notepad program where you can review your input and output files,
and the Color option allows you to change the color scheme displayed on your window.
9-4
The options Pg1-Pg9 are for the nine input windows used to enter the data required for the air
loads analysis. If you are calculating the aerodynamic coefficients, you do not need to enter data
on the seventh window. If you are calculating the air loads, you do not need to enter data on the
fourth window. The eighth window is used only for landing gear aerodynamic coefficients, and
the ninth window is only for calculating tau (τ).
Note: If you open an existing data file in AIRLOADS, you may get an error message about
reading past the end of file. This means that the data file does not have enough data for all the
input windows and is probably missing data for the seventh and eighth windows. You should
check all the windows to verify the data before running the analysis.
On the first window, the geometry data is entered, including the coordinates for the leading and
trailing edges.
The parameters required for the additive lift distribution calculations are entered on the second
window shown in figure 9.2, and the data for basic lift distribution are entered on the third
window as shown in figure 9.3.
FIGURE 9.2 AIRLOADS SECOND INPUT WINDOW
9-5
FIGURE 9.3 AIRLOADS THIRD INPUT WINDOW
On the fourth window, shown in figure 9.4a, the first question asks if you want to calculate the
stall CL. If you are calculating the aerodynamic coefficients, then you want to answer Y. If you
are calculating the air loads, then answer N. If you answer N, then no additional input is
required on this window as shown in figure 9.4b.
If you want to calculate the stall CL, then enter the additional data. RN is Reynolds number.
FIGURE 9.4a AIRLOADS FOURTH INPUT WINDOW
9-6
FIGURE 9.4b AIRLOADS ALTERNATE FOURTH INPUT WINDOW
On the fifth window, shown in figure 9.5, you will enter data for the spanwise drag and moment
coefficients, CD and CM. You need to enter τ, which is a correction for the slope of the lift curve.
The value for τ can be calculated on the ninth window, but then you will need to enter the value
here.
FIGURE 9.5 AIRLOADS FIFTH INPUT WINDOW
On the sixth screen, shown in figure 9.6, you will enter additional fuselage data.
9-7
FIGURE 9.6 AIRLOADS SIXTH INPUT WINDOW
On the seventh window, shown in figure 9.7a, the first question asks if you want to calculate the
air loads. If you are calculating the air loads, then you want to answer Y. If you are not
calculating the air loads, then answer N. If you answer N, then no additional input is required on
this window.
If you answer Y, then enter the additional data as shown in figure 9.7b.
If you opened an existing input data file, you will need to check the values on the seventh and
eighth windows to be sure they are correct.
FIGURE 9.7a AIRLOADS SEVENTH INPUT WINDOW
9-8
FIGURE 9.7b AIRLOADS ALTERNATE SEVENTH INPUT WINDOW
The data required to calculate the landing gear aerodynamic coefficients is entered on the eighth
window shown in figure 9.8.
FIGURE 9.8 AIRLOADS EIGHTH INPUT WINDOW
The ninth window, shown in figure 9.9a, is used to calculate the correction factor tau (τ). To
calculate τ, enter the data, then click on the bar at the bottom of the window. The value of τ will
be displayed on this bar as shown in figure 9.9b.
9-9
FIGURE 9.9a AIRLOADS NINTH INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 9.9b AIRLOADS NINTH INPUT WINDOW WITH TAU
After all input data are entered in the input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu
and selecting Save Output As or Print Output. Either selection will calculate the results; the first
9-10
9.4 AIRLOADS OUTPUT.
The AIRLOADS module produces the following:
• wing geometry calculations,

• additive lift distribution,
• basic lift distribution,
• stall calculations,
• wing aerodynamic coefficient distributions,
• airplane-less-tail aerodynamic coefficients, and
• equation for aerodynamic coefficients for airplane less tail.
The aerodynamic coefficients for the airplane less tail are used in FLTLOADS (section 11).
When calculating wing spanwise air loads, the output values are used by the program
NETLOADS (section 16).
9.5 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to plot the aerodynamic coefficients.
The FAR23 Plot program is described in the appendix of reference 1.
To plot the data, the output file from AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 must have a filename with the
extension .AIR. An example of a plot is shown in figure 9.10.
9-11
FIGURE 9.10 EXAMPLE OF LIFT DISTRIBUTION PLOT
9-12
10. ADDITIONAL AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS.
10.1 AIRLOAD4 DESCRIPTION.
The AIRLOADS (section 9) and AIRLOAD4 modules are similar in function. However,
AIRLOAD4 is used to calculate the aerodynamic coefficients and loads if the sweepback of the
25% chord is greater than 15°. If the Mach number is greater than 0.5, then AIRLOAD4 must be
used to calculate the air loads. Either AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 can be used to calculate the
aerodynamic coefficients if the sweepback is less than 15°.
The FAR 23 regulations for air loads are given in section 9.
10.3 RUNNING AIRLOAD4.
To run the module AIRLOAD4, select the button from the main menu window. The first input
window will be displayed as shown in figure 10.1.
FIGURE 10.1 AIRLOAD4 FIRST INPUT WINDOW
The first input window is displayed when the module starts and is used to specify the parameters
for the analysis. This window also includes ten or eleven menu options: File, Notepad, Color,
and Pg1-8 or Pg1-8.
10-1
the calculations and send the output data to a file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from the
AIRLOAD4 program and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The options Pg1 through Pg8 are for the eight input windows used to enter the data required for
the analysis. Pg8 is appears only if landing gear data is required.
Except for the second and fifth windows, the input windows for AIRLOAD4 are the same as for
AIRLOADS. Figures 10.2 and 10.3 show the second and fifth windows for AIRLOAD4. For
the other windows see section 9.
Note: AIRLOAD4 does not need the ninth window for calculation of the correction factor τ;
instead, the required data is entered on the fifth window (figure 10.3), and τ is calculated in the
program.
On Pg6, you are asked if the landing gear is extended. If you answer Y, you should enter the
data on Pg8. If you answer N, you do not need to enter landing gear data on Pg8 and this page
will not appear in the options. Note that this is different from AIRLOADS since AIRLOADS
always requires you to enter the data on Pg8.
FIGURE 10.2 AIRLOAD4 SECOND INPUT WINDOW
10-2
FIGURE 10.3 AIRLOAD4 FIFTH INPUT WINDOW
selecting Save Output As or Print Output. Either selection will calculate the results; the first
10.4 AIRLOAD4 OUTPUT.
The output from AIRLOAD4 is similar to the output from AIRLOADS and is described in
section 9.
10.5 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to plot the aerodynamic coefficients.
The FAR23 Plot program is described in the appendix of reference 1.
To plot the data, the output file from AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 must have a filename with the
extension .AIR. An example of a plot is shown in section 9.
10-3/10-4
11. FLIGHT ENVELOPE.
11.1 FLTLOADS DESCRIPTION.
The FLTLOADS module calculates the loads for any combination of airspeed and load factor on
and within the boundaries of the flight envelope. The flight envelope is defined in FARs 23.333,
23.345, and 23.373. The data necessary to make these load calculations comes from the results
of modules WTENV (section 5), WINGGEOM (section 6), STRSPEED (section 7), and
AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 (sections 9 and 10).
The flight envelope should be developed for altitudes up to the maximum operating altitude. For
airplanes with a maximum operating altitude less than 20,000 feet, three altitudes are usually
used: sea level, shoulder altitude, and maximum operating altitude. If the maximum operating
altitude is greater than 20,000 feet, then 20,000 feet should be included since this is where the
gust formulas begin to taper.
The flight envelope with flaps extended for takeoff, approach, and landing needs to be
determined at sea level only.
FAR 23.333 defines the flight envelope for maneuver and gust for normal, utility, and acrobatic
category airplanes. The envelope for high lift devices (flaps) is defined in FAR 23.345 and for
speed control devices in FAR 23.373.
11.2.1 FAR 23.333 Flight Envelope.
11.2.1.1 General.
Compliance with the strength requirements of this subpart must be shown at any combination of
airspeed and load factor on and within the boundaries of a flight envelope (similar to the one
shown in figure 11.1) which represents the envelope of the flight loading conditions specified by
the maneuvering and gust criteria of sections 11.2.1.2 and 11.2.1.3.
11.2.1.2 Maneuvering Envelope.
Except where limited by maximum (static) lift coefficients, the airplane is assumed to be
subjected to symmetrical maneuvers resulting in the following limit load factors:
a. The positive maneuvering load factor specified in FAR 23.337 at speeds up to VD.
b. The negative maneuvering load factor specified in FAR 23.337 at VC.
c. Factors varying linearly with speed from the specified value at VC to 0.0 at VD for the
normal and commuter category and -1.0 at VD for the acrobatic and utility categories.
11-1
Flight envelope
4 + MANEUVER LIMT GUST

ENVELOPE
B C
MAX
LIMIT
3 A D MANEUVER
FLAPS + CN MAX ENVELOPES
+ VB GUST LINE + VC GUST LINE LIMIT

+ VD GUST LINE COMBINED
ENVELOPE
2
+ CNA
Load Factor, n
1
VS VF VA VB VC VD
- VD GUST LINE
SPEED V
0
- VC GUST LINE
- CNA E (NORMAL AND
COMMUTER)
- VB GUST LINE
-1 MAX E (UTILITY AND
G ACROBATIC)
F
-2 - MANEUVER
FIGURE 11.1 FLIGHT ENVELOPE FOR FAR 23.333(d)
11.2.1.3 Gust Envelope.
The airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical vertical gusts in level flight. The
resulting limit load factors must correspond to the conditions determined as follows:
a. Positive (up) and negative (down) gusts of 50 feet per second (fps) at VC must be
considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000 feet. The gust velocity may be
reduced linearly from 50 fps at 20,000 feet to 25 fps at 50,000 feet.
b. Positive and negative gusts of 25 fps at VD must be considered at altitudes between sea
level and 20,000 feet. The gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 25 fps at 20,000
feet to 12.5 fps at 50,000 feet.
c. In addition, for commuter category airplanes, positive (up) and negative (down) rough
air gusts of 66 fps at VB must be considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000
feet. The gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 66 fps at 20,000 feet to 38 fps at
50,000 feet.
11-2
The following assumptions are made:
a. The shape of the gust is
U de  2 πs 
U= 1 − cos 
2  25C 
where
s = distance penetrated into gust (ft),

C = mean geometric chord of wing (ft), and
Ude = derived gust velocity referred to in subparagraph a. of this section.
b. Gust load factors vary linearly with speed between VC and VD.
11.2.2 FAR 23.345 High Lift Devices.
If flaps or similar high lift devices to be used for takeoff, approach, or landing are installed, the
airplane, with the flaps fully deflected at VF, is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical
maneuvers and gusts resulting in limit load factors within the range determined by
a. maneuvering to a positive limit load factor of 2.0 and

b. positive and negative gust of 25 fps acting normal to the flight path in level flight.
VF must be assumed to be not less than 1.4 VS or 1.8 VSF, whichever is greater, where
a. VS is the computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the design weight, and
b. VSF is the computed stalling speed with flaps fully extended at the design weight.
However, if an automatic flap load limiting device is used, the airplane may be designed for the
critical combinations of airspeed and flap position allowed by that device.
In designing the flaps and supporting structures, the following must be accounted for:
a. A head-on gust having a velocity of 25 fps (EAS).

b. The slipstream effects specified in FAR 23.457(b).
In determining external loads on the airplane as a whole, thrust, slipstream, and pitching
acceleration may be assumed to be zero.
The requirements of FAR 23.457 and this section may be complied with separately or in
combination.
11-3
11.2.3 FAR 23.373 Speed Control Devices.
If speed control devices (such as spoilers and drag flaps) are incorporated for use in enroute
conditions
a. the airplane must be designed for the symmetrical maneuvers and gusts prescribed in
FARs 23.333, 23.337, and 23.341 and the yawing maneuvers and lateral gusts in FARs
23.441 and 23.443 with the device extended at speeds up to the placard device extended
speed; and
b. if the device has automatic operating or load limiting features, the airplane must be
designed for the maneuver and gust conditions prescribed in the previous bullet of this
section at the speeds and corresponding device positions that the mechanism allows.
11.3 RUNNING FLTLOADS.
To run FLTLOADS, select the button from the main menu window. The first input window will
be displayed as shown in figure 11.2.
FIGURE 11.2 FLTLOADS FIRST INPUT WINDOW
The first input window is displayed when the module starts. This window also includes eleven
menu options: File, Notepad, Color, and Pg1-Pg8.
Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As Report Format will
perform the calculations and save the output file in report format. Save Output As Format
11-4
SELECT Required will perform the calculations and save the output file in the format required
by SELECT (described in section 12). Print Input allows you to print only the input data. Print
Output allows you to perform the calculations and send the output data to a file or printer.
Return to Main Menu exits from FLTLOADS and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The eight different input windows are accessed with the Pg1, Pg2, etc., menu items. The data
required for input windows Pg1 and Pg2 is general data such as airplane category, geometric
data, and speeds. These windows are shown in figures 11.2 and 11.3, respectively. The speeds
are entered in KEAS, the coordinates are in inches, and the area is in ft2.
On the first input window, you enter the category of the airplane, either normal, utility, or
acrobatic. This category determines the minimum required load factor on the second window as
shown in figure 11.3.
On Pg2, you will be asked if you have an enroute condition. If not, then the question about flaps
for enroute will not appear, and you will not see the input windows for enroute (Pg7 and Pg8).
Also, on the first window (Pg1) where you enter VPF, use VC if you have an enroute condition.
FIGURE 11.3 FLTLOADS SECOND INPUT WINDOW
The input windows, designated Pg3 through Pg8 and shown in figures 11.4 through 11.9, are
used to enter data for cruise, landing, and enroute configurations. Each configuration requires
two input windows; where the first window asks for the coefficients for the lift (C0, C1, C2, C3,
and C4), drag (D0, D1, D2, D3, and D4), and pitching moment (M0, M1, M2, M3, and M4)
equations, and the second window asks for the loading c.g. data.
11-5
You can enter up to four loading c.g. conditions. The required data includes a description,
weight and c.g. coordinates. This information comes from WTONECG (section 4).
FIGURE 11.4 FLTLOADS THIRD INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 11.5 FLTLOADS FOURTH INPUT WINDOW
11-6
FIGURE 11.6 FLTLOADS FIFTH INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 11.7 FLTLOADS SIXTH INPUT WINDOW
11-7
FIGURE 11.8 FLTLOADS SEVENTH INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 11.9 FLTLOADS EIGHTH INPUT WINDOW
The data necessary to make these load calculations comes from the results of the modules
WTONECG (section 4), WTENV (section 5), WINGGEOM (section 6), STRSPEED (section 7),
and AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 (section 9 or section 10).
11-8
selecting Save Output As Report Format, Save Output As Format SELECT Required, or Print
Output. Any of these selections will calculate the results, but you will need to select more than
one option to get the output in more than one the format. If you want to use the results in
SELECT (section 12), you need to select the option to save results in the correct format. If you
want to save the data to a file and print it, you will need to select those options also.
11.4 FLTLOADS OUTPUT.
The output from FLTLOADS is used in SELECT (section 12) and WINGINER (section 15).
The data for each point on the flight envelope is included in the output file. The following data
is included, and if applicable, the variable name used in the output file is given:
• name of the condition and case number,

• altitude (feet) and equivalent air speed (knots),
• normal load factor nz,
• angle of attack α (degrees),
• compressibility factor (variable G CORR),
• wing lift coefficient CL,
• pitching moment of airplane less tail (variable M(W+F)),
• wing lift normal to the airplane reference line (lbs) (variable LZW),
• tail load (lbs) (variable LT), and
• airplane drag load (lbs) (variable DX).
11.5 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to draw the flight envelope. The FAR23
Plot program is described in the appendix of reference 1.
To plot the results, the output file from FLTLOADS must have a filename with the extension
.LDS. An example of a flight envelope is shown in figure 11.10.
11-9
FIGURE 11.10 EXAMPLE OF A FLIGHT ENVELOPE
11-10
12. SELECTION OF CRITICAL LOADS.
12.1 SELECT DESCRIPTION.
The critical flight loads are determined by SELECT using the results of FLTLOADS. The
output file from FLTLOADS contains all the balanced symmetrical flight conditions on the V-n
diagram. SELECT searches this file for the critical flight loads on the wing, fuselage, horizontal
tail, and vertical tail. Critical loads for the other structures such as ailerons, flaps, engine
mounts, landing gear, and tabs are determined in other modules as explained in sections 13, 14,
17, 18, and 21, respectively.
In addition to the flight envelope data, additional geometry and inertia data from WTONECG
(section 4) and WINGGEOM (section 6) are required.
12.1.1 Wing Loads.
The V-n data is searched for the largest net load on the wing for the following conditions:
• positive maneuver load factor at VA ,
• positive maneuver load factor at VC ,
• negative maneuver load factor at VC ,
• positive maneuver load factor at VD ,
• positive gust load at VC,
• negative gust load at VC,
• accelerated roll condition producing the largest resultant air load on the wing at VA, and
• steady roll conditions required by FAR 23.349(b) at speeds VA, VC, and VD for the
maximum wing torsion produced by the aileron.
12.1.2 Fuselage Loads.
The fuselage loads are not specifically addressed in the FAR 23 regulations, but they are implied
in the regulations for the tail and wing. The local loads from the tail are discussed in the
following sections on tail loads. The engine mount loads are discussed in section 17, and the
landing loads are discussed in section 18.
The V-n data is searched for all the balanced symmetrical conditions, including maneuver and
gust conditions, for the critical balanced loads.
The flight loads on the fuselage are critical for vertical shear loading aft of and adjacent to the
rear spar attachment resulting from the maximum net upload on the wing. They may also be
12-1
critical for fuselage vertical shear forward of the wing forward attachment. The V-n data is
searched for the largest wing upload accounting for relieving wing inertia. For aft fuselage
mounted engines, this condition could also be critical for aft fuselage bending.
The loading on the aft fuselage is critical for down bending due to unchecked pullup maneuver
and due to the combination of down tail load and down fuselage inertia in balanced flight
conditions. Also, the largest up bending from the combination of up tail load and up fuselage
inertia in balanced flight condition is the critical loading for the aft fuselage.
The loading on the forward fuselage is usually critical for the same condition as the maximum
aft fuselage down bending and up bending.
Accelerated pitching due to maneuver or gust may produce the critical loading in the aft
fuselage. These conditions are determined in the tail section.
12.1.3 Horizontal Tail Loads.
The tail surface loads are reactions to the airplane air and inertia loads and the pitching and
yawing motions and are functions of the angle of attack and camber due to control surface
deflections. Lift acts at the 0.25 chord due to the change in angle of attack and at about the 50%
chord due to the change in camber.
The rational tail loads are calculated per Amendment 42. First, the downwash at the tail is
calculated as
114.6C L − w
ε=
πARw
where:
ε = downwash at the tail

CL-w = lift coefficient of the wing
ARw = aspect ratio of the wing
Then the angle of attack (figure 12.1) of the stabilizer is calculated
αt = α wing − iw + it − ε
where:
αt = absolute angle of attack at the tail

αwing = angle of attack of wing, relative wind line to zero lift line of wing
iw = incidence of wing, angle from waterline to zero lift line of wing
it = incidence of tail, angle from waterline to zero lift line of tail
ε = downwash, relative wind line of wing to relative wind line of tail
12-2
FIGURE 12.1 GEOMETRIC RELATION BETWEEN ANGLE OF ATTACK OF WING AND
TAIL
The load due to the angle of attack at the 25% chord of the tail is
 ∆C L −t  q
Lt =   S
 ∆αxα  t
where:
Lt = load at the 25% chord of the tail

∆CL-t = change in lift coefficient of the tail
α = angle of attack of the tail
∆α = change in angle of attack
q = dynamic pressure
St = surface area of the tail
The airplane is balanced about the c.g. to find the lift due to camber at the 50% chord of the tail
and the deflection of the elevator. The chordwise distribution from the angle of attack load is the
average pressure at the quarter chord, zero at the trailing edge, and four times the average
pressure at the leading edge. The chordwise distribution of the camber load at the 50% chord is
trapezoidal, which is symmetrical about the 50% chord with zero load at the trailing edge to w at
the hinge line. Then the net chordwise distribution is the algebraic sum of the chordwise
distributions.
The largest positive and negative balancing tail loads are determined from the V-n data for both
flaps extended and flaps retracted conditions. After selecting the critical balanced conditions,
the load due to angle of attack at the 25% chord, the load due to camber at the 50% chord, the
deflection of the elevator, and the elevator load are determined.
12-3
Maneuvering tail loads are determined for the checked and unchecked pullup maneuvers and
checked and unchecked push-down maneuvers. The unchecked pullup and push-down
maneuver tail loads are calculated at every 1 g balanced point at VA on all the V-n diagrams.
The total load, due to angle of attack at the 25% chord, due to camber at the 50% chord, and the
deflection of the elevator are calculated.
The up and down gust tail loads are determined for flaps retracted and flaps extended as
specified in FAR 23.425. Unsymmetrical tail loads are determined per FAR 23.427.
12.1.4 Vertical Tail Loads.
The vertical tail loads required in FARs 23.441(a) and 23.443(b) are calculated using the rational
loads method. These loads include
• vertical tail side load for sudden displacement to the maximum rudder deflection at VA
with the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw,
• vertical side tail load for rudder deflected to full deflection and airplane yawed to a
sideslip angle of 19.5°,
• vertical side tail load for yaw angle of 15° with the rudder control maintained in the
neutral position, and
• lateral gust load in unaccelerated flight at VC.
The regulations for loads are defined in FARs 23.301, 23.321, 23.331, and 23.349 and repeated
here for convenience.
12.2.1 FAR 23.301 Loads (General).

12-4
of this part are an approved equivalent of FARs 23.321 through 23.459. If Appendix A is
used, the entire appendix must be substituted for the corresponding sections of this part.
12.2.2 FAR 23.321 General (Flight Loads).
a. Flight load factors represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force component (acting normal
to the assumed longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the weight of the airplane. A positive
flight load factor is one in which the aerodynamic force acts upward with respect to the
airplane.
b. Compliance with the flight load requirements of this subpart must be shown
(1) at each critical altitude within the range in which the airplane may be expected to
operate,
(2) at each weight from the design minimum weight to the design maximum weight,
and
(3) for each required altitude and weight and for any practicable distribution of
disposable load within the operating limitations specified in FARs 23.1583
through 23.1589.
c. When significant, the effects of compressibility must be taken into account.
12.2.3 FAR 23.331 Symmetrical Flight Conditions.
a. The appropriate balancing horizontal tail load must be accounted for in a rational or
conservative manner when determining the wing loads and linear inertia loads
corresponding to any of the symmetrical flight conditions specified in FARs 23.333
through 23.341.
b. The incremental horizontal tail loads due to maneuvering and gusts must be reacted by
the angular inertia of the airplane in a rational or conservative manner.
c. Mutual influence of the aerodynamic surfaces must be taken into account when
determining flight loads.
12.2.4 FAR 23.349 Rolling Conditions.
The wing and wing bracing must be designed for the following loading conditions:
a. Unsymmetrical wing loads appropriate to the category. Unless the following values
result in unrealistic loads, the rolling accelerations may be obtained by modifying the
symmetrical flight conditions in FAR 23.333(d) as follows:
12-5
(1) For the acrobatic category, in conditions A and F, assume that 100 percent of the
semispan wing air load acts on one side of the plane of symmetry and 60 percent
of this load acts on the other side.
(2) For normal, utility, and commuter categories, in Condition A, assume that 100
percent of the semispan wing air load acts on one side of the airplane, and 70
percent of this load acts on the other side. For airplanes of more than 1,000
pounds design weight, the latter percentage may be increased linearly with weight
up through 75 percent at 12,500 pounds to the maximum gross weight of the
airplane.
b. The wing and wing bracing must be designed for loads resulting from the aileron
deflections and speeds specified in FAR 23.455, in combination with an airplane load
factor of at least two thirds of the positive maneuvering load factor used for design.
Unless the following values result in unrealistic loads, the effect of aileron displacement
on wing torsion may be accounted for by adding the following increment to the basic
airfoil moment coefficient over the aileron portion of the span in the critical condition
determined in FAR 23.333(d):
∆Cm = -0.01δ
where:
∆Cm is the moment coefficient increment, and

δ is the down aileron deflection in degrees in the critical condition.
12.2.5 FAR 23.351 Yawing Conditions.
The airplane must be designed for yawing loads on the vertical surfaces resulting from the loads
specified in FARs 23.441 through 23.445.
12.2.6 FAR 23.421 Balancing Loads (Horizontal Tail).
a. A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to maintain equilibrium in any

specified flight condition with no pitching acceleration.
b. Horizontal balancing surfaces must be designed for the balancing loads occurring at any
point on the limit maneuvering envelope and in the flap conditions specified in FAR
23.345.
12.2.7 FAR 23.423 Maneuvering Loads (Horizontal Tail).
Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure and the main wing of a canard or tandem
wing configuration, if that surface has pitch control, must be designed for the maneuvering loads
imposed by the following conditions:
12-6
a. A sudden movement of the pitching control at the speed VA to the maximum aft
movement and the maximum forward movement as limited by the control stops or pilot
effort, whichever is critical.
b. A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above VA followed by a forward
movement of the pitching control resulting in the following combinations of normal and
angular acceleration:
NORMAL ANGULAR
CONDITION ACCELERATION (n) ACCELERATION (radian/sec2)
Nose-up pitching... 1.0 +39nm + V*(nm - 1.5)
Nose-down pitching... nm -39nm + V*(nm - 1.5)
where:
nm = positive limit maneuvering load factor used in the design of the airplane,
and
V = initial speed in knots.
The conditions in this paragraph involve loads corresponding to the loads that may occur in a
checked maneuver (a maneuver in which the pitching control is suddenly displaced in one
direction and then suddenly moved in the opposite direction). The deflections and timing of the
checked maneuver must avoid exceeding the limit maneuvering load factor. The total horizontal
surface load for both nose-up and nose-down pitching conditions is the sum of the balancing
loads at V and the specified value of the normal load factor n plus the maneuvering load
increment due to the specified value of the angular acceleration.
12.2.8 FAR 23.425 Gust Loads (Horizontal Tail).
a. Each horizontal surface, other than a main wing, must be designed for loads resulting
from
(1) gust velocities specified in FAR 23.333(c) with flaps retracted and
(2) positive and negative gusts of 25 fps nominal intensity at VF corresponding to the
flight conditions specified in 23.345(a)(2).
b. [Reserved]
c. When determining the total load on the horizontal surfaces for the conditions specified in
paragraph a. of this section, the initial balancing loads for steady unaccelerated flight at
the pertinent design speeds VF, VC, and VD must first be determined. The incremental
load resulting from the gusts must be added to the initial balancing load to obtain the total
load.
12-7
d. In the absence of a more rational analysis, the incremental load due to the gust must be
computed as follows only on airplane configurations with aft-mounted, horizontal
surfaces, unless its use elsewhere is shown to be conservative:
K g U de Vaht S ht  dε 
∆Lht = 1 − 
498  dα 
where:
∆Lht = Incremental horizontal tail load (lb),

Kg = Gust alleviation factor defined in FAR 23.341,
Ude = Derived gust velocity (fps),
V = Airplane equivalent speed (knots),
aht = Slope of aft horizontal lift curve (per radian),
Sht = Area of aft horizontal lift surface (ft2), and
1 − dε 
  = Downwash factor
 dα 
12.2.9 FAR 23.427 Unsymmetrical Tail Loads (Horizontal Tail).
a. Horizontal surfaces other than main wing and their supporting structure must be designed
for unsymmetrical loads arising from yawing and slipstream effects in combination with
the loads prescribed for the flight conditions set forth in FARs 23.421 through 23.425.
b. In the absence of more rational data for airplanes that are conventional in regard to
location of engines, wings, horizontal surfaces other than main wing, and fuselage shape,
(1) 100 percent of the maximum loading from the symmetrical flight conditions may
be assumed on the surface on one side of the plane symmetry, and
(2) the following percentage of that loading must be applied to the opposite side:
Percent = 100 - 10 (n - 1), where n is the specified positive maneuvering load

factor, but this value may not be more than 80 percent.
c. For airplanes that are not conventional (such as airplanes with horizontal surfaces other
than main wing having appreciable dihedral or supported by the vertical tail surfaces), the
surfaces and supporting structures must be designed for combined vertical and horizontal
surface loads resulting from each prescribed flight condition taken separately.
12.2.10 FAR 23.441 Maneuvering Loads (Vertical Surfaces).
a. At speeds up to VA,K the vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand the following
conditions. In computing the loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed to be zero:
12-8
(1) With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the rudder
control is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection, as limited by the control
stops or by limit pilot forces.
(2) With the rudder deflected as specified in paragraph a.(1) of this section, it is
assumed that the airplane yaws to the resulting sideslip angle. In lieu of a rational
analysis, an overswing angle equal to 1.3 times the static sideslip angle of
paragraph a.(3) of this section may be assumed.
(3) A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the rudder control maintained in the neutral
position (except as limited by pilot strength).
b. [Reserved]
c. The yaw angles specified in paragraph a.(3) of this section may be reduced if the yaw
angle chosen for a particular speed cannot be exceeded in
(1) steady slip conditions,

(2) uncoordinated rolls from steep banks, or
(3) sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective action.
12.2.11 FAR 23.443 Gust Loads (Vertical Surfaces).
a. Vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand, in unaccelerated flight at speed VC,K,

lateral gusts of the values prescribed for VC in FAR 23.333(c).
b. In addition, for commuter category airplanes, the airplane is assumed to encounter

derived gusts normal to the plane of symmetry while in unaccelerated flight at VB, VC,
VD, and VF. The derived gusts and airplane speeds corresponding to these conditions, as
determined by FARs 23.341 and 23.345, must be investigated. The shape of the gust
must be as specified in FAR 23.333(c)(2)(i).
c. In the absence of a more rational analysis, the gust load must be computed as follows:
K gt U de Vavt Svt
Lvt =
498
where:
Lvt = Vertical surface load (lb),

Kgt = 0.88 µgt/5.3 + µgt = gust alleviation factor,
µgt = 2W/PCtgαvtSvt(K/1t)2 = lateral mass ratio,
Ude = Derived gust velocity (fps),
P = Air density (slugs/cu ft),
W = Airplane weight (lb),
Svt = Area of vertical surface (ft2),
12-9
Ct = Mean geometric chord of vertical surface (ft),
αvt = Lift curve slope of vertical surface (per radian),
K = Radius of gyration in yaw (ft),
1t = Distance from airplane c.g. to lift center of vertical surface (ft),
g = Acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2), and
V = Airplane equivalent speed (knots).
12.2.12 FAR 23.471 General (Ground Loads).
The limit ground loads specified in this subpart are considered to be external loads and inertia
forces that act upon an airplane structure. In each specified ground load condition, the external
reactions must be places in equilibrium with the linear and angular inertia forces in a rational or
conservative manner.
12.3 RUNNING SELECT.
To run SELECT, select the button from the main menu window. The first window will be
displayed as shown in figure 12.2.
FIGURE 12.2 SELECT MAIN WINDOW
12.3.1 Main Window.
The first window is used to specify the file containing the V-n data. You must open a data file
before you can do any analysis. This window includes three menu options: File, View, and
Color.
The File menu contains two options: Read V-n FLTLOAD Data From Disk and Return to Main
Menu. The V-n data file comes from FLTLOADS (section 11). If you try to open a file that is
not the correct format, you will get an error message.
12-10
The View option opens a Notepad program, allowing you to review your input and output files.
12.3.2 Secondary Window.
After a V-n data file is opened, the window options change to include Select as well as View and
Color as shown in figure 12.3.
FIGURE 12.3 SELECT SECONDARY WINDOW
a new input window. Save V-n FLTLOADS Data and Inputs will allow the input data to be saved
to a file. Print V-n FLTLOADS Data allows you to print the V-n data to a file or printer. Return
to Main Menu exits from SELECT and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Select option allows you to select the type of analysis that you will do. The options are
Critical Wing Loads, Critical Fuselage Loads, Critical Horizontal Tail Loads, and Critical
Vertical Tail Loads.
12-11
After a selection is made, one of the input windows is displayed. These input windows are
shown in figures 12.4 through 12.7. Each input window includes four menu options: File,
Select, View, and Color.
The File menu is used to store and retrieve data from the program. Save V-n FLTLOADS Data
and Inputs allows the V-n data and input data to be saved to a file. Print V-n FLTLOADS Data
allows you to print the V-n data to a file or printer. Save Critical Component Loads allows you
to perform the calculations and save the critical loads to a file. Print Critical Component Loads
allows you to perform the calculations and send the output to a printer or file. The component is
either wing, fuselage, horizontal tail, or vertical tail, depending on which loads you are selecting.
Return to Main Menu exits from SELECT and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Select option allows you to select the type of analysis that you will do. After you select an
analysis type and enter the data, you must use the File menu to perform the calculations. You
can do the analysis for a component only while you are in the appropriate window.
FIGURE 12.4 SELECT “SEARCH CRITICAL WING LOADS” WINDOW
12-12
For each analysis type, there is one input window. The input window for the critical wing loads
is shown in figure 12.4. For the critical wing loads, you will be asked to enter the full-down
aileron deflection and the airfoil section moment coefficient for no aileron deflection.
Figure 12.5 shows the input window for the critical fuselage loads. You will be asked where the
engine is mounted and the wing weight. If you leave the wing weight blank, then a weight of 9%
of the gross weight will be used.
Before selecting the fuselage loads, you must calculate the horizontal tail loads. You will get a
message if you try to select the fuselage loads before calculating the horizontal tail loads.
FIGURE 12.5 SELECT “SEARCH CRITICAL FUSELAGE LOADS” WINDOW
The data that needs to be entered to calculate the critical horizontal tail loads are shown in figure
12.6. The following data is required:
• slope of the lift curve of the wing,

• incidence of the horizontal tail (degrees),
• horizontal tail area (ft2),
• elevator area forward and aft of hinge line and total area of elevator (ft2),
• aspect ratio of horizontal tail,
• full elevator deflection for up and down trailing edge (degrees),
• fuselage station of 25% and 50% MAC of tail,
• angle of WL to zero lift line for cruise, enroute, and landing configurations,
• aspect ratio of the wing, and
• length of airplane (ft).
12-13
FIGURE 12.6 SELECT “SEARCH CRITICAL HORIZONTAL TAIL LOADS” WINDOW
For the vertical tail critical loads, the data required for analysis is shown in figure 12.7a. This
includes
• total area of the vertical tail (ft2),

• full rudder deflection (degrees),
• area of the rudder forward and aft of hinge line and total (ft2),
• aspect ratio of vertical tail,
• MAC of vertical tail (ft),
• 25% MAC of vertical tail (ft),
• length of airplane, and
• wing span (ft).
You are also asked if you will use the default moment of inertia to calculate the gust on the
vertical tail. If you answer Y, there are no more questions. If you answer N, then you are asked
to enter the moment of inertia for the four c.g. locations as shown in figure 12.7b.
The default answer for this question is Y. When you change this to N, the additional questions
do not appear until you change to a different window; then come back to the vertical tail loads
window.
12-14
FIGURE 12.7a SELECT “SEARCH CRITICAL VERTICAL TAIL LOADS” WINDOW
FIGURE 12.7b SELECT “SEARCH CRITICAL VERTICAL TAIL LOADS” WINDOW
For each analysis type, after all inputs are entered in the input window, start the analysis by
opening the File menu and selecting Save Critical Component Loads or Print Critical
Component Loads Data. Either selection will calculate the results and save the output to a file.
The second option also prints the output.
You must run the analysis for the horizontal tail before you can run the fuselage analysis.
12-15
After entering the data for a component, you must save the critical loads for that component
before moving to the next component. You can only save the critical loads for a component
while you are in the appropriate window.
When you save data to a file, give each component a unique file name. If a file already exists, it
will be overwritten.
12.4 SELECT OUTPUT.
SELECT determines the critical loads for the wing, fuselage, vertical tail, and horizontal tail. A
separate output file is created for each component. The output file lists each critical condition,
with appropriate parameters.
The results from SELECT are used in AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 (section 9 or 10),
WINGINER (section 15), and TAILDIST (section 20) to calculate the loads.
12-16
13. AILERON LOADS.
13.1 AILERON DESCRIPTION.
The loads on the aileron are calculated in the module AILERON. The deflected positions during
unsymmetrical flight conditions produce the critical loads.
To calculate the aileron loads, the required data include:
• the airspeeds VA, VC, and VD,

• area of the aileron forward and aft of the hinge line,
• the maximum up deflection at VA, and
• the maximum down deflection at VA.
The maximum deflections that are entered for the aileron are specified to occur at the design
maneuvering speed, VA. The deflections for the design cruise speed, VC, and design dive speed,
VD, are calculated from the ratios of VA /VC and VA /VD:
VA
δC = δ A
VC
VA
δ D = 0.5
VD
where:
δC = deflection at VC
δD = deflection at VD
δA = maximum deflection at VA
VA = design maneuvering speed
VC = design cruise speed
VD = design diving speed
The load on the aileron is calculated for the maximum up and down deflections at VA, VC, and VD
by the equations:
Lail = C L − ail qS ail

C L − ail = 0.04δ ail
where:
Lail = load on the aileron (lb)

CL-ail = lift coefficient for the aileron
q = dynamic pressure (lb/ft2)
Sail = surface area of the aileron (ft2)
δail = deflection of aileron (degrees)
13-1
The dynamic pressure q is calculated for sea level:
1
q= ρ0 V 2
2
where:
ρ0 = air density at sea level, 2.3769 x 10-3 slugs/ft3

V = equivalent air speed (ft/sec)
The air speed is entered in knots and then converted to ft/sec.
On the aileron, the pressure distribution is constant from the leading edge of the aileron to the
hinge line, then tapers to zero at the trailing edge. The pressure forward of the hinge line is
calculated for the largest up and down loads:
L
P=
S ail − fwd + 0.5S ail − aft
where:
P = pressure
L = load
Sail-fwd = surface area forward of the hinge line
Sail-aft = surface area aft of the hinge line
The FAR requirements for the aileron loads are defined in FAR 23.455 and repeated here for
convenience.
13.2.1 FAR 23.455 Ailerons.
a. The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected:
(1) in the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions and
(2) by the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort) during

unsymmetrical flight conditions:
(a) sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA, suitable

allowance may be made for control system deflections,
(b) sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to produce a rate of
roll not less than obtained in paragraph a.(2)(a) of this section, and
(c) sufficient deflection at VD to produce a rate of roll not less than one-third
of that obtained in paragraph a.(2)(a) of this section.
13-2
13.3 RUNNING AILERON.
To run AILERON, select the button from the main menu window. The input window for
AILERON is shown in figure 13.1.
FIGURE 13.1 AILERON INPUT WINDOW
13.3.1 Input Window.
the calculations and print the output data to a file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from
AILERON and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The Notepad option opens a Notepad program where you can review your input and output files,
and the Color option allows you to change the color scheme displayed on your window.
The input required for AILERON includes the aileron data and the airspeeds VA, VC, and VD.
The airspeeds come from STRSPEED (section 7). Aileron data includes the area of the aileron
forward and aft of the hinge line, the maximum up deflection, and the maximum down
deflection. The airspeeds are entered in knots, the aileron area is entered as ft2, and the
deflection is in degrees.
13-3
Note: The up deflection must be a negative deflection. If you enter a positive value when you
try to do the analysis, you will get an error message.
output to a file. The second option also prints the output.
13.4 AILERON OUTPUT.
The output from AILERON includes the up and down aileron deflections at VA, VC , and VD. The
critical load for the up and down aileron deflection and the pressure forward of the hinge line for
up and down aileron is calculated.
The deflection is given in degrees, the critical load is in pounds, and the pressure is given in
lb/in2.
13-4
14. FLAP LOADS.
14.1 FLAPLOAD DESCRIPTION.
FLAPLOAD calculates the critical flap loads per the requirements of FARs 23.345 and 23.457.
The critical flap loads are determined by calculating the lift on the flap due to wing angle of
attack plus lift on the flap due to the deflection of the flap.
The chordwise distribution of pressure tapers from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The
pressure at the trailing edge is half the pressure at the leading edge. The pressure at the leading
edge of the flap is calculated as
L flap
P LE =
0.75S flap
where:
PLE = pressure at the leading edge
Lflap = load on flap
Sflap = surface area of flap
The calculation of the propeller slipstream at the flap is based on momentum theory. The area of
the slipstream is added to the area of the fuselage or nacelle, and a radius is derived. The butt
line of the engine plus or minus the radius determines the inboard and outboard edges of the
slipstream.
The critical flap loads in the slipstream are determined by combining the slipstream effects with
the critical flap loads. The critical flap loads in the slipstream are increased by the ratio of the
dynamic pressure of the slipstream to that out of the slipstream.
The requirement for a 25-fps gust is accounted for by increasing the critical flap load by the ratio
of the dynamic pressure of the velocity of the airplane plus 25 fps to the dynamic pressure of the
airplane before the gust.
The FAR requirements for critical flap loads are given in FARs 23.345 and 23.457 and repeated
here for convenience.
14.2.1 FAR 23.345 High-Lift Devices.
a. If flaps or similar high-lift devices (used for takeoff, approach, or landing) are installed,
the airplane, with the flaps fully deflected at VF, is assumed to be subjected to
symmetrical maneuvers and gusts resulting in limit load factors within the range
determined by
14-1
(1) maneuvering to a positive limit load factor of 2.0 and
(2) positive and negative gust of 25 fps acting normal to the flight path in level flight.
b. VF must be assumed to be not less than 1.4 VS or 1.8 VSF, whichever is greater, where
(1) VS is the computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at the design weight, and
(2) VSF is the computed stalling speed with flaps fully extended at the design weight.
However, if an automatic flap load limiting device is used, the airplane may be designed
for the critical combinations of airspeed and flap position allowed by that device.
c. In designing the flaps and supporting structures, the following must be accounted for:
(1) A head-on gust having a velocity of 25 fps (EAS).

(2) The slipstream effects specified in FAR 23.457(b).
d. In determining external loads on the airplane as a whole, thrust, slipstream, and pitching
acceleration may be assumed to be zero.
e. The requirements of FAR 23.457 and this section may be complied with separately or in
combination.
14.2.2 FAR 23.457 Wing Flaps.
a. The wing flaps, their operating mechanisms, and their supporting structures must be
designed for critical loads occurring in the flaps-extended flight conditions with the flaps
in any position. However, if an automatic flap load-limiting device is used, these
components may be designed for the critical combinations of airspeed and flap position
allowed by that device.
b. The effects of propeller slipstream, corresponding to takeoff power, must be taken into
account at not less than 1.4 VS, where VS is the computed stalling speed with flaps fully
retracted at the design weight. For the investigation of slipstream effects, the load factor
may be assumed to be 1.0.
14.3 RUNNING FLAPLOAD.
To run FLAPLOAD, select the button from the main menu window. The input window for
FLAPLOAD is shown in figure 14.1.
14-2
FIGURE 14.1 FLAPLOAD INPUT WINDOW
calculations and allow the output file to be saved to a file. Print Output allows you to perform
the calculations and send the output data to a file or printer. Return to Main Menu exits from
FLAPLOAD and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input required to calculate the flap loads includes
• stalling speed at maximum takeoff weight with flaps retracted (knots),

• stalling speed at maximum takeoff weight with flaps extended (knots),
• design flap speed (knots) from STRSPEED (section 7),
• maximum takeoff weight (lb),
• gust load factor with flaps extended,
• flap area on one side of the airplane (ft2),
• total area of the wing (ft2),
• maximum flap deflection (degrees),
• ratio of flap chord to wing chord,
14-3
• maximum horsepower of one engine,
• butt line of engine (in),
• frontal area of nacelle (ft2), and
• propeller diameter (in).
Note: The input window asks for “max gust load factor with flaps,” this should say “max gust
load factor with flaps extended.”
14.4 FLAPLOAD OUTPUT.
The output from FLAPLOAD includes the lift coefficients for the wing and flap as well as the
flap load for the following conditions: 1 g stall, 2 g stall, 2 g at VF, and 1.9 g at VF. Additional
output includes the critical flap load and the pressure at the leading edge. The butt line for the
inboard and outboard edge of the slipstream are given, as well as the slipstream velocity at the
flap. For a horizontal gust of 25 fps, the factor to increase the flap load at VF and the critical flap
load combined with the horizontal gust are given.
14-4
15. WING INERTIA.
15.1 WINGINER DESCRIPTION.
WINGINER calculates the spanwise inertia shears and moments in balanced and accelerated
flight along the quarter chord of the wing for the critical wing conditions. Concentrated weight
such as landing gear, engines, fuel tanks, and external wing stores are accounted for in the
calculations.
Using the coordinates of the leading and trailing edges, the wing is divided into incremental
chordwise strips. For each strip, the inertia loads, shears, and moments are calculated.
The input required for WINGINER includes wing panel weight, inertia factors obtained for the
selected critical wing loads, ratio of densities of the tip area to the root area, wing plan-form
geometry, dihedral angle of the wing reference plane and waterline of its intersection with the
center plane of symmetry at the quarter chord, weight and coordinates of the concentrated
weights, wing station of inboard rib of wing panel, and the load conditions.
For a load condition, the case number, nx, nz, and unbalanced moment are required. The case
number and nz come from the V-n data (section 11). You can calculate the value of nx from
Dx
nx =
W
where: nx = load factor for x-direction

Dx = drag load from V-n data (section 11)
W = weight of airplane
If the unbalanced rolling moment is needed, such as for the accelerated roll condition, it can be
calculated as described in reference 1.
The inertia loads for the 1 g vertical load, 1 g drag load, and unit rolling moment cases can also
be calculated. For the 1 g vertical load, enter nz as -1 and nx and unbalanced moment as 0. For
the 1 g drag load, nx is 1 and nz and unbalanced moment are 0. For the unit rolling moment,
unbalanced moment is -100,000 and the load factors nx and nz are 0.
The FAR requirements for loads are given in FAR 23.301 and repeated here for convenience.
15.2.1 FAR 23.301 Loads.
15-1
tandem wing configurations must be validated by flight test measurements unless the

15.3 RUNNING WINGINER.
To run WINGINER, select the button from the main menu window. The first input window will
FIGURE 15.1 WINGINER FIRST INPUT WINDOW
the analysis. This window also includes six menu options: File, Notepad, Color, Page1, Page2,
and Page3.
15-2
WINGINER and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input required for WINGINER is entered on three input windows as shown in figures 15.1,
15.2, and 15.3. The input on the first window includes
• wing plan-form geometry, entered as coordinates on the leading and trailing edges,
• wing station of inboard rib of the wing panel, and
• number of spanwise increments to divide wing into (between 2 and 100).
When entering the coordinates, use the scroll bar to move to the next point.
FIGURE 15.2 WINGINER SECOND INPUT WINDOW
The input on the second window includes
• wing panel weight (lb), not including concentrated weight,
• dihedral angle of the wing reference plane and waterline of its intersection with the center
plane of symmetry at the quarter chord, and
• weight and coordinates for up to four concentrated weights.
15-3
If there are less than four concentrated loads, leave the unneeded fields blank or enter 0.
FIGURE 15.3 WINGINER THIRD INPUT WINDOW
The input on the third window includes
• ratio of densities of the tip area to the root area and

• load conditions, including case number, nz, nx , and unbalanced moment.
When entering the load cases, use the scroll bar to move to the next point.
The load conditions come from FLTLOADS (section 11). The case number and nz come directly
from the output, but nx must be calculated as explained above.
The inertia loads for the 1 g vertical load, 1 g drag load, and unit rolling moment cases can also
be calculated. For the case number, enter an unused number such as 1001. Each case should
have a unique number. For the 1 g vertical load, enter nz as -1 and nx and unbalanced moment as
0. For the 1 g drag load, nx is 1 and nz and unbalanced moment are 0. For the unit rolling
moment, unbalanced moment is -100,000 and the load factors nx and nz are 0.
The positive directions are aft and up. Note that the sign for nz in the output of FLTLOADS and
the sign of nz entered here may not be the same.
After all inputs are entered in the input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
15-4
15.4 WINGINER OUTPUT.
For each case, the output includes the load, shear, and torsion for each spanwise increment of the
wing. This output is used in NETLOADS (section 16) when determining the total loads.
In the output file, the data is labeled by the variable names. These variable names are defined in
table 15.1.
TABLE 15.1 DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES USED IN THE WINGINER OUTPUT FILE
VARIABLE NAME DESCRIPTION

Case Input case number
NX , NZ Input load factor for the x and z direction
THETADOT Rate of change of the pitch velocity
UNBAL MOM Input value of unbalanced moment (in-lbs)
X, Y, and Z Coordinates of the quarter chord for the wing increment (in.)
FX, FZ Total inertia force in the x and z direction
DMYY Incremental torsion (in-lbs)
SX, SZ Total drag force in x and z direction (lbs)
MXX, MYY, MZZ Bending moment, torsion, and yawing moment (in-lbs)
15-5/15-6
16. NET WING LOADS.
16.1 NETLOADS DESCRIPTION.
The module NETLOADS calculates the spanwise net wing shears and moments along the
quarter chord of the wing. The air loads and inertia loads are algebraically added to determine
the net loads.
The input data required for the calculations are the air loads and inertia loads for the selected
critical loads for the wing. The air loads come from AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 (section 9 or
10) and the inertia loads come from WINGINER (section 15).
The FAR requirements for loads are given in FAR 23.301 and repeated here for convenience.
16.2.1 FAR 23.301 Loads.
equilibrium with inertia forces considering each item of mass in the airplane. These

16.3 RUNNING NETLOADS.
To run NETLOADS, select the button from the main menu window. The first window is
displayed when the module starts, and it includes three options: File, Notepad, and Color.
When NETLOADS first starts, the File menu has three options: New, Open, and Return to Main
Menu. New generates a new input file and window. You are asked to name the file and the
number of spanwise load points, and then the input window is displayed. The minimum number
16-1
of load points is 3, and the maximum is 100. Open allows you to retrieve a previously created
and saved data file (example files include PHAABB36, ACCELROL, and TORBB36). Return
to Main Menu exits from NETLOADS and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input window, shown in figure 16.1, is used to specify the parameters for the analysis. If
you specified New, the data fields are filled with zeros. If you specified Open, the fields will be
filled with the data. This window also includes three menu options: File, Notepad, and Color.
FIGURE 16.1 NETLOADS INPUT WINDOW
After a file is open, the File menu is used to store and retrieve data from the program. The New
command generates a new input window. Open allows you to retrieve a previously created and
saved input file. Save Input As will allow the input data to be saved to a file. Save Output As
will perform the calculations and allow the output data to be saved to a file. Print Output allows
you to perform the calculations and print the output data to a file or printer. Return to Main
Menu exits from NETLOADS and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
16-2
The input required for NETLOADS is
• position of the point (x, y, z coordinates),

• air load information (x, z forces; x, z shears; x, y, z moments), and
• inertia load information (x, z forces; x, z shears; x, y, z moments).
This input data comes from the results of AIRLOADS or AIRLOAD4 and WINGINER (sections
9 or 10, and 15, respectively).
After entering the data for the first point, use the bar on the right side of the window to move to
the next point. Continue to enter data until all the points are entered.
If you opened an existing data file, use the scroll bar to review the data and make changes if
necessary.
After the inputs are entered for all the points, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
When you run the analysis, you will be asked to enter an identification for the net loads
condition. This identification is written to the output file.
16.4 NETLOADS OUTPUT.
The output includes the spanwise net wing loads, shears, and moments along the quarter chord of
the wing. In the output file, the data is labeled by the variable names. These variable names are
defined in table 16.1. The positive direction is up and aft.
TABLE 16.1 DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES USED IN THE NETLOADS OUTPUT FILE

X, Y, Z Coordinates of the quarter chord
FX, FZ Normal force in the x and z directions (lb)
SX, SZ Drag and shear loads (lb)
MX, MY, MZ Moments (in-lb)
16.5 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to draw the net loads graph. An
example of this graph is show in figure 16.2. The FAR23 Plot program is described in the
appendix of reference 1.
To plot the data with the FAR23 Plot program, the output file from NETLOADS must be saved
with a filename with the extension .NET.
16-3
FIGURE 16.2 EXAMPLE OF NET LOADS PLOT
16-4
17. ENGINE MOUNT LOADS.
17.1 ENGLOADS DESCRIPTION.
The module ENGLOADS calculates the loads which must be sustained by the engine mount and
its supporting structure. These loads include those resulting from engine torque loads, vertical
inertia loads, and side inertia loads. For turbine engines, the torque due to sudden stoppage is
also included. For turbine-powered airplanes, the gyroscopic and aerodynamic loads resulting
from the combination of yaw velocity, pitching velocity, normal inertia loads, and propeller
thrust must be considered.
The FAR requirements for engine mount loads are given in FAR 23.361 for engine torque, FAR
23.363 for side loads, and FAR 23.371 for gyroscopic and aerodynamic loads.
17.2.1 FAR 23.361 Engine Torque.
a. Each engine mount and its supporting structure must be designed for the effects of
(1) a limit engine torque corresponding to takeoff power and propeller speed acting
simultaneously with 75 percent of the limit loads from flight condition A of FAR
23.333(d),
(2) a limit engine torque corresponding to maximum continuous power and propeller
speed acting simultaneously with the limit loads from flight condition A of FAR
23.333(d), and
(3) for turbopropeller installations, in addition to the conditions specified in

paragraphs a.(1) and a.(2) of this section, a limit engine torque corresponding to
takeoff power and propeller speed multiplied by a factor accounting for propeller
control system malfunction, including quick feathering, acting simultaneously
with 1 g level flight loads (in the absence of a rational analysis, a factor of 1.6
must be used).
b. For turbine engine installations, the engine mounts and supporting structure must be
designed to withstand each of the following:
(1) a limit engine torque load imposed by sudden engine stoppage due to malfunction
or structural failure (such as compressor jamming) and
(2) a limit engine torque load imposed by the maximum acceleration of the engine.
17-1
c. The limit engine torque to be considered under paragraph a. of this section must be
obtained by multiplying the mean torque by a factor of
(1) 1.25 for turbopropeller installations;

(2) 1.33 for engines with five or more cylinders; and
(3) two, three, or four for engines with four, three, or two cylinders, respectively.
17.2.2 FAR 23.363 Side Load on Engine Mount.
a. Each engine mount and its supporting structure must be designed for a limit load factor in
a lateral direction, for the side load on the engine mount, of not less than
(1) 1.33 or
(2) one-third of the limit load factor for flight condition A.
b. The side load prescribed in paragraph a. of this section may be assumed to be

independent of other flight conditions.
17.2.3 FAR 23.371 Gyroscopic and Aerodynamic Loads.
For turbine-powered airplanes, each engine mount and its supporting structure must be designed
for the combined gyroscopic and aerodynamic loads that result, with the engines at maximum
continuous RPM, under either of the following conditions:
a. the conditions prescribed in FARs 23.351 and 23.423 or

b. all possible combinations of the following:
(1) a yaw velocity of 2.5 radians per second,

(2) a pitch velocity of 1 radian per second,
(3) a normal load factor of 2.5, and
(4) maximum continuous thrust.
17.3 RUNNING ENGLOADS.
To run ENGLOADS, select the button from the main menu window. The first input window will
The input window is displayed when ENGLOADS starts and is used to specify the parameters
for the analysis. This window includes five menu options: File, Notepad, Color, Page1, and
Page2.
17-2
ENGLOADS and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
FIGURE 17.1 ENGLOADS FIRST INPUT WINDOW
The input is entered on two input windows. The following data are required in the first input
window as shown in figure 17.1:
• the type of engine (reciprocating or turboprop),

• limit load factor (nz),
• engine weight (lb),
• coordinates for the engine center of gravity,
• propeller weight (lb),
• propeller diameter (inches),
• number of propeller blades,
• takeoff and maximum continuous RPM, and
• titles to describe the engine and propeller manufacturer and designations.
The second input window depends on the type of engine; the two possibilities are shown in
figures 17.2a and 17.2b. For a reciprocating engine, the input window is shown in figure 17.2a.
The following data are required:
• maximum continuous horsepower,

• takeoff horsepower, and
• number of cylinders.
17-3
For a turboprop engine, the input window is shown in figure 17.2b. The following data are
required:
• propeller hub weight (lb),

• coordinates for the propeller center of gravity,
• number of compressor rotors,
• diameter, weight, and maximum RPM for each rotor, and
• the time to stop due to sudden stoppage.
When entering the rotor data, use the scroll bar to move to the next point.
FIGURE 17.2a ENGLOADS SECOND INPUT WINDOW FOR RECIPROCATING

ENGINES
After all input are entered in the input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
17-4
FIGURE 17.2b ENGLOADS SECOND INPUT WINDOW FOR TURBOPROP ENGINES
17.4 ENGLOADS OUTPUT.
For both reciprocating and turboprop engines, the output includes results for the following
conditions:
• for limit takeoff torque with 75% limit maneuver vertical load factor,
• a factor times the maximum continuous torque with 100% limit maneuver vertical load
factor, and
• side load independent of other flight loads.
The results include the vertical load factor and load, the coordinates where the load acts, and the
engine torque. For the side load, the vertical and side load factors are given, as well as the
coordinates where the load acts. For each condition, the applicable FAR requirement is
specified.
For turboprop engines, additional results are included in the output file. This includes the loads
for turboprop propeller malfunction, torque for sudden stoppage due to malfunction, and
gyroscopic loads.
17-5/17-6
18. LANDING LOADS.
18.1 LANDLOAD DESCRIPTION.
The module LANDLOAD calculates the landing loads for a tricycle landing gear with spring or
oleo struts. The main and nose gears do not have to be the same type of gear.
The inputs required for calculation of the landing loads include the landing weight, landing gear
load factor, assumed lift factor during landing, the station and waterline of the axles for the static
position, rolling radius of the tires, distance between main wheels, tail down bump angle, and the
weight and c.g. for the structural limits.
The FAR requirements for landing loads and ground loads are given in FARs 23.471, 23.473,
23.477, 23.479, 23.481, 23.483, 23.485, 23.493, and 23.499 and repeated here for convenience.
18.2.1 FAR 23.471 General.
The limit ground loads specified in FAR 23.471 are the external loads and inertia forces that act
upon an airplane structure. In each specified ground load condition, the external reactions must
be placed in equilibrium with the linear and angular inertia forces in a rational or conservative
manner.
18.2.2 FAR 23.473 Ground Load Conditions and Assumptions.
a. The ground load requirements of FAR 23.473 must be complied with at the design
maximum weight, except that FARs 23.479, 23.481, and 23.483 may be complied with at
a design landing weight (the highest weight for landing conditions at the maximum
descent velocity) allowed under paragraphs b. and c. of this section.
b. The design landing weight may be as low as
(1) 95 percent of the maximum weight if the minimum fuel capacity is enough for at
least one-half hour of operation at maximum continuous power plus a capacity
equal to a fuel weight which is the difference between the design maximum
weight and the design landing weight or
(2) the design maximum weight less the weight of 25 percent of the total fuel
capacity.
c. The design landing weight of a multiengine airplane may be less than that allowed under
paragraph b. of this section if
(1) the airplane meets the one-engine-inoperative climb requirements of FAR 23.67a.
or b.(1) and
18-1
(2) compliance is shown with the fuel jettisoning system requirements of FAR
23.1001.
d. The selected limit vertical inertia load factor at the center of gravity of the airplane for
the ground load conditions prescribed in this subpart may not be less than that which
would be obtained when landing with a descent velocity (V), in feet per second, equal to
1
4.4(W / S ) 4 , except that this velocity need not be more than 10 feet per second and may
not be less than seven feet per second.
e. Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds of the weight of the airplane may be assumed to exist
throughout the landing impact and to act through the center of gravity. The ground
reaction load factor may be equal to the inertia load factor minus the ratio of the above
assumed wing lift to the airplane weight.
f. Energy absorption tests (to determine the limit load factor corresponding to the required
limit descent velocities) must be made under FAR 23.723(a) unless specifically exempted
by that section.
g. No inertia load factor used for design purposes may be less than 2.67 nor may the limit
ground reaction load factor be less than the 2.0 at design maximum weight unless these
lower values will not be exceeded in taxiing at speeds up to takeoff speed over terrain as
rough as that expected in service.
18.2.3 FAR 23.477 Landing Gear Arrangement.
Sections 23.479 through 23.483, or the conditions in Appendix C of FAR 23, apply to airplanes
with conventional arrangements of main and nose gear or main and tail gear.
18.2.4 FAR 23.479 Level Landing Conditions.
a. For a level landing, the airplane is assumed to be in the following attitudes:
(1) For airplanes with tail wheels, a normal level flight attitude.
(2) For airplanes with nose wheels, attitudes in which
(a) the nose and main wheels contact the ground simultaneously and
(b) the main wheels contact the ground and the nose wheel is just clear of the
ground.
The attitude used in paragraph a.(2)(a) of this section may be used in the analysis required under
paragraph a.(2)(b) of this section.
b. When investigating landing conditions, the drag components simulating the forces
required to accelerate the tires and wheels up to the landing speed (spin-up) must be
properly combined with the corresponding instantaneous vertical ground reactions, and
18-2
the forward-acting horizontal loads resulting from rapid reduction of the spin-up drag
loads (spring-back) must be combined with vertical ground reactions at the instant of the
peak forward load, assuming wing lift and a tire-sliding coefficient of friction of 0.8.
However, the drag loads may not be less than 25 percent of the maximum vertical ground
reactions (neglecting wing lift).
c. In the absence of specific tests or a more rational analysis for determining the wheel spin-
up and spring-back loads for landing conditions, the method set forth in Appendix D of
FAR 23 must be used. If Appendix D of this part is used, the drag components used for
design must not be less than those given by Appendix C of FAR 23.
d. For airplanes with tip tanks or large overhung masses (such as turbo-propeller or jet
engines) supported by the wing, the tip tanks and the structure supporting the tanks or
overhung masses must be designed for the effects of dynamic responses under the level
landing conditions of either paragraph a.(1) or a.(2)(b) of this section. In evaluating the
effects of dynamic response, an airplane lift equal to the weight of the airplane may be
assumed.
18.2.5 FAR 23.481 Tail-Down Landing Conditions.
a. For a tail-down landing, the airplane is assumed to be in the following attitudes:
(1) For airplanes with tail wheels, an attitude in which the main and tail wheels
contact the ground simultaneously.
(2) For airplanes with nose wheels, a stalling attitude, or the maximum angle
allowing ground clearance by each part of the airplane, whichever is less.
b. For airplanes with either tail or nose wheels, ground reactions are assumed to be vertical
with the wheels up to speed before the maximum vertical load is attained.
18.2.6 FAR 23.483 One-Wheel Landing Conditions.
For the one-wheel landing condition, the airplane is assumed to be in the level attitude and to
contact the ground on one side of the main landing gear. In this attitude, the ground reactions
must be the same as those obtained on that side under FAR 23.479.
18.2.7 FAR 23.485 Side Load Conditions.
a. For the side load condition, the airplane is assumed to be in a level attitude with only the
main wheels contacting the ground and with the shock absorbers and tires in their static
positions.
b. The limit vertical load factor must be 1.33 with the vertical ground reaction divided
equally between the main wheels.
c. The limit side inertia factor must be 0.83 with the side ground reaction divided between
the main wheels so that
18-3
(1) 0.5 (W) is acting inboard on one side and
(2) 0.33 (W) is acting outboard on the other side.
d. The side loads prescribed in paragraph c. of this section are assumed to be applied at the
ground contact point and the drag loads may be assumed to be zero.
18.2.8 FAR 23.493 Braked Roll Conditions.
Under braked roll conditions, with the shock absorbers and tires in their static positions, the
following apply:
a. The limit vertical load factor must be 1.33.
b. The attitudes and ground contacts must be those described in FAR 23.479 for level
landings.
c. A drag reaction equal to the vertical reaction at the wheel multiplied by a coefficient of
friction of 0.8 must be applied at the ground contact point of each wheel with brakes,
except that the drag reaction need not exceed the maximum value based on limiting brake
torque.
18.2.9 FAR 23.499 Supplementary Conditions For Nose Wheels.
In determining the ground loads on nose wheels and affected supporting structures, and
assuming that the shock absorbers and tires are in their static positions, the following conditions
must be met:
a. For aft loads, the limit force components at the axle must be
(1) a vertical component of 2.25 times the static load on the wheel and
(2) a drag component of 0.8 times the vertical load.
b. For forward loads, the limit force components at the axle must be
(2) a forward component of 0.4 times the vertical load.
c. For side loads, the limit force components at ground contact must be
(2) a side component of 0.7 times the vertical load.
18-4
18.3 RUNNING LANDLOAD.
To run LANDLOAD, select the button from the main menu window. The first input window
will be displayed as shown in figure 18.1.
FIGURE 18.1 LANDLOAD FIRST INPUT WINDOW
the analysis. This window includes five menu options: File, Notepad, Color, Page1, and Page2.
LANDLOAD and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
Notes: If you open a data file, you must enter the stroke of the strut. Your value was not saved
to the input data file, so this value always appears as 0. If you select Save Input As, the value for
the stroke of the strut is not saved.
Currently, the Print Output option does not work. Therefore, you must use Save Output As to
save the results to a file.
If you are running LANDLOAD from the FAR23 Load Main Menu, you may have problems
opening your output data file. If this happens, you must exit the FAR23 Loads program before
18-5
you can view your files. If you run LANDLOAD as a stand-alone program, you can use
Notepad to open and print your output file.
The input is entered on two input windows as shown in figures 18.1 and 18.2. On the first input
window, the following data is required:
• maximum landing weight (lb),
• design maximum (or gross) weight (lb),
• landing gear load factor,
• lift factor during landing,
• type of struts (oleo or spring),
• the wing station and waterline of the gear axles for the static deflection and fully
extended deflection (inches),
• for oleo struts, the wing station and waterline of the gear axles for the 25% deflection,
and
• for spring struts, the wing station and waterline of the gear axles for the 25% deflection
(inches).
FIGURE 18.2 LANDLOAD SECOND INPUT WINDOW
18-6
The following input is required on the second window:
• rolling radius of the gear tires (inches),

• distance between main wheels (tread) (inches),
• tail-down bump angle (degrees), and
• weight and c.g. for the structural limits.
There are three structural limits: the aft maximum landing weight, the forward maximum landing
weight, and the forward light landing weight. The c.g. data comes from WTONECG (section 4).
Note: If test data is not available, the landing gear load factor can be estimated in LGFACTOR
(section 19). If test data becomes available, this load factor should be revised.
After all inputs are entered in the input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
output to a file. Currently, the second option does not work, so use the option Save Output As to
save the output to a file, and then print the output from DOS using the Print command.
18.4 LANDLOAD OUTPUT.
In the LANDLOAD output file, the input data is listed. The type of landing gear is not given
explicitly, but for oleo struts the x and z coordinates are given for the 25% deflection, while for
the spring struts the coordinates are given for the 100% deflection.
The LANDLOAD module calculates the ground reactions and load factors as well as unbalanced
moments. The ground reactions and load factors are given relative to the ground line and with
respect to the airplane datum.
18-7/18-8
19. LANDING LOAD FACTOR.
19.1 LGFACTOR DESCRIPTION.
When test data is not available, the landing load factor is estimated in LGFACTOR. This load
factor is used in the calculation of landing loads (section 18). After test data is available, the
load factor should be revised.
The requirements for the landing load factor are defined in FAR 23.473 and repeated here for
convenience.
19.2.1 FAR 23.473 Ground Load Conditions and Assumptions.
a. The ground load requirements of FAR 23.473 must be complied with at the design
maximum weight except that FARs 23.479, 23.481, and 23.483 may be complied with at
a design landing weight (the highest weight for landing conditions at the maximum
descent velocity) allowed under paragraphs b. and c. of this section.
b. The design landing weight may be as low as
(1) 95 percent of the maximum weight if the minimum fuel capacity is enough for at
least one-half hour of operation at maximum continuous power plus a capacity
equal to a fuel weight which is the difference between the design maximum
weight and the design landing weight or
(2) the design maximum weight less the weight of 25 percent of the total fuel
capacity.
c. The design landing weight of a multiengine airplane may be less than that allowed under
paragraph b. of this section if
(1) the airplane meets the one-engine-inoperative climb requirements of FAR 23.67a.
or b.(1) and
(2) compliance is shown with the fuel jettisoning system requirements of FAR
23.1001.
d. The selected limit vertical inertia load factor at the center of gravity of the airplane for
the ground load conditions prescribed in this subpart may not be less than that which
would be obtained when landing with a descent velocity (V), in feet per second, equal to
1
4.4(W / S ) 4 , except that this velocity need not be more than 10 fps and may not be less
than 7 fps.
e. Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds of the weight of the airplane may be assumed to exist
throughout the landing impact and to act through the center of gravity. The ground
19-1
reaction load factor may be equal to the inertia load factor minus the ratio of the above
assumed wing lift to the airplane weight.
f. Energy absorption tests (to determine the limit load factor corresponding to the required
limit descent velocities) must be made under FAR 23.723(a) unless specifically exempted
by that section.
g. No inertia load factor used for design purposes may be less than 2.67, nor may the limit
ground reaction load factor be less than the 2.0 at design maximum weight, unless these
lower values will not be exceeded in taxiing at speeds up to takeoff speed over terrain as
rough as that expected in service.
19.3 RUNNING LGFACTOR.
To run LGFACTOR, select the button from the main menu window. The input window will be
FIGURE 19.1 LGFACTOR INPUT WINDOW
19-2
LGFACTOR and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
LGFACTOR requires the following input:
• wing area (ft2),

• landing weight (lb),
• outer diameter of tire (inches),
• diameter of the hub (inches),
• main gear type (either spring or oleo),
• stroke of strut from fully extended to fully retracted (inches), and
• lift factor (must be less than or equal to 0.667).
When entering the type of gear, you must select only one type. Enter Y for either spring or oleo
then enter N for the other type.
19.4 LGFACTOR OUTPUT.
The LGFACTOR module produces the following output:
• sink rate,
• airplane load factor, and
• landing gear load factor.
The landing gear load factor is used in LANDLOAD (section 18) when test data is not available.
19-3/19-4
20. DISTRIBUTION OF TAIL LOADS.
20.1 TAILDIST DESCRIPTION.
The TAILDIST module calculates chordwise distributions on the average chord for critical
horizontal and vertical tail loads. It also calculates the chordwise distribution for any tail station
for any of the critical loads. There are thirteen critical horizontal tail loads and four critical
vertical tail loads.
20.2 RUNNING TAILDIST.
To run TAILDIST, select the button from the main menu window. The TAILDIST menu
window will be displayed, as shown in figure 20.1. This window also include three other menu
options: File, Notepad, and Color.
FIGURE 20.1 TAILDIST MENU WINDOW
In the File menu the only option is Return to Main Menu, which exits from TAILDIST and
returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
After an option is selected from the main menu window, an input window is displayed. This
input window is used to specify the parameters for the analysis. Each of the four options in the
main menu requires multiple windows, accessed through the Page1, Page2, etc., menu choices.
The windows also include three other menu options: File, Notepad, and Color.
20-1
the calculations and print the output data to a printer or file. Return to TAILDIST Menu exits and
returns to the TAILDIST Main Menu window (figure 20.1).
Currently, the Print Output option does not work correctly. Therefore, it is recommended that
you use Save Output As to save the results to a file, and then use the Notepad option to print the
results.
The Notepad option opens a Notepad program where you can review and print your input and
output files.
The input required for each of the options is discussed below. The loads data that is used as
input comes from the output files of SELECT (section 12). The geometric data that is required
input, such as area, was also input for SELECT. However, in SELECT, the area data is entered
as ft2, while in TAILDIST, it must be entered as in2.
20.2.2 Thirteen Critical Horizontal Tail Loads Distributed on Average Chord.
The input windows for this option are shown in figures 20.2, 20.3, and 20.4. The input required
on Page1 includes the area of the horizontal tail, area of the elevator, area of the elevator forward
and aft of the hinge line, and the semispan of the tail. The areas are in square inches, and the
semispan of the tail is in inches.
Note: The areas are for one side of the horizontal tail. The prompts on the window should all
say “Enter area of LH” part.
On Page2 and Page3, the loads due to angle of attack at the 25% MAC and loads due to camber
at the 50% MAC are entered for thirteen conditions. These conditions are
• up and down balancing tail load with flaps retracted,

• up and down balancing tail load with flaps extended,
• up and down unchecked maneuver tail load,
• up and down checked maneuver tail load,
• up and down gust tail load with flaps retracted,
• up and down gust tail load with flaps extended, and
• unsymmetrical tail load.
20-2
FIGURE 20.2 TAILDIST “13 CRITICAL HORIZONTAL LOADS” FIRST INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 20.3 TAILDIST “13 CRITICAL HORIZONTAL LOADS” SECOND INPUT

WINDOW
20-3
FIGURE 20.4 TAILDIST “13 CRITICAL HORIZONTAL LOADS” THIRD INPUT WINDOW
The loads data comes from the critical horizontal tail loads output file from SELECT. For the
gust tail loads, both the incremental and total loads are given in the SELECT file; be sure to
enter the total load here. For the unsymmetrical tail load, the SELECT file does not list the
loads, but it does tell you which case has the same distribution. You will have to look through
the output file to find that case and its load.
When entering the loads, you can use the Tab key to accept the data and move to the next cell.
However, using the Tab key will move you down the columns on the window, thereby entering
all of the angle of attack loads first then all the camber loads.
Note: On the first input window (figure 20.2) the third line should read “Enter Area of LH
Elevator Fwd of Hinge Line.” Also, Page3 does not have headers for the two load columns;
these headers are the same as for Page2.
20.2.3 Four Critical Vertical Tail Loads Distributed on Average Chord.
The input windows for this option are shown in figures 20.5 and 20.6. The input required on
Page1 includes the area of the vertical tail, area of the rudder, area of the rudder forward and aft
of the hinge line, and the span of the tail. The areas are in square inches, and the span of the tail
is in inches.
20-4
FIGURE 20.5 TAILDIST “FOUR CRITICAL VERTICAL LOADS” FIRST INPUT
WINDOW
FIGURE 20.6 TAILDIST “FOUR CRITICAL VERTICAL LOADS” SECOND INPUT

WINDOW
On Page2, the loads due to angle of attack at the 25% MAC and load due to camber at the 50%
MAC are entered for four conditions. These conditions are
• maneuver load for sudden full rudder deflection,

• maneuver load for yaw to sideslip of 19.5° with rudder maintained at full deflection,
• maneuver load for yaw of 15° with rudder in neutral, and
• side gust load at VC.
20-5
The loads data comes from the critical vertical tail loads output file from SELECT. Some of the
loads may be zero. In this case, do not leave the field blankbe sure to enter a value of 0.0.
However, using the Tab key will move you down the columns, thereby entering all of the angle
of attack loads first then all the camber loads.
20.2.4 One Critical Horizontal Tail Load Distributed on N Station Chords.
The input windows for this option are shown in figures 20.7 and 20.8. The input required on
Page1 includes the name of the load condition, the angle-of-attack load at the 25% MAC, the
camber load at the 50% MAC, the area of one side of the horizontal tail, area of the LH elevator
aft of the hinge line, and the number of butt line stations for chordwise distribution. The loads
are the total load for both right and left sides; however, the area is for only one side. The loads
are entered in pounds, the areas are in square inches, and the maximum number of butt line
stations is ten.
FIGURE 20.7 TAILDIST “CRITICAL HORIZONTAL LOAD DISTRIBUTED ON

STATIONS” FIRST INPUT WINDOW
On Page2 and Page3 (if needed), the data for each butt line station is entered in inches. The data
required is
• the butt line of the station,

• chord of horizontal tail at the butt line station,
• chord of elevator at the butt line station, and
• chord of elevator aft of the hinge line at the butt line station.
Only five locations can be entered on Page2. If you have more than five locations, you will need
to use Page3 to enter the remaining locations.
20-6
FIGURE 20.8 TAILDIST “CRITICAL HORIZONTAL LOAD DISTRIBUTED ON
STATIONS” SECOND INPUT WINDOW
However, using the Tab key will move you across the columns, thereby entering all the data for a
location before moving to the next location.
20.2.5 One Critical Vertical Tail Load Distributed on N Station Chords.
The input windows for this option are shown in figures 20.9 and 20.10. The input required
includes the name of the load condition, the angle-of-attack load at the 25% MAC, the camber
load at the 50% MAC, the area of the vertical tail, area of the rudder aft of the hinge line, and the
number of water line stations for chordwise distribution. The loads are entered in pounds, and
the areas are in square inches. The maximum number of water line stations is ten.
On Page2 and Page3 (if needed), the data for each water line station is entered. The data
required is
• the water line of a station,

• chord of vertical tail at the water line station,
• chord of rudder at the water line station, and
• chord of rudder aft of the hinge line at the water line station.
Only five locations can be entered on Page2. If you have more than five locations, you will need
to use Page3 to enter the remaining locations.
However, using the Tab key will move you across the columns, thereby entering all the data for a
location before moving to the next location.
20-7
FIGURE 20.9 TAILDIST “CRITICAL VERTICAL LOAD DISTRIBUTED ON STATIONS”
FIRST INPUT WINDOW
FIGURE 20.10 TAILDIST “CRITICAL VERTICAL LOAD DISTRIBUTED ON STATIONS”

SECOND INPUT WINDOW
For all four analysis types, the analysis is run the same way. After all inputs are entered in the
input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu and selecting Save Output As or Print
Output. Either selection will calculate the results and save the output to a file. Currently, the
20-8
second option does not work correctly and will give you error messages. Therefore, you should
use the option Save Output As to save the output to a file, and then use Notepad (or similar
program) to view and print the results. You can also print the output from DOS using the Print
command.
20.3 TAILDIST OUTPUT.
TAILDIST produces two types of output files. The first type of output file comes from the first
two options in the main menu, and the second type of output file comes from the last two
options.
From the options for the load distribution on the average chord, the results of the TAILDIST
analysis are the chordwise distribution of critical loads for each of the critical load conditions.
For the horizontal tail, there are thirteen critical conditions; for the vertical tail, there are four
critical conditions. The load distribution is given at five chordwise stations. In the output file,
LT25 refers to the load due to angle of attack at the 25% MAC and LT50 refers to the load due
to camber at the 50% MAC. This is an echo of your input.
The options for load distribution on N station chords results in the load distribution at the
particular butt line or water line. For each station, the chordwise stations and loads are given.
20.4 GRAPHICS.
The separate graphics program FAR23 Plot can be used to draw the rational tail loads graphs.
An example of one type of graph is shown in figure 20.11. The FAR23 Plot program is
described in the appendix of reference 1.
To use the FAR23 Plot program, the output filenames must have the extension .TLD.
20-9
FIGURE 20.11 EXAMPLE OF RATIONAL TAIL LOADS GRAPH
20-10
21. TAB LOADS.
21.1 TABLOADS DESCRIPTION.
The tab loads for the wing, horizontal tail, and vertical tail are determined in TABLOADS. The
loads are calculated for full deflection at VC at the shoulder on the structural limit diagram. This
is where VC is the highest in equivalent airspeed (KEAS) with the greatest Mach number.
The requirements for the tabs are defined in FAR 23.409 and repeated here for convenience.
21.2.1 FAR 23.409 Tabs.
Control surface tabs must be designed for the most severe combination of airspeed and tab
deflection likely to be obtained within the flight envelope for any usable loading condition.
21.3 RUNNING TABLOADS.
To run TABLOADS, select the button from the main menu window. The input window will be
FIGURE 21.1 TABLOADS INPUT WINDOW
21-1
the calculations and print the output data to a printer or file. Return to Main Menu exits from
TABLOADS and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input required for TABLOADS includes
• cruise speed VC (KEAS),

• surface of interest (wing, horizontal tail, or vertical tail),
• the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) for the tab (inches),
• the area of the tab (in2),
• butt line of the MAC of the tab (inches),
• chord of wing (inches), and
• maximum deflection of the tab (degrees).
Depending on the surface that you select, the prompts on the input window will change to reflect
your selections.
21.4 TABLOADS OUTPUT.
The output from TABLOADS includes the ratio of chord of tab to chord of airfoil, the tab load in
pounds, and the tab pressure at the leading edge and trailing edge.
21-2
22. ONE ENGINE OUT LOADS.
22.1 ONENGOUT DESCRIPTION.
The loads for one-engine out are calculated with ONENGOUT. When one engine fails, the
primary force acting on the airplane is an unbalanced moment about the vertical axis at the
center of gravity of the airplane. The acceleration of the rotation of the airplane about the
vertical axis at the c.g. is resisted by the mass moment of inertia of the airplane. As the airplane
rotates, the vertical tail provides an aerodynamic force which also resists the unbalanced
moment.
The net unbalanced moment and the inertia of the airplane determine the angular acceleration
about the c.g. from the equation
torque
ψ&& = I ZZ
where:
ψ&& = angular acceleration about the c.g.
torque = net unbalanced moment
Izz = mass moment of inertia about the vertical axis at c.g.
The angular velocity and the angle are calculated as
ψ& 2 = ψ&1 + ψ&& ∆T1− 2

ψ 2 = ψ 1 + ψ& 2 ∆T1−2 + 0.5 ψ&& ( ∆T1− 2 )
2
where:
ψ& = angular velocity
ψ = yaw angle
∆T = increment of time
The requirements for the unsymmetrical loads due to engine failure are defined in FAR 23.367
and repeated here for convenience.
22.2.1 FAR 23.367 Unsymmetrical Loads Due to Engine Failure.
a. Turbopropeller airplanes must be designed for the unsymmetrical loads resulting from the
failure of the critical engine including the following conditions in combination with a
single malfunction of the propeller drag limiting system, considering the probable pilot
corrective action on the flight controls:
22-1
(1) At speeds between VMC and VD, the loads resulting from power failure because of
fuel flow interruption are considered to be limit loads.
(2) At speeds between VMC and VC, the loads resulting from the disconnection of the
engine compressor from the turbine or from loss of the turbine blades are
considered to be ultimate loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust decay and drag buildup occurring as a result of the
prescribed engine failures must be substantiated by test or other data applicable to
the particular engine-propeller combination.
(4) The timing and magnitude of the probable pilot corrective action must be
conservatively estimated, considering the characteristics of the particular engine-
propeller-airplane combination.
b. Pilot corrective action may be assumed to be initiated at the time maximum yawing
velocity is reached but not earlier than 2 seconds after the engine failure. The magnitude
of the corrective action may be based on the limit pilot forces specified in FAR 23.397
except that lower forces may be assumed where it is shown by analysis or test that these
forces can control the yaw and roll resulting from the prescribed engine failure
conditions.
22.3 RUNNING ONENGOUT.
To run ONENGOUT, select the button from the main menu window. The first input window
will be displayed as shown in figure 22.1.
FIGURE 22.1 ONENGOUT FIRST INPUT WINDOW
22-2
the analysis. This window includes five menu options: File, Notepad, Color, Page1, and Page2.
the calculations and print the output data to a printer or file. Return to Main Menu exits from
ONENGOUT and returns to the FAR23 Loads Main Menu.
The input for ONENGOUT is entered on two input windows as shown in figures 22.1 and 22.2.
On Page1, the following data is entered:
• aspect ratio of the vertical tail,

• area of the vertical tail (in2),
• area of the rudder (in2),
• maximum deflection of the rudder (degrees),
• fuselage station of the c.g. (inches),
• fuselage station for the 25% MAC of the vertical tail (inches),
• fuselage station for the 50% MAC of the vertical tail (inches),
• speed (KEAS),
• altitude (feet), and
• moment of inertia of the airplane about vertical axis, Izz (slug-ft2).
The aspect ratio and area of the vertical tail and rudder come from WINGGEOM (section 6), and
the moment of inertia is from WTONECG (section 4).
On the second input page, the following data is entered:
• butt line of the engine (inches),

• maximum horsepower of one engine,
• propeller diameter (feet),
• time at which thrust decays to zero (seconds),
• time at which windmill drag builds to maximum (seconds),
• time to develop full rudder deflection (seconds), and
• incremental time step (seconds) (suggested as 0.05).
You must run a separate analysis for each speed that you are interested in. This might include
VC, VD , and VS.
22-3
FIGURE 22.2 ONENGOUT SECOND INPUT WINDOW
After all input are entered in the input windows, start the analysis by opening the File menu and
For each speed such as VC, VD, and VS, that you are interested in, you will need to run a separate
analysis.
22.4 ONENGOUT OUTPUT.
The output of ONENGOUT includes the engine thrust in pounds, the windmill drag in pounds,
maximum yawing velocity, and maximum tail load. The time history provides the data from
zero time until recovery is complete in increments as specified. At each time increment, several
parameters are printed. These parameters are defined in table 22.1.
In the time history, it is indicated when engine thrust has decayed to zero, when the windmill
drag has built up to the maximum, when corrective action is initiated, and when recovery is
complete.
22-4
TABLE 22.1 DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES USED IN THE OUTPUT FILE FROM
ONENGOUT

TIME Time
THETA Yaw angle
THETADOT Angular velocity
THETA2DOT Angular acceleration about the c.g.
LT25 Load at the 25% MAC
LT50 Load at the 50% MAC
LT Total load
RUD DEFL Rudder deflection (degrees)
MOMENT Moment
22-5/22-6
23. REFERENCES.
1. McMaster, Hal C., “FAR 23 Loads,” Aero Science Software, Wichita, KS, 1996.
2. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Parts 1 to 59, Aeronautics Chapter IFederal
Aviation Administration, Subchapter CAircraft, Part 23Airworthiness Standards:
Normal, Utility, Acrobatic and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart CStructures,
Revised as of January 1, 1994.
3. Pope, Alan, “Basic Wing and Airfoil Theory,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1951.
23-1/23-2

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DOT/FAA/AR-96/46 User’s Guide for FAR23

Office of Aviation Research

This document is available to the U.S. public

U.S. Department of Transportation

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S.

USER’S GUIDE FOR FAR23 LOADS PROGRAM March 1997

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

University of Dayton Research Institute RPD-510

U.S. Department of Transportation Final Report

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement

Form DOT F1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

1.1 About FAR23 Loads 1-1

2. GETTING STARTED SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS 2-1

2.1 Systems Requirements 2-1

3. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 3-1

3.1 WTESTIMA Description 3-1

4. WEIGHT AND INERTIA 4-1

4.1 WTONECG Description 4-1

5. ENVELOPE OF LOADING CONDITIONS 5-1

5.1 WTENV Description 5-1

6.1 WINGGEOM Description 6-1

7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN SPEEDS AND MANEUVERING LOAD FACTORS 7-1

7.1 STRSPEED Description 7-1

8. MACH LIMITATIONS 8-1

8.1 MACHLIM Description 8-1

9. AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS 9-1

9.1 AIRLOADS Description 9-1

10. ADDITIONAL AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS AND AIRLOADS 10-1

10.1 AIRLOAD4 Description 10-1

11. FLIGHT ENVELOPE 11-1

11.1 FLTLOADS Description 11-1

12.1 SELECT Description 12-1

13. AILERON LOADS 13-1

13.1 AILERON Description 13-1

14. FLAP LOADS 14-1

14.1 FLAPLOAD Description 14-1

15. WING INERTIA 15-1

15.1 WINGINER Description 15-1

16. NET WING LOADS 16-1

16.1 NETLOADS Description 16-1

17. ENGINE MOUNT LOADS 17-1

17.1 ENGLOADS Description 17-1

18. LANDING LOADS 18-1

19. LANDING LOAD FACTOR 19-1

19.1 LGFACTOR Description 19-1

20. DISTRIBUTION OF TAIL LOADS 20-1

20.1 TAILDIST Description 20-1

21. TAB LOADS 21-1

21.1 TABLOADS Description 21-1

22. ONE ENGINE OUT LOADS 22-1

22.1 ONENGOUT Description 22-1

23. REFERENCES 23-1

2.1 FAR23 Loads Main Menu Window 2-4

2.2 FAR Loads Window for Opening Files 2-5

3.1 WTESTIMA Input Window 3-3

4.1 WTONECG First Window 4-3

4.2 Message Window for WTONECG and WTENV 4-4

4.3 Size Option for WTONECG and WTENV 4-5

4.4 WTONECG Input Window 4-5