12-T Ict

jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly;
njhopDl;gtpay;
(ICT)
Mrpupau; topfhl;b
juk; 12
(2017Mk; Mz;L njhlf;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;fhdJ)
jfty; njhopDl;gj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk
,yq;if
www.nie.lk
nghJ jfty;; njhopDl;gtpay;
juk; - 12 w;fhd Mrpupau; topfhl;b
 Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
Kjw; gjpg;G - 2017
tpQ;Qhd njhopDl;gg; gPlk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
mr;rply;:
cs;slf;fk; gf;fk;
1. gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp ii
2. gpujp gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp iii
3. mwpKfk; iv
4. Njrpa ,yf;Ffs; v
5. mbg;gilj; Nju;r;rpfs; vi - vii
6. ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs; viii
7. jtiz uPjpahf Kd;nkhopag;gl;Ls;s ghlNtisfs; xi
8. xt;nthU myfpw;Fk; Kd;nkhopag;gl;Ls;s ghl myFfspd; vz;zpf;if x
9. ghlj;jpl;lk; 1 – 29
10. fw;wy; fw;gpj;jYf;fhd mwpTWj;jy;fs; 30 - 202
11. fiyj;jpl;lf;; FO 203 - 204
i
1.0 gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp
,yq;ifapd; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpapy; Gjpa Nju;r;rp ikag; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; Kjw; fl;lk; 2007 Mk;
Mz;L mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. vl;L Mz;LfSf;nfhUKiw Nkw;nfhs;sg;ngWk; fiyj;jpl;l
kWrPuikg;gpd; %yk; ,J mwpKfg;gLj;jg;ngw;wJ. Njrpa kl;lj; Nju;rr; pfis mgptpUj;jp nra;Ak;
Nehf;fpd; mbg;gilapy; Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;FOtpd; tpjg;GiufSf;fika mg;NghJ
eilKiwapypUe;j cs;slf;fk; rhu;e;j fy;tp Kiwik ,jd; %yk; khw;wpaikf;fg;gl;lJ.
Nju;rr
; p ikaf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpd; ,uz;lhk; fl;l kWrPuikg;ghdJ 2015 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J
mKy;gLj;jg;glTs;sJ. ,e; Nehf;fj;ij milAk; nghUl;Lj; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Ma;it
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l NgWfisAk; Mu;tyu;fSila gy;NtW MNyhridfisAk;
gyjug;gl;ltu;fsplkpUe;Jk; ngw;Wf;nfhz;lJ. mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; epahag;gLj;jg;gl;lnjhU
nrad;Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpaJld; mjw;fikthd ghlj;jpl;lq;fisAk; Nkw;gb juq;fSf;fhf
tpUj;jp nra;Js;sJ.
,e;j epahag;gLj;jw; nrad;Kiwapw; fiyj;jpl;l kWrPuikg;gpd;NghJ epiyf;Fj;jhd

xUq;fpizg;G Kiw gad;gLj;jg;ngw;W> fPopUe;J Nky;Nehf;fpa mZFKiwapy; midj;Jg;
ghlq;fSf;Fkhd Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; Kiwikahf tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. NkYk;> mbg;gil
tplaq;fspypUe;J cau; kl;lj;ij Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk; tifapy; mit xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;Lk;
cs;sd. ghl cs;slf;fj;jpw; fhzg;gLk; $wpaJ $wy; kw;Wk; ghl cs;slf;fr; Rik
vd;gtw;iw ,opTepiyf;F ,l;Lr; nry;yTk; khztu; NeakhdJk; eilKiwf;Nfw;wJkhd
fiyj;jpl;lnkhd;iw cUthf;Fk; Nehf;fpYk; fpilahd xUq;fpizg;ghdJ
gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Mrpupau;fSf;Fj; Njitahd topfhl;ly;fis toq;fTk; ghlj;ijj; jpl;lkplTk; fw;gpf;fTk;

nraw;ghLfis Kd;ndLf;fTk; mstPL kw;Wk; kjpg;gL P fis Nkw;nfhs;sTk; cjTKfkhf
Mrpupau; topfhl;bapw; Gjpa tbtikg;G mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t; topfhl;ly;fs; Mrpupau;fs;
tFg;giwapy; nkd;NkYk; cw;gj;jpj; jpwDs;sJk; tpisjpwd; kpf;fJkhd tifapw;
Jyq;Ftjw;F cjTk;.
Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;bfs; khztu;fsJ Nju;rr ; pfis tpUj;jp nra;Ak; tifapw; ju

cs;sPLfisAk; Nkyjpf nraw;ghLfisAk; njupT nra;tjpy; Mrpupau;fSf;Fr; Rje;jpuj;ij
toq;fpAs;sJ. ,g;Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;bfs; ghl cs;slf;fr; Rikia tpLj;J>
tpje;Jiuf;fg;ngw;w ghlE}y;fspd; %yk; ghl cs;slf;fj;ijg; g+uzg;gLj;jpAs;sJ. MfNt>
Mrpupau;fs; Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;bfisg; gad;gLj;Jk; mNjNtis fy;tp ntspaPl;Lj;
jpizf;fsj;jpdhw; jahupf;fg;ngw;w ghlE}y;fisAk; nghUj;jkhd tifapw; gad;gLj;Jjy;
Ntz;Lk;.
Mrpupau; ikaf; fy;tp KiwikapypUe;J khztu; ikaf; fy;tp Kiwikf;Fj; jskhw;wk;

nra;tJk; NtiyAyfpw;F Vw;w tifapw; nghUj;jkhd kdpj tsq;fis tpUj;jp nra;tJk;
Njitahd Nju;r;rpfisAk; jpwd;fisAk; ghlrhiyapypUe;J ntspNaWk; khztu;fs;
ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fj; Njitahd nraw;ghL rhu;e;j fy;tp Kiwikia tpUj;jp nra;tJk;
Nkw;gb epahag;gLj;jg;gl;l ghlj;jpl;lk; kw;Wk; Mrpupau; topfhl;bapd; Gjpa tbtikg;G
vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gil Nehf;fq;fshFk;.
Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;bia cUthf;Ftjpw; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;j Njrpa fy;tp epWtfj;jpd; fy;tprhu;
mYty;fs; rig kw;Wk; Nguit cWg;gpdu;fSf;Fk; midj;J tsthsu;fSf;Fk; vdJ ed;wpfs;
cupj;jhfpd;wd.
fyhepjp jpUkjp. [ae;jp FzNrfu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
ii
2.0 gpujpg; gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp
fle;j fhye;njhl;L fy;tpahdJ njhlu;e;J khw;wq;fSf;Fl;gl;L tUfpd;wJ. mz;kpa Afj;jpy;

,k;khw;wq;fshdit kpf Ntfkhf Vw;gl;ld. fw;wy; Kiwfisg; Nghd;W njhopy;El;gf;
fUtpfspd; ghtid kw;Wk; mwpTj; Njhw;wq;fs; njhlu;ghfTk; fle;j ,U jrhg;jq;fspy;
$basT kWkyu;r;rp Vw;gl;L tUtjidf; fhzf;$bajhf ,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,jw;fika> Njrpa
fy;tp epWtfKk; 2015 Mk; Mz;Lf;Fupa fy;tp kWrPuikg;gpw;fhf vz;zpylq;fhj nghUj;jkhd
eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ. g+Nfhska uPjpahf Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; njhlu;ghfr;
rpwe;j Kiwapy; mwpe;J cs;ehl;Lj; Njitf;fika ,irTgLj;jp khztu; ikaf; fw;wy; -
fw;gpj;jy; Kiwia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L Gjpa ghljpl;lk; jpl;lkplg;gl;L ghlrhiy
Kiwikapd; Kftu;fshfr; Nritahw;Wk; Mrpupau;fshfpa cq;fsplk; ,t;thrpupau; topfhl;bia
xg;gilg;gjpy; ngUkfpo;r;rpailfpd;Nwd;.
,t;thwhd Gjpa topfhl;ly; MNyhridia cq;fSf;Fg; ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjd; Nehf;fk;> mjd;

%yk; rpwe;j gq;fspg;igg; ngw;Wj; juKbAk; vd;w ek;gpf;ifahFk;.
,t;thwhd Mrpupau; topfhl;bahdJ tFg;giwf; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nranyhOq;fpd; NghJ

cq;fSf;Ff; ifnfhLf;Fk; vd;gjpy; vdf;F vt;tpj re;NjfKk; ,y;iy. mNjNghd;W
,t;topfhl;bapd; Jiznfhz;L eilKiw uPjpahd tsq;fisAk; gad;gLj;jp kpfTk; tpUj;jp
nfhz;l tplag; gug;gpD}lhf tFg;giwapy; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F cq;fSf;F KOikahd
Rje;jpuKz;L.
cq;fSf;F toq;fg;gLk; ,t;thrpupau; topfhl;biar; rpwe;j Kiwapy; tpsq;fp> kpfr; rpwe;j

Mf;fg+u;tkhd khztu; r%fnkhd;iw cUthf;fp> ,yq;ifiag; nghUshjhu kw;Wk; r%f
uPjpapy; Kd;Ndw;wpr; nry;tjw;Fg; nghWg;Gld; nraw;gLtPu;fs; vd ehd; ek;gpf;if nfhs;fpd;Nwd;.
,t;thrpupau; topfhl;bahdJ ,g;ghlj;JiwAld; njhlu;Gila Mrpupau;fs;> tsthsu;fs;

vd;Nghu;fspd; rpwe;j Kaw;rpapdhYk; mu;g;gzpg;gpdhYk; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
fy;tpj; Jiwapd; mgptpUj;jpf;fhf ,f;fUj;ij kpf cau;e;jjhff; fUjp mu;g;gzpg;Gld; nraw;gl;l

cq;fs; midtUf;Fk; vdJ kdkhu;e;j ed;wpfisj; njuptpj;Jf; nfhs;fpd;Nwd;.
vk;. vg;. v];. gp. [atu;jd

gpujpg; gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;
tpQ;Qhd njhopy;El;g gPlk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
iii
4.0 mwpKfk;
,d;iwa etPd fhyfl;lj;jpy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gkhdJ midj;Jj; JiwfspYk;

njhlu;Gg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. jfty; njhopDl;g mwpthdJ> vjpu;fhy rthy;fis ek;gpf;ifAld;
vjpu;f;nfhs;sf; $ba rf;jpAila gpui[fis cUthf;Fk; xU Kf;fpakhd fUtpahfj;
Njhw;wk; ngw;Ws;sJ. MfNt> khztu;fs; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpidg; ghtpf;ff;
$ba mbg;gil Mw;wy;fisg; ngw;wpUj;jy; mtrpakhFk;. mtrpakhd Nju;r;rpfisg; ngw;Wf;
nfhs;tjw;Fg; gq;fspf;;ff;$ba jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; njhlu;ghd tpopg;Gzu;it
Vw;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; njhlu;Gila njhopy;fSf;fhd
topfhl;ly;fis toq;Fjy; Mfpa ,U Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs; nghJj; jfty; njhopDl;gg; ghlj;jpl;l
kPsha;tpd; NghJ fUj;jpy; nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sd. ,jd; %yk; rthy;fSld; $ba r%fj;jpw;F kpfg;
nghUj;jkhd Mw;wy; nfhz;l khztu;fis cUthf;f KbAk;.
nghJj; jfty; njhopDl;gg; ghlkhdJ juk; 12 khztu;fSf;F 2002 Mk; Mz;L

mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ghlj;jpl;l kPsha;T Row;rpf;Nfw;g jw;Nghija kPsha;T 2015 Mk; Mz;by;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;;gl;lJld; 2017 Mk; Mz;L Kjy; ghlrhiyfspy; juk; 12 khztu;fSf;F
mKy;gLj;jg;glTs;sJ. nghJj; jfty; njhopDl;gg; ghlkhdJ juk; 12 ,y; fy;tp fw;Fk;
midj;Jg; gpupT khztu;fSf;Fk; nghJthd xU ghlkhFk;. ,g;ghlj;jpw;fhf nkhj;jkhf 60
ghlNtisfs; (40 kzpj;jpahsq;fs;) XJf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. nghJj; jfty; njhopDl;gg;
ghlj;jpw;fhd Njrpa kl;lg;guPl;ir> guPl;irj; jpizf;fsj;jpdhy; 2005 Mk; Mz;L Kjy;
elhj;jg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ.
iv
5.0 Njrpa ,yf;Ffs;
Njrpa fy;tp KiwikahdJ> jdpegUf;Fk; r%fj;jpw;Fk; nghUj;jkhd ngUk;ghyhd Njrpa

,yf;Ffis miltjw;F cjtp nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
fle;j fhyq;fspy; ,yq;ifapd; ngUk;ghyhd fy;tp mwpf;iffSk; Mtzq;fSk; jdpegu;

NjitfisAk; Njrpa NjitfisAk; epiwT nra;tjw;fhf ,yf;Ffis epu;zapj;Js;sd.
rkfhy fy;tp mikg;GfspYk; nrad;KiwfspYk; ntspg;gilahff; fhzg;gLk; gytPdq;fs;
fhuzkhf> epiyNgWila kdpj tpUj;jpapd; vz;zf;fUj;jpl;l tuk;gpDs; fy;tpapD}lhf
milaf;$ba gpd;tUk; ,yf;Fj; njhFjpapid Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;FO ,dq;fz;Ls;sJ.
1. kdpj nfsutj;ijf; fz;zpag;gLj;jy; vDk; vz;zf;fUtpw;Fs; Njrpag;gpizg;G> Njrpa

KOik> Njrpa xw;Wik> ,zf;fk;> rkhjhdk; vd;gtw;iw Nkk;gLj;jy; %yKk;
,yq;ifg; gd;ikr; r%fj;jpd; fyhrhu NtWghl;bid mq;fPfupj;jy; %yKk; Njrj;ijf;
fl;b vOg;GjYk; ,yq;ifau; vDk; milahsj;ij Vw;gLj;jYk;.
2. khw;wKWk; cyfj;jpd; rthy;fSf;Fj; jf;fthW Kfq;nfhLj;jNyhL> Njrpa

ghuk;gupaj;jpd; mjp rpwe;j mk;rq;fis mq;fPfupj;jYk; NgZjYk;.
3. kdpj cupikfSf;F kjpg;gspj;jy;> flikfs;> fl;Lg;ghLfs; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> xUtu;

kPJ xUtu; nfhz;Ls;s Mo;e;j> ,ilawhj mf;fiwAzu;T vd;gtw;iw Nkk;gLj;Jk;
r%f ePjpAk; [dehaf tho;f;ifKiw epakq;fSk; cs;slq;fpa Rw;whliy
cUthf;FjYk; Mjupj;jYk;.
4. xUtuJ cs> cly; eyidAk; kdpj tpOkpaq;fSf;F kjpg;gspg;gij mbg;gilahff;

nfhz;l epiyNgWila tho;f;iff; Nfhyj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;jy;
5. ed;F xd;wpizf;fg;gl;l rkepiy MSikf;Fupa Mf;f rpe;jid> jw;WzpG> Ma;e;J

rpe;jpj;jy;> nghWg;G> tif$wy; kw;Wk; cld;ghlhd mk;rq;fis tpUj;jp nra;jy;.
6. jdpeguJk; Njrj;jpdJk; tho;f;ifj; juj;ijg; Ngh\pf;ff; $baJk; ,yq;ifapd;

nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jpf;Fg; gq;fspf;ff; $baJkhd Mf;fg; gzpfSf;fhd
fy;tpA+l;Ltjd; %yk; kdpjts mgptpUj;jpia Vw;gLj;jy;.
7. jdpegu;fspd; khw;wj;jpw;F Vw;g> ,zq;fp thoTk; khw;wj;ij Kfhik nra;aTk;

jahu;gLj;jTk; tpiuthf khwptUk; cyfpy; rpf;fyhdJk;> vjpu;ghuhjJkhd
epiyikfisr; rkhspf;Fk; jifikia tpUj;jp nra;jy;.
8. ePjp> rkj;Jtk;> gu];gu kupahij vd;gtw;iw mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L> ru;tNjr

rKjhaj;jpy; nfsutkhdNjhu; ,lj;ijg; ngWtjw;Fg; gq;fspf;ff;$ba
kdg;ghq;FfisAk; jpwd;fisAk; tsu;j;jy;.
(Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;FO mwpf;if - 2003 jpnrk;gu;)
v
6.0 mbg;gilj; Nju;r;rpfs;
fy;tpapD}lhf tpUj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gpd;tUk; mbg;gilj; Nju;rr

; pfs; Nkw;Fwpj;j Njrpa
,yf;Ffis miltjw;F toptFf;Fk;.
1. njhlu;ghly; Nju;r;rpfs;
njhlu;ghly; gw;wpa Nju;r;rpfs; ehd;F Jizj; njhFjpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lit.
vOj;jwpT> vz;zwpT> rpj;jpu mwpT> jfty; njhopDl;gj; jifik.
vOj;jwpT: ftdkhfr; nrtpkLj;jy;> njspthfg; NgRjy;> fUj;jwpa

thrpj;jy;> rupahfTk; nrk;ikahfTk; vOJjy;> gad;jUk;
tifapyhd fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wk;
vz;zwpT: nghUs;> ,lk;> fhyk; vd;gtw;Wf;F vz;fisg;

gad;gLj;jy;> vz;Zjy;> fzpj;jy;> xOq;F Kiwahf
msj;jy;
rpj;jpu mwpT: NfhL> cUtk; vd;gtw;wpd; fUj;ij mwpjy;. tpguq;fs;>

mwpTWj;jy;fs;> vz;zq;fs; Mfpatw;iw NfhL> cUtk;>
tz;zk;; vd;gtw;why; ntspg;gLj;jYk; gjpT nra;jYk;
jfty; njhopDl;gj;
jifik: fzpdp mwpT - fw;wypy;> njhopy; Rw;whlypy;> nrhe;j

tho;tpy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gq;fisg; (ICT)
gad;gLj;jy;
2. MSik tpUj;jp njhlu;ghd Nju;rr; pfs;
- Mf;fk;> tpupe;j rpe;jid> jw;WzpG> jPu;khdk; vLj;jy;> gpur;rpid
tpLtpj;jy;> EZf;fkhd kw;Wk; gFg;gha;Tr; rpe;jid> mzpapduhfg; gzp
nra;jy;> jdpahs; ,iltpidj; njhlu;Gfs;> fz;Lgpbj;jYk; fz;lwpjYk;
Kjyhd jpwikfs;
- Neu;ik> rfpg;Gj; jd;ik> kdpj nfsutj;ijf; fz;zpag;gLj;jy; Mfpa

tpOkpaq;fs;
- kd vOr;rpfs;> Ez;zwpT
3. #oy; njhlu;ghd Nju;rr; pfs;

,j;Nju;rr
; pfs; #oNyhL (r%fk;> capupay;> ngsjpfk;) njhlu;GWfpd;wd.
r%fr; #oy;: Njrpa ghuk;gupak; gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;T> gd;ikr; r%fj;jpd;
mq;fj;jtu;fs; vd;w tifapy; njhlu;GWk; Ez;Zzu;Tj;
jpwd;fSk;> gfpu;e;jspf;fg;gLk; ePjp> r%fj; njhlu;Gfs;>
jdpegu; elj;ijfs;> nghJthdJk; rl;lG+u;tkhdJkhd
rk;gpujhaq;fs;> cupikfs;> nghWg;Gf;fs;> flikfs;>
flg;ghLfs; vd;gtw;wpy; mf;fiwAk;
capupay; #oy;: thOk; cyF> kf;fs;> capupay; #oy; njhFjp - kuq;fs;>

fhLfs;> fly;> ePu;> tsp> capupdk;> jhtuk;> tpyq;F> kdpj
tho;T
ngsjpfr; #oy;: ,lk;> rf;jp> vupnghUs;> rlg;nghUs;> nghUs;fs; gw;wpAk;

mit kdpj tho;f;if> czT> cil> ciwAs;>Rfhjhuk;>
nrsfupak;>Rthrk;> epj;jpiu> ,isg;ghWjy;> Xa;T> fopTfs;>
capupd fopTg; nghUl;fs; Mfpatw;Wld; nfhz;Ls;s
njhlu;G gw;wpa tpopg;Gzu;Tk;> Ez;Zzu;Tj; jpwd;fSk;
vi
fw;wYf;Fk; Ntiy nra;tjw;Fk; tho;tjw;Fk; fUtpfisAk;
njhopDl;gq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jk; jpwd;fSk; ,q;F
cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
4. Ntiy cyfj;jpw;Fj; jahu; nra;jy; njhlu;ghd Nju;rr

; pfs;
mtu;fsJ rf;jpia cr;r epiyf;Ff; nfhz;L tUtjw;Fk; mtu;fsJ Mw;wiyg;
Ngh\pg;gjw;Fk; Ntz;ba njhopy;rhu; jpwd;fs;.
- nghUshjhu tpUj;jpf;Fg; gq;fspj;jy;
- mtu;fsJ njhopy; tpUg;GfisAk; csr;rhu;GfisAk; fz;lwpjy;
- mtu;fsJ Mw;wy;fSf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd Ntiyiaj; njupT nra;jy;
- gadspf;ff; $baJk; epiyNgWilaJkhd [PtNdhghaj;jpy; <Lgly;
5. rkaKk; xOfyhWk; njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;

md;whl tho;f;ifapy; kpfg; nghUj;jkhdtw;iwj; njupT nra;aTk;> ehshe;j
tho;f;ifapy; xOf;fnewp> mwnewp> rkanewp njhlu;ghd elj;ijfisg; nghUj;jKw
Nkw;nfhs;sTk; tpOkpaq;fisj; jd;kakhf;fpf; nfhs;sYk; cs;thq;fYk;
6. Xa;T Neuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jy;> tpisahl;L gw;wpa Nju;r;rpfs;

mofpaw; fiyfs;> ,yf;fpak;> tpisahl;L> nka;ty;Yeu; Nghl;bfs;> Xa;T Neug;
nghOJNghf;Ffs; kw;Wk; tho;tpd; Mf;fG+u;tr; nraw;ghLfs; %yk; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;
,d;g Efu;rr
; p> kfpo;rr
; p> kdntOr;rpfs; ,it Nghd;w kdpj mDgtq;fs;
7. “fw;wYf;Ff; fw;wy;” njhlu;ghd Nju;r;rpfs;

tpiuthf khWfpd;w> rpf;fyhd> xUtupy; xUtu; jq;fp epw;fpd;w cynfhd;wpy;> xUtu;
RahjPdkhff; fw;gjw;fhd typikaspj;jYk; khw;wpaikf;Fk; nrad;Kiw Clhf>
khw;wj;jpw;Nfw;g ,aq;fTk; mjid Kfhik nra;aTk; Ntz;ba czu;itAk; ntw;wpiaAk;
ngwr; nra;jy;.
vii
7.0 ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
,g;ghlj;jpl;lj;jpl;lkhdJ juk; 12 khztu;fs; fPOs;s Mw;wy;fisg; ngwf;$ba tifapy;

mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
 gpd;tUtdtw;wpD}lhf ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg;

gpuNahfq;fisAk; rhjdq;fisAk; gad;gLj;JtJld; mtw;iw mq;fPfupj;jy;
o ehshe;jr; nraw;ghLfSf;Fg; gy;NtWgl;l gpuNahf nkd;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;jy;
o r%fj;Jldhd ,iltpidahf;fj;jpw;Ff; fzpdpiag; gaDWjpAlDk;>
tpidj;jpwDlDk; kw;Wk; xOf;fnewpAlDk; gad;gLj;jy;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; rhu;e;j njhopy; tha;g;Gfis Muha;jy;;
viii
8.0 jtiz uPjpahf Kd;nkhopag;gl;Ls;s ghlNtisfs;
jtiz Nju;rr
; p kl;lq;fs; ghlNtisfs;
1.1, 1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5,1.6,1.7 28
2.1, 2.2, 2.3,2.4 22

Kjyhk;
jtiz 3.1, 3.2,3.3 18
4.1,4.2 14
(82 ghlNtisfs;)
4.3, 4.4 12
,uz;lhk; 5.1, 5.2, 5.3,5.4 22

jtiz
6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,6.5,6.6,6.7,6.8,6.9,6.10,6.11,6.12 50
(84 ghlNtisfs;)
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4,7.5,7.6,7.7,7.8,7.9,7.10 68
(68 ghlNtisfs;)
%d;whk;
jtiz nkhj;jg; ghlNtisfs; 234
ix
6.0 xt;nthU myfpw;Fk; Kd;nkhopag;gl;Ls;s ghl myFfspd; vz;zpf;if
,y myFfs; ghlNtisfspd;
vz;zpf;if
1 jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;g vz;zf;fU 28

2 fdpzp mwpKfk; 22
3 juT gpujpepjpj;Jtk; 18
4 ,yf;fKiwr; Rw;Wfspd; mwpKfk; 26
5 fdpzp ,af;F Kiwik 22
6 juT njhlu;ghlYk; tiyaikg;Gk; 50
7 Kiwik gFg;gha;Tk;> tbtikg;Gk; 68
8 juTj;js Kfhikj;Jtk; 50
9 nray;epuyhf;fk; 74
10 tiyj;js tpUj;jpahf;fk; 60
11 nghUl;fspd; ,izak; 15
12 tzpfj;jpy; jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;k; 12
13 jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd;; Gjpa Nghf;FfSk; 12
vjpHfhy
nraw; wpl;lk;topfhl;ly;fSk;
14 30
x
ghlj;jpl;lk;
xi
ghl
Nju;rr
; p Nju;r;rp kl;lk; tpla cs;slf;fk; fw;ww;NgWfs;
Ntisfs;
Nju;r;rp 1: 1.1jftypd; mbg;gilf;  juT tho;f;if tl;lk; (Life Cycle of  juTfis tiuaWj;J mtw;wpd; 6
,d;iwa fl;lw; Jz;lj;ijAk;; Data) tho;f;if tl;lj;jpidr; RUf;fkhf
mwpTg+u;tkhd mjd; rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; o juTfspd; cUthf;fk; tpgupg;ghu;
r%fj;jpy; jfty; tprhupg;ghu; o Kfhikj;Jtk;  juitAk; jftiyAk;
kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; o gadw;w juT ePf;fk; tiuaWg;gjw;fhd nraw;ghl;bd;
njhopDl;gtpaypd;  juTfSk;> jfty;fSk; (Data vs. Njitia mq;fPfupg;ghu;
(ICT) %y  juT> nray;Kiw kw;Wk;
Information)
vz;zf;fUf;fisAk; jftYf;fpilapy; tYthd
gq;fspg;igAk;  jfty; tiutpyf;fzk;
cl;njhlu;ig mq;fPfupg;;ghu;
gpuNahfj;ijAk;  ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd;
rpwg;gpay;Gfs; (Charcteristics) ;:  juT> nray;Kiw (process) kw;Wk;
ikakhff; nfhz;L jftiy tpsf;Fthu;
Muha;thu; o fhyj;Jf;Nfw;wJ> rupepfu;jd;ik>
jUzj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd  jutpd; gy;NtW tbtq;fisAk;
jd;ik> tpsf;fj;jd;ikia mtw;wpd; gz;GfisAk;
mjpfupj;jYk; kw;Wk; gl;;baw;gLj;Jthu;
njsptpd;ikiaf; Fiwj;jYk;  jukhd juTfspd; gz;Gfis
 gy;NtW %yq;fspypUe;J tpgupg;ghu;;
fpilf;Fk; mjpfstpyhd juT  jfty;fspypUe;J juTfis
kw;Wk; jutpd; Vida rpf;fy;fis NtWgLj;Jthu;
(Large volumes and other  jfty;fspd; ngWkjpia
complexities) ifahs;tjd; Njit vLj;Jf;fhl;Lthu;
-mwpKfk;  ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd;
rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpgupg;ghu;
 mjpfsthd juT (Big Data)> mjd;
Njit kw;Wk; mjd; gFg;gha;T
vd;gtw;iw mq;fPfupg;;ghu;
1.2 juTfisAk; jftiyAk;  ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; jftypd; i; fKiwr; nraw;ghLfspYs;s 6
cUthf;fTk;> gug;gTk; gpuNahfk; FiwghLfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
kw;Wk; epUtfpf;fTk; o jPu;khdk; vLj;jy;  jfty;; gug;Gjy; rhu;ghf
Njitahd o nfhs;if tFj;jy; fpilf;fj;jf;f njhopDl;gq;fisg;
njhopy;El;gj;ij o vjpu;T $Wjy; gl;baypLthu;
tprhupg;ghu;; o jpl;lkply;> xOq;FgLj;jy;>  fzdp tiyaikg;G ,izak;>
Nkw;ghu;it nra;jy; kw;Wk; cyfshtpa tiy
 juTfisAk; jftiyAk; vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jpia tprhupg;ghu;
ifKiwapy; ifahs;tjpy; cs;s  nry;yplf; fzpj;jy;> nry;yplj;
1
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
FiwghLfs; njhlu;ghly; kw;Wk; Nkff; fzpik
o ,irtpd;ikAk; juT Nghd;wtw;wpd; tpUj;jpia
,ul;bg;ghfYk;> tO tpsf;Fthu;
Vw;gLtjw;fhd tha;g;Gfs;>  juTfisAk; jftiyAk;;
khdpltOf;fy; kw;Wk; cUthf;Fjy;> gug;Gjy;>
Kiwtopahf;fy; jhkjk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nrajy;
o jfty; gfpu;T gw;whf;FiwAk; Nghd;wtw;wpy; njhopDl;gj;jpd;
jhkjkhd thbf;ifahsu; gad;ghl;bw;F kjpg;gspg;ghu;
NritAk;  gy;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy; jfty;
 kdpj capUf;F Mgj;J Vw;glf; gad;ghl;bid mq;fPfupg;ghu;;
$bathwhd gpuNahf  gy;NtW gpuNahfq;fspy; kdpj
re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ifKiwr; nraw;ghLfspd; ghJfhg;Gg;
nraw;ghLfspd; mrhj;jpaj; jd;ik gpur;rpidfis tprhupg;ghu;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly;
njhopDl;gtpay; Afj;jpd; Njhw;wk;
(Emergence of ICT Era)
o ifKiwj; jfty;
ifahSjypy; Vw;gLk;
gpd;dilTfisr;
rPu;nra;tjw;Fj; jfty;
njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk;
gad;gLj;jy;
 gy;NtW Ms;jsq;fspypUe;J
(Domain) jftiyg; gad;gLj;jy;;
 jftiy kPsg;ngWjy; (retrieval)>
gfpu;e;jspj;jy; vd;gtw;Wld;
njhlu;Gila njhopDl;gq;fs;
fpilf;fg;ngwy;
 fzpdp tiyaikg;G> ,izak;>
cyfshtpa tiy (WWW)
vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jp
 nry;ypl njhlu;ghly;> nry;yplf;
fzpik (mobile computing)> Nkff;
fzpik (cloud computing)
2
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jp
1.3 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpw;F  jftypd; fUj;jpay; khjpup  jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay; 2
xU fUj;JU khjphpia cUthf;fk; (Abstract Model of khjpupapd; $Wfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
cUthf;FtJld; jfty; Information creation)  Kiwiknahd;iw tiuaWg;ghu;
njhlu;ghly;  Kiwikf;fhd tiuaiwiag;
o cs;sPL (Input)> nray;Kiw
njhopDl;gj;Jld;; gad;gLj;jpg; gy;NtW Kiwikfisg;
mjw;fhd ,zf;fg; (Process)> ntspaPL (Output)
o jfty; njhlu;ghly; gFg;gha;thu;
ghl;il kjpg;gPL nra;thu;
njhopDl;gj;jpw;Fk;  fUj;jpay; khjpupapidj; jfty;
fzpdpf;Fkhd mjd; KiwikfSld; njhlu;Gg;gLj;Jthu;
nghUj;jg;ghL; (relates)
 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay;
khjpupiaf; fzpdpapd; gpujhd
nraw;ghLfSld; xg;gpLthu;
 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay;
khjpupapy; jfty; njhlu;ghly;
njhopDl;gtpaypd; gq;fspg;ig
mq;fPfupg;ghu;
1.4 fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd;  td;nghUs; (Hardware)  td;nghUs; $Wfis tiuaiw 2

mbg;gilf; $Wfisj; o td;nghUs; $Wfspd; nra;tJld; tifg;gLj;Jthu;;
njupT nra;J tifg;gLj;jy;  nkd;nghUis tiuaWj;J
tifg;gLj;Jthu;  nkd;nghUs; (Software) tifg;gLj;Jthu;;
o nkd;nghUs;fis  jdpAupik (propieraty) kw;Wk; jpwe;j
tifg;gLj;jy; %y (open source) nkd;nghUl;fis
 khdpl ,af;Fgtu;fs;; (human NtWgLj;Jthu;
operators)  jdpAupik nkd;nghUs;fspdJk;;
o jfty; nray;Kiwikfspy; (Proprietary Software) jpwe;j %y
khdpl ,af;Fgtu;fspd; Njit nkd;nghUl;;fspdJk; (Open Source
Software) mD$yq;fisAk;
gpujp$yq;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDlgj;jpd;
nraw;ghl;Lld; $ba jfty;
Kiwiknahd;wpd; kdpj
nraw;gLeu;fspd; tfpghfj;jpid
3
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
,dq;fhz;ghu;
1.5 juT Kiwtopahf;fypd;  juT Kiwtopahf;fy; gbKiwfs;  juT Kiwtopahf;fy; 4
(data processing) o juT Nrfupj;jy;; (Data gbKiwfisg; gl;baw;gLj;jpr;
nraw;ghLfisg; Gathering ) RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
gFg;gha;T nra;thu; o juT nry;Ygbahf;fy; (Data  juT Nrfupj;jy; Kiwfis
Validation) ,dq;fhz;ghu;
o juT nray;Kiw topahf;fy;  juT nry;Ygbahf;Fk;; Kiwfis
(processing) ,dq;fhz;ghu;
o juT ntspaP;L (output)  juT cs;sPl;L Kiwfisg;
o juT Nrkpg;G (Storage) glbaypLthu;
 juT nray; Kiwtopahf;fy;
 juT Nrfupf;Fk; Kiwfs; (Data
Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
Gathering Method)
 ntspaPl;L Kiwfisg; gl;baypLthu;
o ifKiw (Manual)
 juT Nrkpg;G Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
o miu jd;dpaf;f KiwfSk;
jd;dpaf;f KiwfSk;
(Automated)
 fUtpfs;:
o xspapay; Fwp thrpg;ghd;
(OMR ), xspapay; vOj;JU
thrpg;ghd; (OCR), fhe;j ik
vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (MICR),
rpd;dk; /
ml;ilf;fhe;jehlh/fhe;jg;gl;b
thrpg;ghd;
(Badge/Tape/Magnetic Strip
Readers), czu;tpfSk;
(Sensors) Eiothd;fSk;
(Loggers)
 juT nry;Ygbahf;Fk; Kiw (Data
Validation Methods)
o juT tif rupghu;j;jy; (Type
Check)>
4
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
o fpilj;jy;/tO rupghu;j;jy;
(Presence/ Error Check)>
o tPr;irr; rupghu;j;jy; (Range
Check)
 juT cs;sPL nra;Ak; tpjq;fs;
o Neubahd kw;Wk;
njhiytpyhd ((Direct and
Remote)
o njhluwh epiy> njhluW
epiy (Online and Offline)
 juT nray; Kiwtopahf;fy;
(Data Processing)
 njhFjpthup kw;Wk; epfo;Neu
(Batch and Realtime)
 ntspaPl;L Kiwfs; (Output
Methods)
o Neubahfg; gadUf;F (user)
toq;fy;
o Nkyjpf
Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;Fr;
Nrkpj;jy;
 Nrkpg;G Kiwfs; (Storage Methods)
o cs;sf kw;Wk; njhiythd
(remote- (Cloud-Nkf))
Nrkpj;jy;
FWfpafhy, ePz;lfhyr; Nrkpj;jy;
1.6; ntt;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy;  jfty; njhlu;ghly;  gy;NtW Ms;fs gpuNahfq;fSf;Fg; 4
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd; gpuNahfq;fs;; nghUj;jkhd fUtpfs;> jpwd;fs;
njhopDl;gj;jpd; o fy;tp kw;Wk; mwpT vd;gtw;iw
gpuNahfq;fis Muha;thu; o Rfhjhuk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
o tptrhak;  gy;;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy; jfty;
o tzpfKk; epjpAk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd;
o nghwpapay; mD$yq;fisf; fye;JiuahLthu;
5
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
o Rw;Wyh
o Clfk; kw;Wk; gj;jpupif
njhopy;
 rl;l mKyhf;fy;
1.7 r%fj;jpy; jfty;  jfty; njhlu;ghly;  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; 4
njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jhy; Vw;gLk; %yk; Vw;gLk; mD$yq;fisr; r%f
njhopDl;gtpaypd; jhf;fk; mD$yq;fs;; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu uPjpapy; tpgupg;ghu;
gw;wp kjpg;gPL nra;thu; o r%f mD$yq;fs; (Social)  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;g
o nghUshjhu mD$yq;fs; Nkk;ghl;bd; %yk; Vw;gLk;
(Economic) gpujp$yq;fisr; r%f (Social)>
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; nghUshjhu (Economical)> #oy;>
njhopDl;gj;jhy; Vw;gLk; xOf;fnewp kw;Wk; rl;l uPjpapy;
gpujp$yq;fs; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
o r%fk; (Social)  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg;
o nghUshjhuk; (Economic) ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila rl;l
o #oy; epiyikfis tprhupg;ghu;
o xOf;fnewp  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;Jld;
o rl;lk; njhlu;Gila Rw;whly; gpur;ridfis
o me;juq;fk; tpgupg;ghu;
o ,yf;fKiw tpupT  ,yj;jpudpay; fopTfisg; (e - waste)
 ,ufrpaj;jd;ik ghJfhg;ghf mg;Gwg;gLj;Jk;
 jpULjy; (stealing)/ topg;gwp Kiwfis tpsf;Fthu;
(phishing)  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg;
 fsT (Piracy) ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila xOf;f
 gjpg;Gupik (Copyright)/mwpTrhu; newpg;gpur;rpidfisr; RUf;fkhf
tpgupg;ghu;
nrhj;Jr; rl;lq;fs;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg;
 Kiwaw;w gpujpahf;fk; (Plagiarism)
ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila rl;lr;
 cupkk; ngw;w nkd;nghUs; rpf;fy;fisr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
(Licensed Software)/ cupkkw;w  jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg;
nkd;nghUs; ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila r%fg;
gpur;rpidfisr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 epiyj;jpUf;ff;$ba mgptpUj;jp
,yf;Ffisg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy;
6
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd;
tfpghfj;ijr; (SDGs) RUf;fkhf
tpgupg;ghu;
 ,yf;fKiwg; gpupit ePf;Ftjw;fhd
mZFKiwfis tprhupg;ghu;
Nju;r;rp 2: 2.1nra;Kiwtopahf;fy;fspd;  fzpj;jypd; tuyhW (History of  Muk;gfhy fzpj;jy; rhjdq;fis
etPd fzpdpapd; (Processors) tpUj;jpAld; Computing) cjhuzq;fSld; tifg;gLj;;Jthu; 4
nraw;wpwid xg;gpl;L njhlu;Gila Kf;fpa o Muk;gfhy fzpj;jy;  kpd;nghwpKiw fzpj;jy;
tpgupg;gjw;Ff; khw;wq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; (Calculating) cjtpr; rhjdq;fisg; gl;bay;gLj;Jthu;;
fzpj;jy; fzpdp gbKiw tsu;r;rpia rhjdq;fs;  fzpdpj; jiyKiwfis mtw;wpd;
rhjdq;fspd; ntspf; nfhzu;thu; gz;Gfspd;; mbg;gilapy;
tsu;r;rpia Muha;thu;  nghwpKiw (Mechanical)
rhu;e;jit ml;ltizg;gLj;jp; tpgupg;ghu;
 kpd; nghwpKiw (Electro  fzpdpfisj; njhopDl;gk;> Nehf;fk;,
Mechanical) rhu;e;jit gUkd; vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
o fzpj;jypd;; ,yj;jpudpay; cjhuzq;fSld; tifg;gLj;Jthu;
(Electronic) Afk;
 fzpdpj; jiyKiwfs;
o 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G kw;Wk;
vjpu;fhyj;jpw;fhdJ
(nray; Kiwtopahf;fpapd;
gbKiw tsu;r;rpf;F
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;);
 gy;NtW tifg;gLj;jy; Kiwfs;
o njhopDl;gk; (Technology):
 xg;Gik (Analog), ,yf;f
Kiw (Digital)
o Nehf;fk; :
 nghJ, tpNrl
o ngsjPf gUkd;:
 kP fzpdp (Super Computer),
Kjd;ikf; fzpdp
(Mainframe)> rpwpa (Mini),
Ez; (Micro), vLj;Jr;
7
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
nry;yf;$ba cgfuzq;fs;
- #l;bif njhiyNgrp
(Mobile Devices - Smart
phones, Vl;L tpy;iyj;
jdpahs; fzpdp (Tablets),
Phablets)
2.2 fzpdpnahd;wpd;  gpujhd td;nghUs; $Wfs;  td;nghUs; Jizr;rhjdq;fisAk; 6
nraw;ghl;il mjd; o cs;sPl;Lf;fUtpfs;: (Peripherals) mtw;wpd;
td;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; tpirg;gyif cs;sPLk;> ,ilKfq;fisAk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;
mtw;wpd; ,ilKfq;fs; Neub cs;sPLk; (tpirg;gyif>  tpirg;gyif gjpT cs;sPl;L
vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; Rl;b rhjdq;fs; (Pointing rhjdq;fistpl Neub cs;sPl;Lr;
Muha;thu; Devices);> njhL ml;il (Touch rhjdq;fspd; mD$yq;fis
pad) Nra;ikf; fl;Lg;ghL ,dq;fhz;ghu;
(Remote control)> njhLjpiu  kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpd; (CPU)
(touch screen)> fhe;jg;gl;b tsu;r;rpiaAk; kw;Wk; mjw;Fg;
thrpg;ghd; (Magnetic strip nghUj;jkhd> jha;;g;gyifiaAk;
reader)> gl;ilf;Fwp Kiw (Motherboard) tpgupg;ghu;
thrpg;Gf;fUtp> #l;bif ml;il  Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fis
thrpg;ghd; (smart card reader), tifgLj;Jthu;
Ezpfp Nehf;fp (Scanner),  Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; xt;nthd;wpdJk;
,yf;fKiwg; glf;fUtp ,ay;Gfisr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
(Digital Camera)> xyp thq;fp>  rkhe;ju kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr;rl;lf; (grid)
czupfs; (sensers)> fzpj;jypd; Njitia ,dq;fhz;ghu;
tiutpay; ,yf;f tptukhf;fp
(Grapic tablets), fhe;j ik
vOj;J milahsq; fhzy;
(MICR), xspapay; Fwp thrpg;Gf;
fUtp (OMR), xspapay;
vOj;JU milahsq; fhzy;
(OCR);> fhnzhsp glf;fUtp
(video camera), ,yf;fkhf;fp
(Digitizer), tiyyglf;fUtp
(Webcam))
8
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 tpirg;gyifAld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
Neub cs;sPl;Lf; fUtpfspd;
mD$yq;fs;
 ntspaPl;Lf;fUtpfSk; mtw;wpd;
jd;ikfSk;:
o (CRT jpiu> LCD jpiu, LED jpiu
ikj;-jhiumr;Rg;nghwp (inkjet)>
Gs;sp mikTU mr;Rg;nghwp>
Nyru; mr;Rg;nghwp> gltiuap
(graph plotter)> Kg;gupkhd
(3D) mr;Rg;nghwp>
xypngUf;fp)
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myFk; (CPU)
mjd; jha;g;gyifg;
nghUe;JifAk; (Motherboard
compatibility)
 Nrkpg;gfq;fs;:
o epiyahd cs;sf td;jl;L
(fixed internal hard disk)>
vLj;Jr; nry;yj;jf;f ntspaf
td;jl;L (portable external
hard disk)> fhe;jehlh>
,Wtl;Lfs; (CD Rom), DVD
Rom, CD R/DVD R, CD RW/
DVD RW, DVD RAM,
ePyf;fjpu; tl;L (Blu-Ray),
gsPr;rpl;L epidtf ml;il
(flash memory card), rpwpa
tl;L (mini disk)
 rkhe;ju kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr;rl;lf;
(grid) fzpik (computing)
2.3 thd; epA+kd; (Von  Von Neumann fl;likg;G  Njf;fpa nra;epuy;; vz;zf;fUit 6
Neumann) fl;likg;ig o Nrkpf;fg;gl;;l nra;epuy;; tpsf;Fthu;
9
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
Muha;thu; vz;zf;fU (Stored Program  Von Neumann fl;likg;gpd; gpujhd
Concept) $Wfisg; ngaupLthu;
o $Wfs:; (cs;sPL> ntspaPL>  jUtpg;G - epiwNtw;Wr; Row;rpia
epidtfk;> Ez;nraypf; tpgupg;ghu;
fl;Lg;ghl;lyF (Processor  vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f myF(ALU),
Control Unit) kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghl;lyF(CU), gjptfk; juT
nray;Kiw topahf;fy; ju;f;f kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lg; ghl;il
myF (Processing ALU Unit ) vd;gtw;wpd; nraw;ghLfisr;
 jUtpg;G epiwNtw;Wr; Row;rp RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
(Fetch Execute Cycle)  Von Neumann fl;likg;gpid
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyF (CPU) tiue;J mjd; $Wfisg;
o vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f ngaupLthu;
myF(ALU).  gy;fU nray; Kiwtopahf;fpfspd;
o fl;Lg;ghl;lyF(CU) Njitia tpgupg;ghu;
o epidtfg; gjptfq;fs;
(Registers)
o juTfSk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lg;
ghl;ilAk; (Control Bus)
 gy;fU nraypfs; (Multi core
processors)
2.4 gy;NtW epidtf  epidtf gbepiy  epidtfg; gbepiyiag; nghUj;jkhd 6
tiffisAk; mtw;wpd; o epidtfg; gbepiyapd; tiuglq;fSld; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
jd;ikfisAk; mwpe;J mtrpak;  gy;NtW tifahd epidtfq;fspd;
nfhs;tjw;fhff; fzpdp o xg;gply; tpjpKiwfs; NjitiaAk; mtw;wpd;
epidtfj;ij Muha;thu;  ngsjPf msT / juT rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
mlu;j;jp  epiyaw;w kw;Wk; epiyahd
 mZfy; Kiw epidtfq;fisr; RUf;fkhf
 mZfy; Neuk; (fope;j tpsf;Fthu;
Neuk;/jhkjk;)  fzpdpapy; epiyaw;w kw;Wk;
 nfhs;ssT epiyahd epidtfq;fisg;
 fpuak; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
 epiyaw;w epidtfKk; mjd;  epidtfq;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis
gz;GfSk; Ntfk;> ,Ug;gplk;, nfhs;ssT>
10
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 gjptpfs; mZfy;Kiw> fpuak;> ngsjpf tif
 gJf;F epidtf tiffs; kw;Wk; juTfspd; ngsjpf
 gpujhd epidtfk; – RAM xOq;fikg;G> fpuak; Nghd;wtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; tpgupg;ghu; (gpl;by;
 gpujhd epidtf (RAM)
,Ue;J nrhy; tiu) (bits into words)
tiffs;
 SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM
 thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtf
tiffisAk; mtw;wpd;
 thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtf (ROM) rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; gl;baypl;Lr;
tiffs; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 PROM, EPROM and  Xt;nthU epidtf tifapidAk;
EEPROM mtw;wpd; mZfy; Neuk;> xU MB
 ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfk; f;fhd fpuak;> nfhs;ssT (Fwpg;ghf
 fhe;j> xspapay; kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l msT) vd;gtw;wpd;
gypr;rPl;L epidtfk; mbg;gilapy; xg;gpl;L NtWgLj;Jthu;
NjHr;rp 3: 3.1 vz; juTfs; fzpdpapy;  ,yf;fKiwr; rhjdq;fspy; juT  fzpdpapy; juTfs; ,U 10
juTfs; vt;thW vt;thW gpujpepjpj;Jtg; gpujpepjpj;Jtj;jpd; Njit epiyfisg;; gad;gLj;jpg;
fzpdpapy; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd  fzpdpapy; juT gpujpepjpj;Jt gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwia
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;j vd;gijg; gFg;gha;;thu;. Kiwfs;: tpgupg;ghu;
g;gLfpd;wd ,U epiyfspy; juT  ntt;NtW tifahd
vd;gijAk; mit gpujpepjpj;Jtk;. (0,1) vz;Kiwikfspd; mtrpaj;ij
vz;fzpj kw;Wk; tpgupg;ghu;
ju;f;fr;  fzpj;jypy; ghtpf;fg;gLk;;
vz;Kiwikfs; (Number Systems)  ntt;NtW tifahd jrk vz;fs;
nraw;ghLfspy; fzpdpapy; vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;  Jtpjk; (Binary)> vz;kk;
Nrkpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gij tpgupg;ghu;
tpjj;ijAk; (Octal)> gjpdWkk;
fz;lha;thu;.  jrk KO vz;fisj; Jtpj> vz;k >
(Hexadecimal)
gjpdWk vz; KiwikfSf;Fk;>
 vz;KiwikfSf;fpilapyhd vjpu;khwhfTk khw;Wtu;.
khw;wy;fs;  Jtpj vz;fisg; gjpdWk> vz;k
 jrk vz;fspd; gpujpepjpj;Jtk; Kiwikf;Fk; vjpu;khwhfTk;
(signed) FwpaPblg;gl;lJk; khw;Wthu;
FwpaPblg;glhjJk;; (Unsigned)  MSB gpl; MdJ jug;gl;l Jtpj
 Fwpaplg;gl;l KO vz;fspd; ngWkjp xd;wpd; epug;gpf;F
(Integers) gpujpepjpj;Jtk; khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gij milahsg;
 Fwpaplg;gl;l tPr;rsT gLj;Jtjw;Fg; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
11
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
(signed magnitude)  vz;k vz;izj; Jtpj> gjpdWk
 Xd;wpd; epug;gp (one’s Kiwikf;Fk; vjpu;khwhfTk;
compliment) khw;Wthu;
 ,uz;bd; epug;gp (two’s  jug;gl;l Jtpjg; ngWkjpia
compliment) ,uz;bd; epug;gpf;F khw;Wthu;
 xd;wpd; epug;gp ,uz;bd; epug;gp
vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il tpsf;Fthu;
3.2 vOj;Jj; juTfs;  vOj;JUj; juTfs;  fzpdpapy; vOj;JUj; juTfs; 4

(vOj;JUf;fs;> gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfisg;
,yf;fq;fs;> FwpaPLfs;)  ,Ukf; FwpKiw jrkk; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
fzpdpapy; vt;thW (BCD)  jug;gl;l FwpaPl;ilg; gpujpepjpj;Jt
gpujpepjpj;Jtg; Kiwnahd;wpw;F khw;Wthu;
gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd  jfty; ,ilkhw;Wf;fhd
mnkupf;f epak tpjpf;Nfhit  ntt;NtW juT gpujpepjpj;J
vd;gijg; gFg;gha;T Kiwfspd; mD$yq;fisAk;
nra;thu; (ASCII)
 EBCDIC gpujp$yq;fisAk; tpsf;Fthu;
 A+dpNfhl; (Unicode)
3.3 Jtpj vz;fspy; mbg;gil  Jtpj vz;fzpjr; nraw;ghLfs;:  Jtpj vz; $l;ly;fisr; nra;thu;;> 4
vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f (KO vz;fs; khj;jpuk;) (gy vz;fs;> nfhz;L nry;tJlDk;
hPjpahd nraw;ghLfisg;  $l;ly;> fopj;jy; nfhz;L nry;yhkYk;)
gpuNahfpg;ghu;  ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfs;  Jtpj vz; fopj;jy;;fisr; nra;thu;;>
 gpl; thupahd jHf;ftpaw; (nfhz;L tUjYld;;)
nraw;ghLfs; (Bitwise Logic  OR, AND, NOT, XOR vd;gtw;wpd; gpl;
Operations) thupahd nraw;ghLfisr; nra;thu;
NjHr;rp 4. 4.1 mbg;il ,yf;fKiwj;  ,yf;fKiwj; ju;f;fg; gliyfSk;  mbg;il ,yf;fKiwj; ju;f;ftpaw; 6
mbg;gil ,yf;fr; ju;f;fg; gliyfis (Digital Logic Gates) mtw;wpd; gliyfisg; gl;baypl;L mtw;wpw;Fg;
Rw;Wf;fisAk; (Digital Logic Gates) cz;ik ml;ltizfSk; (Truth nghUj;jkhd FwpaPLfis tiuthu;
rhjdq;fisAk;; mtw;wpd; jdpj;Jtj;  mbg;gilj; ju;f;fg; gliyfSf;fhd
Tables)
tbtikg;gjw;Fj; njhopw;ghLfspd; cz;ik ml;ltizfis (truth
jHf;fg; gliyfisg;  mbg;gilj; ju;f;fg; gliyfs;;
mbg;gilapy; gFg;gha;T tables) tiuthu;;
ghtpg;ghu; nra;thu; (Basic Logic Gates)
 NOT, OR, AND, XOR  mbg;gilj; ju;f;fg; gliyfspd;
 Nru;khd (Combinational) kWjiyahd tpisitf; fhl;Lk;
FwpaPLfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
12
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
gliyfs;;  jug;gl;l Nfhitf;F (cs;sPLfspd;
 NAND, NOR, XNOR cr;r vz;zpf;if 3) cz;ik
 nghJg; gliyfs; ml;ltizia cUthf;Fthu;
 NAND, NOR  nghJg; gliyfspd; Njitfis
tpgupg;ghu;
 nghJg;gliyfisg; gad;gLj;jpg;
GidT nra;af;$ba gliyfis
tpgupg;ghu;
4.2 g+ypad; ml;ruf;fzpj  ,U epiyj; jHf;ftpaYk; (Two  G+ypad; $w;Wfis vspikahf;Ftjd; 8
(Boolean Algebra); tpjpiaAk; State Logic) g+ypad; Njitia tpsf;Fthu;
fhNdh tiuglj;ijAk;; ml;ruf;fzpjKk; (Boolean Algebra)  jug;gl;l cz;ik ml;ltizf;F
(Karnaugh map) cgNahfpj;J  vLNfhs;fSk; (Postulates) mikthfj; ju;f;ff; Nfhitfis
ju;f;ftpaw; $w;Wfis ntspg;gil cz;ikfSk; epak (SOP and POS) tbtj;jpy;
vspikahf;Fthu; (Axioms) gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jthu;
 tpjpfs; (Laws) Njw;wq;fs;  SOP apypUe;J POS w;F khw;WtJld;
(Theorems) mjid kWjiyahfTk; nra;thu;
 gupkhw;W (Commutative), $l;L  G+ypad; Njw;wq;fs;, vLNfhs;fs;;
vd;gtw;iwAk;; B NkhfdJ tpjp>
(Associative)
kw;Wk; fhNdh tiulk; vd;gtw;iwAk;
 gq;fPl;L (Distributive). ghtpj;Jj; ju;f;ftpaw; Nfhitfis
 milahsk; (Identity)> vspikahf;Fthu;;
kpifik (Redundancy)
 B NkhfdJ - (De Morgan’s)
 epak ju;f;ftpaw; $w;Wfs;
(Standard Logical Expressions)
 ngUf;fq;fspd;
$l;Lj;njhifAk; (Sum of
Product SOP)
$l;Lj;njhiffspd;
ngUf;fq;fSk; (Product of
Sum- POS)
 SOP apypUe;J POS w;Fk;
kw;Wk; mjd; kWjiyAk;
13
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 ju;f;ftpaw; Nfhitfisg;
 G+ypad; Njw;wq;fs;
 fhNdh tiuglk; (Kanaugh
map) vd;gd cgNahfpj;J
vspikahf;Fjy;
4.3 ju;f;ftpay; gliyfisg;  tbtikg;GfSf;fhd cz;ik  ehshe;j tho;tpy; ju;f;ftpay; 6
gad;gLj;jp vspa ,yf;fr; ml;ltizfSk; ju;f;ftpaw; gliyfisg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba
Rw;Wf;fisAk; NfhitfSk; (%d;W cs;sPLfs; re;ju;g;gq;fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
rhjdq;fisAk; tiu)  ,dq;fz;l re;ju;g;gq;fSf;Fg;
tbtikg;ghu;  ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fspd;(Digital Circuit) nghUj;jkhd ju;f;ftpay;
tbtikg;G NfhitfisAk; cz;ik
ml;ltiziaAk; tbtikg;ghu;
 ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fis(Digital Circuit)
tbtikg;ghu;
4.4 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpy;  CPU tpd; fl;likg;Gf; $Wfs;  kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpd; gpujhd 6
Nru;khd ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fs;  miu $l;b (Half Adder) fl;likg;Gf; $Wfis
vt;thW ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 KOikf; $l;b (Full Adder)
gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd  miu $l;br; Rw;Wf;fSf;fhd
vd;gij Muha;tJld;  ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fspy;; gpl;fisr;
Nrkpj;jy; cz;ik ml;ltiziaAk; ju;f;ff;
ngsjpf epidtfj;jpy; NfhitfisAk; cUthf;Fthu;
(physical memory) njhlup  gpd;D}l;ly; tisak;
 KO $l;br; Rw;Wf;fSf;fhd
Rw;Wfs; (sequencial (feedback loop)
cz;ik ml;ltiziaAk;; ju;f;ff;
circuits) vt;thW  vO tpOtpfs; (Flip – flops) NfhitfisAk; cUthf;Fthu;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd   vO tpOtpfspd; (flip flop)
vd;gjidAk; Muha;thu;; gad;ghl;ilr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
NjHr;rp 5: 5.1 fzpdp ,af;f  fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik  fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik vd;why; 4
fzpdpapd; KO Kiwikapid tiuaiw (Operating System) mwpKfk;; vd;d vd;gij (Operating Systems)
mstpyhd nra;tJld; fzpdpapy;  ,af;f Kiwikapd; gupzhkk; tiuaWg;ghu;
nraw;ghLfis mtw;wpd; Njitfisf;  fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd;
Kfhikj;Jtk; fz;lwpthu;  ,af;f Kiwikapd; gpujhd
njhopw;ghLfs; gupzhkj;ijr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
nra;tjw;F ,af;f
Kiwikfis  ,ilKfj;ij (interface)  fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik (Operating
(operating systems) toq;fy; System) gadUf;F toq;Fk; gpujhd
cgNahfpg;ghu;  nray; Kfhikj;Jtk; nraw;ghLfisAk; fUj;jpay;fisAk;
14
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
(process management) (milTfs;> Nfhg;Gfs;> juTfs;)
 ts Kfhikj;Jtk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 ghJfhg;Gk; fhg;Gk;  fzpdpapd; tsq;fis ,af;f
 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikfis Kiwik (Operating Systems)
tifg;gLj;jy;; vt;thW Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;fpwJ
 jdpg;gadu; (Single User)– vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;
jdpg; gzp (Single Task)  gadu;fs; - gzp; vd;gtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; ,af;f Kiwikfis
 jdpg;gadu; (Single User)– tifg;gLj;Jthu;;
gw;gzp (Multi Task)
 gw;gadu; (Multi User)– gw;gzp
(Multi Task)
 gy;nrayhf;fk; (Multi
threading)
 epfo; Neuk; (Real Time)
 Neug;gfpu;T (time sharing)
Kiwikfs;
5.2 ,af;f Kiwik  Nfhg;G tiffs; (File Types)  Nfhit kw;Wk; milT vd;gtw;iw 6
fzpdpfspy; Nfhg;G o Nfhg;G tiffspd; mtrpak; tpsf;Fthu;
fisAk; (files) (.exe, .jpg .txt Nghd;wd)  jl;L tbtikj;jypd; (disk
milTfisAk;  milT (Directory)> Nfhg;G formatting) mtrpaj;ijr; RUf;fkhf
(directories/ folders) vd;gtw;wpd; xOq;fikg;G tpgupg;ghu;
vt;thW Kfhik  Nfhg;Gg; gbepiy (file hierarchi)  Nfhg;G tiffspd; mtrpaj;ij
nra;fpd;wJ vd;gijf; ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
fz;lha;thu;  Nfhg;G Kiwikfs;; (File Systems)-
FAT Nghd;wd  Nfhg;G Kiwikf; fl;likg;ig
tpgupg;ghu;
 Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;G (File Security)
 Nfhg;G kw;Wk; milT vd;gtw;wpd;
 flTr;nrhy; (Passwords)> xOq;fikg;ig vLj;Jiug;ghu;
mZfy; cupik (Access
 Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;gpy;
Privileges) gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwfs; gw;wpr;
 Nfhg;Gr; Nrkpg;G Kfhikj;Jtk; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Nrkpg;G xJf;fPL (storage  ,af;f KiwikahdJ Nfhg;Gg;
allocation) ghJfhg;gpid vt;thW
 mLj;jLj;jhd xJf;fPL Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ vd;gijr;
15
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
(contiguous allocation) RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 ,izg;G xJf;fPL (linked  fPOs;stw;iwr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
allocation) o mLj;jLj;jhd xJf;fPL
 Rl;b xJf;fPL (Index o ,izg;G xJf;fL P
o Rl;b xJf;fPL
Allocation)
 Jzpf;if ePf;fy;; vd;gijAk;; mJ
 Jzpf;if ePf;fy;
vt;thW Vw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gijAk;
(Defragmentation) tpsf;Fthu;;
 Jiz epidtfj;jpd; guhkupg;G
(Maintenance of Secondary
Storage)
 tl;L tbtikg;gpd;
tUtpisTk; mtrpaKk;
(Need and outcome of disk
formatting)
5..3 ,af;f KiwikahdJ  nray; xd;wpd; tiuaiw  nray;fis (process) tpsf;Fthu; 6
fzpdpapd; nray;fis  ,ilA+WfSk; (interrupts)  nray; xd;W cUthf;fg;gLk; NghJ
vt;thW epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ ,ilA+W ifahsYk;; (interrupts ,af;fKiwikapd; gzpfisg;
vd;gij Muha;thu; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
handling)
 nray; Kfhikj;Jtk; (Process  nray; tiffisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
Management)  nray; epiyfisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
 nray; epiyfs; (process states)  nray; Kbtiljiy tpsf;Fthu;
 nray; epiykhwy; (Process  nray;, nra;epuy; vd;gtw;iw
Transitions) NtWgLj;Jthu;
 nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjp  VO epiy nray;khw;wy;
tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpr;
 re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wy; (Context
nray;fis tpgupg;ghu;;
switching)
 nray; xOq;fikg;igAk; nray;
 nray; Kiwg;gLj;jpfs; (Process xOq;fikg;Gf; nfhs;ifiaAk;
Schedulers) RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 ePz;l> FWfpa> eLj;ju xOq;fikg;G
Kiwfis xg;gpLthu;
 gy; nra;epuyhf;fj;ijAk; mjd;
NjitiaAk; tpgupg;ghu;
16
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 Neug;gq;fPl;L (time sharing)
Kiwikia tpgupg;ghu;
 gy; nra;epuyhf;fj;ijAk;
Neug;gq;fPl;L KiwikiaAk;
xg;gpLthu;
 re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wiy tiuaWg;ghu;
 gpd;tUtdtw;iwr; RUf;fkhf
tpgupg;ghu;
o te;J NrUk; Neuk; (Turnaround
time)
o Jyq;fy; Neuk; ( Response time)
o nra;tPjk; (Throughput)
o fhj;jpUf;Fk; Neuk; (Waiting time)
 nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjpia
(PCB) tpsf;Ftjld; mjd;
cs;slf;fq;fisg; gl;baypLthu;
5.4 ,af;f KiwikahdJ  epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;  epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd; 6

tsq;fis vt;thW o epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; NjitiaAk; epidtf
epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij myF (MMU) Kfhikj;Jt myifAk; RUf;fkhf
Muha;thu;. o ngsjPf epidtfk; (physical tpgupg;ghu;
memory)  nka;epfu; epidtfj;ijr; RUf;fkhf
o nka;epfu; epidtfk; (virtual tpgupg;ghu;
memory)  gf;fkply; kw;Wk; glkhf;fy; (Paging
 cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;Lr; rhjd and Mapping) vd;gtw;iwr; RUf;fkhf
Kfhikj;Jtk; tpsf;Fthu;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfs; (device  ,af;f KiwikahdJ cs;sPl;L
drivers) ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fis vt;thW
Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;fpd;wJ vd;gijr;
 Rw;Wjy; (Spooling) RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfisr; RUf;fkhf
tpgupg;ghu;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfspd; Njitiar;
17
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Rw;Wjy;; (spooling) vd;gijr;
 Gjpa Jizr;rhjdnkhd;iw
,izf;Fk; NghJ nghUj;jkhd
rhjdr;nrYj;jpfis epWTthu;
NjHr;rp 6: 6.1 rkpf;iQfisAk; (signals)  rkpf;iQ tiffs;  ,yf;fKiw kw;Wk; xg;Gik 4

jfty; gfpu;itr; mtw;wpd; o ,yf;f Kiw (digital) rkpf;iQfisAk; mtw;wpd;
nraw;jpwDs;s rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; o Xg;Gik (analog) ,ay;GfisAk; tiutpay; %yk;
tifapy; gfpu;T Muha;thu; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jthu;
nra;tjw;fhfj; juTj;  rkpf;iQnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs;
o tPr;rk; (amplitude)  rkpf;iQ gz;GfSf;rpilapyhd
njhlu;ghly; kw;Wk; njhlu;G Kiw gpur;rpidfisj;
fzpdp tiyaikg;G o mjpu;ntz; (frequency)
jPu;g;ghu;
vd;gtw;wpd; o miyePsk; (wave length)
njhopy;El;gq;fis o mtj;ij (phase)
Muha;thu;  Clfnkhd;wpd; gug;gy;
(propagation) Ntfk;
6.2 rkpf;iQ CLflj;jy;  tlq;fs; - topgLj;jg;gl;lit  CLflj;jy; Clfq;fis 4
Clfq;fis Ma;T (guided media) topgLj;jg;gl;lit kw;Wk;
nra;thu;  KWf;fpa Nrhb (Twisted Pair), topgLj;jg;glhjit vd
Xur;R tlk; (Coaxial Cable), tifg;gLj;Jthu;
,io xspapay; (Fibre Optics)  kiwepiy> gl;il mfyk;> ,iur;ry;>
Nghd;wd neha;ik> jpupG Nghd;wit juT
CLflj;jiy vt;thW ghjpf;fpd;wJ
 ntw;W ntsp (free space)- vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;
topgLj;jg;glhj Clfq;fs;
(unguided media)
 rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
 kiwepiy (Latency)
 gl;il mfyk; (Bandwidth)
 ,iur;ry; (Noise)
 neha;ik (Attenuation )
 jpupG (Distortion)
18
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 vspa ,lj;jpay; (simple topology)-
,lj;jpw;F ,l (point-to-point)
,izg;G
6.3 rkpf;iQf; $Wfisg;  juT gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jypy;  ,U Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fisg; 4

gad;gLj;jp ,yf;fKiwj; rkpf;iQf; $Wfspd; ,zf;fg;ghL gad;gLj;jp ,yf;fKiwj; juT
juTfs; vt;thW – elg;nghOq;F ( a protocol) FwpKiwahf;fiyAk;> Manchester
Fwpaplg;gLfpd;wJ o ,U vspa $Wfs;- ,U FwpKiwahf;fiyAk; tiuapay;
(encode) vd;gij Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fs; %yk; gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nra;thu;
tprhupg;ghu; (tPr;rq;fs;)  mjpu;ntz;> mtj;ij vd;gtw;wpy;
o Vida rhj;jpag;ghLfs; khw;wq;fisr; nra;J rkpf;iQf;
(RUf;fkhf) $Wfshfg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba
 mjpu;ntz; rhj;jpag;ghLfis tpsf;Fthu;
 mtj;ij  kiwFwpahf;fj;jpd; Njitia
o rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; khwf;$ba tpsf;FtJld; CLflj;jp kw;Wk;
Ntfk; thq;fp vd;gd kiwFwpahf;fk;
o xj;jpirtpd; mtrpak; nra;ag;glhjpUf;Fk; NghJ vOk;
 Neuk;/fbfhuk; gpur;rpidfisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
(timing/clocks)  vspa ,U bit thupahd
 Manchester Fwpaply; Nthy;w;wsT FwpKiwahf;fy;
o tOf;fisf; ifahSjy; kw;Wk; Manchester FwpKiwahf;fy;;
 cjhuzk;: rkepiy (Parity) vd;gtw;wpy; rkpf;iQf; $Wfs;
vt;tsT Ntfj;jpy; khw;wg;gLfpd;wd
vd;gtw;wpd; njhlu;GKiwia
xg;gpl;L NtWgLj;Jthu;
 rkepiy gpl; MdJ gpl; tOit
fz;Lgpbg;gjw;F ,ayr;nra;Ak;
tpjj;ij tpgupg;ghu;
6.4 ,uz;L njhiy  nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp  Xg;Gik Fuy; fhtp tlk; xd;whfg; 4
rhjdq;fis tiyaikg;G (PSTN) nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp
,izg;gjw;Fg; nghJ o ,U epiyfSf;fpilapy; tiyaikg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp xg;Gik Fuy; nry;tjw;F  Nkhlk;fs; Xg;Gik rkpf;iQfis
tiyaikg;gpd; (Public Rw;nwhd;iw toq;Fjy; vt;thhW gz;Ngw;wk; nra;J mjidg;
Switched Telephone  gz;Ngw;wk; (modulation)> nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp
Network (PSTN)) tiyaikg;G Clhf
19
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
gad;ghl;il Muha;thu; gz;gpwf;fk; (demodulation) kw;Wk; mDg;gg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij tpgupg;ghu;
Nkhnlk; (modem)  nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp
o xg;Gik rkpf;iQf; tiyaikg;G Clhf ,U fzpdpfs;
$Wfisg; gad;gLj;jpj; juT ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s tpjj;ijf; fhl;Lk;
Fwpaply; jpl;l tiuglnkhd;iw tiuthu;
o Nkhnlk; gad;gLj;jp ,U
rhjdq;fis ,izj;jy;
6.5 gy rhjdq;fis  midj;Jr; rhjdq;fisAk;  mjpfsthd vy;yhr; rhjdq;fisAk; 4
tiyaikg;nghd;wpy; xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,izg;gJ (all – rfy ,lj;jpay; mikTfSlDk;
,izg;gjpy; cs;s to - all) eilKiwr; rhj;jpakw;wJ xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,izg;gJ eilKiw
gpur;rpidfis vt;thW rhj;jpakw;wJ vd;gijr; nra;J
ifahs;tJ vd;gij  jPu;T : ghl;il ,lj;jpay;
o vspik fhl;Lthu;
tprhupg;ghu;  ghl;ilnahd;wpd; vspikiar; nra;J
o gpur;rpid : ghl;il
mZfiyf; fl;Lg;gLj;jy; fhl;Lthu;
(Clfk;)  gy;NtW ,lj;jpay; mikTfis
 Vida ,lj;jpay;fs; tiuglkpLthu;
o tpd;kPd; (Star)  tiyaikg;nghd;wpd; tlkpliy
o tisak; (Ring) ,yFthf;Ftjw;Ff; Ftpad;fs;
kw;Wk;; Mspfs; vd;gtw;wpd;
o fz;zp (Mesh)
gad;ghl;il tpsf;FtJld; mtw;wpd;
 tlkpliy vspjhf;Fjy; njhopw;ghl;il xg;gpl;L
o ,izg;G Ftpad; (Hubs) NtWgLj;Jthu;
o Mspfs; (Switches)
6.6 Clf mZfy; fl;Lg;ghL  ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G (LAN)  mDg;GdiuAk; (sender) ngWdiuAk; 4
(MAC) elg;nghOq;fpd;  rhjdq;fis ,dq;fhzy; (receiver) milahsq;fhzf;
tfpgq;fpid Muha;thu;  Kftupfs(addresses);: MAC $batifapy; rhjdq;fis
 rl;lfq;fs; (frames) jdpj;Jtkhf (Kftupaply;)
ngauplypd; Njitia tpgupg;ghu;
 Clfq;fis xOq;Ftupirg;gb
mZfy;  CLflj;jy; mynfhd;whfr;
o kpf vspa elg;nghOq;F rl;lfq;fspd; tfpgq;fpid
cjhuzk;: ALOHA tpsf;Fthu;
o ALOHA tpypUe;J Ethernet  ghl;ilAld; njhlu;Ggl;L
Clfq;fis xOq;fikg;gpy;
w;fhd Kd;Ndw;wq;fs;
mZFtjw;F MAC
 njhiygug;gy; kw;Wk; jdpgug;gy;
20
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
(Broadcasting and unicasting) elg;nghOq;nfhd;wpd; Njitia
nra;jpfs; tpsf;Fthu;
 ALOHA Kjy; Ethernet tiuahd
MAC elg;nghOq;Ffspd;
gupzhkj;ijr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
6.7 ,izaj;ij  rhjdnkhd;iw ,uz;L my;yJ  ,U ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;Gfis 6
mikg;gjw;Fg; mjw;F Nkw;gl;l xd;wpizf;Fk; NghJ Eiothapypd;
gy;tiyaikg;Gfs; tiyaikg;GfSld; ,izj;jy; (gateway) tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;
vt;thW xd;Nwhnlhd;W – Eiothapy; (gateway)  jdpj;Jtkhd MAC
,izf;fg;gLfpd;wd  MAC Kftupaply; kw;Wk; LAN elg;nghOq;nfhd;wpd; RahjPd
vd;gij Muha;thu; njhopDl;gk; vd;gtw;wpypUe;J Kftupaply; jpl;lj;jpd;; NjitiaAk;
RahjPdkhd cyfshtpa mjw;fhf IP Kftup Mw;Wk;
jdpj;Jtr; rPuhd Kftupaplypd; tfpgq;fpidAk; tpsf;Fthu;
mtrpak;  cgtiy kiwKfkikj;jypd;
 IPv4 Kftupaply; tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;
 IP fis tiyaikg;gpw;F  toq;fg;gl;l IP Kftup njhFjpfs;
xJf;Fjy;; kw;Wk; tiyaikg;G msT
 cgtiyaikg;G vd;gtw;wpd; cgtiy kiwKfq;fs;
(subnetting) kw;Wk; Kftup tPr;rk; vd;gtw;iwf;
 cgtiy kiwKfk; fzpg;ghu;
(subnet mask)  ,af;fepiy IP Kftupfis
 CIDR FwpaPL xJf;Ftjw;F DHCP vt;thW
 jdpKiw ( Private) IP gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij
Kftupfs; tpsf;Fthu;
 DHCP  mDg;GeuplkpUe;J ngWeu; tiuahd
 IPv4 Kftupfspd; topiaf; fz;Lgpbj;jypy;
gw;whf;FiwAk; mjw;F jPu;thf topg;gLj;jpapd; (Routers) tfpgq;fpid
IPv6 ck; (NkNyhl;lk;) tpsf;Fthu;
 Nrupl topiaf; fz;lwpjy;  IP tiyaikg;Gfspy; nghjp
 topr;nrYj;jYk; kilkhw;wy; kw;Wk; rpwe;j tpepNahf
Kaw;rp vd;gtw;iw tpgupg;ghu;
topg;gLj;jpAk; (Routing and
routers)
 nghjp kilkhw;wy;; (Packet
21
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
switching)
 rpwe;j Nru;g;gpg;G Kaw;rp
6.8 ,izaj;jpy;  xU gpuNahf nraypypUe;J  xU IP KftupapypUe;J 4
Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;nwhU gpuNahf nraypf;Fj; kw;nwhd;wpw;Fr; nra;jp gupkhWtJ
elg;nghOq;Ffspd; juitr; Nru;g;gpj;jy; NghJkhdjy;y vd;gij xU
tfpghfj;ij Muha;thu;  IP apdhy; ,dq;fhzg;gl;l xU nraypypUe;J kw;wr; nraYf;Nf
Xk;Gdupd; (host) gy; njhlu;ghly; eilngWfpd;wJ
gpuNahfq;fs; vd;gijr; nra;J fhl;b tpsf;Fthu;
 gy;Nru;g;G (Multiplexing) – mNj  gy;Nru;g;Gr; nra;jpfspd;
IP apy; gy;Kbtplq;fs; NjitiaAk; Jiw ,yf;fq;fs;
vt;thW Kbtplq;fis milahsk;
 thapy;fSk; (ports) thapy; fhz;fpd;wd vd;gijAk; tpsf;Fthu;
,yf;fq;fSk;
 UDP apd; nraw;ghLfisAk;
 UDP mjidg; gad;gLj;Jk;
 ,ay;Gfs;
gpuNahfq;fisAk; gl;baypl;Lr;
 gpuNahfq;fs;
RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 TCP  TCP apd; nraw;ghLfisAk;
 ,ay;Gfs;
mjidg; gad;gLj;Jk;
 gpuNahfq;fs;
gpuNahfq;fisAk; gl;baypl;Lr;
RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
6.9 ,izaj;jpd; rpy  Ms;fsg; ngau; Kiwik (DNS)  IP KftupfSf;Fg; gjpyhf khdpl 4
gpuNahfq;fis Muha;thu; o IP Kftupfis Qhgfk; el;Gilg; ngau;fspd; Njitia
itj;Jf;nfhs;tJ fbdk; tpgupg;ghu;
o khdpl el;Gilg; ngau;fs;  ngau;fis IP KftupfSf;F
o gbepiy ngau; ntsp nkhopg;ngau;g;gjpy; Ms;fsg; ngau;
o xt;nthU Ms;fsKk; mjd; Kiwikapd; tfpgq;fpid
fPOs;s ngau;fis Kfhik tpsf;Fthu;
nra;tjw;Fg; nghWg;gha;  DNS ,d; gbepiy kw;Wk; guk;gpa
,Uj;jy; fl;likg;G vd;gtw;iw tiuapaypy;
o cau; kl;l Ms;fsq;fs; gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nra;thu;
 HTTP  HTTP apy; vspa GET Nfhupf;if
o Nritg; gadu; khjpup (client kw;Wk; gjpyypg;G vd;gtw;iw
server model) tpgupg;ghu;
 DNS kw;Wk; HTTP vd;gtw;iwg;
22
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
gad;gLj;jp Nritg;gadu; Nritaf
khjpupapid tpgupg;ghu;
6.10 tiyaikg;gpd;  TCP/IP khjpup  TCP/IP kw;Wk OSI khjpupfspd; 4

fl;likg;ig (network o gpuNahfk; mLf;FfsJ (layers) nraw;ghLfis
architecture) tpgupg;gjw;Ff; o Nghf;Ftuj;J tpgupg;ghu;
Fwpg;G khjpupfspd; o ,izak;  gy;NtW mLf;Ffspd; juT
(Reference models) o tiyaikg;gpw;fhd Xk;Gdu; myFfis tpgupg;ghu; (packet,
tfpghfj;ijf; fz;lwpthu;  OSI khjpup frame and bit)
o gpuNahf mLf;F (Application  TCP/IP kw;Wk; OSI khjpupfisg;
Layer) gad;gLj;jp tiyaikg;nghd;wpd;
o Kd;itg;G mLf;F juTg; gha;r;riy tpgupg;ghu;
(Presentation Layer)
o mku;T mLf;F (Session Layer)
o Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F
(Transport Layer)
o tiyaikg;G mLf;F
(Network Layer)
o juT ,izg;G mLf;F (Data
Link Layer)
o ngsjPf mLf;F (physical
Layer)
6.11 ,izaj;Jld;  kiwFwpahf;fKk; ,yf;f  ,izak; toq;fhj fhuzpfshd> 4
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s xg;gKk; (Encryption and digital nra;jpfspd; ,ufrpaj;jd;ik kw;Wk;
rhjdq;fspd; ghJfhg;G signature)- mwpKfk; rhd;wspg;G (confidentiality and
kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; authentication) vd;gtw;wpd;
o nghJr; rhtp (public key)
vd;gtw;wpd; ghJfhg;Gf; Njitiaf; fz;lwpthu;
fhuzpfis Muha;thu;; o jdpKiwr; rhtp (private key)
o xg;gkply; (signing)  nra;jpfis kiwFwpapLtjw;Fk;
xg;gkplYf;Fk;; nghJr; rhtp kw;Wk;
 mr;RWj;jy;fs; (Threats)
jdpahu; rhtp vd;gtw;wpd;
 er;Repuy;fs; (viruses) gad;ghl;ilr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
o Trojans  tiyaikg;ghf;fg;gl;l Kiwikfs;
o td;k nkd;nghUs; (Malware) vjpu;nfhs;Sk; gy;NtW
o tptuj; jpUl;L (Phishing) mr;RWj;jy;fisAk; mjw;fhd fhg;G
23
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 fhg;G KiwfisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
o Firewalls
o er;Repuy; vjpu; nkd;nghUs;
o fy;tp/ rpwe;j mwpT /ey;y
nray;fs;
6.12 mf tiyaikg;Gfis  ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs;  ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdupd; 4
(Home Networks) (ISPs) tfpgq;fpid tpgupg;ghu;
,izaj;Jld;  ,izar; Nrit  tPl;Lf; fzpdpia ,izar; Nrit
,izg;gjw;fhfg; toq;Fdu;fSld; ,izj;jy; toq;Fdu; tiyaikg;Gld;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w o Nkhnlk; Modems ,izg;gjw;F Nkhlk; kw;Wk; dialup
,izar; Nrit lines vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il
o DSL/ADSL
toq;Fdu;fs; (ISPs) kw;Wk; tpsf;Fthu;
njhopDl;gk; vd;gtw;wpd;  jdpKiw IP fis gad;gLj;Jk;
mf ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G  DSL/ADSL vd;gtw;wpd;
tfpghfj;ij Muha;thu;
o tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;G mD$yq;fisAk; tpsf;Fthu;
(Network Address Translation –  mf ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;gpy; jdpahu;
NAT)/ gjpyhl;fs; (Proxies) IP Kftupfisg; gad;gLj;Jk;
tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;G (NAT)
kw;Wk; gjpyhl;fs; vd;gtw;wpd;
tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;
Nju;r;rp 7 7.1 Kiwikfspd;  Kiwik vz;zf;fU  Kiwikf;fhd tiuaiwia 4

jfty; Kiwik rpwg;gpay;Gfis Muha;thu;  Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;Jjy; epidT$Uthu;
tpUj;jpapy;  jpwe;j kw;Wk; %ba  Kiwiknahd;wpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfisg;
Kiwik Kiwikfs; gl;bay;gLj;jp tpgupg;ghu;
vz;zf;fUit  Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;jp
Muha;tJld;  ,aw;if kw;Wk; nraw;if
Kiwikfs; cjhuzq;fSld; tpgupg;ghu;;
fl;likg;G
Kiwikg;  capu;thOk; (living) kw;Wk;
gFg;gha;T ngsjPf (physical) Kiwikfs;
24
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
tbtikg;G
Kiwapaiyg;
ghtpg;ghu;
7.2 gy;NtW tifr; nraw;if  jfty; Kiwikfs;  kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW 4
Kiwikfis mtw;wpd; o mYtyfj; jd;dpaf;f Kiwikfspd; Nehf;fq;fisAk;
Fwpf;Nfhs;fspdJk; Kiwikfs;(OAS) njhopw;ghLfisAk; xg;gpLthu;
nraw;ghLfspdJk; o gupkhw;w nrayhf;f  kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW
mbg;gilapy; xg;gpl;L Kiwikfs; (TPS) Kiwikfspd; Nehf;fq;fisAk;
Ntwhf;Fthu; o Kfhikj;Jt jfty; njhopw;ghLfisAk;
Kiwikfs; (MIS) NtWgLj;jpf;fhl;.Lthu;
o jPu;khd cjT Kiwikfs;
(DSS)
o epiwNtw;W cjT
Kiwikfs; (ESS)
o Gtpapay; jfty; Kiwikfs;
(GIS)
o mwpT Kfhikj;Jt
Kiwikfs; (KMS)
o cs;slf;f Kfhikj;Jt
Kiwikfs; (CMS)
o epWtd %ytsj; jpl;lkply;
Kiwikfs; (ERPS)
o #l;bif Kiwikfs; (Smart
systems)
7.3 gy;NtWgl;l jfty;  Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;l  Kiwikfspd; khjpupfisg; 8

Kiwik tpUj;jp khjpupfs; (SDLC) gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
khjpupfisAk; Kiwik  ePu; tPo;r;rp (Waterfall)  Xt;nthU khjpupfspdJk; gpuNahfj;
tpUj;jp Kiwapay;fisAk; jd;ikia tprhupj;jwpthu;
Muha;thu;  RUsp (Spiral)
 Agile  ePu;to
P ;r;r;p khjpupapd; Kiwik tpUj;jp
tho;f;if tl;lf; fl;lq;fisg;
 %ytif khjpup (prototype) gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
25
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 Jupj gpuNahf tpUj;jp (Rapid  RUsp khjpupapd; tho;f;if tl;l
Applications Development) tpUj;jpf; fl;lq;fisg; gl;baypl;Lr;
 Kiwik mgptpUj;jp RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
Kiwapay;fs;  Kiwik tpUj;jp Kiwapay;fisg;
 fl;likf;fg;gl;lit gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
(structured)
 nghUs; Nehf;F (Object
Oriented)
7.4  fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T  fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T 2
fl;likg;G Kiwikg; kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay;
gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; mwpKfk; vd;gij tiuaWg;ghu;;
tbtikg;G Kiwapaiyg;  Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if  fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T
ghpNrhjpg;ghu; (SSADM) tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; %yk;
cs;thq;fg;gLk;; Kiwik tpUj;jp
tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fisg;
gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
7.5  G+u;thq;f Ma;T  Muk;gf;fl;lf; fz;lha;tpd;NghJ 4
Gjpa jfty;  eilKiwapYs;s Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl Ntz;ba gzpfis
Kiwiknahd;wpw;fhd Kiwikapd; gpur;rpidfis tpgupg;ghu;
NjitiaAk; mjd; ,dq;fhzy;  epWtfnkhd;wpd; jfty;
rhj;jpag;ghl;ilAk;  jfty; Kiwfspd; gpur;rpidfis tpgupg;ghu;
tprhupg;ghu;; Njitfis  jPu;f;fg;gl Ntz;ba gpur;rpidfis
Kd;Dupikg;gLj;jy; Kd;Dupik mbg;gilapy; tpsf;Fthu;
 rhj;jpatsf; fw;if (feasibility  rhj;jpats fw;ifapd; Njitia
study) tpgupg;ghu;
 njhopDl;gr; rhj;jpag;ghL  rhj;jpats tiffisg; gl;baypl;Lr;
(Technical feasibility) RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 nghUshjhur; rhj;jpag;ghL
(Economical feasibility)
 nraw;ghl;Lr; rhj;jpag;ghL
(Operational feasibility)
 jhgdr; rhj;jpag;ghL
(Organizational feasibility)
26
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
7.6  Njitg; gFg;gha;T  Njitg; gFg;gha;tpd; mtrpaj;ij 18
eilKiw Kiwikiag;  nray;ghl;Lj; Njitfs; tpsf;Fthu;
gFg;gha;tjw;Fg; gy;;NtW (Functional requirements)  jug;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd Njit
Kiwfisg; ghtpg;ghu; tiffis cjhuzq;fSld;
 nray;rhuhj; Njitfs; (Non –
functional requirements) tpsf;Fthu;
 gFg;gha;Tf; fUtpfs;  Njitfisj; IEEE ju
epakj;jpw;Nfw;g tiuaiw nra;thu;
 nraw;ghl;L tpsf;f
tiuglq;fs;  gFg;gha;Tf; fUtpfisg; gl;baypl;L
mtw;wpd; mtrpaj;ij tpsf;Fthu;
 tzpf nraw;ghl;L;
khjpupAUthf;fy;  jug;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd tpahghu
 tzpf nraw;ghl;L; khjpup
nraw;ghl;L khjpup> re;ju;g;g tiuglk;>
(Business Activity Model) Mtzg; gha;r;ry; tiuglk;, juTg;
gha;r;ry; kw;Wk; ju;f;f juTf;
 juT gha;r;ry; fl;likg;G vd;gtw;iw tiuthu;
khjpupAUthf;fy; (Data Flow
 Muk;g fl;l nray; tpguq;fis
Modeling - DFM) vOJthu;
 juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk;
 tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfspd;
(Data Flow Diagram - DFD)
Njitia tpsf;Fthu;
 mbg;gilr; nra;KiwfSk;
mbg;gilr; nra;Kiw  tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfis
tpgupg;GfSk; (Elementary Kd;nkhopthu;
Process Descriptions -  kpfg;nghUj;jkhd tzpf Kiwik
EPD) tpUg;igj; njupT nra;thu;
 ju;f;fj; juT khjpupAUthf;fy;
(Logical Data Modeling -
LDM)
 ju;;f;fj; juTf; fl;likg;G
(Logical Data Structure -
LDS)
 tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfs;
(Business System Options -BSO)
7.7  ju;f;f tbtikg;Gf; fUtpfs;  ju;f;f tbtikg;ig tpgupg;ghu; 14
Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikia (Logical Design Tools)  ju;f;f tbtikg;Gld; njhlu;Gila
tbtikg;ghu;  ju;f;f juT khjpupAUthf;fy; nraw;ghLfis tpgupg;ghu;
27
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l  Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd
Kiwikf;fhd ju;f;f juT ju;f;f tbtikg;ig mbg;gil
gha;r;ry; tiuglk; nrad;KiwapypUe;J re;ju;g;g
 mbg;gilr; nra;KiwfSk; tiuglk; (context diagram) tiu
mbg;gilr; nra;Kiw kPs;epu;khdpg;ghu;;
tpgupg;Gk; (Elementary  mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiw
process description - EPD) tpguf;$w;iwg; Nghypf;Fwpapy;
 gadu; ,ilKf tbtikg;G (pseudo code) vOJthu;
 ju;f;f juT khjpupAUthf;fy;  ml;ltiz kw;Wk; gjpT
 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l tpguf;$w;Wfisf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lthu;
Kiwikf;fhd ju;;f;f
juTf; fl;likg;G (Logical
Data Structure)
 juTj;js ngsjPf tbtikg;G
 ml;ltiz (Table) kw;Wk;
gjpT tpguf;$w;Wfs;(record
descriptions)
 juT mfuhjp (Data
Dictionary)
 juTj;js tbtikg;G
7.8  nra;epuy; tpUj;jp;  Gjpjhf tbtikf;fg;gl;l 6

Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikia  juTj;js tpUj;jp; Kiwikf;fhd ghPl;rpj;jy;
tpUj;jp nra;J ghPl;rpg;ghu;  ghPl;rpj;jy; Kiwfisg; gl;baypLthu;
o guPl;ir jUtha;fs; (Test  Gjpjhf tbtikf;fg;gl;l
cases) Kiwikf;fhd ghPl;rpj;jy; Kiwfis
28
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;G (White tpgupg;ghu;
Box Testing)
 fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;G (Black
Box Testing)
 myFr; Nrhjpg;G
 xd;wpizf;fg;gl;l Nrhjpg;G
 Kiwikr; Nrhjpg;G
 Vw;Gr; Nrhjpg;G
7.9  tpupTWj;Jk; Kiwfs;  tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;l Kiwikia 4
tpUj;jpahf;fg;gl;l (Deployment) tpupTWj;Jk; Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
Kiwikia  rkhe;juk; (Parallel)  Kiwik mKyhf;fypd;; gpd;du;
eilKiwg;gLj;Jthu; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;w nraw;ghLfis
 Neub (Direct)
tpgupg;ghu;
 Kd;Ndhb (Pilot)
 fl;lk; (Phase)
 td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs; epWTif>
juT ngau;r;rpAk; (migration) gadu;
gapw;Wtpg;Gk;
 kPsha;T (Review)> cjtp (support)
kw;Wk; guhkupg;G
7.10  re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT  nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUspd; 4
re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba nkd;nghUs; fpuak; kw;Wk; mD$yq;fis
nra;af;$ba (off-the-shelf) nghjpfs; ghtidapd; ed;;ik KjyPL> ,af;Fjy; kw;Wk;
Kiwiknahd;iwf; nfhz;L jPikfs; guhkupj;jy; fpuak; vd;gtw;wpd;
Kiwik mKyhf;fiy  nghjpnra;j nkd;nghUs;fspd; mbg;gilapy;; Muha;thu;
tpgupg;ghu; jpwd;fs;> gzpNghf;F vd;gd  jPu;thf mike;j nghjpnra;j
 tzpf nray;Kiw ,ilntsp nkd;nghUspd; jd;ikfisAk;
gFg;gha;T (Business process gap ,aYikfisAk; epak tzpf
analysis) gpuNahfq;fs; rhu;ghf Muha;thu;
 tzpf nray;Kiwg; glkhf;fy;  jug;gl;l tzpf nray;Kiw kw;Wk;
re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba
(Business process mapping)
nkd;nghUs; nghjpfspd; jd;ikfs;
 tzpf nray;Kiw kPs;fl;likg;G vd;gtw;wpw;fpilahd NtWghLfis
(Business process reengineering) ,dq;fz;L tpgupg;ghu;
29
ghl
Nju;rr
Ntisfs;
 nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUs; jPu;tpd;;
gzpg;gha;r;riy tzpf nrad;Kiwr;
nraw;ghLfSld; tpupj;Jiug;ghu;
 jw;Nghija tzpf nray;Kiwapy;
Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;ba khw;wq;fis
tpgupg;ghu;
 nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUs; jPu;tpd;
jdpg;gadhf;fy; Njitg;ghLfis
tpsf;Fthu;
30
fw;wy; fw;gpj;jYf;fhd
mwpTWj;jy;fs;
31
Nju;rr
; p 1: ,d;iwa mwpTg+u;tkhd r%fj;jpy; jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gtpaypd;
(ICT) %y vz;zf;fUf;fisAk; mjd; gq;fspg;igAk; gpuNahfj;ijAk; ikakhff;
nfhz;L Muha;thu;.
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.1: jftypd; mbg;gilf; fl;lj;; Jz;lj;ijAk;; mjd; rpwg;gpay;GfisAk;
tprhupg;ghu;
fhyk;: ghlNtisfs; 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;;:
 juTfis tiuaWj;J mtw;wpd; tho;f;if tl;lj;jpidr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;

 juitAk; jftiyAk; tiuaWg;gjw;fhd nraw;ghl;bd; Njitia mq;fPfupg;ghu;
 juT> nray;Kiw kw;Wk; jftYf;fpilapy; tYthd cl;njhlu;ig mq;fPfupg;;ghu;
 jutpd; gy;NtW tbtq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; gz;GfisAk; gl;;baw;gLj;Jthu;
 jukhd juTfspd; gz;Gfis tpgupg;ghu;;
 jfty;fspd; ngWkjpia vLj;Jf;fhl;Lthu;
 ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpgupg;ghu;
 mjpfsthd juT> Njit kw;Wk; mjd; gFg;gha;T vd;gtw;iw mq;fPfupg;;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
 juT tho;f;if tl;lk;

o juTfspd; cUthf;fk;
o Kfhikj;Jtk;
o gadw;w juT ePf;fk;
 juTfSk;> jfty;fSk;
 jfty; tiutpyf;fzk;
 ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;:
o fhyj;Jf;Nfw;wJ> rupepfu;jd;ik> jUzj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd jd;ik> tpsf;fj;jd;ikia
mjpfupj;jYk; kw;Wk; njsptpd;ikiaf; Fiwj;jYk;
 gy;NtW %yq;fspypUe;J fpilf;Fk; mjpfstpyhd juT kw;Wk; jutpd; Vida rpf;fy;fis
(Large volumes and other complexities) ifahs;tjd; Njit
o mwpKfk;
vz;zf;fUf;fSk; Kjd;ikg; gjq;fSk;:
 juTfSk;> jfty;fSk;
 juT tho;f;if tl;lk;
 juT kw;Wk; jfty; vd;gtw;iw mtw;wpd; Kiwtopahf;fy; Kiwikapd; mbg;gilapy;
milahsk; fhzyhk;. Kiwtopahf;fy; Kiwiknahd;wpd; cs;sPLfs; juTfshfTk;
ntspaPLfs; jftyhfTk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. xU Kiwikapy; ntspaPlhf fpilf;Fk; jfty;
MdJ> NtnwhU Kiwikf;F mJ juthfg; ghtpf;fg;glyhk;.
 jfty;fspd; ngWkjp kw;Wk; ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
 ngupa juT kw;Wk; mjd; gFg;gha;T vd;gd gw;wpa mwpKfk;.
ghlj;jpl;lkplYf;fhd topfhl;b:
 juT Kiwtopahf;fy; Kiwiknahd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp juT kw;Wk; jfty; vd;gtw;iw

vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;fSld; tpsf;fTk;.
 khztu; mDkjpg; gjptpypUe;J ngwg;gl;l juTfs; vt;thW Ngzg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijAk;
juT tho;f;if tl;l rPuhf;fypd; NghJ Njitaw;wit vt;thW ePf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijAk;
fye;JiuahlTk;.
32
 ngWkjp kpf;f jfty;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfisf; fye;Jiuab mit xt;nthd;wpw;Fk;
cjhuzq;fis toq;fTk;.
 epWtfnkhd;wpy; ngupa juT vt;thW ifahsg; gLfpd;wJ vd;gijAk;> mit gFg;gha;T
nra;ag;gLfpd;wNghJ vOfpd;w jilfspypUe;J tpLgLtjw;F njhopDl;gj;jpd; Njit
gw;wpAk; fye;JiuahlTk;.
fzpg;gl
P ;bw;Fk; kjpg;gPl;bw;Fkhd topfhl;b:
 jug;gl;l juT Kiwtopahf;fy; KiwikapypUe;J juT kw;Wk; jfty; vd;gtw;iw

gFg;gha;T nra;tjw;fhd xg;gilnahd;iw toq;fTk;
 ngupa juT ifahSfpd;w epWtfq;fSf;F cjhuzq;fis ,izaj;jpypUe;J
fz;lwpAkhW khztu;fis topg;gLj;jTk;;.
ju tpUj;jp cs;sPLfs;:
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Kiwiknahd;wpy; Kiwtopahf;fk; nra;jy;> juTfis cUthf;Fjy;> vd;gdtw;wpw;F

cs;sPLfshf toq;fg;gLfpd;w %y fhuzpfs; juthFk;. ,it Njitf;Nfw;g xOq;fikf;f
$ba ,yf;fq;fs;> nrhw;fs;> xyp kw;Wk; cUf;fs; Nghd;witahff; fhzg;glyhk;.
juT tho;f;if tl;lkhdJ> juT cUthf;fk;> juT Kfhikj;Jtk; kw;Wk; gadw;w juT
ePf;fk; vd;gtw;iw cs;slf;fpajhFk;.
tpsf;fKs;s jfty;fis cUthf;Ftjw;F> Kiwikf;Fj; juT cs;sPL nra;ag;gly;

Ntz;Lk; my;yJ Kiwikf;Fs;NsNa cUthf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. juTfs; ghJfhg;ghf kw;Wk;
,yFthf mZff;$bajhf Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gly; Ntz;Lk;. juT fhyhtjpahdjhfTk;>
,jw;F NkYk; Njitg;glhJ vdf; fUJk; NghJ mjid KiwikapypUe;J mfw;wy;
Ntz;Lk;. ,J juT tho;f;if tl;lk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
tpsf;fKs;s jftiy cUthf;Ftij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;l Kiwiknahd;wpw;F toq;fg;gLk;

cs;sPLfshf juT vd;gij milahsk; fhzyhk;. mu;j;jKs;s tifapy; xOq;fikf;fg;gl;l
juTfisj; jftyhf milahsk; fhzyhk;. jfty; cUthf;fy; vd;gjidj; juT
Kiwtopahf;fk; vdf; $wyhk;. Kiwtopahf;fk; nra;tjw;F mwpTWj;jy;fs; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
jug;gl;l mwpTWj;jy;fSf;F mika juT Kiwtopahf;fk; nra;ag;gl;l gpd; ntspaPlhff;
ngwg;gLtJ jfty; MFk;. Kiwtopahf;fj;jpd; gpd; ntspaPlhfg; ngwg;gLtJ jftyhf
,Ug;gpDk;> ,Nj jfty; NtnwhU nraYf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ ,J xU juthfNt
mikfpwJ. vdNt> Fwpg;gpl;l nraypy; cs;sPlhfTk; ntspaPlhfTk; miktijf; $u;e;J
Muha;e;J juTk; jftYk; njspthf milahsk; fhzg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
juTk; jftYk;
juT Kiwtopahf;fy; jfty;
juitj; jdpahf vLj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; mjd; gad;ghL mupjhfNt ,Uf;Fk;. juitj;

jftyhf khw;Wtjw;F mjidr; rupahd re;ju;g;gj;jpy; gpuNahfpf;f Ntz;Lk;.
jutpid msTrhu; kw;Wk; gz;Grhu; vd ,uz;L gpupTfshf tifg;gLj;jyhk;. msTrhu; juT

vz;rhu;Gilajhy; mjid vz;Zjy; my;yJ msj;jy; %yk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;. vz;rhu;
jutpid ,yf;fq;fs; %yk; fhl;lg;glf; $bajhf cs;sJld; mtw;iw ,yf;fKiw
tupirg;gLj;jy;fSf;F my;yJ fzpj nraw;ghLfSf;F cl;gLj;jyhk;.
gz;Grhu; juTfis msf;f KbahnjdpDk; mtw;wpd; ,ay;Gfis milahsk; fhzyhk;.
cjhuzk;:
gz;Grhu; juT - xU epWtdj;jpd; ed;kjpg;G

33
msTrhu; juT - ICT tpdhg;gj;jpuj;jpw;Fg; ngwg;gl;l Gs;spfs;
ngWkjp tha;e;j jfty;fs; mtw;wpd; nghUj;jk;> fhyk;> Jy;ypak;> KOik> tpsq;fpf;

nfhs;sf;$bajd;ik Nghd;w gz;Gfisf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ngWkjp tha;e;j jfty;;
kpfr;rupahd jPu;khdq;fis vLg;gjw;F cjTfpd;wJ.
nghUj;jk; - jftypd; ngWkjp Fwpj;j egUf;F mjd; nghUj;jj;jpy; jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
fhyk; - jfty; jw;fhyg;gLj;jg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. gaDs;s jPu;khdq;fis vLg;gjw;F fhyg;

nghUj;jKs;s jfty; ngWkjpkpf;fjhAs;sJ.
Jy;ypak; - rupahd jPu;khdq;fis vLg;gjw;Fj; Jy;ypakhd jfty; cjtpahf mikfpwJ.
KOik - re;ju;g;gj;jpw;F nghUj;jkhd jfty;fis toq;FtJ gpuNahrdkha; miktJld;

KOik ngwhj jfty;fs; jPu;khdq;fis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;Fg; NghJkhdjhf ,Uf;fhJ.
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sf;$baik - jfty; njspthdjhfTk; Fog;gepiyaw;wjhfTk;

,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
jftypd; nghd; tpjpf;fika (Golden Rule) jftypd; ngWkjp mjd; cUthf;fj;;jpd; NghJ
my;yJ ntspaplg;gLk; NghJ cr;r kl;lj;jpy; ,Ug;gij tiuglk; %yk; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
fhyk; nry;yr;nry;y mjd; ngWkjp gbg;gbahff; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ.
ngWkjp
fhyk;
ngupa juTg; gFg;gha;T
jdpahs; epWtfq;fs; kw;Wk; Ma;T epWtfq;fs;> mtw;wpd; gadhspfsJ tpahghu kw;Wk;

r%f Clf ,ilr;nray; juTfis terabytes msTfspy; ftu;fpd;wJ. xUtu; ifahSfpd;w
jutpd; fd msT fhyj;Jld; fw;gid nra;a Kbahjstpw;F gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd
ghupa juTfis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tNj ,d;iwa fhyfl;lj;jpd; rthyhf cs;sJ. ,JNt> juT
tho;f;if tl;l Kfhikj;Jt ghupa juT gFg;gha;tpd; Njitf;Ff; fhuzkhf cs;sJ. ghupa
juT gFg;gha;thdJ gy;NtW %yq;fspypUe;J juT Nrfupf;Fk; tplaj;Jld;
rk;ge;jg;gl;ljhfTk;> gFg;gha;thsu;fspdhy; mjid cs;thq;ff; $ba tifapYk; ,Wjpahf
epWtdj;jpd; juTj; Njitfisg; G+u;j;jp nra;tjw;Fj; juT cw;gj;jpfis toq;ff; $ba
tifapYk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;jyhFk;;.
34
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.2: juTfisAk; jftiyAk; cUthf;fTk;> gug;gTk; kw;Wk; epUtfpf;fTk;
Njitahd njhopy;El;gj;ij tprhupg;ghu;;
ghlNtisfs;:- 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;;:
 ifKiwr; nraw;ghLfspYs;s FiwghLfis tpsf;Fthu;

 ehshe;j tho;tpy; jftypd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpsf;Fthu;
 jfty;; gug;Gjy; rhu;ghff; fpilf;fj;jf;f njhopDl;gq;fisg; gl;baypLthu;
 fzdp tiyaikg;G ,izak; kw;Wk; cyfshtpa tiy vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jpia
tprhupg;ghu;
 nry;yplf; fzpj;jy;> nry;ypl njhlu;ghly; kw;Wk; Nkff; fzpik Nghd;wtw;wpd; tpUj;jpia
tpsf;Fthu;
 juTfisAk; jftiyAk;; cUthf;Fjy;> gug;Gjy;> Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpy;
njhopDl;gj;jpd; gad;ghl;bw;F kjpg;gspg;ghu;
 gy;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy; jfty; gad;ghl;bid mq;fPfupg;ghu;;
 gy;NtW gpuNahfq;fspy; kdpj nraw;ghLfspd; ghJfhg;Gg; gpur;rpidfis tprhupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
 ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; jftypd; gpuNahfk;

o jPu;khdk; vLj;jy;
o nfhs;if tFj;jy;
o vjpu;T $Wjy;
o jpl;lkply;> xOq;FgLj;jy;> Nkw;ghu;it nra;jy;
 juTfisAk; jftiyAk; ifKiwapy; ifahs;tjpy; cs;s FiwghLfs;
o ,irtpd;ikAk; juT ,ul;bg;ghf;fYk;> tO Vw;gLtjw;fhd tha;g;Gf;fs;> khdpltOf;fs;
kw;Wk; Kiwtopahf;fy; jhkjk;
o jfty; gfpu;T gw;whf;FiwAk; jhkjkhd thbf;ifahsu; NritAk;
 kdpj capUf;F Mgj;J Vw;glf; $bathwhd gpuNahf re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ifKiwr;
nraw;ghLfspd; mrhj;jpaj; jd;ik
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gtpay; Afj;jpd; Njhw;wk; (Emergence of ICT Era)
o ifKiw jfty; ifahSjypy; Vw;gLk; gpd;dilTfisr; rPun ; ra;tjw;Fj; jfty;
njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; gad;gLj;jy;
 gy;NtW Ms;jsq;fspypUe;J jftiyg; gad;gLj;jy;;
 jftiy kPsg;ngWjy;> gfpu;e;jspj;jy; vd;gtw;Wld; njhlu;Gila njhopDl;gq;fs;
fpilf;fg;ngwy;
 fzpdp tiyaikg;G> ,izak;> cyfshtpa tiy vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jp
 nry;ypl njhlu;ghly;> nry;ypl fzpj;jy;> Nkff; fzpik vd;gtw;wpd; tpUj;jp
 jPu;khdk; xd;wpd; ngWkjp ,jw;F cjTfpd;w jftypd; jd;ikapy; jq;fpAs;sJ

 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; gpd;dhy; cs;s njhopDl;gk;> jfty; njhopDl;gk; vdTk;> jfty;
Xuplj;jpypUe;J NtnwhU ,lj;jpw;Fg; gug;gg;gLjYld; njhlu;Ggl;l njhopDl;gk;
njhlu;ghly;; njhopDl;gk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. jfty; njhopDl;gk;> njhlu;ghly;;
njhopDl;gk; Mfpa ,uz;Lk; ,ize;J ifKiw juT Kiwtopahf;fy; kw;Wk; juT
gug;Gjy; nraw;ghLfspYs;s gpd;dilTfisf; flg;gjw;F cjTfpd;wd.
 ,izaKk; ,izaj;jpd; NritfSk;
 WWW vd;gJ ,izaj;jpd; xU NritahFk;.
 Nkff; fzpikAk; mjd; NritfSk;
35
 ehshe;j tho;tpy; jftypd; Njit.
 ,izaj;ij tiuaiw nra;aTk;
 ,iza Nritfisg; gl;bayplTk;
 WWWI ,izaj;jpd; Nritnahd;whf mwpKfk; nra;aTk;
 Nkff; fzpikiaAk; mjd; NritfisAk; mwpKfk; nra;aTk;
 Nkff; fzpikAld; njhlu;Gila OneDrive or Google Drive vd;gtw;wpYs;s
Nfhg;Gfis gfpu;e;J nraw;gLtjw;fhd nra;Kiwg; gapw;rp tFg;nghd;iw elj;jTk;
fzpg;gl
 ,j;jiyg;Gld; njhlu;Gila gy;Nju;T kw;Wk; fl;likg;G tpdhf;fis toq;fTk;
 tpsk;gug; gyifapy; fhl;rpg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf ,izak;> WWW> Nkff; fzpik
vd;gtw;iwg; gw;wpa tplaq;fisj; Njb mwpf;if xd;iwj; jahupf;FkhW
khztu;fisf; Nfl;fTk;.
 ,iza mZfy; trjp
 WWW
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
md;whl tho;tpd; jPu;khdq;fis vLg;gjw;Fj; jfty; gpuNahrdkhAs;sJ. jpl;lq;fs;>

ml;ltizfs;> jfty; nfhs;iffs; vd;gd cUthf;Ftjw;Fj; jfty; Njitg;gLfpd;wJ.
,d;iwa jfty; vjpu;fhyk; vt;thW ,Uf;fg; NghfpwJ vd;gij vjpu;T $Wtjw;F cjtpahf
cs;sJ. cjhuzkhf> jw;Nghija ntspehl;L ehza khw;W tPjj; jfty; mLj;j khjj;jpy;
my;yJ mLj;j tUlj;jpy; vt;thW ,Uf;fg; NghfpwJ vd;gij vjpu;T $Wtjw;F cjtpahf
cs;sJ.
juT Kiwtopahf;fiyAk; jfty; cUthf;fiyAk; ifKiwapdhy; Nkw;nfhs;s KbAk;.

,jd; %yk; juT cs;sPL nra;tjw;Fk; xOq;fikg;gjw;Fk; mjpf Neuk; nrythfpd;wJ.
NkYk;> juT Kiwtopahf;fypd; NghJ Vw;gLk; kdpj tOf;fs; gpioahd jftiy
ntspapLtjw;F toptFf;ff;$Lk;. ifKiwapyhd jfty; gupkhw;wk; jpwdw;wjhfTk;> jukhd
Efu;Nthu; Nritapid toq;FtJ rpukkhdjhfTk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ifKiwapy; juT> jfty;
vd;gtw;iwf; ifahSk; NghJ juT Kuz;ghL Vw;glyhk;. juT Kuz;ghL vd;gJ> xNu juT
,U ,lq;fspy; ,UNtW tbtq;fspy; my;yJ ntt;NtW ngWkhdq;fspy; fhzg;gLtjhFk;.
xNu juT ,U Nfhg;Gfspy; fhzg;gLk; NghJ jw;fhyg;gLj;jiy ,yFthf Nkw;nfhs;s
KbahJ.
ifKiw juT Kiwtopahf;fiy tplTk; jhdpaq;F juT Kiwtopahf;fypy;;> Nrkpj;jy;>

Kiwtopahf;fy;> kPsg;ngwy; Nghd;wtw;wpw;Fj; njhopDl;gk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. jhdpaq;F
juT Kiwtopahf;fy; juTfisr; nraw;wpwdha; ifahs;tJld; ifKiw Kiwtopahf;fiy
tplTk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT Fiwe;j kdpj <LghL nfhz;ljhfTk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. rpy ehshe;jg;
gpuNahfq;fshd mtru xypgug;G irif> ghJfhg;G jw;fhyg;gLj;jy;> fhyepiy
mwpTWj;jy;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; ifKiw Kiwtopahf;fiy tplTk; jhdpaq;F juT
Kiwtopahf;fy; rpwg;ghfr; nray;gLfpd;wJ. Nkhrkhd fhyepiy> jPq;fhd fjpupaf;fk; kw;Wk;
rpy tpQ;Qhd my;yJ tpz;ntsp Muha;r;rpfs; kw;Wk; Aj;jg; gpuNjrq;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpy;;
ifKiw Kiwtopahf;fy; rhj;jpakw;Wf; fhzg;gLtJld; jhdpaq;F Kiw capu;fisf;;
fhg;ghw;wf; $batifapYk; mike;Js;sJ. jfty; njhlu;ghly; Afj;jpd; Njhw;wj;Jld;> KO
cyfKk; ru;tNjr fpuhkkhf khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ. Kbtpy;yh ,izg;G> ,iltpidj;;
njhopDl;gq;fs;> jfty; gupkhw;wk; kw;Wk; tiyaikg;gpD}lhd vy;iyaw;w juT mZfy;fs;
Nghd;wtw;wpd; %yk; ifKiw juT ifahs;tjd; gpd;dilTfis ePf;fp Ntfkhd> ,yFthd>
trjpahd kw;Wk; Jy;ypakhd jfty; cUthf;fiyAk; gug;GjiyAk; Nkw;nfhs;sf; $bajha;
cs;sJ. cynfq;FKs;s epWtdq;fspdJk; kf;fspdJk; nray;fspy;> fPNo tpsf;fg;gLfpd;w
njhopDl;g Nkk;ghLila ,izak;> nry;ypl njhlu;ghly;> nry;yplf; fzpik kw;Wk; Nkff;
fzpik vd;gtw;iw cs;slf;fpr; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;jf;$ba xU Kf;fpa fUtpahf ICT
Njhd;wpAs;sJ.
36
,izak;
,izak; vd;gJ VjhtnjhU tiyaikg;gpd; gadu;fs;> jdf;F mDkjp ,Ug;gpd;> NtnwhU

tiyaikg;gpypUe;J jfty; ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; tiyaikg;Gfspd; tiyaikg;G vd
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. If;fpa mnkhpf;fhtpd; ghJfhg;Gj; jpizf;fsk;> ARPANET vDk;
tiyaikg;gpD}lhf ,izaj;jpw;fhd mbj;jsj;ij Muk;gpj;jJ. ,Ug;gpDk; cyfshtpa
tiy (World Wide Web) 1990 fspd; Muk;gfhyj;jpy; mgptpUj;jp milAk; tiu nghJkf;fs;
,izaj;ij mjpfstpy; gad;gLj;jtpy;iy.
1957 y; If;fpa mnkhpf;f murhq;f ghJfhg;Gj; jpizf;fsj;jpd; xU gFjpapD}lhf Advanced

Research Projects Agency (ARPA) vDk; nraw;jpl;lj;ij cUthf;fp> tpQ;Qhdk; kw;Wk;
njhopDl;gk; vd;gtw;wpy; ,uhZt gpuNahfq;fs; nfhz;Ltug;gLtij mnkupf;f
jiyikj;Jtj;jpw;F cWjpaspf;fg;gl;lJ. 1969 (ARPA) ,izaj;jpd; Kd;Ndhbahd
ARPANET I epWtpaJ. ARPANET vDk; tiyaikg;G Kjypy; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYs;s
gpujhd fzpdpfis ,izaj;jJld; ,izj;Jf;nfhz;lJld;> Vida fy;tp kw;Wk; Muha;r;rp
epWtfq;fisg; gpd;du; ,izj;Jf; nfhz;lJ.
mZFz;Lj; jhf;Fjy; mr;RWj;jYf;Fg; gjpyspf;Fk; tifapy; xd;Nwh my;yJ gy

jsq;fNsh Nrjg;gLj;jg;gl;lhYk; njhlu;rr
; pahd njhlu;ghliy Nkw;nfhs;sf;$ba tifapy;
ARPANET tbtikf;fgl;lJ. ARPANET Muk;gj;jpy; fzpdp njhopy; ty;Ydu;fs;>
nghwpapayhsu;fs;> tpQ;Qhdpfs; Nghd;Nwhupd; rpf;fyhd NtiyfSf;F cjTk; tifapy;
,Ue;jJ. ,izakhdJ ,d;W nghJthd> $l;LwT kw;Wk; jdpj;jpaq;ff; $ba trjpfis
cyfshtpa uPjpapy; kpy;ypad; mstpyhd kf;fs; mZff; $ba tifapy; mike;Js;sJ.
ngsjPf uPjpahf> nghJj; njhlu;ghly; tiyaikg;gpy; ,Uf;Fk; nkhj;j tsq;fspy;
xUgFjpia ,izak; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. ,izak; TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) vDk; newpKiwj; njhFjpnahd;iwg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. newpKiw vd;gJ
tiyaikg;GfspD}lhfj; jfty; gupkhw;wYf;F Vw;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s cld;gbf;if my;yJ rl;lk;
MFk;. TCP vd;gJ ek;gfkhd gupkhw;wy; newpKiwahFk;.
cyfshtpa tiy (WWW)> Nfhg;G gupkhw;wk; (FTP)> kpd;dQ;ry;> fhndhsp khehL> Telnet>
Nfhg;Gg; gfpu;T> ,iza ,iltpid Gupjy;> ,iza njhiyNgrp (IPTP) kw;Wk; ,iza
njhiyf;fhl;rp (IPTV) vd;gdTk; ,izaj;jpdhy; toq;fg;gLk; NritfshFk;. fbj
jghy;Kiw kpd;dQ;rypdhy; gjpyPL nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) ,idg;
gad;gLj;jp xU fzpdpapypUe;J kw;wf; fzpdpAld; epfo;Neu thrf ,iltpid Gupa
KbtJld;> mz;ikf;fhy td;nghUs; kw;Wk; nkd;nghUs;; vd;gd ,iza
njhiyNgrpf;fhd epfo;Neu ciuahly;fis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;F trjpaspf;fpd;wJ. fhnzhsp
khehL njhopDl;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp epfo;Neu fhnzhsp Nghd;wtw;iw tiyaikg;gpd;
Clhfg; gupkhw;wQ; nra;ayhk;. gadu; tpUk;Gk; Neuj;jpy; tpUk;gpa ,lj;jpypUe;J ,izaj;jpy;
tpepNahfpf;fg;gl;Ls;s tiyg;gf;fq;fisg; ghu;g;gjw;Fk;> Njl tpUk;Gk; jftiy miltjw;Fk;
cyfshtpa tiy trjpaspf;fpd;wJ. mNjNghd;W> Nfhg;G gupkhw;wk; ,izaj;jpD}lhff;
Nfhg;Gfisg; gupkhWtjw;Fk;> Telnet njhiy mZfYf;Fk; trjpaspf;fpd;wJ.
cyfshtpa tiy
cyfshtpa tiy 1991 ,y; mwpKfkhdJ. bk; ghd]; yP vd;gtu; cyfshtpa tiyia
tpUj;jpnra;jJld;> ,tNu tiy njhopDl;g epakq;fis Nkw;ghu;it nra;Ak; njhopw;Wiw
gpujpepjpfspd; xU FOthd> cyfshtpa tiy (W3C), $l;likg;igAk; topelj;Jfpd;whu;.
HTTP vdg;gLtJ cyfshtpa tiyapd; Nfhg;Gfisg; (thrfk;> tiutpay; cUf;fs;> xyp>

fhnzhsp kw;Wk; gy;Y}lff; Nfhg;Gfs;) gupkhWtjw;fhd xU njhFjp epajpahFk;. kPthrfk;
vdg;gLtJ tiyg;gf;fj;jpd; cs;slf;fq;fis cUthf;ff;$ba MtzkhfTk;
kP,izg;GfspD}lhf kPthrf Mtzq;fis ,izf;ff; $bajhfTk; cs;sJ. tiyapYs;s
Nfhg;Gfisg; ghu;itapLtjw;F tiy NkNyhb nkd;nghUnshd;W mtrpakhFk;. ,e;j
nkd;nghUs; tiyg;gf;fq;fspd; gy;NtW Mtzq;fisg; ghu;itapLtjw;Fg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. tiyj;jsk; vdg;gLtJ tiyg;gf;fk; xd;iw my;yJ gytw;iwf;
37
nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. tiyj;jsj;jpd; Kjy; gf;fk; Kfg;Gg; gf;fk; vdg;gLfpwJ. xt;nthU
tiyj;jsj;jpw;Fk; rPui
; k ts ,Ug;gplq;fhl;b vdg;gLk; jdpj;Jtkhd Kftup xd;W cs;sJ.
,J rPui
; k ts ,Ug;gplq;fhl;b(URL) vdg;gLfpwJ.
nry;yplj; njhlu;ghlYk; nry;yplf; fzpikAk;
nry;yplj; njhlu;ghlyhdJ tlq;fy;> Nfgy;fs; my;yJ Ntnwt;tpj kpd;flj;jpfspdJk;

cjtpapd;wp xU njhiytpw;F jfty; gupkhw;wj;jpidr; nra;tjpy; gq;F nfhs;fpd;wJ. Muk;g
fl;lj;jpy; xU Nrhb gadu;fSf;fpilapy; jdptopr; Nrhb nry;ypl njhlu;ghly; nra;af;
$bathW tiuaWf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ. gy gadu;fSf;F ,lkspf;Fk; tifapy; Neug; gpupT gy;
mZfy; (TDMA)> Fwpg;gpupT gy; mZfy; (CDMA), mjpu;ntz; gpupT gy; mZfy; (FDMA)
kw;Wk; ,tw;wpd; fyg;G Kiw vd;gd gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
nry;yplj; njhlu;ghly; vd;gJ epiyahd ngsjpfj; njhlu;gpd; %yk; ,izf;fg;glhj>

fzpdpA+lhf my;yJ NtW tlkpy;yh ,izg;G ,aYikg; gLj;jg;gl;l rhjd%lhfj; juT>
Fuy; kw;Wk; fhnzhsp vd;gtw;iwg; gupkhw;wk; nra;tjw;F trjpaspf;Fk; xU
njhopDl;gkhFk;;.
Nkff; fzpik
Nkfk; vDk; gjk; xU tiyaikg;ig my;yJ ,izaj;ijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. xU Nkfk;

njhiytplk; xd;wpypUe;J tiyaikg;gpd; Clhf Nrit toq;Ffpd;wJ. kpd;dQ;ry;> tiy
khehL> Efu;Nthu; cwTKiw Kfhikj;Jtk; (CRM) Nghd;w gpuNahfq;fs; Nkfj;jpy;
nray;gLfpd;wd. Nkff; fzpik vd;gJ Fwpj;j gpuNahfq;fis Neuiyapy; mZfy;>
ifahSjy; kw;Wk; tbtikj;jy; vd;gtw;iwf; fhl;LfpwJ. Neuiyj; juT Nrkpg;G>
cl;fl;likg;G kw;Wk; gpuNahfq;fs; vd;gtw;iw toq;Ffpd;wJ. Nkff; fzpik gad;ghLfshf
gpuNahfq;fis ,izak; %yk; toq;Ffpd;wJ.
Nkff; fzpik mbg;gil Nkw;Nfhs; khjpupfs; gy fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,it %d;W mbg;gil

Nrit khjpupfshff; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
1. cl;fl;likg;G Nritnahd;whf (IaaS) – mbg;gil tsq;fshd ngsjPf ,ae;jpuq;fs;>

nka;epfu; ,ae;jpuq;fs;> nka;epfu; Nrkpg;gfk; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhd mZfiy toq;FfpwJ.
cjhuzk;- Efu;Nthu; cwTKiw Kfhikj;Jtk;> tpisahl;Lf;fs;> nka;epfu; Nkirg;

gpuNahfq;fs;
2. Nritj; jskhf(PaaS) - gpuNahfq;fs;> mgptpUj;jp kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jy; fUtpfs;

,af;fepiyr; #oiy toq;FfpwJ.
cjhuzk; - juTj;jsk;> tiyr; Nritafk;> gad;gLj;jy; fUtpfs; Nghd;wd
3. nkd;nghUs; Nritnahd;whf – kWKidg; gadUf;F nkd;nghUisr;

Nritnahd;whfg; gad;gLj;j trjpaspf;fpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; - nka;epfu; ,ae;jpuq;fs;> Nritafq;fs;> Nrkpg;gfq;fs;> tiyaikg;Gfs;
38
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.3: jfty; cUthf;fj;jpw;F xU fUj;JU khjphpia cUthf;FtJld; jfty;
njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;Jld;; mjw;fhd ,zf;fg; ghl;il kjpg;gLP nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;:- 02
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 jftypd; fUj;jpay; khjpup cUthf;fk; (Abstract Model of Information creation)

 cs;sPL (Input)> nray;Kiw (Process)> ntspaPL (Output)
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpw;Fk; fzpdpf;Fkhd mjd; nghUj;jg;ghL;
 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay; khjpupapd; $Wfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
 Kiwiknahd;iw tiuaWg;ghu;
 Kiwikf;fhd tiuaiwiag; gad;gLj;jpg; gy;NtW Kiwikfisg; gFg;gha;thu;
 fUj;jpay; khjpupapidj; jfty; KiwikfSld; njhlu;G gLj;Jthu;
 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay; khjpupiaf; fzpdpapd; gpujhd nraw;ghLfSld;
xg;gpLthu;
 jfty; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;jpay; khjpupapy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gtpaypd;
gq;fspg;ig mq;fPfupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
o jfty; cUthf;fjjpd;; fUj;jpay; khjpup (Abstract Model of Information creation)
o cs;sPL > nray;Kiw > ntspaPL
o fzpdpf;Fk; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpw;Fk; mjd; nghUj;jg;ghL
vz;zf;fUf;fSk; Kjd;ikg; gjq;fSk;:;:
 Kiwik vz;zf;fU
 fzpdp xU Kiwikahf
 Kiwik xd;iw tiuaWf;fTk;
 jftypd; fUj;jpay; khjpup mwpKfk;
 fzpdp xU Kiwikahf mwpKfk; nra;J jfty; fUj;jpay; khjpupAld; njhlu;Gila
fzpdp Kiwikapd; nraw;ghLfis xg;gpLthu;
fzpg;gl
,j;jiyg;Gld; njhlu;Gila gy;Nju;T kw;Wk; fl;likg;G tpdhf;fis toq;fTk;;
fzpdpfs;> Kd;itg;Gfs;
39
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
xU KiwikahdJ xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;G gLj;jg;gl;l gy $Wfs; nghJthd xU ,yf;if

milAk; nghUl;L xd;wpize;J nraw;gLtjhFk; vd tiuaiwg; gLj;jyhk;. xU Kiwik
cs;sPL> Kiwtopahf;fk;> ntspaPL vd;gtw;iwf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,jw;F cjhuzkhf xU
ghlrhiy> xU thfdk; my;yJ xU Jtpr;rf;fu tz;bia mwpKfk; nra;ayhk;. xU
KiwikahdJ (xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;G gLj;jg;gl;l $Wfisf;) gy cg Kiwikfisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. xU Kiwikapid cs;sPL> ntspaPL> cgKiwikfs; kw;Wk; ,it
xt;nthd;wpdJk; jdpj;jdp nraw;ghLfs; vd;gtw;iw milahsk; fhzf;$ba tifapy;
gFg;gha;T nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. jfty; Kiwiknahd;wpy; Kiwikf;F toq;fg;gLfpd;w juT
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s mwpTWj;jy;fSf;F mika Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L
ntspaPlhfj; jfty; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
juT Kiwtopahf;fk; jfty;
cs;sPL ntspaPL
jftypd; fUj;jpay; khjpup
,yf;fKiwf; fzpdpnahd;W fPo;tUk; Ie;J nray;fis Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ:
1. cs;sPlhfj; juitg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;fpd;wJ.

2. ngw;Wf; nfhz;l juT kw;Wk; mwpTWj;jy;fs; vd;gtw;iw mjd; epidtfj;jpy; itj;Jf;
nfhz;L Njitf;Nfw;gg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
3. juTfis Kiwtopg;gLj;jp gpuNahrdKs;s jftyhf khw;Wfpd;wJ.
4. ntspaPl;il cUthf;FfpwJ.
5. NkYs;s ehd;F gbKiwfisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd; juT cs;sPL> juT Kiwtopahf;fj;jpd; %yk; jftiy

ntspaPlhfg; ngw;Wj;juy;> Nghd;wit fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd; mbg;gilr;
nraw;ghLfshff; fhzg;gL;fpd;w NghJk; fUj;jpay; jfty;; khjpupapy; ,J Nkd;ikaile;J
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
40
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.4 fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd; mbg;gilf; $Wfisj; njupT nra;J
tifg;gLj;Jthu;
ghlNtisfs;:- 02
fw;wy; NgWfs; :
 td;nghUs; nkd;nghUs; $Wfis tiuaiw nra;tJld; tifg;gLj;Jthu;;

 jdpAupik kw;Wk; jpwe;j %y nkd;nghUl;fis NtWgLj;Jthu;
 jdpAupik nkd;nghUs;fspdJk;; (Proprietary Software) jpwe;j %y nkd;nghUl;;fspdJk;
(Open Source Software) mD$yq;fisAk; gpujp$yq;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd; nraw;ghl;Lld; $ba jfty; Kiwiknahd;wpd; kdpj
nraw;gLeu;fspd; tfpghfj;jpid ,dq;fhz;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
 td;nghUs;
o td;nghUs;; $Wfis tifg;gLj;jy;
 nkd;nghUs;
o nkd;nghUs;; $Wfis tifg;gLj;jy;
 kdpj nraw;gLeu;fs;
o jfty; Kiwiknahd;wpy; kdpj nraw;gLeu;fspd; mtrpak;
 td;nghUl;fs; ngsjPff; $WfshfTk;> nkd;nghUl;fs; fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd;
td;nghUl;;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; mwpTWj;jy;fshfTk;
 jpwe;j %y nkd;nghUl;fis cgNahfpj;jypd; Kf;fpaj;JtKk;> mtw;wpd; ghtid
njhFj;jy; kPs;tpepNahfk; vd;gdtw;wpd; Rje;jpuKk;

 td;nghUis tiuaiw nra;jy;
 td;nghUis tifg;gLj;jy;
 td;nghUs; rhjdq;fis milahsq; fhZjy;
 nkd;nghUis tiuaiw nra;jy;
 nkd;nghUis tifg;gLj;jy;
fzpg;gl
 fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpd; $Wfis tifg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd xg;gilnahd;iw
toq;fTk;.
 tFg;G khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J td;nghUs; rhjdq;fisg; gw;wp
Kd;itg;nghd;wpidj; jahupj;J mjidf; Fwpg;gpl;l xU jpdj;jpy; rku;gg
; pf;fr; nra;aTk;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware
41
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
fzpdp KiwikahdJ gpujhdkhf td;nghUs; (Hardware)> nkd;nghUs; (Software)>

epiynghUs; (Firmware) kw;Wk; caph;nghUs; (Liveware) vDk; ehd;F $Wfisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
fzpdp td;nghUs;
fzpdpf; $Wfs; cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;> ntspaPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;> Kiwtopahf;fpr; rhjdq;fs;>

tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; epidtfr; rhjdq;fs;; vd tifg; gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jw;F
Nkyjpfkhff; fzpdpapd; cs;Ns mike;jpUf;Fk; midj;Jr; rhjdq;fisAk; xd;wpizf;Fk;
trjpAld; $ba Rw;Wg;gyifahdJ fzpdpapd; jha;g;gyif vdg;gLk;.
cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;
fzpdpf;Fj; juTfis cl;nrYj;Jtjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w rhjdq;fs; cs;sPl;Lr;

rhjdq;fs; MFk;. cjhuzkhfr; Rl;b> jlg;ge;J> Trackball, ,af;fg;gpb> njhLjpiu>
xspg;Ngid (Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, Touch pad, Touch screen and Light pen) Nghd;wit
fUjg;gLfpd;wd. ,it jpiuapy; Rl;b gl%yq;fisj; njupT nra;tJld; njhlu;Gilait.
fzpdpf;Fj; juTfis cl;nrYj;Jtjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w nghJthdJk;

gpugy;akhdJkhd cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdk; tpirg;gyifahFk;. tpirg;gyifapd; jsf;Nfhyk;>
mNefkhf kuG uPjpahd jl;lr;Rg; gyififf;F xj;jjhfTk; Nkyjpf nraw;ghLfSf;Fj;
Njitahd rpy rhtpfisAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. tUb vd;Dk; cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdk; juT
%yj;jpypUe;J gbkq;fisf; ftu;T nra;J mjid ,yf;fKiw tbtpw;F khw;wp;r;
Nrkpf;ff;$ba rhjdkhFk;. ,g;gbkq;fis mr;rpLtjw;F Kd;> gjpg;Gfis Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
EZf;Fg;gd;dp (Microphone) Xypia cs;sPL nra;J ,yf;fKiw tbtpy; Nrkpf;ff;$baJ.
NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l rhjdq;fSf;F Nkyjpfkhff; fhe;j ik vOj;JU thrpg;ghd (MICR)>
xspapay; vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (OCR) Nghd;wtw;iwAk; cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fshff; fUjyhk;.
ntspaPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;
fzpdp KiwikapypUe;J jfty;fis ntspaPL nra;tjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w

rhjdq;fshFk;. fl;Gyf; fhl;rp myF vdg; nghJthf miof;fg;Lk;.
fzpdpj; jpiu
fzpdpapd; gpujhdkhd ntspaPl;Lr; rhjdkhFk;. nrt;tf tbtpy; xOq;Fg;gLj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;

gl%yq;fs; vdg;gLk; rpwpa Gs;spfspypUe;J gbkq;fis mikf;fpd;wJ. gbkj;jpd; gpupjpwd;
gl%yq;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
fNjhl;L fjpu; Foha; kw;Wk; kl;lg; gyiff; fhl;rp Mfpa ,U tifahd jpiufs; fzpdpj;
jpiuahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. kl;lg; gyiff; fhl;rp fPOs;sthW ,uz;lhfg;
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
xsp fhYk; ,Utha; (LED) - ,it ntspg;ghl;Lf; fhl;rpfSila (emissive displays)

kpd;rf;jpia xspahf khw;wp ntspg;gLj;Jk; fhl;rpj; jpiufs; MFk;.
jputg;gspq;F fzpdpj;jpiu (LCD) - ,it ntspg;ghl;Lf; fhl;rpfsw;w (non-emissive displays)

xspapay; tpisTfisg; gad;gLj;jp xspia tiuapay; tbtq;fSf;F khw;wp mikf;Fk;.
mr;Rg;nghwp
xU ntspaPl;Lf; fUtpahFk;. jfty;fisf; fljhrpapy; mr;rpl;L td;gpujpahfg; ngw;Wf;

nfhs;tjw;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ. mr;R ,ae;jpuq;fs; ,U tifg;gLk;.
jhf;f mOj;j mr;Rg;nghwp; - vOj;JUf;fs; ehlhitj; njhl;L fljhrpapy; gLtjd; %yk;

mr;rplg;gLfpd;wd. Gs;sp mikTU mr;Rg;nghwp ,jw;F cjhuzkhFk;.
42
jhf;f mOj;jkw;w mr;Rg;nghwp - ,t;tif mr;Rg;nghwpfs; ngsjPfstpy; fljhrpiaj;
njhLtjpy;iy. ,it xU jlitapy; KOg;gf;fnkhd;iw mr;rpLgit. vdNt> ,it gf;f
mr;Rg;nghwpfs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Nyru; mr;Rg;nghwpfs;> ik tPr;R mr;Rg;nghwpfs;
vd;gd ,t;tiff;F cjhuzq;fshFk;.
epidtfr; rhjdq;fs;
juTfisAk; mwpTWj;jy;fisAk; Nrkpg;gjw;F epidtfk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. fzpdp

Kiwikapy; Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;F cl;gLfpd;w juTfisAk; Kiwtopg;gLj;Jtjw;Fj;
Njitahd mwpTWj;jy;fisAk; itj;jpUf;Fk; Nrkpg;G ,lkhff; fzpdp epidtfk; cs;sJ.
epidtfk; mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd fyk; vdg;gLk; rpwpa gFjpfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,t;thW gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;s xt;nthU gFjpf;Fk; my;yJ fyj;jpw;Fk; jdpahd Kftupnahd;W
cs;sJ.
epidtfk; %d;W tifahf tFf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ:
1. gJf;F epidtfk; - gJf;F epidtfk; kpf mjpf Ntfkhd Fiwflj;jp

epidtfkhFk;. ,J kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpd; nray;gL Ntfj;ij mjpfupf;fty;yJ.
,J kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpw;Fk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy; Njf;ffkhfr;
nray;gLfpwJ.
2. Kjd;ik my;yJ gpujhd epidtfk; - gpujhd epidtfkhdJ jw;NghJ fzpdp
,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd juTfisAk; mwpTWj;jy;fisAk; khj;jpuk;;
itj;jpUf;Fk;. tiwaWf;fg;gl;l nfhs;ssT nfhz;l ,e;epidtfk; kpd;rhu Jz;bg;G
Vw;gLk;NghJ mjd; juTfis ,oe;JtpLk;.
3. ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfk; - ,t;tif epidtfk; Gw epidtfk; my;yJ epiyahd
epidtfk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. gpujhd epidtfj;ij tplTk; Ntfk; Fiwe;jJ.
juT jfty; vd;gtw;iw epiyahfr; Nrkpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Kiwtopahf;fr; rhjdq;fs;
kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfhdJ fzpdpapy; fhzg;gLk; gpugy;akhd Kiwtopahf;Fk;

rhjdkhFk;. ,J fzpdpapy; fhzg;gLk; kw;iwa rhjdq;fspidf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
fzpjuPjpapyhdJk; ju;f;fuPjpapyhdJkhd nraw;ghLfs; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpdpy; (CPU)
cs;NsNa Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. glKiwtopahf;Fk; myfhdJ (GPU) xU jdpr;rpwg;ghd
,yj;jpudpay; Rw;W ,J epidtfj;jpid Kfhiknra;J glq;fspidj; njuptpg;gpapy;
fhl;rpg;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpd;wJ. GPU MdJ ,ize;j KiwikfspYk;> jdpahy; fzpdpfspYk;
workstations kw;Wk; game consoles vd;gdtw;wpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;
fzpdp tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; ngsjPftpay; rhjdq;fshFk;. ,it fzpdp tiyaikg;gpy;

fhzg;gLk; rhjdq;fSf;fpilapy; njhlu;ghlYf;fhfTk; juT gupkhWtjw;fhfTk; gad;gLk;
rhjdq;fspid tiff;Fwpf;fpd;wd. rpwg;ghf ,it juTfisj; njhlu;G gLj;Jk; Clfkhff;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;:- Ftpad;> Mspfs;> topg;gLj;jp> Eiothapy;> tiyaikg;G ,ilKf ml;il
fzpdp nkd;nghUs;fs;
fzpdp nkd;nghUs;> Kiwik nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; gpuNahf nkd;nghUs; vd

tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. fzpdpapd; ghfq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;Fkhf
cUthf;fg;gl;l nkd;nghUs;> Kiwik nkd;nghUs; MFk;. ,J gpuNahf nkd;nghUs;
,aq;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd jsj;jpidAk; jUfpd;wJ. Kiwik nkd;nghUshdJ fPo;
fhzg;gLk; %d;W gFjpfshf tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
1. ,af;fKiwik :- Windows, Linux, MacOS

2. gad;ghl;L nkd;nghUs; :- Virus Guard, Device drivers
3. nkhop ngau;g;gpfs;. :- Compiler, Interpreter
43
gpuNahf nkd;nghUs;fs; Fwpj;j Njitapid jpUg;jpg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. ,J rhjhuz xU vspa nray;epuyhfTk; fhzg;glyhk;> Microsoft's notepad
MdJ vspa vOj;JUf;fis cUthf;fTk; khw;wTk; cjTfpd;wJ. ,J gy njhFf;fg;gl;l
epfo;r;rpepuy;fisf; nfhz;ljhfTk; fhzg;glyhk; ,J nkd;nghUs; nghjpfs; vd
miof;fg;gLk;;. ,J Fwpj;j xU gzpapid Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf cUthf;fgl;bUf;fyhk;.
nkd;nghUl;fs; jpwe;j %ynkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; cupikAs;s nkd;nghUs; vd

tifg;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
jpwe;j %y nkd;nghUl;fs; - %y epuy;fs; ghu;g;gjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; KbtJld;

,jid ,ytrkhfTk; gad;gLj;jyhk;
cupikAs;s nkd;nghUl;fs; - %y epuy;fisg; ghu;g;gjw;Nfh gad;gLj;jNth KbahJ. ,jid

gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ Fwpj;j nkd;nghUspd; cupikahsupd; mDkjpapidg; ngw;wpUf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
epiynghUs;
xU td;nghUs; rhjdj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;Lf; fhzg;gLk; nkd;nghUs; epiynghUs; MFk;.

,J td;nghUl;fSf;F mj;jpatrpakhd xd;whFk;. ,it cl;nghjpe;j nkd;nghUl;fs; vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. fzpdp epiynghUshdJ thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfj;jpy; cl;nghjpag;gl;L
fzpdp Muk;gpg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd mwpTWj;jy;fis toq;Ffpd;wJ.
capu;nghUs;
,J fzpdpapidg; gad;gLj;Jk; gadu;fs; njhlu;ghdJ. gadupd; fl;lisfSf;F Vw;g fzpdp

,aq;Ffpd;wJ.
44
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.5: juT Kiwtopahf;fypd; nraw;ghLfisg; gFg;gha;T nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;:- 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 juT Kiwtopahf;fy; gbKiwfisg; gl;baw;gLj;jpr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;

 juT Nrfupj;jy; Kiwfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 juT nry;Ygbahf;Fk;; Kiwfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 juT cs;sPl;L Kiwfisg; gl;baypLthu;
 juT nray; Kiwtopahf;fy; Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
 ntspaPl;L Kiwfisg; gl;baypLthu;
 juT Nrkpg;G Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
 juT Kiwtopahf;fy; gbKiwfs;

o juT Nrfupj;jy;; (Data Gathering )
o juT nry;Ygbahf;fy; (Data Validation)
o juT nray;Kiw topahf;fy;
o juT ntspaP;L
o juT Nrkpg;G(Storage)
 juT Nrfupf;Fk; Kiwfs; (Data Gathering Method)
o ifKiw (Manual)
o miu jd;dpaf;f KiwfSk; jd;dpaf;f KiwfSk; (Automated)
 fUtpfs;:
o xspapay; Fwp thrpg;ghd; (OMR), xspapay; vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (OCR), fhe;j ik
vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (MICR), rpd;dk;(Badge)/ml;ilfhe;jehlh(Tape)/fhe;jg;gl;b
thrpg;ghd; (Magnetic Strip Readers), czu;tpfs; (Sensors) kw;Wk; Eiothd;fs; (Loggers)
 juT nry;Ygbahf;Fk; Kiw (Data Validation Methods)
o juT tif rupghu;j;jy; (Type Check)>
o tuT/tO rupghu;j;jy; (Presence/ Error Check)>
o tPr;irr; rupghu;j;jy; (Range Check)
 juT cs;sPL nra;Ak; tpjq;fs;
o Neubahd kw;Wk; njhiytpyhd ((Direct and Remote)
o njhluwh epiy> njhluW epiy(Online and Offline)
 juT nray; Kiwtopahf;fy; (Data Processing)
 njhFjpthup kw;Wk; epfo;Neu (Batch and Realtime)
 ntspaPl;L Kiwfs; (Output Methods)
o Neubahfg; gadUf;F toq;fy;
o Nkyjpf Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;Fr; Nrkpj;jy;
 Nrkpg;G Kiwfs; (Storage Methods)
o cs;sf kw;Wk; njhiythd (remote- (Cloud-Nkf)) Nrkpj;jy;
o FWfpafhy> ePz;lfhy Nrkpj;jy;
 juT Kiwtopahf;fy; Row;rp

 ifKiwj; juT Nrfupj;jy; Kiwfs; xt;nthd;wpdJk; mD$yq;fs;
 jd;dpaf;f juT Nrfupj;jy; Kiwfspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;.
 Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;F Kd; juT nry;Ygbapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
45
 xt;nthU juT Nrfupj;jy; KiwapdJk; mD$yq;fSk; gpujp$yq;fSk;.

fzpg;gl
 njhFjp Kiwtopahf;fy; kw;Wk; epfo;Neu Kiwtopahf;fy; vd;gdtw;wpw;F

cjhuzq;fisf; fz;lwpar; nra;aTk;.
o juT Nrfupg;Gf; fUtpfs; (xspapay; Fwp thrpg;ghd; (OMR), xspapay; vOj;JU

thrpg;ghd; (OCR), fhe;j ik vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (MICR), rpd;dk; (Badge)/ml;il
fhe;jehlh (Tape) Nghd;wit)
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
juT Kiwtopahf;fy; gbKiwfs; juT Nrfupj;jy;; (Data Gathering)> juT nry;Ygbahf;fy;
(Data Validation)> juT Kiwtopahf;fy;> juT ntspaPL> juT Nrkpg;G(Storage) vd;git MFk;.
juT Nrfupj;jy;.
juT Nrfupj;jy; KiwahdJ ifKiw (Manual)> miu jd;dpaf;f Kiw> jd;dpaf;f Kiw
vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
Neu;fhzy;> tpdhTjy;> mtjhdpj;jy; vd;gd ifKiw juTNrfupj;jy; KiwahFk;.

Neu;fhzypidg; gad;gLj;jy;> tpdhTjypdhy; fpilj;j tpilfs; vd;gd jPu;khdk; vLg;gjw;F
,yFthff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mj;Jld; jFjpahd jutpidAk; ngwf;$bajhf cs;sJ.
tpdhTjy; KiwahdJ kpf tpiuthd Kiwahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J vz;zpf;if
mbg;gilapyhd juTfisr; Nrfupg;gjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdjhfTk; ek;gpf;ifahdjhfTk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
miu jd;dpaf;f KiwfspYk; jd;dpaf;f KiwfspYk; OMR, OCR, MICR, card/tape readers,
magnetic strip readers, bar code readers, sensors vd;gd gpugy;akhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
xspapay; Fwp thrpg;ghd; (OMR ) MdJ ngd;rpypdhy; milahsk; ,lg;gl;l ,lj;jpid>
,jw;F vdr; rpwg;ghf tbtikf;fg;gl;l tbtj;jpw;F vw;wthW Nfhg;Gfspy; ,Ue;J tULk;.
,J gy;Nju;T tpdhj;jhs;fspd; Gs;spaplYf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w gpugy;akhd xU
KiwahFk;.
xspapay; vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (OCR) MdJ mr;rplg;gl;l vOj;Jf;fis tULtJld;

vOj;JUf;fisg; gjpg;gpf;f$ba(Editing) tifapy; khw;wTk; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
fhe;j ik vOj;JU thrpg;ghd; (MICR) MdJ fhNrhiyfspy; rpwg;ghf fhzg;gLk;

fhe;jkakhf;fg;gl;l vOj;Jf;fis cs;sPl;L juthfg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
fhe;jg;gl;b thrpg;ghd; (Magnetic strip readers) MdJ fld; ml;ilfspYk; tq;fp ATM
ml;ilfspYk; fhzg;gLk; fhe;jg;gl;bapy; fhzg;gLk; juTfis thrpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLk;
gl;ilf;Fwp thrpg;ghd; (Bar code readers) MdJ ghu;f;ff;$ba xspapid gad;gLj;jpg; gl;ilf;
Fwpapid tUb thrpj;J mjpy; fhzg;gLk; juTfisf; fzpdp Kiwikf;Fs; cs;spLtjw;Fg;
gad;gLk;.
czu;tpfs; MdJ ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; juTfis tpiuthfr; Nrfupg;gjw;F

cjTfpd;wd. czup tiyaikg;Gf;fs; ntt;NtW tpjkhd ,yj;jpudpay; czupfisf;
nfhz;Ls;sd. fk;gpapy;yh tiyaikg;gpd; xt;nthU KidAk; Ez;fl;Lg;gLj;jp> fk;gpapy;yhg;
46
gupkhw;Wg; ngWtp> rf;jp %yk; vd;gtw;wpw;F Nkyjpfkhf xd;W my;yJ xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l
czupfisAk; nfhz;Ls;sd.
juT nry;Ygbahf;Fk; Kiw
juT tif rupghu;j;jy; (Data type check) – rupahd juTtif (numeric/text/date/currency etc.)
Kiwikf;F cs;sPL nra;agl;Ls;sjh vd;gijr; rupghu;f;Fk;.
tuT/tO rupghu;j;jy; (Presence check) – juT fpilf;fg;ngWjiyr; rupghu;f;fpd;wJ. Kf;fpakhd

juT cs;splg;gly; Kf;fpakhFk;. (cjhuzk;: ntWikahff; fhzg;glhkia cWjpnra;jy;)
tPr;irr; rupghu;j;jy; (Range check) – juthdJ Fwpj;j tPrr

; pDs; fhzg;gLtjpid cWjpnra;jy;
( cjhuzk;:- Gs;spfs; 0 ,w;Fk; 100 ,w;Fk; ,ilapy; ,Ug;gij cWjp nra;jy;). ,J
ngUk;ghYk; vz;fs;> jpfjp / Neuk;> ehzak; vd;gdtw;wpw;F kpfg;nghUj;jkhdJ.
juT cs;sPL nra;Ak; tpjq;fs;

Neubahd kw;Wk; njhiytpyhd (Direct and remote )- Neub juT cs;sPl;by;> juthdJ
Neubahfg; gadu; jiyaPL ,d;wp> Kiwikapy; Neubahf cs;sPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
njhiytpyhd juT cs;sPl;by;> KiwikahdJ juTfis Nrkpf;ff;$bathW rpwg;ghf
tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. juT Nrkpj;jYk; khw;wL
P k; Ntt;NtW Gtpapay; ,lq;fspy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
njhluwh epiyAk; njhluW epiyAk; (Online and offline) – njhluwh juT cs;sPl;L juT
cs;spLk; NtisapNyNa mjd; gupkhw;wKk; eilngWk;. njhluW epiyapy; juthdJ
ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy; epfOk; NghJ ,J Fwpj;j xU Neuj;jpy; xU njhFjpahfg; gupkhw;wk;
nra;Ak;.
juT Kiwtopahf;fy;
juT cs;sPL kw;Wk; juT Kiwtopahf;fy; vd;gd xU njhFjpahfj; njhFjpthup

Kiwtopahf;fj;jpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;. ,J ghupa vz;zpf;fifapyhd juTfisf;
ifahs;tjw;F ,yFthdjhFk;. MfNt juthdJ> Kiwik njhluwh epiyf;F tUk;
tiuf;Fk; Kiwtopg;gLj;Jtjw;fhfr; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;. njhFjpthupapyhd Kiwtopahf;fk; billing
Kiwik payroll vd;gdtw;wpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. njhFjpthupapyhd Kiwtopahf;fk;
Kiwikapdhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
epfo;Neu Kiwtopahf;fj;jpy;> jutpd; Kiwtopahf;fkhd cs;sPL> Kiwtopahf;fk;> ntspaPL>

Nrkpg;G vd;gd xNu Neuj;jpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ve;j xUtpjkhd Nkw;ghu;it Kiwik>
ve;jtpjkhd xJf;fPl;L Kiwik> mZ kpd; epiya fl;Lg;ghL> tpkhd jd;dpr;ir tpkhdp
vd;gdtw;wpy; fhzg;gLk; Kiwtopahf;fk; epfo;Neu Kiwtopahf;fj;jpidg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
ntspaPl;L Kiwfs;
Neub Kd;itg;gpy; gadu;; njuptpg;gp> gy;Yhlf vwpfUtp> mr;Rg;nghwp vd;gdtw;wpidg;

gad;gLj;Jfpd;whu;. fzpdpjpiu kw;Wk; gy;Yhlf vwpfUtp %yk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;git
nkd;gpujpfs; vdg;gLk;. mr;Rg;nghwp %yk; mr;rplg;gl;l tplaq;fs; td;gpujpfs; vdg;gLk;.
Nrkpg;G Kiwfs;
juTfis Nkyjpf Kiwtopahf;fy; NjitfSf;fhfTk;> ghJfhg;ghfTk; Nrkpg;gjw;Fr; Nrkpg;G

Kiwfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. rhjhuz fzpdpfspd; cs;Ns juTfisr; Nrkpg;gjw;fhfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rhjdq;fshf td;jl;L> ,Wtl;L> DVD, ehlh Nghd;wtw;wpidg;
gad;gLj;jyhk;. njhiythd Nrkpg;gfq;fshd Nkf Nrkpg;gfq;fs; juTfisg; ghJfhg;ghf
Nrkpf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd. njhiythd juTfisr; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F ,izak; mtrpakhFk;.
47
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.6: ntt;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd;
gpuNahfq;fis Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 gy;NtW Ms;fs gpuNahfq;fSf;Fk; nghUj;jkhd fUtpfs;> jpwd;fs; kw;Wk; mwpT

vd;gtw;iw ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
 gy;;NtW Ms;fsq;fspy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd; mD$yq;fisf;
fye;JiuahLthu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd; gpuNahfq;fs;;

o fy;tp
o Rfhjhuk;
o tptrhak;
o tzpfKk; epjpAk;
o nghwpapay;
o Rw;Wyh
o Clfk; kw;Wk; gj;jpupifj; njhopy;
 rl;l mKyhf;fy;
 ICT gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w Jiwfs; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;jTk;

 Njrpa mgtpUj;jpf;F ICT ,d; gq;fspg;gpidr; rpwg;gpj;Jf;fhl;lTk;
 tFg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; ICT

gad;gLj;Jk; Jiw xd;wpid toq;fp mj;Jiwapy; ICT ,d; gad;ghL gw;wpa Kd;itg;G
xd;wpidj; jahupj;J Kd;itf;fr; nra;jy;
 Njrpa mgptpUj;jpf;F vt;thW gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;wJ vd;gijf; fz;lwpAkhW Nfl;fTk;
fzpg;gl
 fPot
; Uk; jiyg;Gfspy; xg;gil xd;wpidj; jahupj;J toq;FkhW khztu;fis
topg;gLj;jTk;
 ICT gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Jiwfs;
 Fwpj;j Jiwapy; ICT ,d; gad;ghL
 Njrpa mgptpUj;jpf;F ICT ,d; gq;fspg;G
jutpUj;jp cs;sPLfs;
 ,iza trjp> Kd;itg;Gfs;
48
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;.
fy;tp
fzpdpahdJ fy;tp Kiwikf;F gy;NtW topfspy; cjtpfis toq;fptUfpd;wJ. ,J fzpdp

rhu;e;j fy;tp Kiw (Computer Based Education (CBE)) vDk; fUtpapid toq;Ffpd;wJ. CBE
MdJ fw;wypidf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk;> fw;gpg;gjw;Fk;> fw;wYf;Fk;> kjpg;gpLtjw;Fk;>
fPof
; z;lthW gad; gLfpd;wd.
1) xg;GUthf;fq;fs; (Simulations) :
itj;jpa kw;Wk; nghwpapy; Jiwapd; rhjuz Ma;T $lj;jpy; tpsq;fitf;f Kbahj rpy
ghlq;fis xg;GUthf;fy; %yk; tpsf;fg;gLj;j Kbfpd;wJ.
2) njhiyJhu fw;wy; kw;Wk; ,yj;jpudpay; fw;wy; (Distance Learning and E- Learning: )

21 Mk; Ehw;whz;bd; fy;tpapd; Nghf;fhdJ njhiyJhuj;jpd; fhuzj;jhy; Vw;gLfp;d;w
jilfis ePf;fpf;nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ. xUtu; njhiyJhuj;jpy; ,Ue;jthNw tFg;GfSf;F
r%fk; je;J ghlq;fspidf; fw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;. ,t;thW fw;Fk; NghJ ePz;l Jhuk; gpuahzk;
nra;J fw;wy; epiyaq;fSf;Fr; nry;yNtz;bajpy;iy.
3) rpwe;j cs;slf;f toq;fy; (Better Content Delivery)

fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghl;bw;Fj; jfty; njhlu;ghly; n;jhopDl;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jpajd;
fhuzkhff; fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghL nghJthf tpidjpwDld; tpisjpwDlDk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. gy;Yhlf vwpfUtp kw;Wk; ClhLk; gyif vd;gtw;wpidg;
gad;gLj;jpf; fw;gpf;Fk; NghJ khztu;fs; tFg;giwapy; cw;rhfkhff; fy;tp fw;ghu;fs;.
4) jdpg;gl;l fw;wy; (Individualized Learning:)

jfty; njhlu;ghlhy; njhopDl;gkhdJ jdpg;gl;l cjtpfs; Njitg;gLk; khztUf;F ed;F
nghUj;jkhd xg;gilfisAk;> fw;wypid vspikahf xOq;FgLj;jp fw;gjw;Fk;
cjtpnra;fpd;wJ
Rfhjhuk;
fzpdpahdJ itj;jparhiyfspd; Ma;T $lq;fspYk;> rj;jpurpfpr;ir epiyaq;fspYk;>

kUe;jfq;fspYk; xU Kf;fpakhd tplakhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,J NehahspfspdJk;
kUe;JfspdJk; juTfisg; guhkupf;f cjTk;. ,J ntt;NtW tpjkhd Neha;fis tUl
cjTfpd;wJ. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans vd;gd fzpdpkag;gLj;jg;gl;l fUtpfshFk;.
fPot
; Utd Rfhjhuj;Jiwapy; fzpdpfs; gad;gLk; gpujhdkhd JiwfshFk;.
 Neha; fz;lwpjy; Kiwik Neha;fspd; jd;ik njhlu;ghd tplaq;fisr;

Nrfupg;gjw;fhfTk; Nehapd; fhuzj;jpid mwptjw;fhfTk; fzpdp gad;gLfpd;wJ.
 Ma;T$l fz;lwpjy; Kiwik vy;yh NrhjidfSk; fzpdpA+lhfr; nra;tJld;
mtw;wpd; mwpf;iffSk; fzpdpapdhy; jahupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Nehahsu; fz;fhzpg;G Kiwik Nehahspapd; mrhjuhz Nghf;Ff; fhuzkhd
mwpFwpfisg; ngWtjw;fhff; (ECG) gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 kUe;jf jfty; Kiwik kUe;Jfspd; ngau; KbtilAk; jpfjp> gf;ftpisT vd;gd
njhlu;ghd tplaq;fspidr; rupghu;g;gjw;Ff; fzpdp gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 mWit rpfpr;ir - jw;fhyj;jpy; fzpdpahdJ mWitr;rpfpr;irf;Fj;
Jizf;fUtpahfg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
tptrhak;
tptrhak;> fhy;eil tsu;g;G kw;Wk; kPd;gpbj; njhopy;fspy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gk;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gkhdJ gr;ir tPl;bw;F cs;Ns cs;s
xsp> <ug;gjd; kw;Wk; fhw;W vd;gdtw;wpidf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. jhtutsu;rr ; p epiyfisf;
49
fz;fhzpf;fTk;> mtw;iwg; gjpT nra;aTk; kw;Wk; ngupa mstpyhd gz;iz epyq;fspy;
mWtil nra;aTk; Robotic ,ae;jpuq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. gapu; mWtil kw;Wk; tpij
gapuply; Nghd;w Ntiyfis tpidj;jpwDld; Nkw;nfhs;sTk; Robotic ,ae;jpuq;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. jd;dpaf;fkhfr; nraw;gLk; ,ae;jpuq;fisf; nfhz;L fis mfw;wy;>
kw;Wk; G+r;rpf; fl;Lg;ghl;Lfs; vd;gd Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; rhjdq;fs;
fisapy; ,Ue;J ghJfhg;G> gapu; cw;gj;jp> gUtepiykhw;wq;fs;> kio> fhw;Wj; jpirfs;>
kz; tsq;fs; kw;Wk; ePu; cs;slf;fk; vd;gdtw;wpidf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. Radio Frequency
Identification Device (RFID) thndhyp kPbwd; milahsg;gLj;Jk; rhjdq;fs; gz;izapy;
cs;s tpyq;Ffs; njhlu;ghd vz;zpf;ifiaf; fz;lwpe;J fzf;fpLtjw;F cjTfpd;wd.
jd;dpaf;fkhfr; nraw;gLk; fzpdp fl;Lg;ghl;L Kiwikapd; Clhf gRtpd; MNuhf;fpaKk;
ghypd; juKk; cWjpg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
tzpfKk; epjpAk;
xU fzpdpahdJ Ntfkhd fzpj;jy;> njhlu;e;J nraw;gLjy;> Jy;ypak;> ek;gfj;jd;ik

gy;jpwd; nraw;ghL vd;gdtw;wpidf; nfhz;L vy;yh tu;j;jf epWtdq;fSlDk;
xUq;fpize;J nray;gLfpd;wJ. fzpdpahdJ Cjpa kjpg;gL P fs;> tuT nryTf; fzf;F >
tpw;gidg; gFg;gha;T> epjp Kd;fzpg;G> gzpahsu; juTj;js eput ; fpg;G kw;Wk; ,Ug;G
vd;gdtw;wpid ,yFthfr; nra;a cjTfpwJ.
,d;W tq;fpahdJ ngUk;ghYk; Kw;wpYk; fzpdpfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. tq;fpfs; njhluwh epiy

trjpfis toq;Ffpd;wd> ,jpy; jw;Nghija ,Ug;G> itg;Gfs;> tl;bfspd; jd;ikfs;>
gw;Wf;fs;> gq;Ffs;> gadupd; gjpTfs; vd;gd Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ATM ,ae;jpukhdJ
KOikahd jd;dpaf;fkhfj; njhopw;gl;L thbf;ifahsupd; md;whl tq;fpg; gzf;nfhLf;fy;
thq;fy;fis Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ.
re;ijg;gLj;jypy; tpsk;guk; kw;Wk; tPl;L filr;rthup (Home shopping) Nghd;wtw;wpw;Fg;

gutyhff; fzpdpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. tpsk;guq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; glq;fSk;
mirt+l;lq;fSk; thbf;ifahsiuj; Jhz;Ltjhf mikAk;. thbf;ifahsu;fs; nghUl;fis
tPl;by; ,Ue;jthNw ghu;itapl;Lg; gzk; nrYj;jp ngw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. tPl;L
filr;rthupahdJ fzpdpkag;gLj;jg;gl;l nraw;ghLfs; Clhfj; jfty;fisg; ngw;W
Nkw;nfhs;SfpwJ.
nghwpapay;
CAD (Computer Aided Design) MdJ tiujypid cUthf;Ftjw;Fk; khw;wq;fisr;

nra;tjw;Fk; cjTfpd;wJ. fl;blq;fs;> ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; thfdq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd;
mgptpUj;jpf;F Kd;du; nghwpapay; njhopy; Kiwap;y; 3D apy; nka;epfuhf;fKk; nra;a KbAk;.
rpy ,ae;jpuq;fs; nka;epfu; tbtpy; cUthf;fg;gl;Lj; jpiuapy; ,aq;Fk; mirt+l;lq;fshff;
fhz;gpf;f KbAk;. fzpdp Jiz nkd;nghUs; nghwpapay; fUtpfs; Computer Aided Software
Engineering tools (CASE) nkd;nghUs; nghwpfis tbtikj;jy;> epfo;r;rp epuy; ,ly;> Nrhjid
nra;jy; kw;Wk; gpiojpUj;jy; Mfpatw;wpw;F cjTfpd;wJ.
Rw;Wyh
,izakhdJ Rw;Wyhr; Nritfs;> njhlu;ghly;> jfty; mZfy; vd;gdtw;wpw;F

trjpaspj;Js;sJ. Rw;Wyhj; Jiwf;Fr; rpwe;j Nritia toq;Ftij Nehf;fkhf nfhz;L
,izaj;jpDlhf tpiy Fiwg;G> jfty; gutyhff; fpilf;f$ba jd;ik>
tpw;gidahsu;fSk; nfhs;tdthsu;fSk; ,yFthf ,izaj;Jld; ,ize;J nfhLf;fy;
thq;fy;fis Nkw;nfhs;sf; $bathwhd trjpfs; fpilf;fpd;wd.
Clfk; kw;Wk; gj;jpupifj; njhopy;
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; Clfq;fs; kw;Wk; Clftpay; Mfpatw;wpy; tpisjpwDld;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,J jftiy tbtikj;J xOq;FgLj;Jtjw;Fk; ,iltpid Guptjw;Fk;
cjTfpd;wJ. ,izak; kw;Wk; ,iza Nritfshd cyfshtpa tiy> kpd;dQ;ry;>
50
fhnzhsp khehL vd;gdtw;wpd; gad;ghl;bd; %yk; xypgug;G epWtdq;fSf;fpilapy; juT
gfpu;T kw;Wk; ru;tNjr nra;jpfis tpiuthfg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sy; vd;gd ,yFthfp cs;sd.
rl;l mKyhf;fk;
jfty; gjpT kw;Wk; Nrkpg;G> tprhuizfs;> mwpf;ifaply; kw;Wk; Gs;sptpguq;fs; vd;gdtw;iw

Nkk;gLj;Jk; rl;l mKyhf;fr; nray;fSf;Fj; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy; El;gk;
gpuNahfpf;f gLfpd;wJ. ICT MdJ Fw;wthspfis ifJ nra;a Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;
tprhuizfSf;F jfty;fis toq;f cjTfpd;wJ. ,d;W CCTV Kiwikfs; kw;Wk; GPS
Kiwik> kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; Kiwikfs; vd;gd Fw;wtpay; tprhuizfSf;Fg;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
51
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 1.7 : r%fj;jpy; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gtpaypd; jhf;fk; gw;wp kjpg;gL
P
nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;:- 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gk; %yk; Vw;gLk; mD$yq;fis r%f kw;Wk; nghUshjhu

uPjpapy; tpgupg;ghu;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;g Nkk;ghl;bd; %yk; Vw;gLk; gpujp$yq;fis r%f (Social)>
nghUshjhu (Economical)> #oy;> xOf;fnewp kw;Wk; rl;l uPjpapy; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;g ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila rl;l epiyikfis tprhupg;ghu;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;Jld; njhlu;Gila Rw;whly; gpur;ridfis tpgupg;ghu;
 ,yj;jpudpay; fopTfisg; ghJfhg;ghf mg;Gwg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfis tpsf;Fthu;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg; ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila xOf;f newpg; gpur;rpidfisr;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg; ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila rl;lr; rpf;fy;fisr;
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gg; ghtidAld; njhlu;Gila r%fg; gpur;rpidfisr;
 epiyj;jpUf;ff;$ba mgptpUj;jp ,yf;Ffisg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy; jfty; njhlu;ghly;
njhopDl;gj;jpd; tfpghfj;ijr; (SDGs) RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 ,yf;fKiwg; gpupit ePf;Ftjw;fhd mZFKiwfis tprhupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jhy; Vw;gLk; mD$yq;fs;;

o r%f mD$yq;fs; (Social)
o nghUshjhu mD$yq;fs; (Economic)
 jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jhy; Vw;gLk; gpujp$yq;fs;
o r%fk; (Social)
o nghUshjhuk;(Economic)
o #oy;
o xOf;fnewp
o rl;lk;
o me;juq;fk;
o ,yf;fKiw tpupT
 ,ufrpaj;jd;ik
 jpULjy;/topg;gwp
 fsT (Piracy)
o gjpg;Gupik (Copyright)/mwpTrhu; nrhj;J rl;lq;fs;
o Kiwaw;w gpujpahf;fk; (Plagiarism)
 cupkk; ngw;w nkd;nghUs; (Licensed Software)/ cupkkw;w nkd;nghUs; (Plagiarism)
 xOf;fnewp> rl;lg;gpur;rpidfs;> ghJghg;G vd;gdtw;wpd; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;.

 ,izaj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jy; njhlu;ghd Kd;ndr;rupf;if eltbf;iffspy; ftdk;
nrYj;jTk;
 r%f Clfq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; xOff;newp kw;Wk; rl;lg;gpur;rpidfs;> ICT ,idf;
ftdkhfg; gad;gLj;jy Nghd;wtw;wpy; ftdk; nrYj;jTk;;.
52
 xOf;f newp kw;Wk; rl;lg;gpur;rpid> r%f Clfq;fspd; xOf;fnewp kw;Wk;
rl;lg;gpur;rpid> ghJfhg;G vd;gdtw;wpidr; nra;J fhl;lYld; $ba fye;Jiuahly;.
fzpg;gl
 khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; Nkw;Fwpg;gp;l;l jiyg;Gfspy;
xd;wpid toq;fp mjw;fhd Kd;itg;G xd;wpidj; jahupj;J Kd;itf;FkhW topg;gLj;Jf.
gjpg;Gupik kw;Wk; ,izag;ghtid njhlu;ghd Mtzq;fs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy; El;gj;jpd;> r%f nghUshjhu mD$yq;fs;
njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpd; %yk; fpilf;Fk; r%f eyd;fs; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu ed;ikfs;
vd;gdtw;wpd; fhuzj;jpdhy; kf;fs; mjd; gf;fk; ftug;gLfpd;wdu;.
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj;jpdhy; nghOJNghf;F kw;Wk; xa;T Neuk; vd;gdtw;wpy;
nrYj;Jk; jhf;fk; ,iza tpisahl;Lfspy; <LgLjy; kw;Wk; ez;gu;fSld; mul;il nra;jy;
Nghd;wtw;wpdhy; Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
tsu;e;J tUk; jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gkhdJ nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp kw;Wk;
tu;j;jfk; Mfpatw;wpid mjpfupg;gjw;Fg; gq;fspg;ig mspf;fpwJ. kf;fs; njhlur;;rpahfj;
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jpj; jq;fs; tho;f;if Kiwapidr; rpwe;jjhf
Mf;fpnfhs;fpd;wdu;. ,J cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; vt;thW ,Uf;Fk; vd;gjpy; ghjpg;gpid Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
ICT gpupTfspd; mstpidAk; cw;gj;jpapidAk; mjpfupg;gjd; Clhf ciog;G cw;gj;jp>
jahupg;G cw;gj;jpfs; vd;gdtw;wpid mjpfupj;J nghUshjhuj;jpid Nkd;gLj;j cjTfpd;wJ.
cynfq;Fk; cs;s jfty;fis vt;tplj;jpy; ,Ue;Jk; ve;NeuKk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tJld; jfty;
gug;Gjiy Nkd;gLj;Jtjw;F ICT xU ghykhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. Nkff;fzpikapd;
nraw;ghlhdJ rpwe;j gpuNahfk;> Nritfs;> ghJfhg;G> ek;gfj;jd;ik kw;Wk; jftypd;
fpilf;Fk; Mw;wy; vd;gdtw;wpidj; jUfpd;wJ.
jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj;jpdhy; r%fk;> nghUshjhuk;> R+oy;> xOf;fnewp> rl;lk;>

me;juq;fk;> ,yf;fKiw tpupT vd;gdtw;wpy; vw;gLk; gpur;rpidfs;
njhopy; Jiwapy; ICT MdJ gy;yhapuf;fzf;fhd njhopy; ,og;Gfis Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.

Vnddpd;;> fzpdpahdJ Fwpj;j Ntiyapidr; nra;tjw;Fupa kdpju;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapidf;
Fiwj;JtpLfpwJ.
ICT ,id gad;gLj;Jtjhy; Neutpuak; kw;Wk; Rfhjhug; gpur;rpidfs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.

nghOJNghf;fpw;fhfj; njhlur;;rpahf ICT tpisahl;Lfis tpisahLtjhy; Rfhjhug;
gpur;rpidapid Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf fl;iltpuy; kw;Wk; kzpf;fl;L kw;Wk; fz;
Nghd;wdtw;wpd; njhlu;r;rpahd ghtidapd; Clhfg; ghu;it rk;ke;jkhd gpur;rpid kw;Wk;
cly; eyg;gpur;rpidfs; (RSI) vd;gd Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
“,yf;fKiw tpupT ” vd;gJ jfty; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gq;fspd; mZfy; gad;ghL

my;yJ jhf;fk; vd;gdtw;Wld; njhlu;Gila xU nghUshjhu kw;Wk; r%f Vw;wj;jho;T
MFk;. kpfg;nghUj;jkhd jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopDl;gj;jpidf; fy;tpapd; Clhfr;
rfyUf;Fk; rkdhf toq;Fk; NghJ ,yf;fKiw tpuptpy; ,Ue;J Nkk;gl cjTk;.
kpd;dZ fopTfs; my;yJ kpd; fopT cynfq;fpYk; fLikahd gpur;rpidahf khwp tUfpwJ.
,yj;jpudpay; fopTfspy; Kf;fpa gpur;rpid vd;dntd;why; <ak;> fl;kpak;> Mu;rdpf;F Nghd;w
,urhadq;fs; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; kz;zpy; frpe;J FbePupy; fiue;J tpLtjhFk;.
gRik fzpak; MdJ R+oYf;Fk; Vida tsq;fSf;Fk; ghjpf;fhj tifapy; el;GwTld;

fzpdpapidg; gad;gLj;jyhFk;. ,J Rw;Wr;R+oy; epWtdq;fspd; ftdj;jpw;F kl;Lky;yhJ
Vida epWtdq;fs;> tzpfq;fs;> njhopy;fs; vd;gdTk; fUj;jpw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. tsu;e;j
53
ehLfspy; ,yj;jpudpay; fopTfis epyj;jbapy; mfw;wy; jilnra;ag;gl;Ls;sJld;
kWRow;r;rpf;fhf ,it kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
mwpthu;e;j nrhj;J cupikfs;> fy;tpg;Gy tsq;fspd; Mf;fTupik> ,ir kw;Wk; nkd;nghUs;

Mfpatw;wpd; fhg;Gupik ,tw;wpd; tpepNahfk; tiyaikg;Gfspy; Ntfkhf ,Ug;gjd;
fhuzkhfg; ghJfhg;gJ fbdkhf cs;sJ. midj;J ,izag; gadu;fSk; ,iza xOf;f
newpfis Kiwahfg; gpd;gw;Wtjpy;iy.
juT my;yJ jftypd; ,ufrpaj;jd;ik
flTr;nrhy; ghJfhg;G> FwpKiwahf;fy; El;gq;fs; kw;Wk; ,yf;fKiw ifnahg;gk;

Mfpatw;wpidg; gad;gL;Jtjd; %yk; jfty;fis ,ufrpakhf itj;jpUf;f KbAk;
jpULjy; my;yJ topg;gwp (Stealing / Phishing )
jpULjy; my;yJ topg;gwp vd;gJ kpfTk; Kf;fpakhd jfty;fshd flTr;nrhy; gadu; ngau;>
fld; ml;il tplaq;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpidj; jPq;fpiof;Fk; Nehf;Fld; xU kpd;dZ njhlu;gpy;
ek;gpf;iff;Fupa epWtdkhf khWtjd; %yk; ngwg;gLk; Kaw;rpahFk;. juTfisj; jpULjy;
my;yJ topg;gwpapy; ,Ue;J ghJfhg;gjw;F> flTr;nrhy;ypidg; gad;gLj;jy;>
mwpKfkpy;yhjtu;fsplk; ,Ue;J tUk; kpd;dQ;ry; Kftupfisj; jpwf;fhJ tpLjy;>
jw;fhyg;gLj;jy;fis Nkw;nfhs;sy;> jPr;Rtupid nraw;gLj;jy; vd;gdtw;wpid
Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
nkd;nghUs; fsT (Piracy)
nkd;nghUs; fsT vd;gJ rl;luPjpaw;w Kiwapy; nkd;nghUl;fisg; gpujpahf;fk; nra;jy;>

gq;fPL nra;jy;> kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jy; vd;gdthFk;.
gjpg;Gupik my;yJ mwpTrhu; nrhj;Jr; rl;lq;fs; (Copyright / Intellectual Property laws)
mwpT rhu; nrhj;Jr; rl;lq;fs; vd;gJ %yg;gilg;Gfis cUthf;Fgtu;fspd; cupikfisg;

ghJfhg;gjw;fhfg; gad;gLk; rl;lj;jpd; gFjpahFk;. ,J midj;Jg; gilg;GfSf;Fk;
cupj;Jilajhfpd;wJ.
Kiwaw;w gpujpahf;fk; (Plagiarism )
Kiwaw;w gpujpahf;fk; vd;gJ xUtUila vz;zq;fs;> mDgtq;fs;> jpl;lq;fs; my;yJ

Ntiyfs; vd;gdtw;iwj; jkJ nrhe;j Mf;fq;fs; Nghd;W NtW xUtu; gad;gLj;jy;.
cupkk; ngw;w nkd;nghUs; / cupikaw;w nkd;nghUs; (Licensed / unlicensed software)
nkd;nghUs;fspd; cupkk; vd;gJ nkd;nghUs; xd;wpd; gad;ghL my;yJ kWtpepNahfk;

vd;gtw;iw epu;tfpf;Fk; xU rl;lf; fUtpahFk;. gjpg;Gupikr; rl;lj;jpd; fPo; nkd;nghUl;fs;
gjpg;Gupik nkd;nghUs;> ,ytr kw;Wk; jpwe;J %y nkd;nghUs; (free and open source software
(FOSS)) vd ,uz;L tiffshf gpupf;fg;gLk;. FOSS nkd;nghUshdJ thbf;ifahsUf;F
cupkk; toq;FtJld; Fwpj;j nkd;nghUspd; %yf;FwpaPlb ; idAk; Nru;j;J ntspapLtjhy;>
,tw;wpd; %yf;FwpaPl;bid khw;wpaikf;fTk; KbAk;. gjpg;Gupik nkd;nghUshdJ
thbf;ifahsUf;F cupikapid toq;fhjjhy; mjidg; gad;gLj;jy; khw;wy; Nghd;w
nraw;ghLfis Nkw;n;fhs;s KbahJ. mj;Jld; ,it %yf;FwpaPl;bid kiwj;J (closed
source) itj;jpUf;Fk;. cupkk; ngw;w nkd;nghUshapd; mjidj; jpUj;jy;> gad;gLj;jy; kw;Wk;
kWtpepNahfk; nra;jy; vd;gdtw;wpw;Ff; Fwpj;j cupikahsUf;F cupkk; toq;fg;gLfpwJ.
cupikaw;w nkd;nghUs; gjpg;Gupik rl;lj;jpw;F Vw;g nghJ nkd;nghUs; my;yJ

tpepNahfpf;fg;glhj nkd;nghUs;> cupikaw;w kw;Wk; xU epWtdj;jpd; cs;shu;e;j
tsq;fshff; fhzg;gLgit.
54
Njh;rr
; p 2 etPd fzpdpapd; nraw;wpwid xg;gpl;L tpgupg;gjw;Ff; fzpj;jy; rhjdq;fspd;
tsu;rr ; pia Muha;thu;;
Njh;rr
; p kl;lk; 2.1 nra;Kiwtopahf;fpfspd; tpUj;jpAld; njhlu;Gila Kf;fpa khw;wq;fspd;
mbg;gilapy; fzpdp gbKiw tsu;r;rpia ntspf;nfhzu;thu;
ghlNtisfs;:- 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 Muk;gfhy fzpj;jy; rhjdq;fis cjhuzq;fSld; tifg;gLj;;Jthu;

 kpd;nghwpKiwf; fzpj;jy; rhjdq;fisg; gl;bay;gLj;Jthu;;
 fzpdp jiyKiwfis mtw;wpd; gz;Gfspd;; mbg;gilapy; ml;ltizg;gLj;jp;
tpgupg;ghu;
 fzpdpfisj; njhopDl;gk;> Nehf;fk;> gUkd; vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
cjhuzq;fSld; tifg;gLj;Jthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 fzpj;jypd; tuyhW (History of Computing)

o Muk;gfhy fzpj;jy; (Calculating )cjtpr;rhjdq;fs;
 nghwpKiw (Mechanical) rhu;e;jit
 kpd; nghwpKiw (Electro Mechanical) rhu;e;jit
o fzpj;jypd;; ,yj;jpudpay; (Electronic) Afk;
 fzpdpj; jiyKiwfs;
o 1G,2G,3G,4G kw;Wk; vjpu;fhyj;jpw;fhdJ
(nray; Kiwtopahf;fpapd; gbKiw tsu;r;rpf;FKf;fpaj;Jtk;);
 gy;NtW tifg;gLj;jy; Kiwfs;

o njhopDl;gk; (Technology)
 xg;Gik (Analog), ,yf;f Kiw (Digital)
o Nehf;fk; :
 nghJ> tpNrl
o ngsjPf gUkd;:
 kPf; fzpdp (Super Computer), Kjd;ikf; fzpdp (Mainframe)> rpwpafzpdp (Mini),
Ez;fzpdp; (Micro), vLj;Jr; nry;yf;$ba cgfuzq;fs; (Mobile Devices, Smart phones,
Tablets, Phablets)
 fzpdpr; rhjdq;fspd; gupdhkk;

 fzpdp jiyKiwfSk; mtw;wpd; gz;GfSk;
 fzpdpfis mtw;wpd; njhopy;El;gk;> Nehf;fk;> gUkd; vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
tifg;gLj;jy;
 fp.K Nghd;w Muk;g fhyq;fspy; fzpj;jy;fs; vt;thW nra;ag;gl;ld vd;;gijg; gw;wpa

fye;Jiuahly;
 Muk;g fhy fzpj;jy; Jizr; rhjdq;fspd; glq;fisf; fhl;ly;
 ,d;iwa fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fzpdpfisg; gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahb mit 100
tUlq;fSf;F Kd; vt;thW ,Ue;jd vd;gij tpsf;Fjy;
 fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; fzpdpapy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fisg; gw;wpa fye;Jiuahly;
 xt;nthU fhy fl;lj;jpYk; ntspte;j fzpdpfspd; Njhw;wk;> njhopDl;gk;> Ntfk;>
nfhs;ssT kw;Wk; nraw;wpwd; vd;gdtw;iwf; fye;Jiuahly;;
 gy;NtW Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l gy;NtWgl;l fzpdpfisg; gw;wpa fye;Jiuahly;.
55
 jw;fhyj;jpy; fpilf;ff;$ba nry;yplr; rhjdq;fs;> mtw;wpd; gad;ghLfs; gw;wpa
fye;Jiuahly;.
fzpg;gl
 fzpdpj; jiyKiwfs; Clhfr; rpwg;gpay;Gfs; vt;thW khw;wkile;jd vd;gijg; gw;;wp

vOJkhW khztu;fisf; Nfl;fTk;
 khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; fzpdp tifg;gLj;jy;
jiyg;nghd;iw toq;fp mjw;fhd cjhuzq;fisg; gl;bayplr; nra;aTk;
,izza trjp> Kd;itg;Gfs;> fzpj;jYf;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fUtpfisf; nfhz;l glq;fs;
thrpg;G gj;jpuk;
fzf;fPl;L rhjdk; - Ja ,ae;jpu Afk; - 1450 Kd;du;
fp.K 5000 tUlk; mstpy; rPdu;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l KjyhtJ fzpj;jy; cgfuzk;

vz;rl;lk; (mgf];) MFk;.
,ae;jpu Afk; 1450-1840
1642 k; Mz;L g;Nya]; g];fy; vd;gtupdhy; g];fiyd; ,ae;jpuk; (Pascaline)

mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ,jd; %yk; ,U vz;fisf; $l;ly; kw;Wk; fopj;jy; nray;ghl;il
nra;a Kbe;jJ. N[u;kd; ehl;L tpQ;Qhdpahd Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz vd;gtu; Stepped
Reckoner vDk; fUtpia 1694 y; g+uzg;gLj;jpdhu;. ,f;fUtpahdJ $l;ly;> fopj;jy;>
ngUf;fy;> gpupj;jy; vDk; nray;ghLfisr; nra;af; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ. 1880 k; Mz;L rhy;];
ghNg[; vd;gtupdhy;> KjyhtJ ,ae;jpuf; fzpdpahd gFg;gha;Tg; nghwp cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
,tu; etPd fzpdpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cs;sPL> nray;Kiw kw;Wk; ntspaPL
vd;gdtw;wpd; vz;zf;fUit Kjd; Kjypy; ntspapl;lhu;. ,jdhy; ,tu; fzpdpapd; je;ij
vdf; fUjg;gLfpwhu;.
kpd; ,ae;jpuAfk; 1840 -1940
1906 Mk; Mz;by; kpd;dZ thy;T thy;lh; (Forest) vd;gtupdhy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. 1939
Mk; Mz;by; Nguhrpupauhd N`hthHl; If;nfd; (Howard Aiken) vd;gtuhy; KjyhtJ
jd;dpaf;fj; njhlupf; fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fzpg;ghd; vd;Dk; ,ae;jpuk; cUthf;fg;gl;J. ,J khu;f;1
(Mark 1) vdg;gl;lJ.
,yj;jpudpay; Afk;(1940 -1956)
Kjyhk; jiyKiwf;fzpdp (1940 – 1956)
Kjyhk; jiyKiwf; fzpdpfspd; mbg;gilf; $Wfshf ntw;wplf;Foha;fs; ( vacuum tubes)

gad;gLj;jg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
 1946 Mk; Mz;by; John Mauchly kw;Wk; J. Presper Eckert vd;gtu;fspdhy;

tbtikf;fg;gl;l KjyhtJ kpd;dZ ,yf;fKiwf;fzpdp kpd;dZ vz;zpay;
XUq;fpizg;G kw;Wk; fzpg;ghd; ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
MFk;.
 1947 ,y; Maurice Wilkes vd;gtuhy; KO mstpy; Nrkpj;J itf;ff;$ba nra;epuy;

nfhz;l KjyhtJ fzpdp> kpd;dZ jhkjk; Nrkpg;G jhdpaq;fp fzpg;ghd; EDSAC
(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) MFk;.
56
 1948 ,y; cUthf;fg;gl;l EDVAC (kpd;dZ jdp khwp jhdpaf;fp fzpdp Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) MdJ nra;epuy;fis Nrkpf;ff; $ba KjyhtJ
,yf;f Kiwf; fzpdpahff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Mapuf;fzf;fhd ntw;wplf;Foha;fisAk; nfhz;l ,yj;jpudpay; fzpdp UNIVAC
(Universal Automatic Computer) MdJ cs;sPL nra;tjw;Fj; Jis ml;ilfisAk;
MspfisAk; gad;gLj;JtJld; ntspaPl;bw;Fk; Nrkpg;gjw;Fk; Jis ml;ilfisg;
gad;gLj;jpaJ.
,uz;lhk; jiyKiwf; fzpdp (1956 – 1963)
,e;jj; jiyKiwapy; %thapfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.

IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108 vd;gd ,j;jiyKiwapy;
cUthf;fg;gl;lit
%d;whk; jiyKiwf; fzpdp (1964 – 1975)
%d;whk; jiyKiwf;fzpdpfspy; %thapf;F gjpyhf XUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fs;

gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. gy %thapfs;> jilapfs; kw;Wk; nfhs;sstpfs; nfhz;L njhlu;G
gLj;jpa Rw;W xUq;fpize;j Rw;whFk;.
IBM-360 series, jdpg;gl;l juT nrayp PDP (Personal Data Processor), TDC-316 vd;gd
%d;whk; jiyKiwf; fzpdpfs; MFk;.
ehd;fhk; jiyKiwf; fzpdp (1975 – 1989)
,j;jiyKiwf; fzpdpfspy; kpfg; nghpa mstpyhd XUq;fpize;j (VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integrated) Rw;Wfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. kpfg; nghpa mstpyhd XUq;fpize;j Rw;Wfs;>
mjpfstpyhd %thapfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; ,izr;Rw;Wfs; vd;gdtw;wpid xNu Rw;wpy;
nfhz;Ls;sjdhy; ehd;fhk; jiyKiwapd; Ez;fzpdpfis cUthf;Ftjw;F toptFj;jJ.
cjhuzk; : DEC 10, STAR 1000, PDP 11
Ie;jhk; jiyKiwf; fzpdp (1989 - ,d;W tiu)
,j;jiyKiwapy; gad;gj;jg;gl;l ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) njhopy;El;gj;jpd;

tpisthfg; gj;J kpy;ypad; ,yj;jpudpay; $Wfisf; nfhz;l Ez;nraypr; rpy;Yfs;
cUthf;fg;gl;ld.
cjhuzk; : Nkirf; fzpdp> kbf;fzpdp> Fwpg;Ngl;Lf;fzpdp> my;l;uhGf;( UltraBook)
fzpdpfis tifg;gLj;jy;
1. njhopDl;g mbg;gilapy; tifg;gLj;jy;

(i) xg;Gik fzpdp - XU xg;Gikf; fzpdp vd;gJ kpd;rhuk;> ,ae;jpuk; my;yJ
hydraulic msTfs; vd;gdtw;wpd; njhlu;rr ; pahd kjpg;Gfisf; ifahSk;
fzpdpfshFk;;.
(ii) vz;zpay; fzpdp :-fzpg;gL
P fs; kw;Wk; jUf;fr; nraw;ghLfs; vd;gdtw;wpid
toikahd Jtpj vz; mbg;gilapy; nraw;gLj;Jk; xU fzpdp.
2. Nehf;fj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tifg;gLj;jy;
(i) tpNrl Njitf;fzpdp- tpNrl Njitf;fhf my;yJ XU Fwpg;gpl;l tpNrlg;
gzpiar; nra;tjw;fhf tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;s fzpdpfs;.
(ii) nghJj; Njitf; fzpdp - gy;NtW gzpfisr; nra;tjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jf;
$bathW tbtikf;fg;gl;l fzpdpfs;.
3. gUkid mbg;gilahf nfhz;lJ
57
(i) kPf; fzpdp - ,J kpfTk; NtfkhdJk; kw;Wk; rf;jp tha;e;jJkhd
fzpdpahFk;. kpfTk; tpiy cau;e;j ,f;fzpdpfs; ghupa mstpy;
fzpj;jy;fis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;Fj; Njitahd rpwg;Gg; gpuNahfq;fSf;Fg;
gad;gLj;jgLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: TIANHE-1
(ii) jiyikf;fzpdp - ,J mstpy; ngupaJk; tpiy cau;e;jJkhd ,f;
fzpdpapy; xNu Neuj;jpy; Ew;Wf;fzf;fhd my;yJ Mapuf;fzf;fhd
gadu;fs; gadhw;Wk; nrayhw;wiyf; nfhz;lJ.
(iii) rpW fzpdp – eLj;ju mstpyhd ,f;fzpdpfs; rpwpa my;yJ eLj;ju
Nritafq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jk; tzpfk; kw;Wk; tpQ;Qhd gpuNahfq;fs;
vd;gdtw;wpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
(iv) Ez; fzpdp
Nkirf; fzpdp – Nkirapy; nghUj;jf;$ba jdpegu; fzpdpfs;.
kbf;fzpdp – nfhz;L nry;yf;$ba fzpdpfs;.
ifalf;f –iff;F mlf;fkhd msT fzpdpfs;.
Fwpg;Gg; Gj;jfk; - nfhz;L nry;yf;$ba kbf;fzpdpapidf; fhl;bYk;
nky;ypaJk; rpwpaJkhd fzpdpfs;.
#l;bifj; njhiyNgrp – ,J ,af;fKiwik kw;Wk; Vida trjpfSld; $ba

jfty; njhlu;Gf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU nry;yplj; njhiyNgrp MFk;.
tpy;iyf;fzpdp - ,J njhLjpiu ,ilKfj;Jld; $ba> nfhz;L

nry;yf;$ba tlkpy;yh ,izg;Gila jdpegu; fzpdpahFk;. ,J
Fwpg;Gg;Gj;jf fzpdpia tplr; rpwpajhdJk; #l;bifj; njhiyNgrpfis tplg;
ngupjhfTk; fhzg;gLk;.
Phablet - ,J #l;bifr; nry;yplg;Ngrpfis tpl rw;Wg; ngupjhfTk; tpy;iyf;

fzpdpfis tplr; rw;W rpwpjhd mstpidf; nfhz;lJ. njhLjpiu
,ilKfkhdJ Ie;J mq;Fyj;jpy; ,Ue;J mjpfupj;Jf; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. (Eg:
Apple 6Plus, Galaxy Note, etc)
58
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 2.2 fzpdpnahd;wpd; nraw;ghl;il mjd; td;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;
,ilKfq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 td;nghUs; Jizr;rhjdq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; ,ilKfq;fisAk; ,dq;fhz;ghu;

 tpirg;gyif gjpT cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fis tpl Neub cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fspd;
mD$yq;fis ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpd; (CPU) tsu;r;rpiaAk; kw;Wk; mjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd>
jha;;g;gyifiaAk; (Motherboard) tpgupg;ghu;
 Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fis tifgLj;Jthu;
 Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; xt;nthd;wpdJk; ,ay;Gfisr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 rkhe;ju kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr;rl;l (grid) fzpj;jypd; Njitia ,dq;fhz;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;
 gpujhd td;nghUs; $Wfs;

o cs;sPl;Lf;fUtpfs;:
tpirg;gyif cs;sPLk;> Neub cs;sPLk; (tpirg;gyif> Rl;b rhjdq;fs;> njhL ml;il
(Touch pad) Nra;ik fl;Lg;ghL (Remote control)> njhLjpiu> fhe;jgl;b thrpg;ghd;>
gl;ilf;Fwp Kiw thrpg;Gf;fUtp> #l;bif ml;il thrpg;ghd; (smart card reader), tUb
(Scanner), ,yf;fKiwg; glf;fUtp> xypthq;fp> czupfs;> tiutpay; ,yf;f tptukhf;fp
(Grapic tablets), MICR,OMR,OCRthrpg;ghd;>fhnzhsp glf;fUtp> ,yf;fkhf;fp(Digitizer),
tiyg;glf;fUtp (Webcam))
 tpirg;gyifAld; xg;gpLk;NghJ Neub cs;sPl;Lf; fUtpfspd; mD$yq;fs;

 ntspaPl;Lf;fUtpfSk; mtw;wpd; jd;ikfSk;:
o (CRT jpiu>TFT jpiu, LED jpiu iktPr;R mr;Rg;nghwp> Gs;sp mikTU mr;Rg;nghwp>
Nyru; mr;Rg;nghwp> gltiuap> Kg;gupkhd mr;Rg;nghwp> xypngUf;fp)
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myFk; (CPU) mjd; jha;g;gyif nghUe;JifAk; (Motherboard)
 Nrkpg;gfq;fs;:
o epiyahd td;jl;L> vLj;Jr; nry;yj;jf;f td;jl;L> fhe;jehlh> ,Wtl;Lfs; (CD Rom),
DVD Rom, CD R/DVD R, CD RW/ DVD RW, DVD RAM, ePyf;fjpu; tl;L (Blu-Ray),
gsPr;rpl;L epidtf ml;il (flash memory card), rpwpa tl;L(mini disk)
 rkhe;ju kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr;rl;lf; (grid) fzpj;jy;
 fzpdpapd; cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;

 fzpdpapd; ntspaPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs;
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myFk; jha;g;gyifAk;
 fzpdpapd; Nrkpg;gfq;fs;
 rkhe;juk; kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr; rl;lff; fzpj;jy;
ghlj;jpl;lkplYf;fhd topfhl;b
 fzpdpapid Kiwik xd;whf tiuaiw nra;f

 fzpdp Kiwikapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gy;NtWgl;l td;nghUl;fs; gw;wpf;
fye;Jiuahly;
 fzpdpapd; ghfq;fisf; fhl;b tpsq;f itj;jy;
 fzpdp Kiwikapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; Neub
cs;sPl;L Kiwfs; vd;gdtw;wpd; fye;Jiuahly;
59
 fzpdpKiwapy; cs;s ntspaPl;Lf;fUtpfisg; gl;bay;gLj;jy;
 fzpdpapy; juTfisr; Nrkpf;fg; gad;gLj;Jk; rhjdq;fisg; gw;wp tpsf;Ff
 rkhe;ju kw;Wk; Nfhl;Lr;rl;l (grid) fzpj;jy; gw;wp tpsf;Ff
fzpg;gl
P ;Lf;Fk;; kjpg;gPl;Lf;Fkhd topfhl;b
 Xg;gil - tFg;gpy; cs;s khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk;

gpd;tUk; xd;iwg;gw;wpg; glq;fs; kw;Wk; cjhuzq;fSld; $ba Mtzk; xd;wpidj;
jahupf;Fk; gb Nfl;ly;.
 cs;sPl;Lf;fUtpfs;
 ntspaPl;Lf;fUtpfs;
 Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myFk; jha;g;gyifAk;
 ,j;jiyg;Gfspy; rpy gy;Njhu;T tpdhf;fis toq;fTk;.
ju tpUj;jp cs;sPLfs;
khjpup cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L> Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;> khjpup jha;g;gyiffs;> Kd;itg;Gfs;
thrpg;G gj;jpuk;
cs;sPl;Lf; fUtpfs;
,it fzpdp Kiwikf;Fj; juT kw;Wk; mwpTWj;jy;fs; vd;gdtw;wpid toq;Ftjw;Fg;

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
tpirg; gyif
Rl;br; rhjdq;fs;;
Rl;b njhLepug;gplk; njhiyapaf;fp njhLjpiu
Neubahf cs;sPL nra;Ak; cs;sPl;Lr;rhjdq;fs;.
fhe;j tup thrpg;ghd; gl;ilf; FwpKiw #l;bif ml;il

thrpg;ghd; thrpg;ghd;
60
glk; kw;Wk; fhnzhsp cs;sPl;Lf;fUtpfs;
fhnzhsp ,yf;fKiwg; tiyglf;fU %baRw;Wj; njhiyfhl;rpg;

glf;fUtp glf;fUtp tp glf;fUtp
tUbfs;
rkjsg;gLif tUb fhe;jik thpAU xspapay; Fwp xspapay; thpAU

thrpg;ghd; fz;lwpjy; fz;lwpjy;
tiutpay; ,yf;f ,yf;fkhf;fp Xyp cs;sPL EZf; Fg;gd;dp

tptukhf;fp
tpirg;gyifapd; Clhf cs;sPL nra;atij tpl Neub cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdq;fspd;

ed;ikfs;.
1. jhdpaq;F Kiwapy; juT> gbkq;fs; my;yJ fhnzhspfs; vd;gdtw;iw

cs;thq;Fk;. Kiwikf;Fj; juT cs;sPL nra;tjw;F kdpj jiyaPL
Njitg;glhjjdhy; juT cs;sPl;bw;fhd nryT FiwfpwJ.
2. Jy;ypak; - Neubahfj; juT cs;sPl;Lrhjdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpg; gpio ,d;wp
cs;;splg;gLfpwJ.
3. Fiwe;j Neuk; - juT cs;sPL nray;Kiw nraw;jpwdha; cs;sJ.
ntspaPl;Lr;rhjdq;fs;
jpiu
1. fNjhl;Lf;fjpu; jpiu (Cathode Ray Tube Monitor)

,yj;jpudpay; fw;iw xd;W ngh];Nghunrd;l; (phosphorescent) Nkw;gug;gpy; fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;j;
jhf;Fifapy;> fNjhl;Lf; fjpuf;; Foha; jpiuapy; glq;fs; fhl;rpg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
2. LCD Monitor (using Thin Film Transistor-TFT) jputg;gspq;Fj; jpiu

jputg;gspq;Fj; jpiuahdJ TFT njhopy;El;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jp cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,it
ngUk;ghYk; notebook and laptop fzpdpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. xt;nthU juTfSk; pixel
,dhy; tiff;Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
61
3. xspfhYk; ,Uthap jpiu (Light Emitting Diode Monitor )
jl;ilj; jpiuahdJ fzpdpj;jpiuahf my;yJ njhiyf;fhl;rpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
xspfhYk; ,Uthap jpiuapd; mD$yq;fs;

 tpiy FiwT.
 ek;gfjd;ik $baJ.
 Fiwe;j ntg;gepiyapy; ,aq;ff; $baJ> kw;Wk; Fiwe;j rf;jpEfu;T nfhz;lJ.
 cau; epwkhw;wy; tpfpjk; (contrast ratio) nfhz;lJ.
 ePz;l tho;ehs; kw;Wk; Fiwe;j #oy; jhf;fk;.
mr;Rnghwp
mr;Rg;nghwpfs; XU epiyahd efiyj; jhahupf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1. Gs;sp mikTU mr;Rg;nghwp

,J xU mr;Rj; jiyapidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,J Kd;Nehf;fpAk; gpd;Nehf;fpAk;; mirtjd;
%yk; ik fhzg;gLk; gl;bfis mOj;Jtjd; Clhff; fhfpjq;fspy; ntspaPl;bidj;
jUfpd;wd. ,J jl;lr;R ,ae;jpuj;jpd; njhopy;El;gj;jpw;F xg;ghdJ.
2. ik gPr;R mr;Rg;nghwp
,jd; njhopDl;gkhdJ mr;Rg;nghwpapd; mr;rpLk; jiyahd rpwpa ntt;;Ntwhd
Kidfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,it jets vd miof;fg;gLk;. fljhrpahdJ mr;Rg;nghwpapd;
mr;Rj;jiyapidf; fle;J nry;Yk; NghJ Kidfs; tbtikf;fg;gl;l vOj;Jf;fisAk;
tbtq;fisAk; tiutjw;fhf ikapidf; fljhrpfspd; Nky; gPr;Rk;.
3. Nyru; mr;Rg;nghwp
Nfhg;Gf;fs; mr;Rg;nghwpf;F mr;R vLg;gjw;fhfr; nrd;wTld; Nyru;; fjpuhdJ selenium-
coated drum ,y; tiutjd; Clhf ,yj;jpudpay; Vw;wk; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;. Vw;wk; Vw;wg;gl;l
drum MdJ toner Clhfr; RoYk;; NghJ fha;e;j Jzpf;iffshff; fhzg;gLk; ik
,jDld; xl;Lk;. ,g;nghOJ ik Vw;wg;gl;l drum MdJ fljhrpapd; kPJ khw;wg;gl;L
ntg;g mOj;jk; nfhLg;gjd; Clhf cWjpahf;fg;gLk;.
4. Graphic plotter
fzpdpapy; ,Ue;J fl;lisfs; fpilf;fg;gl;l cld;> xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l
jd;dpr;irahd vOJfUtpapidg; gad;gLj;jpf; NfhLfis Graphic plotter
tiuAk;.
kj;jpa fl;Lg;ghl;L myFk; mjw;Fg; nghUe;jf;$ba jha;g;gyifAk;
1. jhq;FFop (Socket) ,irT

kj;jpa fl;Lg;ghl;L myF MdJ jha;g;gyifj; jhq;FFopf;Fg; nghUe;jf;$bajhf
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
2. rpy;Yj;njhFjp (Chipset) ,irT
kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpw;Fg; nghUe;jf;$ba rpy;Yj;njhFjpia mwpe;jpUj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;. rpy;Yj;njhFjpfs; AMD, Intel and Nvidia vDk; ngau;fspy; fhzg;gLk;.
3. jha;g;gyifapd; Nthw;msT jug;gl;l kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpdhy; toq;fg;gl;l ntg;g

tbtikg;G tY (TDP) ,w;F ,irTilajhff; fhzg;glNtz;Lk;.
4. mbg;gil cs;sPL> ntspaPL Kiwikapd; (BIOS) ,irT

NjitNaw;gbd;> kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpw;F cjtf;$ba tifapy;; BIOS ,idj;
jw;fhyg;gLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
62
Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;
1. epiyahd cs;sf fhe;j td;jl;L

td;jl;lhdJ juTfisr; Nrkpf;fg; gad;gLk.; ,jpy; ,yf;fKiwj; jfty;fisr;
Nrkpg;gjw;Fk; kPsg;ngWtjw;Fk; fhe;jkakhf;fg;gl;l xd;W my;yJ xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l
RoYk; jl;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
2. ntspaf td;jl;L
,J fzpdpapd; USB Jiwapy; ,izf;f$ba xU
nfhz;Lnry;yf;$ba ntspaf td;jl;lhFk;.
3. fhe;j ehlh
,J ,yj;jpudpay; juTfis xU fhe;j Nkw;gug;gpy; Nrkpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLk; xU gioa
njhopy;El;gj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; xU Njf;f rhjkhFk;. ,J ngUk;ghYk; mbg;gilapy;
Nrkpg;gjw;Fk; fhg;ngLg;gjw;Fk;; gad;gLk; rhjdkhFk;. Fiwe;j nrytpy; ePz;l
ehl;fSf;Fj; juTfisr; Nrkpf;Fk;; xU Njf;fr; rhjdkhf ,J gad;gLfpd;wJ. ,J
juTfisj; njhlu;rr ; pahd Kiwapy; ifahSfpd;wJ vOkhw;W mZfy; Kiw ,q;F
gad;gLtjpy;iy. ,jd; Clhff; FWfpa Neuj;jpy; juTfis vLf;f KbahJ.
4. xspapay; tl;Lf;fs; (Optical discs)

Nyru; fjpu;fisg; gad;gLj;jpj; juTfis thrpg;gjw;Fk; Nrkpg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLk; xU
xspapay; Njf;fr; rhjdk; ,JthFk;.
tif nfhs;ssT
CD-ROM 650-900 MB
CD-R
CD-RW
DVD-ROM 4.7-9.4 GB
DVD-R
DVD-RW
DVD-RAM
Blu-Ray 25-128 GB
DVD-RAM - DVD-RAM ,it vOkhw;W mZfy; epidtfk; Nghd;wit. ,jpy; kPz;Lk;

kPz;Lk; thrpj;jy; vOjy; kw;Wk; mopj;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpid Nkw;nfhs;sKbAk;. DVD-RAM
MdJ DVD-RW ,idf; fhl;bYk; EhW klq;F kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOjg;glf;$baJ.
5. gspr;rPl;Lr; nrYj;jp
63
6. epidtf ml;il (Memory card)
rkhe;juf; fzpik (Parallel computing)
rkhe;juf; fzpj;jy; vd;gJ fzpj;jypd; xU tifahFk;. ,J gy nray;epuy;fs; my;yJ

Kiwtopahf;fq;fs; xNu jlitapy; eilngWtijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,jpy; rpf;fyhd
gpur;rpidfs; rpWgFjpfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;L> gpd;du; mit xNu Neuj;jpy; jPu;f;fg;gLfpd;wd.
ngupa gzp xd;W rpW rpW gFjpfshf;fg;gl;L mit xNu Neuj;jpy; Kiwtopahf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,it xU fzpdpapy; my;yJ xU tiyaikg;gpy; ,izf;fg;gl;l fzpdpapd; Clhf
Kiwtopahf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
fPof
; hzg;gLtJ vspa kw;Wk; rkhe;ju Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;F cjhuzkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
Y = (4 x 5) + (1 x 6) + (5 x 3)
vspa Kiwtopahf;fj;jpy; Y ,d; ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpg;gjw;Fg; gpd;tUk; gbKiwfs;

 gb 1: Y = 20 + (1 x 6) + (5 x 3)
 gb 2: Y = 20 + 6 + (5 x 3)
 gb 3: Y = 20 + 6 + 15
 gb 4: Y = 41
rkhe;ju fzpj;jypy; fPo; cs;s fzpj;jy; gbKiwfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 Step 1: Y = 20 + 6 + 15
 Step 2: Y = 41
rkhe;ju fzpj;jypd; %ykhff; fzpj;jy; Ntfkhf nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. xU fzpdpapidg;

gad;gLj;jp Fwpj;j gzpapid Nkw;nfhs;Sk; NghJ X Neuk; vLf;fpd;wJ vdf; fUjpdhy;>
Fwpj;j mNj gzpapid ,uz;L fzpdpfisf; nfhz;L Nkw;nfhs;Sk; NghJ Kjy; vLj;j
Neuj;jpd; miuthrpahFk;. ,t;thNw %d;W fzpdpfs; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ Fwpj;j mNj
gzpf;F vLf;Fk; Neuk; %d;W klq;fhy; FiwtilAk;. ,J rhkhe;ju fzpj;jypd;
nraw;ghl;il tpsq;Ftjw;F vspikahd cjhuzkhFk;.
vdpDk; eilKiwapy; ,J vg;NghJk; cz;ikay;y.
 gzpapidg; gpupf;f Kbahj re;ju;g;gj;jpy;

 gpupf;fg;gl;l gFjpfs; rkdhff; fhzg;glhj re;ju;g;gj;jpy;.
 gzpfs; gpupf;fg;gl;l gpd;du; njhlu;GgLj;jg;glhik.
vdNt> xU nray;jpwd; mjpfupg;Gg; nghJthf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ me;j mjpfupg;G xU

#j;jpuj;jpidAk; gpd;gw;whJ.
Nfhl;Lr;rl;lff; fzpik (Grid computing)
Nfhl;Lr;rl;lff; fzpik vd;gJ rpf;fyhd gpur;rpid xd;wpidj; jPu;g;gjw;fhf

,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; gy vz;zpf;ifapyhd fzpdpfspd; tpepNahfpf;fg;gl;l fl;likg;G MFk;.
Nfhl;Lr;rl;lff; fzpikapy; Nrkpg;gfq;fSk; jdpahs; fzpdpfSk; Rje;jpukhd gzpfisf;
nfhz;L ,aq;fty;yd. ,it gzpfis Nkw;nfhs;s nkypthd ,izaj;jpid my;yJ
Fiwe;j Ntf tiyaikg;gpidAk; nfhz;Ls;sd. fzpdp NeubahfNth my;yJ jpl;lkply;
mikg;GfspNyh ,izf;fg;glyhk;. Nfhl;Lr;rl;lf mikg;ghdJ mjDld; ,izf;fg;gl;l
mNj tsq;fisg; $l;lhfg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. Nfhl;Lr;rl;lf mikg;ghdJ xU nghJthd
64
,yf;if milAk; nghUl;Lj; jfty;fisAk; gzpfisAk; tiyaikg;Gf; fzpdpfSf;F
tpepNahfpg;gjw;fhf ,Uf;Fk; xU gpujhd fzpdpahFk;;. md;whlk; gad;gLk; rpf;fyhd my;yJ
fbdkhd fzpj my;yJ tpQ;Qhd fzf;fPLfis Nkw;nfhs;s ,J gad;gLfpwJ.
gpd;tUtd Nfhl;Lr; rl;lf gpuNahfj;jpw;Fk; gad;ghl;L tbtq;fSf;Fkhd cjhuzq;fs;

MFk;.
 gpur;rpidapidg; nghUj;jkhd tpjj;jpy; gpupj;jy; gad;ghLfspd; ghFgLj;jy;.

 gzpfs; kw;Wk; gzpaplq;fisf; fz;LgpLj;jy; kw;Wk; jpl;lkply;.
 Njitg;gLk; NghJ vg;NghJ Ntz;LkhdYk; rpf;fy; juit tpepNahfpf;Fk; juTj;
njhlu;ghly;.
 gad;ghl;Lf; FwpaPLfs; Fwpg;gpl;l fzpzp Kidfspy; (nodes) toq;Fjy; kw;Wk;
tpepNahfpj;jy;.
 Rw;Wr; #oy; KbntLf;Fk; nray;fspy; cjTjy; kw;Wk; KbTfspd; Kfhik.
 Ra fl;likg;G> jd;dpaf;fthf;fk;> Ra kPl;G kw;Wk; Ra Kfhik Nghd;w jd;dpaf;f
mk;rq;fs;.
Kiwg;gLj;jy; (Schedulers)
gpuNahfq;fspd; Ntiyfspd; Nkyhz;ikf;Fg; nghWg;ghd gad;ghLfspd; tiffs;> kw;Wk;

Fwpg;gpl;l Ntiyf;Fj; Njitahd ts xJf;fPL nra;tJ> gzpfisr; rkhe;jukhf
epiwNtw;Wtjw;Fg; gfpue ; ;jspg;gJ> juT Kfhikj;Jtk;> epfo;T njhlu;G kw;Wk; Nrit
mstpyhd Kfhikj;Jt jpwd;fs;> vd;gd Kiwg;gLj;jy; MFk;. ,e;j Kiwg;gLj;jy;fs;
gpd;du; gbepiyf; fl;;likg;ig cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,J kPw;wh Kiwg;gLj;jy; (meta) root kw;Wk;
NtW jho;epiy Kiwg;gLj;jy; vd;gdtw;wpidf; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,it Fwpj;j KiwgLj;jypd;
jd;ikapid gbfspy; nfhz;Ls;sd. Nkw;Fwpj;j Kiwg;gLj;jy;fs; vspa Kiwg;gLj;jy;
eilKiwg;gLj;jy; mZfypid Fwpj;j xU Ntiyf;F my;yJ NtW kPw;wh
Kiwg;gLj;jypid my;yJ nfhj;J Kiwapyhd rhkhe;ju Kiwtopg;gLj;jypidf; nfhz;L
fhzg;gLk;.
65
Njh;rr
; pkl;lk; 2.3 : thd; epA+kd; (Von- Neumann ) fl;likg;ig Muha;tu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 Njf;fpa nra;epuy;; vz;zf;fUit tpsf;Fthu;

 Von Neumann fl;likg;gpd; gpujhd $Wfisg; ngaupLthu;
 jUtpg;G - epiwNtw;Wr; Row;rpia tpgupg;ghu;
 vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f myF(ALU),. fl;Lg;ghl;lyF(CU), gjptfk; juT kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghl;L
ghl;il vd;gtw;wpd; nraw;ghLfisf; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Von Neumann fl;likg;gpid tiue;J mjd; $Wfisg; ngaupLthu;
 gy;fU nray; Kiwtopahf;fpfspd; Njitia tpgupg;ghu;
.
cs;slf;fk;
 Von Neumann fl;likg;G

o Nrkpf;fg;gl;;l nra;epuy;; vz;zf;fU (Stored Program Concept)
o $Wfs:; (cs;sPL> ntspaPL> epidtfk;> Ez;nrayp fl;Lg;ghl;lyF (Processor Control
Unit) kw;Wk; nray;Kiw topahf;fy; ju;f;fmyF(Processing ALU Unit )
 jUtpg;G epiwNtw;Wr; Row;rp (Fetch Execute Cycle)
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyF (CPU)
o vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f myF(ALU).
o fl;Lg;ghl;lyF(CU)
o epidtf gjptfq;fs; (Registers)
o juTfSk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lg; ghl;ilAk; (Control Bus)
o gy;fU nraypfs; (Multicore processors)
 Von Neumann fl;likg;gpd; mbg;gilapyhd fzpdp tiuglk;.

 jUtpg;G epiwNtw;Wr; Row;rp.
 gy;fU nraypfs;.
 IPO khjpupfs; kw;Wk; Nrkpj;j nra;epuy; vz;zf;fU vd;gdtw;wpidf; fye;Jiuahly;.

 Von Neumann fl;likg;G njhFjpapid mjd; njhFjp kw;Wk; mjd; $Wfs;
vd;gtw;Wldhd mwpKfk;.
 Ez;nraypapdhy; mwpTWj;jy;fs; vt;thW Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij tpsf;Fjy;.
 jUtpg;G epiwNtw;W Row;rpapd; mwpKfk;.
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpd; gFjpfisAk;; mjd; nraw;ghLfisAk; tiuaWj;jy;.
 gy;fU nraypfsJ Njit gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;.
fzpg;gl
 Von Neumann fl;likg;G tiugl njhFjpapid tiue;J mjd; gFjpfisg; ngauplr;

nra;jy;.
 fzpdpapd; Gwr;rhjdq;fspid tifg;gLj;jYf;fhd xg;gil xd;wpid toq;fy;.
Kd;itg;Gfs;
66
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Von-Neumann fl;likg;gpd; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myF epidtfk;> cs;sPl;Lr;rhjdq;fs;>

ntspaPl;Lr;rhjdq;fs; vd;gdtw;wpidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. nra;epuy;fs; epidtfj;jpy;
Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwd. fl;Lg;ghl;L myfhdJ xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; epidtfj;jpy; ,Ue;J xU
mwpTWj;jiyg; ngw;W mjidr; nray;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
kj;jpa nraw; ghl;L myF

fl;Lg;ghl;lyF
cs;sl
P ;Lf; ntspaPl;Lf;
fUtpfs; vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f fUtpfs;
myF
epidtf myF
(Source; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture)
,e;jf; fl;likg;gpd; Kf;fpa $Wfs;:
1. kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myF

(i) fl;Lg;ghl;L myF(CU)
,e;j myF fzpdp mikg;gpd; midj;Jg; ghfq;fisAk; rkpQ;ir %ykhff;
fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;
(ii) vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f myF(ALU)
,J fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ
(iii) epidTg; gjptfk;
fzpdp Ez;;nraypapd; xU gFjpahd epidtfg; gjptfk; vd;gJ juTfisr;
Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gad;gLk; xU kpfr;rpwpa Nrkpg;G ,lkhFk;. epidtfg;gjpthdJ
mwpTWj;jy;> Nrkpg;gf Kftup my;yJ juT vd;gdtw;wpidr; Nrkpg;gpy;
itj;jpUf;fyhk;.
2. epidtfk;
(i) Kjd;ik epidtfk;
(ii) Jiz epidtfk;
3. cs;sPl;Lf;fUtp
4. ntspaPl;Lf;fUtp
juTg;ghl;il
fzpdp my;yJ rhjdk; xd;wpw;Fs; ,izg;gpfs; my;yJ tlj;njhFjpfs; vd;gdtw;wpidf;
nfhz;Ls;s juT gupkhw;wj;jpw;F trjpaspf;Fk; xU KiwikahFk;.
fl;Lghl;Lg; ghl;il
rhjdq;fSf;Fk; $WfSf;Fk; gytifahd fl;Lg;ghl;L rkpf;iQfis mDg;Gtjw;Fg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
67
,af;f Row;rp vL
XU mwpTWj;jiy
vLj;jy;
mwpTWj;jiyr; mwpTWj;jiy
nray;gLj;jy; njhluTk;
gy ika nraypfs;
gy ika nraypahdJ ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gy nraw;ghLfis ntt;NtwhfTk;

RahjPdkhfTk; epiwNtw;Wk; myFfshFk;. ,it nra;epuy; mwpTWj;jy;fis thrpj;J
epiwNtw;Wfpd;wd. MfNt xU nraypahdJ ntt;NtW mwpTWj;jy;fis ntt;NtW
gFjpfspy; xNu Neuj;jpy; nraw;gLj;Jk;.
gy ika nraypapd; Njit
1. rpwpa gFjpahfg; gpupg;gjhy; xU nra;epuy; ,af;fkhdJ tpiuthf epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ.

2. ,J rkhe;ju nra;epuyhf;fiy ,aYikg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
3. XU jdpf; fzpdpapy; ,Ue;J mjpf nraw;wpwidg; ngWjy;.
68
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk; 2.4: gy;NtW epidtf tiffisAk; mtw;wpd; jd;ikfisAk; mwpe;J
nfhs;tjw;fhff; fzpdp epidtfj;ij Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs: 06;
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 epidtfg; gbepiyiag; nghUj;jkhd tiuglq;fSld; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;

 gy;NtW tifahd epidtfq;fspd; NjitiaAk; mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
 epiyaw;w kw;Wk; epiyahd epidtfq;fisr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 fzpdpapy; epiyaw;w kw;Wk; epiyahd epidtfq;fisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
 epidtfq;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis Ntfk;> ,Ug;gplk;> nfhs;ssT> mZfy; Kiw> fpuak;>
ngsjpf tif kw;Wk; juTfspd; ngsjpf xOq;fikg;G> tpiy Nghd;wtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; tpgupg;ghu; (bits into words)
 ROM tiffisAk; mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Xt;nthU epidtf tifapidAk; mtw;wpd; mZfy; Neuk;> xU MB f;fhd fpuak;>
nfhs;ssT (Fwpg;ghfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l msT) vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gpl;L
NtWgLj;Jthu;
cs;slf;fk;
 epidtfg; gbepiy
o epidtfg; gbepiyapd; mtrpak;
o xg;gply; tpjpKiwfs;
 ngsjPf msT / juT mlu;j;jp
 mZfy; Kiw
 mZfy; Neuk; (fope;j Neuk;/jhkjk;)
 nfhs;ssT
 fpuak;
 epiyaw;w epidtfKk; mjd; gz;GfSk;
 gjptpfs;
 gJf;F epidtf tiffs;
 gpujhd epidtfk;– RAM
 RAM tiffs;
 SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM
 ROM tiffs;
 PROM, EPROM and EEPROM
 ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfk;
 fhe;j> xspapay; kw;Wk; gypr;rPl;L epidtfk;
 fzpdp epidtfq;fis mtw;wpd; ngsjPf msT> xU myfpw;fhd nryT kw;Wk;

nfhs;sT Nghd;wtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gply;.
 epidtf gbepiyfis Kd;itj;jy;.
 mopjF kw;Wk; mopjfh epidtfq;fs;.
ghlj;jpll;lkplYf;fhd topfhl;b:
 epidtf gbepiyfis tiue;J epidtfq;fis xg;gplTk;.

 mopjF epidtfq;fspidg; gl;baypl;L fzpdp Kiwapy; mtw;wpd; Njit gw;wp
tpsf;Fjy;.
 gJf;F epidtfk; kw;Wk; gpujhd epidtfk; vd;gtw;wpd; tiffisg; gw;wpf;
fye;JiuahlTk;.
 mopjfh epidtfq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; gz;GfisAk; gl;baypLf
 thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtf tiffisg; gw;wpf; fye;JiuahlTk;
69
 Jiz epidtfq;fis mtw;wpd; vOjy; thrpj;jy; njhopDl;gq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;
tifg;gLj;jiy tpgupf;fTk;
fzpg;gl
 xg;gil – khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpup;j;J fPOs;s jiyg;Gfspy; xd;iw toq;fp

mijg;gw;wp rpWFwpg;G xd;wpid vOj topg;gLj;jTk;.
 gjptpfs;
 gJf;F epidtfk;
 jw;;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtfk;
 thrpg;G khj;jpuk; epidtfk;
 Jiz epidtfq;fs;
thrpg;Ggj;jpuk;
epidtf tupirKiw
mjpfupf;Fk; NtfKk; xU mjpfupf;Fk; msT

gpl;Lf;fhd nryTk; nfhs;ssT
gjptpfs;
gJf;F epidtfk;
gpujhd epidthfk;
jpl epiy Nrkpg;G
fhe;jj; jl;L
Xspay; tl;L
fhe;j ehlh
 mopjF epidtfk;
fzpdpapd; epidtfkhd ,r; rhjdj;jpw;F kpd;,izg;G ,Uf;Fk; tiu kl;Lk; mjpy;
fhzg;gLk; juTfis itj;jpUf;Fk;;.
cjhuzk;: gjptpfs;> gJf;F epidtfk;> jw;Nghf;F ngWtop epidtfk;
gJf;F epidtfk;
nraw;gL epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nkd;nghUspdhy; mbf;fb mZfg;gLfpd;w nra;epuy;>

mwpTWj;jy;fisr; Nrkpj;J itg;gjw;F ,e;epidtfk; gad;gLfpwJ.
gJf;F epidtf tiffs;.
 kl;lk;: 1(L1) ,J Ez;nraypapDs; cl;nghjpe;J kpfTk; NtfkhdJk; Xg;gl

P ;lstpy;
rpwpaJk;
 kl;lk;: 2(L2) ,J mNdfkhf L1 ,id tplTk; nfhs;sstpy; $ba ,J
Ez;nraypapDs; my;yJ NtW ,lj;jpy; ,Uf;fyhk;.
70
 kl;lk:; 3(L3) rhjhuzkhf ,J L1, L2 Mfpa ,U tif gJf;F epidtfq;fspdJk;
nraw;jpwid Nkk;gLj;Jk; tifapy; nraw;gLfpd;wJ. ,J L1, L2 ,idf; fhl;bYk;
Fiwe;j Ntfk; nfhz;lJld; gpujhd epidtfj;jpid tpl ,Uklq;F Ntfk; $baJ.
jw;Nghf;F ngWtop epidtfk;

fzpdpapd; gpujhd epidtfkhd ,J nkd;nghUspidr; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;Fj; Njitahd
juTfisAk; fzpdp nraw;gLtjw;Fj; Njitahd juTfisAk; jd;dfj;Nj itj;jpUf;Fk;.
jw;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtf tiffs;.
(i) epiyahd jw;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtfk; (SRAM)

SRAM ,y; gJf;F epidtfk; kw;Wk; gjpapfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
(ii) khWk; jw;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtfk; (DRAM)
DRAM ,y; fhzg;gLk; juTfis itj;jpUg;gjw;fhf ,it njhlu;rr ; pahf
Gj;Japu;g;Gr; nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thW ,y;yhJ tpbd; ,jpy; fhzg;gLk; juTfs;
,of;fg;gLk;.
(iii) Xj;jpirT khWk; jw;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtfk; (SDRAM) –
,J fzpdp Kiwikapd; fbfhuj;Jld; xj;jpirahFk; xU tif
epidtfkhFk;
 mopjfh epidtfk;
,t;tifahd epidtfq;fs; jdf;Fs; Nrkpj;j juTfis kpd;rhuk; ,y;yhj NghJk;

itj;jpUf;Fk;.
cjhuzk;: thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfk;> td;jl;L Nghd;wd
thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfk;
,jpy; cs;slf;fg;gl;l midj;J tplaq;fSk; fzpdp epWj;jg;gl;lhYk; Nrkpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

,jpy; fzpdpia Muk;gpg;gjw;fhd mbg;gil mwpTWj;jw; nra;epuy;fs; Nghd;w mj;jpahtrpa
juTfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfj;jpd; tiffs;
 nra;epuyhf;fj;jF thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfk; (PROM)

,jpy; juit xUKiw kl;Lk; vOjKbAk;. ,jpy; gjpag;gl;l juT epiyahdjhff;
fhzg;gLk;.
 mopjF nra;epuyhf;fj;jF thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfk; (EPROM) $ba nra;epuy; thrpg;G
kl;Lk; epidtfk;
,J xU tpNrl tif epidtfk; MFk;. ,J Gw Cjhf;fjpu; gLk; tiu mjd;
cs;slf;fj;ij itj;jpUf;Fk;. Gw Cjhf;fjpu; epidtfj;jpy; cs;s cs;slf;fq;fis
ePf;Fk; ,jd; %yk; ,e;epidtfk; kPs; epug;gk; nra;aKbAk;.
 kpd;rhu%y mopjF nra;epuyhf;fj;jF thrpg;G kl;Lk; epidtfk; (EEPROM)
,jpy; cs;s juit kpd;Ndw;wy; %yk; mopf;fKbAk;.
Jiz epidtfq;fs;
1. fhe;j Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdk;
,r;Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdj;jpy; Nfl;nghyp> fhnzhsp kw;Wk; NtW tifj; juTfs;
vd;gdtw;iwg; gjpT nra;tjw;fhf XU eLj;ju fhe;jg;Gyq;fis ifahSfpd;wJ.
gpujhd fzpdp Nrkpg;G topKiwfs; nghJthfj; jl;Lf;fis my;yJ
fl;likg;Gfisr; Rw;Wtjd; Clhfj; juTfis thrpg;gjw;F my;yJ Nrkpg;gjw;F
,ay;ghdjhf;fg;gLk;. gy;NtW tifahd fhe;jr; Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: td;jl;L> nefpo; tl;L> fhe;j Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdk;
2. xspapaw; Njf;f rhjdq;fs;

juTfisr; Nrkpg;gjw;Fk; thrpg;gjw;Fk; Nyru; fjpiug; gad;gLj;Jk; ,r;Nrkpg;Gr;
rhjdq;fs; fhg;ngLj;jy; Nehf;fq;fSf;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wd. CD/DVD Nghd;w xspapay;
71
Clfq;fSf;Fj; juT gjpag;gLtJ toikahFk;. gy fhykhf xspapaw; Nrkpg;Gr;
rhjdq;fs; njhlu;ghf ,lk; ngw;w Ma;Tfspd;gb fzpdpfspy; gad;gLk; td;jl;L
kw;Wk; fhg;ngLj;jYf;Fg; gad;gLk; fhe;j ehlhf;fs; vd;gtw;iw xspapay;
tl;Lf;fs; kpf tpiutpy; gjpypg;glf;$Lk; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. xspapaw; Njf;fr;
rhjdq;fs; fhe;j ehlhf;fisf; fhl;bYk; ePz;l ehl;fSf;Fg;
ghtpf;fg;glf;$badthfTk; kw;Wk; #oy; epiyikfSf;Ff; Fiwe;j mstpy; jhf;fk;
nfhz;ljhfTk; fhzg;Lfpd;wd. vdpDk;> ,it td;jl;bidf; fhl;bYk; Nrkpf;Fk;
Ntfk; FiwthfTk; Fiwe;j nfhs;sstpidf; nfhz;ljhfTk; fhzg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; : xspj;jl;L> ,Wtl;L> ,yf;f tPbNah tl;L (DVD)> ePyf;fjpu; tl;L (BRD)
3. jpl epiy Nrkpg;G (SSS)

rpypf;fd; Ez;rpy;Yfisg; gad;gLj;jp jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,r;rhjdq;fs; fzpdp
Nrkpg;gf tifnahd;whFk.; SSS MdJ td;jl;Lfs; my;yJ fhe;j ehlhf;fs;
vd;gtw;wpd; fhe;j mbg;gilapyhd Nrkpg;Gf;Fg; gjpyhf ,yj;jpudpaypidg;
gad;gLj;jpj; juTfisr; Nrkpf;Fk;. jpl epiy Nrkpg;ghdJ fPo;fhzg;gLk; %d;W
tiffisf; nfhz;lJ.
solid-state drives (SSD)
solid-state cards (SSC)
solid-state modules (SSM)
jpl epiy Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fs; ve;j tpjkhd ,ae;jpu ghfq;fisAk; nfhz;bUf;fhik
kpfg;gpujhdkhd gad;ghlhf cs;sJ. ,J juTfisr; Nrkpf;Fk; nghOJk; gupkhWk;
nghOJk; Vida Njf;fr; rhjdq;fspidf; fhl;bYk; kpf tpiuthdJk;
Nrkpg;gfq;fSf;F ePz;l ghtidapid vjpuT; $wf;$bajhfTk; Nrkpg;Gfis
toq;Ffpd;wJ. Vd; vdpd; ,jpy; miraf;$ba gFjpfs; xd;Wk; fhzg;glhjJld; SSD
fs; HDD ,id tpl kpff;Fiwe;jsT ntg;gjpid ntspapLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: gspr;rPl;L epidtfk;> epidtf ml;il.
epidtfj;ij mZFk; Kiw

(i) tupirKiw
njhlf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;J njhlq;fpg; gbg;gbahf thrpj;jy;
cjhuzk;: ehlh(Tape)
tupirKiw
(ii) jw;Nghf;F mZfy;

jdpg;gl;l Kftupia Neubahf milahsk; fz;L jutpid Neubahf
mZfyhk;.
cjhuzk;: jw;Nghf;Fg; ngWtop epidtfk; (RAM )
jw;Nghf;F mZFKiw
72
Njh;rr
; p 3 : juTfs; vt;thW fzpdpapy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijAk; mit
vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfspy; gad;gLj;jg; gLk; tpjj;ijAk; fz;lha;thu;
Njh;rr
; p kl;lk; 3.1: vz; juTfs; fzpdpapy; vt;thW gpujpepjpj;Jtg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij
gFg;gha;;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 10
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 fzpdpapy; juTfs; ,U epiyfisg;; gad;gLj;jpg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwia

tpgupg;ghu;
 ntt;NtW tifahd vz;Kiwikfspd; mtrpaj;ij tpgupg;ghu;
 ntt;NtW tifahd jrk vz;fs; fzpdpapy; vt;thW Nrkpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gij
tpgupg;ghu;
 jrk KO vz;fisj; Jtpj> vz;k > gjpdWk vz; KiwikfSf;Fk; vjpu;khwhfTk;
khw;Wthu;
 Jtpj vz;fisg; gjpdWk> vz;k Kiwikf;Fk; vjpu;khwhfTk; khw;Wthu;
 MSB gpl; MdJ jug;gl;l Jtpj ngWkjp xd;wpd; epug;gpf;F khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gij
milahsg; gLj;Jtjw;Fg; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
 vz;k vz;iz Jtpj> gjpdWk Kiwikf;Fk; vjpu;khwhfTk; khw;Wthu;
 jug;gl;l Jtpjg; ngWkjpia ,uz;bd; epug;gpf;F khw;Wthu;
 xd;wpd; epug;gp ,uz;bd; epug;gp vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk;
 fzpdpapy; juT gpujpepjpj;Jt Kiwfs;:

,U epiyfspy; juT gpujpepjpj;Jtk;. (0,1 )
 fzpj;jypy; ghtpf;fg;gLk;; vz;Kiwikfs; (Number Systems)

 Jtpjk; (Binary)> vz;kk; (Octal)> gjpdWkk; (Hexadecimal)
 vz;KiwikfSf;fpilapyhd khw;wy;fs;
 jrk vz;fspd; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;
(signed) FwpaPblg;gl;lJk;FwpaPblg;glhjJk;; (Unsigned)
 Fwpaplg;gl;l KO vz;fspd; (Integers) gpujpepjpj;Jtk;

 Fwpaplg;gl;l tPr;rsT (signed magnitude)
 Xd;wpd; epug;gp
 ,uz;bd; epug;gp
 xU ,yf;fKiwapypUe;J ,d;ndhU ,yf;f Kiwikf;F ,yf;fk; xd;iw khw;Wtjw;Fg;

gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU tpjpKiw
 khw;wg;gl;l vz;zpd; ,yf;fq;fisf; fhl;Ltjw;F xU epakr;nray;Kiw cs;sJ
 gjpd;k vz; fzpjj;jpw;fhd epiyahd Gs;sp> kpjitg;Gs;sp tbtq;fs;
 FwpaPl;Lg; gupkhdk;> xd;wpd; epug;gp> ,uz;bd; epug;gp Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp kiw
vz;fspd; vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;
fzpdpAld; njhlu;Ggl;l ,yf;fKiwj; juTfisf; Fwpf;Fk; Kiwfs; gw;wp tprhupg;Nghk;.
gpd;tUk; ,yf;fKiw khw;wq;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;f.

73
 gjpd;k vz;fisj; Jtpj> vz;k> gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;Wjy;.
 Jtpj vz;fis vz;k> gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;Wjy;.
 vz;k vz;fisg; gjpd;k> Jtpj> gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;Wjy;.
 gjpdWk vz;fisg; gjpd;k> Jtpj> vz;k vz;fshf khw;Wjy;.
fzpg;gL
P kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;bw;fhd topfhl;ly;.
 vz;khw;wq;fis ed;F guPl;rpag;gLj;jpf;nfhs;tjw;F NghjpasT tpdhf;fis toq;Ff.
ju tpUj;jpcs;sPLfs;:
Kd;itg;Gfs;> ,iza trjp
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
,yf;fKiwr; rhjdq;fs; midj;Jk; vz;KiwikfshfNt gpujpepjpj;Jtg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
,yf;fq;fs;> vOj;Jf;fs;> tbtq;fs;> glq;fs;> xyp> fhnzhsp kw;Wk; midj;Jg; gy;Y}lf

rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; ,yf;fKiw rhjdq;fspy; mwpTWj;jy;fs; vz;KiwikapNyNa
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
midj;J ,yf;fKiwr; rhjdq;fSk; jrk vz;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf Jtpj vz;fisNa
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. ,yf;fKiwr; rhjdj;jpy; kpfr;rpwpa myF gpl; MFk;.
xU gpl; vd;gJ xU Jtpj ,yf;fk;. mjhtJ 0 my;yJ 1 vd;w ,yf;fk; MFk;.
fzpdpapd; nraw;ghLfs;> vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; midj;Jk; gpl;Lfs; MfNt
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLk;. gpl;Lfspd; FOf;fs; %yk; ngupa tplaq;fisg;
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,yf;fq;fs;> vOj;Jf;fs;> nrhw;fs;> ngau;fs;> glq;fs;> mwpTWj;jy;fs;.
gpl;fspd; FOf;fshdJ mtw;wpd; cs;slf;fj;jpNyNa jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
kdpjd; fzpdpAld; ,ilj;njhlu;igg; NgZtjw;F ntt;NtW ,yf;f Kiwikfs;

Njitg;gLfpd;wd. kdpjdhy; mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd xd;Wf;fs;> G+r;rpaq;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
njhFjpia epidtpy; itj;Jf;nfhs;sJ fbdkhFk;. kdpjdhy; Jtpj ,yf;f Kiwikfis
thrpg;gJk; jpUj;JtJk; rpukkhdjhf fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. tpj;jpahrkhd fl;likg;Gila
fzpdpfSf;F ,ilapyhd Jtpj vz; Kiwapyhd Nfhg;Gg; gupkhw;wj;jpd; NghJ Fog;gk;
Vw;glyhk;. kdpjd; vz;k> gjpdWk vz;Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ,yFthf
Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
gjpd;k vz;fs;
 vkJ md;whl tho;f;iff;F ,e;j ,yf;f KiwikahdJ kpfTk; neUq;fpaJ.
 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 Mfpa ,yf;fq;fshy; ,J cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,e;j ,yf;fKiwikapy; gj;J ,yf;fq;fs; fhzg;gLtjhy; ,J gjpd;k vz; Kiwik vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 kdpjd; jdJ iffspy; gj;J tpuy;fis itj;jpUg;gjhy; ,e;j ,yf;f Kiwik
gpugy;akile;jjhf ek;gg;gLfpwJ.
 vt;thwhapDk;> ,e;j gj;J ,yf;fq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpg; ngupa vz;nzhd;iw
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLj;jyhk;.
 jrkg; Gs;spahdJ xU ,yf;fj;jpd; gpd;dg;gFjp xd;iwg; gpupj;Jf;fhl;Ltjw;F
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 “+” FwpahdJ Neu; vz;fisf; Fwpg;gjw;Fk; “-” FwpahdJ kiw vz;fisf; Fwpg;gjw;Fk;
milahskhfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
c-k; :- +10.235
- 25.321
74
KO vz;fs;
 KO vz;fs; vz;fspd; xU njhilahFk;;.
 ,aw;if vz;fs; (0, 1, 2, 3...) kw;Wk; kiwvz;fs; (-1,-2,-3,…) vd;gd KO vz;fshFk;.
 jrkvz;fSk; gpd;dq;fSk; KO vz;fshf ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
c-k; . :- 0.75, 8.5
gjpd;k vz; Kiwik

 ,e;j vz; KiwikahdJ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 vd;w 10 ,yf;fq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.
 Fwpg;gpl;l xU vz;zpd; kjpg;ghdJ> mt; ,yf;fk; 9 vd;w vz;iztplg; ngupjhf mikAk;
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; vz;zpd; kjpg;Gf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahdJ gj;jpd; klq;Ffshy; mLj;j ,l
kjpg;gpw;F (,lJ gf;fk;) khw;wg;gLk;. mLj;j ,lj;jpd; kjpg;ig ngw xt;nthU ,l kjpg;Gk;
gj;Jfshy; ngUf;fg;gLk;.
E.g. :- 3456= 3 x 103 + 4 x 102 + 5 x 101 + 6 x 100

= 3000 + 400 + 50 + 6
= 3456
gjpd;k vz;Kiwikapy; kjpg;Ngw;Wk; fhuzpahf gj;jpd; tYf;fspd; ngWkjp
fhzg;gLtjhy; gjpd;k vz;Kiwikapd; mbg;ngWkjpahf 10 fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Jtpj vz; Kiwik

 Jtpjvz;KiwikahdJ ,U ,yf;fq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mit ,U epiyfshf
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLk;.
 mit“0”, “1” My; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
 vdNt ,q;F ,uz;L ,yf;fq;fSld; $ba vz; Kiwik gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
 ,q;F kjpg;Ngw;Wk; fhuzpahf ,uz;bd; tYf;fs; fhzg;gLfpwd. mit gpd;tUkhW>
24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 ,lg; ngWkjp
 MfNt Jtpj vz; Kiwikapd; mbg; ngWkjp 2 MFk;.
 kpd;rhuj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; xU ,yj;jpudpay; rhjdkhff; fzpdp njhopw;gLk; re;ju;g;gj;jpy;> ,jd;
njhopw;ghLfs; ahTk; ,U epiyfspNy fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 mt; ,U epiyfs; : kpd;rhuk; njhopw;gLk; kw;Wk; njhopw;glh epiy MFk;.
(kpd;dOj;jj;jpd; ,U NtWgl;l epiyfs;)
 Jtpj vz;zpd;; ngWkjpiag; ngWtjw;F 0> 1 (Jtpj vz; Kiwik) I ,uz;bd;
tYf;fshy; mike;j kjpg;Ngw;Wk; fhuzpfspdhy; ngUf;Fjy;.
= 1 x 24 +1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20
E.g. :- 110102
= 1x16+1x8+0x4+1x2+0x1
= 2610
MfNt> 110102 = 2610
xU ,lk; (xU ,yf;fk;) xU gpl; vdg;gLk;. NkNy cs;s ,yf;fj;jpy; 5 gpl;Lfs;

fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
vz;k Kiwik
 ,e;j vz; Kiwikapd; mbg;ngWkjp 8 MFk;.
 ,k;Kiwikapd;; ,yf;fq;fs; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ,7 MFk;.
 ,k;Kiwikapd; ,lg;ngWkjpfshtd :
82 81 80 8-1 8-2
64 8 1 1/8 1/64
,lg;ngWkjp
75
c-k;. :- 6738 = 6 x 82 +7 x 81 + 3 x 80
= 6x64+7x8+3x1
= 44310
MfNt> 6738 = 44310
gjpdWk vz; Kiwik

 gjpdWk vz; Kiwikapd; mbg; ngWkjp 16 MFk;.
 gjpdWk vz; Kiwikapy; 16 ,yf;fq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 9 I tpl ngupa ,yf;fj;jpw;F
,U ,lq;fs; Njit. MfNt mtw;iw tif Fwpf;f A, B, C, D, E, F Mfpad
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,k; Kiwikapy; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F Mfpa
,yf;fq;fs; fhzg;gLk;.
 kpff; Fiwe;j ngWkjpahf 0 ck; mjp$ba ngWkjpahf F (1510) ck; fhzg;gLk;.
 gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fq;fs; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; ngWkjpfs; tUkhW.
gjpdWk vz; 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
gjpd;k vz; 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
c-k; :- BC1216 = B(11) x 163 +C(12) x 162 + 1 x 161+ 2 x 160

= 11×163+12×162+1×161 +2×160
= 11x4096 + 12 x256+ 1x16+2x1
= 45056 + 3072 + 16 + 2
= 48146
MfNt BC1216 = 4814610
gjpd;k vz; 765.43 I gpd;tUkhW ml;ltizg;gLj;jyhk;.
100 10 1 1/10 1/100

,lg;ngWkjp 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
,yf;fq;fs; 7 6 5 4 3 765.43
ngWkjp 700 60 5 0.4 0.03
mjpf kjpg;Gila ngWkhdKk; (MSD) kpff; Fiwe;j kjpg;Gila ngWkhdKk; (LSD)
MSD – xU ,yf;fj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; ngWkjp kpff; $ba ,yf;fk;.

LSD - xU ,yf;fj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; ngWkjp kpff; Fiwe;j ,yf;fk;.
Number MSD LSD

E.g.:-
2975.0 2 5
56.034 5 4
0.03145 3 5
0031.0060 3 6
76
vz; KiwikfSf;F ,ilapyhd khw;wL P fs;.
1. gjpd;k vz;fis Jtpj vz;fshf khw;wL P nra;jy;.
 jug;gl;l gjpd;k vz;iz 2 My; tFf;Ff.
 gpupj;jy; milahsj;jpd; fPo; KO vz;zpyhd tpilia vOJf.
 kpFjpia(0 or 1) <Tj;njhifapd; tyJ gFjpapy; vOJf.
 gjpd;k vz;zpd; <T 0 MFk; tiu njhlu;e;J ,uz;lhy; tFj;J kpFjpia tyJ
gf;fj;jpy; vOJf.
 fPopUe;J Nkyhf 1f;fs;> 0 fspd; njhliu vOJjy;.
c-k;:- 1210vd;w vz;izj; Jtpj ,yf;fkhf khw;Wjy;
Kjypy; ,t; ,yf;fj;ij ,uz;lhy; tFj;jy;.
2 12 kpFjp
2 6 0
2 3 0 1210 = 11002
2 1 1
0 1
<T
2. gjpd;k vz;iz vz;k vz;zhf khw;Wjy;.

 jug;gl;l gjpd;k vz;iz 8 My; tFj;jy;.
 gpupj;jy; milahsj;jpd; fPo; KO vz;zpyhd tpilia vOJf.
 kpFjpia (0 njhlf;fk; 7 tiu) <Tj;njhifapd; tyJ gFjpapy; vOJf.
 gjpd;k vz;zpd; <T 0 MFk; tiu njhlu;e;J 8 My; tFj;J kpFjpia tyJ gf;fj;jpy;
vOJf.
 fPopUe;J Nkyhf kPjpfspd; njhliu vOJjy;
E.g.:- 24510vd;w vz;iz vz;fshf vz;k vz;zhf khw;wL

P nra;jy;.
8 245 kpFjp
8 30 5
8 3 6 24510 = 3658
0 3
<T
3. gjpd;k vz;fisg; gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;wL P nra;jy;.

 jug;gl;l gjpd;k vz;iz 16 My; tFj;jy;. ,t; tFj;jiy KO vz;zhff; fUJf.
 kPjpia vOJjy;. (gjpdWk vz; Kiwikapy; kPjpahdJ 9 I tpl mjpfkhfg;
ngwg;gl;lhy; mJ Mq;fpy vOj;jhy; gpujpaplg;gLk; cjhuzkhf kPjp 12 ngwg;gLk;
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; mJ “C” vd vOj Ntz;Lk;)
 kpFjp 0 MFk; tiu NkNy jug;gl;l gbKiwiwfisj; njhlu;e;J nra;jy;.
 fPopUe;J Nkyhfg; ngwg;gl;l gjpdWk,yf;f Kiw kPjpfspd; njhliu vOJjy;.
E.g.:- 324010 I gjpdWk ,yf;fkhf khw;Wjy;.
16 3240 kpFjp
16 202 8
16 12 10(A) 324010 = CA816
0 12 (C)
<T
77
gjpd;k gpd;dq;fisj; Jtpj ,yf;fkhf khw;Wjy;.
 gjpd;k vz;zpd; jrk vz;fis ,uz;lhy; ngUf;Fjy;.
 jrkg; gFjpahdJ 0 Mf tUk;tiu ,uz;lhy; ngUf;Fjy;.
 ngwg;gLk; ngWkjpfspd; jrk Gs;spf;F ,lJGwk; fhzg;gLk; vz;fis mNj tupirapy;
vOJjy;.
c-k;:- 0.312510I Jtpj vz;zhf khw;Wf.
0.3125 x2
0 .625 x2 0.312510 = 0.01012

1 .25 x2
0 .50 x2
1 .00
gjpd;k gpd;dq;fis vz;k ,yf;fkhf khw;Wjy;.

 jug;gl;l gjpd;k gpd;dq;fis 8 My; ngUf;Fjy;.
 gjpd;k gFjpahdJ 0 Mf tUk; tiu 8 My; ngUf;Fjy;.
 ngwg;gLk; ngWkjpfspd; jrk Gs;spf;F ,lJGwk; fhzg;gLk; vz;fis mNj tupirapy;
vOJjy;.
c-k; : 0.312510I vz;k vz;zhf khw;Wf.
0 0.3125 x8
2 .50 x8 0.312510 = 0.248

4 .0 x8
Jtpj vz;fisg; gjpd;k vz;fshf khw;wL

P nra;jy;.
c-k;:- 11012I gjpd;k vz;zhf khw;Wf.

1 1 0 12
3
2 22 21 20 ,lg; ngWkjp
11012 = (1x23) + (1x22) + (0x21) + (0x20)

= (1x8) + (1x4) + (0x2) + (1x1)
=8+4+0+1
11012 = 1310
78
vz;k vz;fisg; gjpd;k vz;fshf khw;wL P nra;jy;.
c-k; :- 12608 I gjpd;k vz;fshf khw;Wf.
1 2 6 08
83 82 81 80 ,lg;ngWkjp
12608 = (1x83) + (2x82) + (6x81) + (0x80)
= (1x512) + (2x64) + (6x8) + (0x1)
= 512 + 128 + 48 + 0
12608 = 68810
gjpdWk vz;fisg; gjpd;k vz;zhf khw;Wjy;.

c-k;:- A0B116I gjpd;k vz;fshf khw;Wf.
A(10) 0 B(11) 116
3 2
16 16 161 160 ,lg;ngWkjp
A0B116 = (10x163) + (0x162) + (11x161) + (1x160)
= (10x4096) + (0x256) + (11x16) + (1x1)
= 40960 + 0 + 176 + 1
A0B116 =4113710
Jtpj vz;fis vz;k vz;zhf khw;Wjy;.

Jtpj vz;fspy; cs;s ,yf;fq;fis (1>0) fis 3 ,yf;fq;fs; nfhz;ljhf tyJ
gf;fj;jpypUe;J FOf;fshf;Fjy;. 3 ,yf;fq;fs; nfhz;l FOf;fshf mikf;Fk; NghJ
NghjpasT ,yf;fq;fs; ,y;yhjtplj;J ,lJ gf;fj;jpw;F 0 fis ,izj;jy;. mLj;J xt;nthU
FOf;fspYk; fhzg;gLk; 3 ,yf;fq;fis ,l kjpg;gPLfshy; ngUf;Fjy; %yk;; mtw;wpd;
$l;Lj;njhiffisg; ngWjy;. vz;k vz;izg;ngw midj;ijAk; xd;whf ,izj;jy;.
c-k; :- 100110112
FOf;fshf;fy; :10,011,0112
%d;W ,yf;fq;fspyhd FOf;fis cUthf;fg; G+r;rpaq;fisr; Nru;j;jy;.010, 011, 0112

=(0x22+ 1x21 + 0x20), (0x22+ 1x21 + 1x20), (0x22+ 1x21 + 1x20)
=(0+2+0), (0+2+1), (0+2+1)
=2, 3, 3
=2338
Jtpj vz;fisg; gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;Wjy;.

Jtpj vz;fspy; cs;s ,yf;fq;fis (1>0) fis 4 ,yf;fq;fs; nfhz;ljhf tyJ
gf;fj;jpypUe;J FOf;fshf;Fjy;. 4 ,yf;fq;fs; nfhz;l FOf;fshf mikf;Fk; NghJ
NghjpasT ,yf;fq;fs; ,y;yhjtplj;J ,lJ gf;fj;jpw;F 0 fis ,izj;jy;. mLj;J xt;nthU
FOf;fspYk; fhzg;gLk; 4 ,yf;fq;fis ,l kjpg;gPLfshy; ngUf;Fjy; %yk;; mtw;wpd;
$l;Lj;njhifapd; ngWkhdj;jpidf; fz;L gdpdWk vz;Kiwikf;fikaf; Fwpj;jy;. gjpdWk
vz;izg;ngw midj;ijAk; xd;whf ,izj;jy;.
c-k; :- 111011001010012 I gjpdWk vz;fshf khw;Wf.

FOf;fshf;fs; 11,1011,0010,1001
= 0011,1011,0010,1001
=(0x23 +0x22 +1x21 +1x20), (1x23 +0x22 +1x21 +1x20), (0x23 + 0x22 +1x21 +0x20),
(1x23 + 0x22 +0x21 +1x20)
= (0+0+2+1), (8+0+2+1), (0+0+2+0), (8+0+0+1)
= 3, 11, 2, 9
= 3B2916
MfNt 111011001010012 = 3B2916
79
vz;k vz;fisj; Jtpj vz;Kiwikf;F khw;Wjy;.
vz;k vz; Jtpj vz;

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
xt;nthU vz;k vz;izAk; 3 ,yf;fq;fisf; nfhz;l Jtpj vz;fshf vOJf. vz;k

vz;zpw;fhd Jtpj vz;izg; ngw midj;ijAk; xd;wpizf;fTk;.
1378 = 001,011,111
= 0010111112
= 10111112
gjpdWk vz;fisj; Jtpj vz;fshf khw;Wf.
vt;nthU gjpdWk vz;izAk; 4 ,yf;fq;fisf; nfhz;l Jtpj vz;fshf vOJf. gjpdWk

vz;zpw;fhd Jtpj vz;izg; ngw midj;ijAk; xd;wpizf;fTk;.
1A9016 = 0001,1010,1001,0000
= 000110101100100002
= 110101100100002
Fwpg;G:- kiw vz;fSf;F Nkyjpf gpl; ngWkjp gw;wpa tpsf;fk; Njit.
,jw;fhf 3 tpsf;fKiwfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
FwpaPl;Lg; gupkhdk; (Sign-Magnitude)
FwpaPL kw;Wk; gupkhd KiwahdJ 8 gpl;fisf; nfhz;l KiwikahFk;. ,jd; mjp$ba

nghUSila gpl; MdJ (MSB) Neu; my;yJ kiwg; ngWkjpiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,jd;gb MSB
MdJ 0 Mf mikAk; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; kpFjp 7 gpl;Lf;fshy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;; vz; Neu; vz; MFk;.
MSB MdJ 1 Mf mikAk; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; kpFjp 7 gpl;Lf;fshy; Fwpf;fg;gLk; vz; kiw vz;
MFk;.
c-k; . :-
+4510,d; Fwpaplg;gl;l Jtpj vz; 001011012
- 4510,d; Fwpaplg;gl;l Jtpj vz; 101011012
xd;wpd; epug;gp kw;Wk; ,uz;bd; epug;gp
xd;wpd; epug;gp kw;Wk; ,uz;bd; epug;gpapd; fopj;jy; nrad;KiwahdJ fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s

#j;jpuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
X- Y = X +2n – Y – 2n
= X +(2n – 1 – Y) +1 – 2n
xd;wpd; epug;gp
,uz;bd; epug;gp
= X + ((2n – 1 – Y)+1) – 2n
80
Y ,Dila xd;wpd; epug;gp = 2n-1-Y
Y ,Dila ,uz;bd; epug;gp = 2n-1-Y+1
E.g. :- X=10, Y=5

X-Y = X + 2n – 1 – Y +1 – 2n 1010 = 000010102
510 = 000001012
1010-510 =1010 + 28 -1 -510 +1 - 28 28 =1000000002
28-1 =1000000002-000000012
=1010 +(-5,dJ Kjyhk; epug;gp ) +1 - 28 =111111112
=000010102+000001012 ,d; Kjyhk; epug;gp + 1-28
5 ,d; Kjyhk; epug;gp =2n – 1 – Y 111111112-

-5 ,d; Kjyhk; epug;gp =28 -1- 000001012 000001012
=111111112-000001012 111110102
5 ,d; Kjyhk; epug;gp =111110102 (,q;F midj;J 1f;fSk; 0
fshfTk;> 0 fs; midj;Jk;
1f;fshfTk; khw;wg;gLfpd;wd.)
Y ,d; ,uz;lhk; epug;gp =2n – 1 – Y +1 111110102+

-5 ,d; ,uz;lhk; epug;gp =111110102+000000012 000000012
=111110112 111110112
1010 -510 = 000010102 +111110112 - 28 X - Y= X +(2n – 1 – Y +1) – 2n

=X+ Y-2n ,d; ,uz;lhk;
epug;gp
= 1000001012-28
000010102+
= 1000001012-1000000002
111110112
1000001012
= 000001012 ( = 510)
100000101-
100000000
000001012
(,q;F KjyhtJ vz; kl;Lk;
ePf;fg;gLfpwJ.)
xd;wpd; epug;gp
xd;wpd; epug;gpapy; Neu;vz;fs; toik Nghy; vg;NghJk; Jtpj vz;fspy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.

,Ug;gpDk; kiw vz;fs; tpj;jpahrkhff; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
xU kiw vz;iz xd;wpd; epug;gpf;F khw;wg; g+r;rpaq;fis xd;whfTk;> xd;Wf;fisg;
G+r;rpakhfTk; khw;w Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf 12= 00001100 MfTk;> - 12=11110011 MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;. ,jpy; ,lg;Gwk; cs;s gpl;
(mjp$ba nghUSila gpl;) Fwpfis milahsg;gLj;Jk;. (,jpy; 1 - kiw vz;izAk; 0 -Neu;
vz;izAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ)
kiw vz;zpd; ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpg;gjw;F Kjypy; gpl;fis khw;wpg; gpd;du; ngwg;gl;l Jtpj
vz;izg; gjpd;k vz;zhf khw;Wjy;.
8 gpl;Lf;fis cila Jtpj tbtj;jpYs;s vz; xd;wpd; epug;gpapy; Neu;> kiw vz;fis
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lk; NghJ Neu; vz;fs; mNj Jtpj tbtj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;.
c-k; :- -120 ,d; xd;wpd; epug;gp 100001112 MFk;.

81
- 60 ,d; xd;wpd; epug;gp 110000112 MFk;.
0 ,id xd;wpd; epug;gp tbtpy; ,uz;L topfs; vOj KbAk;.

010(000000002= +010
111111112= -010 )
,uz;bd; epug;gp
kiwvz; xd;wpd; ,uz;lhk; epug;gpapidf; fhz;gjw;Fg; gpl;fspd; xU jdpahd njhFg;G
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. Fwpj;j kiw vz;zpd; kl;Lg; ngWkjpapidg; gpl;by; Fwpg;gpl;L mjid
Kjyhk; epug;gpf;F khw;wp ,jd; ,Wjp gpl;by; xd;wpidf; $l;lTk;. ,k;Kiw kiw vz;fSf;Nf
kpfTk; nghUj;jkhdJ.
,t;tpsf;fk; Neu; vz;fistpl kiw vz;fSf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdJ. (G+r;rpaj;Jf;F

nghUj;jkhdJ)
c-k;:-
-5 ,d; ,uz;bd; epug;gp vd;gJ 111110112 vDk; tbtpYk; +5 ,d; ,uz;bd;
epug;gp 000001012 vDk; tbtpYk; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
000001012 (+5) ,d; xd;wpd; epug;gp 111110102 MFk;.

111110102+1=111110112
−510 ,uz;bd; epug;gpapy; 111110112 vd Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. (gjpdWk vz;zpy; FB16)
gad;ghL
FwpaPl;Lg; juT $l;ly; my;yJ fopj;jy; nra;ahj NghJ kl;Lk;

gupkhdk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mit xj;jpirapypUe;J ,yf;fKiw khw;wq;fSf;F
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. rpf;fyhd vz;fzpj Rw;Wfs;
Njitg;gLtjhy; mtw;wpd; gad;ghL kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xd;wpd; epug;gp vspikahd fUj;Jf; fhuzkhf td;nghUs; tbtikg;gpy;

fhzg;gLk;.
,uz;bd; epug;gp vz;fzpj nraw;ghLfis nra;tjw;F Fiwe;j nrytpy;
mjpNtf td;nghUs; cUthf;fj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
epiyahd Gs;sp ,yf;fq;fs; (Fixed point numbers)

 ,k; Kiwapyhd fzpj;jypy; Fwpj;j vz;zpf;ifahd gpl;Lfs; jrk Gs;spf;Fg; gpd;dhy;
tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
c-k; :- 763.2135
179.4821 (jrk Gs;sp xt;nthU vz;zpYk; mNj epiyapy; cs;sJ.)
942.6956
ePSk; jrkjhd vz;fs; (Floating point)

ePSk; jrkjhd vz;fs; fPo; fhl;lg;gl;lthW gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
gpd;d vz;fs; c-k;:- 3.1416
kpfr;rpwpa vz;fs; c-k;:- 0.000000001
kpfg; ngupa vz;fs; c-k;:- 3.15576 × 109
c-k;:- -10.625 vDk; xU jdp vz;zpd; ePSk; jrkjhd vz; MdJ fPNo Fwpg;gpl;lthW
tiff;Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
82
Kjypy; 10.625 I Jtpj vz;;zpw;F khw;wTk; (1010.1012)(Kjypy; KO vz;gFjpiaAk; gpd;du;
gpd;dg;gFjpiaAk; jdpj;jdpahf khw;wTk;)
1010.1012 ,d; epak tbtk; 1.010101x23 MFk;
Bias tY gFjpia k Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp vOjTk;. (2k-1-1)
,q;F k w;fhf tY 8 Ig; gpujpapl;lhy;
= 28-1-1
=128-1
=127
tYf;fhd(3) Biased ngWkhdk; = 3+127 = 13010
Jtpj vz;zpd; tYg; gFjp 100000102 (13010) MFk;.
1 10000010 01010100000000000000000
Fwp(Sign) , tY (exponent), Mantissa:

(1) × Mantissa × 2exponent
Mantissa tpd; gpl;Lf;fs; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ ngWkhdk; Jy;ypakhdjhf ,Uf;Fk;
– More bits for exponent increases range
tYtpy; $Ljyhd ngWkhdk; fhzg;gl;lhy; tPr;R mjpfupf;Fk;.
IEEE 754 ePSk; jrkjhd vz;zpd; juepiy

Xw;iwj;Jy;ypak; : 1gpl; Fwp> 8 gpl;tY , 23 gpl;L Mantissa
,ul;ilj;Jy;ypak; : 1gpl; Fwp> 11 gpl; tY, 52 gpl;L Mantissa
mD$yq;fs; gpujp$yq;fs;
tiuaWf;fg;gl;l tPr;Rf;Fs;
rpwe;j nraw;jpwd; vz;fspd; ngWkjpfs;
epiyahd Gs;sp Nkyjpf td;nghUs; my;yJ Fwpf;fg;Lfpd;wd.
gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nkd;nghUs; ju;f;fj;jpy;
rhu;e;jpUf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy.
ePSk; jrkjhd mjpf tPr;Rs;s vz;fs;

vz;fs; Nrkpg;gpw;Ff; $Ljy; ,lk; Njit
Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
gpujpepjpj;Jtk; mjpf Kiwtopahf;fy; Neuk;
NtWgl;l mstpyhd
Fiwe;j Jy;ypak;
Jy;ypaq;fs;.
83
Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 3.2 : vOj;Jj; juTfs; (vOj;JUf;fs;> ,yf;fq;fs;> FwpaPLfs;) fzpdpapy;
vt;thW gpujpepjpj;Jtg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijg; gFg;gha;T nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 fzpdpapy; vOj;JUj; juTfs;
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
 jug;gl;l FwpaPl;ilg; gpujpepjpj;Jt Kiwnahd;wpw;F khw;Wthu;

 ntt;NtW juT gpujpepjpj;J Kiwfspd; mD$yq;fisAk; gpujp$yq;fisAk; tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk;
 vOj;JUj; juTfs; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs;

 BCD
 ASCII
 EBCDIC
 Unicode
 fzpdpfspy; vOj;JUj; juTfspd; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;

 BCD iag; gad;gLj;Jtjd; ed;ikfs;
 EBCDIC, ASCII vd;gdtw;iw xg;gply;
 Unicode I gad;gLj;Jtjd; ed;ikfs;.
 fzpdpapy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk; vOj;JU juT gpujpepjpj;Jt Njit gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;.

 BCD gad;ghl;bd; ed;ikfs; gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;
 ASCII, EBCDIC ml;ltizfis xg;gpl;Lf;fhl;ly;
 Adpf;Nfhl; ,d; Njit gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;
fzpg;gl
vOj;JU juT gpujpepjpj;Jtj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdtw;iwf; fz;lwpAk; tifapyhd xg;gil

xd;wpid toq;fy;
Kd;itg;Gfs;> ,iza trjp> ASCII ml;ltid
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
ASCII, BCD, EBCDIC, UNICODE Mfpa gy epak Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp fzpdpapy;

vOj;JUj; juTfs; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
BCD – (Binary Coded Decimal) CODE

,J xU 4 gpl;; FwpKiw> vz; ngWkjpfshd 0 njhlf;fk; 9 tiuahd 10 vz;fis
FwpKiwg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
Mdhy; 16 (24= 16 ) tpj;jpahrkhd FwpaPLfis(Symbols) toq;fKbAk;.
kPjp 6 ck; (1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111) ngWkjp mw;w Nru;f;iffs;.
84
c-k; :- 10001112 = 0100 0111BCD = 4710
BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ASCII – ASCII (American Standard Codes for Information Interchange)

ASCII ,y; Xt;nthU vOj;JUj; juitAk; Nrkpg;gjw;F 8 gpl;Lf;fs;
vt;thwhapDk; 8MtJ gpl; vOj;JUitg; gupNrhjpf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; mu;j;jk;
xt;nthU vOj;Jk; Nrkpf;f 7 gpl; kl;LNk gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
,jd; %yk; ASCIIapy; Nrkpf;ff; $ba nkhj;j ngWkjp 2^7 = 128
7 gpl; ASCII FwpahdJ mnkupf;f Njrpa juepu;za epWtdj;jhy; (ANSI) mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

8 gpl;; EBCDIC ,d; mbg;gilahdJ IBM ,d; jiyikf; fzpdpapYk; mjw;Fr;
rhjfkhd cgfuzq;fspYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
,jpy; 256 tpj;jpahrkhd vOj;JUj; juTfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
UNICODE
16 gpl;; FwpaPlhdJ jkpo;> rpq;fsk; cs;slf;fpa mjpfkhd nkhopfspd; vOj;JUf;fisf;
Fwpg;gjw;F cWjpAld; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l xU ngauhd unique code gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mD$yq;fs; gpujp$yq;fs;
BCD gjpd;k vz;fis BCD ahf • NghJkhd ,ilntsp ,y;iy

FwpaplypidAk; FwpePf;fiyAk;
(encode, decode) ,yFthfr; •cau;Ntf ,yj;jpudpay; fzpdpfspy;
nra;aKbAk; ,jid cs;gjptpfspd; msTk; nfhs;ssTk;;
kWjiyahfTk; nra;ayhk;. tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhy; BCD iag;
•BCD khw;wpahdJ td;nghUs; gad;gLj;jp tiff;Fwpg;gJ fbdkhf
newpKiwia mKyhf;f cs;sJ.
vspikahdjhFk;.
•rpf;fyhd nraw;ghLfSf;F ALU tpd;
• ,yf;fKiw Kiwikfspy; Neubahd Jtpj,yf;f Kiwik
jfty;fis cs;sPlhf my;yJ Njitg;gLfpd;wJ.
ntspaPlhff; fhl;Ltjw;F kpfTk;
gaDs;sJ. •KOikahd td;nghUs; Rw;wikg;igg;
• ,yj;jpudpay; Nthy;w;khdp> kPbwd; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ fzpj nraw;ghLfspd;
khw;wp> ,yj;jpudpay; fbfhuk; vd;gd Ntfk; Fiwfpd;wJ.
BCD iag; gad;gLj;jp
jfty;fisj; jrk vz;zhf
ntspaPL nra;J fhl;Lfpd;wd.
ASCII • vOj;Jf;fis tupirahf • jug;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy
xOq;FgLj;Jk; Kiw gad; •cyfnkhopfspy; tifg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy
gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
• NtWgl;l gjpg;Gfs; ngUk;ghYk;
,zf;fkhdit
• etPd FwpaPl;Lld;; ,zf;fkhdjhff;
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
85
EBCDIC • ASCII apy; 7 gpl;Lfs; gad;gLj;Jk;
• vOj;Jf;fis tupirahf xOq;FgLj;Jk;
mNjNtis ,q;F 8 Kiw gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy.
gpl;Lfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. • NtWgl;l gjpg;Gfs; ngUk;ghYk;
• ASCIII tpl mjpf vOj;Jf;fs; ,zf;fkhdit my;y
mlq;fpAs;sJ. • etPd FwpaPl;Lld;; ,zf;fkhdjhff;
fhzg;gltpy;iy
UNICODE • jug;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. • ASCII vOj;JUf;fisr; Nrkpf;f ,U
• cyfpy; cs;s ngUk;ghyhd klq;F epidtfk; Njit.
nkhopfisf; Fwpf;fg;gad;gLfpd;wJ.
• ASCII mjd; rkdhdtw;wpid
Adpf;Nfhl;bNdhL nfhz;Ls;sJ.
86
Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 3.3 : Jtpj vz;fspy; mbg;gil vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f hPjpahd nraw;ghLfisg;
gpuNahfpg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 Jtpj vz; $l;ly;fisr; nra;thu;;> (gy vz;fs;> nfhz;L nry;tJlDk; nfhz;L nry;yhkYk;)
 Jtpj vz; fopj;jy;;fisr; nra;thu;;> (nfhz;L tUjYld;;)
 OR,AND, NOT, XOR vd;gtw;wpd; Bit thupahd nraw;ghLfisr; nra;thu;
cs;slf;fk;
 Jtpj vz;fzpj nraw;ghLfs;: (KO vz;fs; khj;jpuk;)
 $l;ly;> fopj;jy;
 ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfs;
 Bit mbg;gil jHf;ftpaw; nraw;ghLfs;(Bitwise Logic Operations)
 nfhz;L nry;yYld; my;yJ nfhz;L nry;yy; mw;w Jtpj vz;fspd; $l;ly;.

 Jtpj vz;zpd; fopj;jy;
 NOT, AND, OR, XOR vd;gdtw;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp gpl; rhu; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfs;
 ,lg;ngWkhdq;fSf;F mika ,uz;L Jtpj vz;fis xd;wpd; fPo; xd;iw vOjpf; $l;Lf.
 $bangWkjp cs;s Jtpj vz;zpw;F fPNo rpwpangWkjpAs;s Jtpj vz;iz vOjpf;
fopj;jy;.
 nfhLf;fg;gl;l Jtpj vz;zpw;fhd gpl; rhu; ju;f;f nraw;ghLfisr; nraw;gLj;jy;.
fzpg;gl
Jtpj $l;ly;> fopj;jy;> gpl; rhu; ju;f;f nraw;ghLfisj; njupe;J nfhs;sg; NghJkhd
tpdhf;fisf; nfhLj;jy;
Kd;itg;Gfs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Jtpjvz;fSf;fhd $l;ly;
1011002 + 11002 =
1 0 1 1 0 02
1 1 0 02
1 1 1 0 0 02
1011002 + 11002 = 1110002
Jtpj vz;fSf;fhd fopj;jy;

0010 1102 - 0011002 =
1 0 1 1 0 02
1 1 0 12
87
0 1 1 1 1 12
1011002 - 11012 = 0111112
gpl;rhu; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfs;
1. NOT nraw;ghL
Fwpapy;yhj xU Jtpj vz;zpDila gpl;rhu; epug;gpahdJ mt;ntz;zpy; fhzg;gLk; 0
,id 1 MfTk;> 1 ,id 0 MfTk; khw;wpr; nray;gLk;.
A NOT A
0 1
1 0
c-k; :- NOT 01112 (710) = 10002 (810)
2. AND operation gpl; rhu; AND nraw;ghL

gpl;rhu; AND nraw;ghlhdJ rk vz;zpf;ifahd gpl;fisj; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bw;fhf
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ. xt;nthU ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ ,U gpl;fSk; 1 Mf tUk;
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; 1 vd;w ngWNgw;iwAk; Vida re;ju;g;gq;fspy; 0 vd;w ngWNgw;iwAk; jUfpwJ.
,J fPo;tUk; gpl; nraw;ghLfspy; gad;gLk;.
A B A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
E.g. :- 01012 (510) AND 00112 (310)

0 1 0 12
0 0 1 12
0 0 0 12 (110)
MfNt> 01012 AND 00112 ,d; nraw;ghl;bd; tpil 00012
3. gpl;rhu; OR nraw;ghL
gpl;rhu; OR nraw;ghlhdJ rk vz;zpf;ifahd gpl;fisj; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bw;fhf
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ. xt;nthU ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ ,U gpl;fSk; 0 Mf tUk;
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; 0 vd;w ngWNgw;iwAk; Vida re;ju;g;gq;fspy; 1 vd;w ngWNgw;iwAk; jUfpwJ.
,J fPo;tUk; gpl; nraw;ghLfspy; gad;gLk;
A B A OR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
c-k; :- 01012 (510) OR 00112 (310)

0 1 0 12
0 0 1 12
0 1 1 12 (710)
MfNt> 01012 OR 00112 ,d; nraw;ghl;bd; tpil 01112
88
2. gpl;rhu; XOR nraw;ghL
gpl;rhu; XOR nraw;ghlhdJ rk vz;zpf;ifahd gpl;fisj; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bw;fhf
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ. xt;nthU ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ ,U gpl;fSk; NtWgl;l
gpl;fshf tUk; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; 1 vd;w ngWNgw;iwAk; Vida re;ju;g;gq;fspy; 0 vd;w
ngWNgw;iwAk; jUfpwJ.
3. ,J fPo;tUk; gpl; nraw;ghLfspy; gad;gLk;.
A B A XOR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
c-k; :- 00102 (210) XOR 10102 (1010)

1 0 1 02
0 0 1 02
1 0 0 02 (810)
MfNt> 01012 XOR 00112 ,d; nraw;ghl;bd; tpil 10002
89
Nju;rr
; p 4: mbg;gil ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fisAk; rhjdq;fisAk;; tbtikg;gjw;Fj; jHf;f
gliyfisg; ghtpg;ghu;
; p kl;lk; 4.1: mbg;il ,yf;fKiw ju;f;fg; gliyfis (Logic Gates) mtw;wpd; jdpj;Jtj;
Nju;rr
njhopw;ghLfspd; mbg;gilapy; gFg;gha;T nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 mbg;il ,yf;fj; ju;f;ftpaw; gliyfisg; gl;baypl;L mtw;wpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd

FwpaPLfis tiuthu;
 mbg;gil ju;f;fg; gliyfSf;fhd cz;ik ml;ltizfis tiuthu;;
 mbg;gil ju;f;fg; gliyfspd; kWjiyahd tpisitf; fhl;Lk; FwpaPLfis
,dq;fhz;ghu;;
 jug;gl;l Nfhitf;F (cs;sPLfspd; cr;r vz;zpf;if 3) cz;ik ml;ltizia
cUthf;Fthu;
 nghJg; gliyfspd; Njitfis tpgupg;ghu;
nghJg;gliyfisg; gad;gLj;jpg; GizT nra;af;$ba gliyfis tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 ,yf;fKiwj; ju;f;fg; gliyfSk; (Digital Logic Gates) mtw;wpd; cz;ik ml;ltizfSk;

(Truth Tables)
 mbg;gilj; ju;f;fg; gliyfs;; (Basic Logic Gates)
 NOT, OR, AND
 Nru;khd (Combinational) gliyfs;;
 NAND, NOR, XNOR
 nghJg; gliyfs;
NAND, NOR
 mbg;gilj;ju;f;fr; nray;fs;
 mbg;gilj;ju;f;f thapy;fs;
 Nru;khd ju;f;f thapy;fs;
 cz;ik ml;ltiz
 G+ypad; Nfhitfs;
 nghJ thapy;fs;.
 NOT, AND, OR ju;f;fs thapy;fSf;Fupa cs;sPLfs; khj;jpuk; mlq;fpa cz;ik

ml;ltizfisf; fhl;rpg;gLj;Jf.
 mt;ml;ltizfspy; ntspaPl;L epuypidg; G+uzg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; jhd; nra;j
tplaq;fis tFg;giwf;F tpsf;Ftjw;Fk; Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztu;fSf;F
re;ju;gj;jpid toq;fTk;.
 fPot
; Uk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhz;L tUk; tifapyhd fye;Jiuahliy
Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.
o NOT thapypy; kj;jpuk; xU cs;sPL ,Ug;gJld; Vda thapy;fSf;F gy
cs;sPLfs; ,Uf;fyhk;
o n cs;sPLfs; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ Nru;khdq;fspd; vz;zpf;if 2n MFk; vdf;
fhl;lKbAk;
o ve;j xU ju;f;f thapYf;Fk; xU ntspaPL khj;jpuk; ,Uf;Fk;.
o ,e;jj; ju;f;f thapy;fSf;F Nkyjpfkhf mbg;gil thapy;fspd; Nru;khdj;jpd;
%yk; Nru;khd thapy;fs; 4 ,id cUthf;f KbAk;
90
fzpg;gl
fPot
; Uk; Rw;Wf;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Ff; fpilf;Fk; Rw;wpidg;gw;wp mtjhdk; nrYj;jTk;.
 ckf;F fpilj;Js;s Rw;wpid ed;F Muhe;J mjpy; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;s NOT, AND

OR Mfpa thapy;fis Ntt;Ntwhf milahsk; fhzTk;..
 Rw;Wg;gyifapidg; gad;gLj;jp mbg;gil thapy;fspd; nraw;ghLfis MuhaTk;.
 jug;gl;l Rw;wpy; fhzg;gLk; ,uz;L mbg;gil thapy;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf xU Nru;khd
thapypidg; gad;gLj;jg;lf;$ba re;ju;g;gj;jpid ,dq;fhzTk;.
 Nru;khd thapy;fis cgNahfpj;J mr;Rw;Wg; gFjpapid kPz;Lk; tiuaTk;.
 ,yj;jpudpay; nraw;jpl;lg; gyifapidg; (Electronic project board) gad;gLj;jp Nru;khd
thapy;fspd; nraiy MuhaTk;.
 A , B Mfpa tw;iw cs;sPLfshf toq;Fk; nghOJ fpilf;Fk; ntspaPl;bidf;
fhl;Ltjw;fhd G+ypad; Nfhitapid vOjTk;.
 ,yj;jpudpay; nraw;jpl;lg; gyifapidg; (Electronic project board) gad;gLj;jpr;
Rw;wpid cUthf;fp ntspaPl;bid cWjp nra;J nfhs;sTk;.
 ckJ FOtpd; fz;Lgpbg;Gfisf; $l;lhfTk; Mf;fj;jpwd; cs;s tifapYk;
tFg;gpw;F Kd;itf;fTk;
,yj;jpud; nraw;jpl;lg; gyif> kw;Wk; ,jw;Fj; Njitahd $Wfs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
ju;f;f thapyhdJ mbg;gilj; ju;f;fr; nraw;ghLfisr; nraw;gLj;Jk; xU ,yj;jpudpay;

$whfTk;> ,yf;fKiwr; Rw;wpd; mbg;gilf; fl;likg;Gj; njhFjpahfTk; milahsg;gLj;j
KbAk;.
 mbg;gil ju;f;f njhopw;ghLfs; vit?

 vjpupil (NOT) - cs;sPL cz;ikaw;wjhapd; ntspaPL
cz;ikahdjhfTk;> cs;sPL cz;ikahdjhapd;
ntspaPL cz;ikaw;wjhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
 ,izg;G (AND) – A> B Mfpa ,uz;L cs;sPLfSk;
cz;ikahdjhapd; ntspaPL cz;ikahFk;.
 gpupg;G (OR) - A my;yJ B cz;ikahapd; ntspaPL cz;ikahFk;.
91
 mbg;gilj; ju;f;f thapy;fs;
 NOT
 AND
 OR
 ju;f;f thapy;fspd; mbg;gilr; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;

 Xt;nthU ju;f;f thapYk; jdpj;Jtkhd FwpaPl;ilAk; jdpj;Jtkhd
ju;f;fr; nraw;ghl;ilAk; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ.
 xU thapy; (Gate) gy cs;sPLfisAk; xU ntspaPl;ilAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 xU Neuj;jpy; cs;sPlhdJ 0 my;yJ 1 I vLf;f KbAk;.
 Fwpg;gpl;l ju;f;f thapypd; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Nfw;g cs;sPLfs; nray;Kiwg;
gLj;jg;gl;L ntspaPL ngwg;gLk;.
cz;ik ml;ltiz vd;why; vd;d?
cz;ik ml;ltizahdJ ju;f;fr; Rw;wpd; rfy cs;sPl;Lr; Nru;f;iffSf;Fkhd ntspaPl;ilg;

gpujpepjpg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltizahdJ ,uz;L kw;Wk; %d;W cs;sPLfSf;F kl;Lk; rhj;jpakhd rfy

cs;sPl;Lr; Nru;khdq;fisAk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
cs;sPLfspd; kjpg;Gr; Nru;f;iffspd;

vz;zpf;if Nru;f;iffs; vz;zpf;if
2 00 4 = 22
01
10
11
3 000 8=23
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
MfNt
ju;f;f thapy; / Rw;wpd; cs;sPLfspd; vz;zpf;if.

cs;sPl;Lr; Nru;f;iffspd; vz;zpf;if = 2
mbg;gilj; ju;f;fr; Rw;Wfspd; mwpKfk;

 NOT thapy;
 Msp A MdJ %ba epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ kpd;Fkpo; xspu khl;lhJ. Msp
(Switch) jpwe;j epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ kl;LNk kpd;Fkpo; xspu;fpwJ.
S L
0 1
1 0
92
NOT thapyhdJ jdp cs;sPL kw;Wk; ntspaPl;ilf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. NOT thapyhdJ mjd;
cs;sPl;Lf;Fj; ju;f;f vjpupiliaj; jUfpd;wJ. NtW tifapy; $Wtjhdhy;> cs;sPL
cz;ikahdhy; ntspaPL cz;ikaw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;. mNjNghy; cz;ikaw;w cs;sPlhdJ
cz;ikahd ntspaPl;il tpistpf;fpd;wJ.
S L
L S
S L
 AND thapy;
 gpd;tUk; Rw;wpy; kpd;FkpohdJ ,uz;L MspfSk; %lg;gl;l epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;
NghJ khj;jpuNk xspUk;.
 Fiwe;jJ xU MspahtJ jpwe;j epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ kpd;;Fkpo; xspukhl;lhJ.
L = S1. S2
rfy cs;sPLfSk; cz;ikahf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ khj;jpuNk AND thapypd; ntspaPlhdJ

cz;ikahFk;. xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l AND thapypd; cs;sPLfs;
cz;ikaw;wjhapd; AND thapypd; ntspaPLk; cz;ikaw;wjhFk;.
S1 S2 L
S1
L L S1. S2
S2
93
 OR thapy;
gpd;tUk; Rw;wpy; kpd;FkpohdJ> Fiwe;jJ xU MspahtJ ,izf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; xspUk;.
L = S1 + S2
Fiwe;jJ xU cs;sPlhtJ cz;ikahf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ OR thapypd; ntspaPlhdJ

cz;ikahFk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; ntspaPL cz;ikaw;wjhFk;.
S1 S2 L
S1
L L S1+ S2
S2
Vida thapy;fs;
 NAND thapy; mwpKfk;

 ,yf;fKiw ,yj;jpudpaypy; NAND thapyhdJ (NOT-AND) cs;sPLfs; ahTk;
cz;ikahapd; khj;jpuNk cz;ikaw;w ntspaPl;ilj; jUfpd;w xU ju;f;f
thapyhFk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; cz;ik ntspaPl;il tpistpf;fpd;wJ. ,jdhy;
,jd; ntspaPL AND thapypd; epug;gpahFk;.
S1 S2 L
S1
L L S1.S 2
S2
 NOR thapy;
 NOR thapyhdJ ,yf;fKiwj; ju;f;f thapyhFk;. mJ thapypwf ; hd ,uz;L
cs;sPLfSk; cz;ikaw;wjhapd; ntspaPl;il cz;ikahdjhf tpistpf;fpd;wJ.
mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; cz;ikaw;w tpisitj; jUfpd;wJ. OR thapypd; epug;gpahf
NOR thapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
94
S1 S2 L
 XOR thapy;
 XOR thapy; (Exclusive OR thapy; vd cr;rupj;jy;) cs;sPLfspy; VjhtJ xd;W
thapypw;F cz;ikahapd; kj;jpuNk cz;ik tpisitj; jUk; xU ,yf;fKiwj;
ju;f;f thapyhFk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; ntspaPL cz;ikaw;wjhFk;.
S1 S2 L
S1
L L= S1⊕ S2
S2
 mbg;gilj; ju;f;f thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp XOR thapy; mikj;jy;
S1.S 2
S1
S2
L S1.S 2 S1.S 2
A.B  A.B
SA..B2
1S
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1.S 2 S1.S 2 S1.S 2 S1.S 2

0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
95
%d;W cs;sPLfSila XOR ,w;fhd cz;ik ml;ltiz
cs;sPLfs; ,Wjp ntspaPL
S1 S2 S3 S1 ⊕ S2 S1 ⊕ S2 ⊕ S3
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1
 S1 IAk; S2 IAk; xg;gpLk; NghJ ,it ,uz;bdJk; ngWkhdk; xNu tpjkhd

cs;sPLfshf ,Ue;jhy; ntspaPL G+r;rpakhFk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; ntspaPL
xd;whFk;. gpd;du; S1 ⊕ S2 tpiisit S3 cld; xg;gpLf. ngWkjpfs; xNu tpjkhf
,Ue;jhy; ,Wjp ntspaPL 0. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; ,Wjp ntspaPL 1 MFk;.
 XNOR thapy; mwpKfk;

 XNOR thapyhdJ ,yf;fKiwj; ju;f;f thapyhFk;. XOR thapypd; ju;f;f epug;gpahf
(logical complement) XNOR njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
S1 S2 L
S1
L L= S1  S 2
S2
%d;W cs;sPLfisf; nfhz;l XNOR thapypw;fhd cz;ik ml;ltiz

cs;sPLfs; ,Wjp ntspaPLfs;
S1 S2 S3 S1 ⊕ S2 S1 ⊕ S2 ⊕ S3 S1  S 2  S 3
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0
 mfpy thapy;fs; (Universal Gates)

ju;f;f thapyhff; fhzg;gLk; mfpy thapypidg; gad;gLj;jp kw;iwa rfy ju;f;f
thapy;fisAk; epu;khzpf;fyhk;. NAND thapy;fSk; NOR thapy;fSk; mfpy juf;f
thapy;fshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd.
mfpy thapy;fspd; mD$yq;fs;: NAND kw;Wk; NOR thapy;fs; rpf;fdkhd nrytpy;
cw;gj;jpnra;a KbtJld; ,jid cUthf;FtJ vspjhdJ. mj;Jld; vy;yh IC
,yf;f Kiwahd ju;f;ff; FLk;gq;fspy; mbg;gil thapy;fshfg;
96
NAND thapy;fs;
1. NAND thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW NOT thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?
2. NAND thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW AND thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?;.
3. NAND thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW OR thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?;.
NOR thapy;
1. NOR thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW NOT thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?;.
2. NOR thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW OR thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?;
3. NOR thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp vt;thW AND thapiyr; nraw;gLj;j KbAk;?;
97
; p kl;lk; 4.2: g+ypad; ml;ruf;fzpj (Boolean Algebra); tpjpiaAk; fhNdh
Nju;rr
tiuglj;ijAk;;(Karnaugh map) cgNahfpj;J ju;f;ftpaw; $w;Wfis vspikahf;Fthu.;
ghlNtisfs;: 08
fw;wy; NgWfs; :
 G+ypad; $w;Wfis vspikahf;Ftjd; Njitia tpsf;Fthu;
 jug;gl;l cz;ik ml;ltizf;F mikthf ju;f;f Nfhitfis epak (SOP and
POS)tbtj;jpy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jthu;
 SOP apypUe;J POS w;Fkhw;WtJld; mjid kWjiyahfTk; nra;thu;
 G+ypad; Njw;wq;fs;> vLNfhs;fs;; vd;gtw;iwAk;; B NkhfdJ tpjp>kw;Wk; fhNdh tiulk;
vd;gtw;iwAk;ghtpj;J ju;f;ftpaw; Nfhitfis vspikahf;Fthu;;
cs;slf;fk;:
 ,U epiy jHf;ftpaYk; (Two State Logic) g+ypad; ml;ruf;fzpjKk; (Boolean Algebra)

 vLNfhs;fs;- (Postulates) (Axioms)
 tpjpfs; (Laws) Njw;wq;fs; (Theorems)
 gupkhw;W (Commutative), $l;L (Associative)
 gq;fPl;L (Distributive).
 milahsk; (Identity)>kpifik (Redundancy)
 B NkhfdJ - (De Morgan’s)
 epak ju;f;ftpaw; $w;Wfs; (Standard Logical Expressions)
 ngUf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifAk;(Sum of Product SOP) $l;Lj;njhiffspd;
ngUf;fq;fSk;(Product of Sum- POS)
 SOP apypUe;J POS w;Fk; kw;Wk; mjd; kWjiyAk;
 ju;f;ftpaw; Nfhitfisg;
 G+ypad; Njw;wq;fs;
 fhNdh tiuglk; (Kanaugh map)vd;gd cgNahfpj;J vspikahf;Fjy;
 G+ypad; ml;rufzpj tpjpfs;

 fhNdh tiuglk;
 SOP kw;Wk; POS
 SOP > POS ,ilapyhd khw;wy;
 G+ypad; rkd;ghLfisr; RUf;fypd; Njit
 xt;nthU G+ypad; ml;rufzpj tpjpAk;> cz;ik ml;ltizapidg; gad;gLj;jpr;

RUf;Ftjw;F Kd;Gk; RUf;fpa gpd;Gk; fpilf;Fk; tpil rkdhf ,Uf;Fk;
vd;gijf; fhl;lTk;.
 mt;tl;ltizfspd; ntspaPl;L epuiyg; G+uzg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; jhk; nra;jtw;iw
tFg;giwf;F Kd;itg;gjw;Fk; Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztu;fs; rpyUf;Fr; re;ju;g;gk;
toq;fTk;
 xt;nthU G+ypad; ml;rufzpj tpjpiaAk; RUf;Ftjw;F Kd; ,Uf;Fk; ju;f;fr;
Rw;iwAk; RUf;fpajd; gpd; ,Uf;Fk; ju;f;fr; Rw;iwAk; tiue;J fhl;lTk;
 khupfs; 3> 2> my;yJ 4 ,Uf;Fk; re;ju;g;gq;fspy; fhNdh tiuglk; ,Uf;Fk; tpjk;
 fhNdh tiuglj;jpDs; tifgLj;Jk;NghJ filgpbf;f Ntz;ba tpjpKiwfis
cjhuzq;fSld; tpsf;fTk;
98
 fPOs;s tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapyhd fye;Jiuahliy
Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
o G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;jpy; khupnahd;wpd; ngWkjp 1 my;yJ 0 khj;jpuk; ,Uf;Fk;
vd.
o G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;jpy; ehd;F fzpjr; nraw;ghLfspy;> $l;ly; kw;Wk;
ngUf;fy; Mfpa ,uz;il khj;jpuNk gad;gLj;j KbAk; vd
o G+ypad; ml;rufzpj mNefkhd tpjpfspy; $l;ly; kw;Wk; ngUf;fy; Mfpa ,U
re;ju;g;gq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd
o G+ypad; Nfhitfisf; fhl;Ltjw;fhd ,U epak tbtq;fs; kw;Wk;; G+ypad;
Nfhitnahd;iw epakq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; fhl;lg;gLk;NghJ gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba
tpjpfs; cs;sd vd
o epakq;fis xd;wpypUe;J kw;nwhd;wpw;F khw;w KbAk; vd
o rpf;fyhd G+ypad; Nfhitfisr; RUf;Ftjw;F fhNdh tiuglk; gad;gLj;j
KbAk; vd
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; RUf;Ftjw;fhd G+ypad;

Nfhitnahd;wpid toq;fTk;. mtw;iw G+ypad; ml;ru fzpj tpjpfisf; nfhz;Lk;
fhNdh tiuglj;ijf; nfhz;Lk; RUf;fr; nra;aTk;. ,Wjpahfr; RUf;Ftjw;F Kd; kw;Wk;
RUf;fpajw;Fg; gpd; Mfpa re;ju;g;gq;fSf;fhd ju;f;fr; Rw;Wfis tiuf. mj;ju;f;fr;
Rw;Wfs; ,uz;il fPo; fhzg;gLfpd;w tplaq;fSld; xg;gplTk;.
RUf;Ftjw;F Kd; RUf;fpajw;Fg; gpd;

nkhj;jj; ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fspd;
vz;zpf;if
ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fspd;
tiffspd; vz;zpf;if
OR, AND Mfpa
thapy;fSf;fhd
cs;sPLfspd; vz;zpf;if
rpf;fyhdit
,yj;jpudpay; gyifiag;
gad;gLj;jpj; ju;f;fr;
Rw;Wfis cUthf;fr;
nrythFk; njhif
,yj;jpudpay; gyifiag;
gad;gLj;jp ju;f;fr; Rw;Wfis
cUthf;fr; nrythFk;
fhyk;
fpilf;Fk; ,Wjp ntspaPL
xg;gil> ,yj;jpudpay; Ntiyg; gyif> ,yj;jpudpay; Kd;itg;G> juf;fr; Rw;Wf;fhd $Wfs;>

,iza trjp
99
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
NOT, AND > OR Mfpa ju;f;fg; gliyfspd; nraw;ghLfs;
G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;jpy;> ju;f;f vjpupil NOT nray;fs;; , ju;f;f ,izT AND nray;fs;>
ju;f;f gpupg;G OR nray;fs vd;git KiwNa (Nky; NfhL-bar), . (Gs;sp - dot), + ($l;ly; -
plus) Mfpa ,af;fpfisg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
G+ypad; tpjpfspd; mwpKfk;
G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;jpd; mtrpak; ahJ?
G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;ijr; RUf;Ftjw;fhd (simplification) Njit vd;d?
G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;ijr; RUf;Ftjdhy; nraw;gLj;jypw;fhd (implementation) nray;fspd;

vz;zpf;if (number of operations) kw;Wk; ju;f;f thapy;fspd; vz;zpf;if (number of logic gates)
vd;git Fiwf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
ngUk;ghd;ikahd tpjpfs; ,uz;L tbtq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Xd;W ngUf;fy; tbtk;

(multiplicative form)> kw;iwaJ $l;ly; tbtk; (additive form) MFk;. G+ypad; Nfhitapy;
ngUf;fypd; NghJ mjpYs;s khwpfs; xd;wpdhy; kw;nwhd;W ngUf;fg;gLk; kw;Wk; $l;lypd;
NghJ G+ypad; NfhitapYs;s khwpfs; $l;lg;gLk;.
1. mNjtY tpjp (Idompotent Law)
,J cz;ik ml;ltizapy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLk; Kiw fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
A.A=A A+A=A A. A  A A A  A
A A A.A A A A+A A A A A. A A A A A A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
NkNy epoy;gLj;;jg;gl;Ls;s (highlighted) epuy;fs; (columns) xj;jit (identical).
2. milahs tpjp (Identity Law)
1.A=A 0+A=A 0. A  0 1 A  1
A 1 1.A 0 A 0+A 0 A 1 A 1+A

0. A
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0
3. Neu; khwy;/ epug;gp tpjp (Inverse/Complement Law)
ngUf;fy; tbtk; $l;ly; tbtk;
A. A  0 A A 1
A A A. A A A A+ A
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
100
4. B Nkhfd; tpjp (De Morgan’s Law)
B Nkhfd; (De Morgan) vd;w fzpjtpayhsu; G+ypad; ml;rufzpjj;jpy; FO epug;gpfs; (group
complementation) njhlu;ghf xU Nrhb Kf;fpa tpjpfis (laws) cUthf;fpdhu;.
A.B  A  B A  B  A.B
A B AB A.B A B A B A B A+B A B A B A.B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
NkNy epow;gLj;;jg;gl;Ls;s epuy;fs; xj;jit.
5. ,ul;il epug;gp tpjp (Double Complement Law)

A A
A A A
0 1 0
0 1 0
6. guptu;j;jd tpjp (Commutative Law)

AB  BA A B  B  A
A B AB BA
A B A+B B+A
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
NkNy epow;gLj;;jg;gl;Ls;s epuy;fs; xj;jit .
7. ,izg;G tpjp (Associative Law)

ngUf;fy; tbtk;
A(BC)=(AB)C
A B C BC AB A(BC) (AB)C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
101
$l;ly; tbtk;.
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A B C B+C A+B A+(B+C) (A+B)+C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
NkNy epow;gLj;;jg;gl;Ls;s epuy;fs; xj;jit .
8. guk;gy; tpjp (Distributive Law)

A (B+C) = AB+AC
A B C B+C AB AC A (B+C) AB+AC

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9. kpifik tpjp (Redundancy Law)
tbtk; 1 (Form 1) tbtk; 2 (Form 2)

A + AB =A A  AB  A  B
A B AB A+AB
A B A' A'B A+A'B A+B
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
ju;f;ff; Nfhitfisg; G+ypad; Njw;wj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpr; RUf;Fjy;.
E.g. 01 E.g. 03
Q = ABC + A'BC + ABC F=C+ BC
= AB (C+ C ) + A BC - guk;gy; tpjp = C+ B + C - B Nkhfd; tpjp
= AB (1) + A BC - epug;gp tpjp =C+ C + B
= AB+ A BC - guk;gy; tpjp = 1+ B - epug;gp tpjp
= B (A+ A C) - guk;gy; tpjp =1 - milahs tpjp
= B (A+C) - kpifik tpjp
102
E.g. 02 E.g. 04
F = (A+B) (A+C) F= X(X+Y)
= AA + AC + BA + BC - guk;gy; tpjp = X.X + X.Y - guk;gy; tpjp
= A+ AC +BA + BC - mNjtY tpjp = X + X.Y - mNjtY tpjp
= A (1+C+B) + BC - guk;gy; tpjp = X (1+Y) - guk;gy; tpjp
= A (1+B) + BC - epug;gp tpjp = X (1) - Null/ epug;gp tpjp
= A (1) + BC - epug;gp tpjp =X - guk;gy; tpjp
= A + BC - guk;gy; tpjp
G+ypad; Nfhitapd; epak tbtq;fs;

G+ypad; Nfhitfspy; ,uz;L epak tbtq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
- SOP (ngUf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif - Sum Of Products)
- POS ($l;Lj;njhifapd; ngUf;fy; - Product of Sum)
ngUf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif tbtk;

 (SOP) Nfhit  ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ngUf;fy; ml;ruq;fs; (product
terms) ahTk; G+ypad; $l;Lj;njhifapdhy; $l;lg;gLk;.
 cjhuzk;:
AB  ABC
ABC  CDE  B CD
A B  A BC  AC
 NkYk;
A  A B C  BCD
SOP tbtj;jpy; Nky; Nfhl;Lf; FwpaPL (overbar) xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l khwpfspd; Nky;
fhzg;glyhfhJ. vdpDk; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l khwpfs; xU gFjpapy; (in a term) ,Uf;Fk; NghJ
xt;nthd;wpw;Fk; jdpj;jdpahf Nky; Nfhl;L FwpaPL ,Uf;f KbAk;.
cjhuzk;: A B C rupahdJ
Mdhy; ABC ,J SOP gpioahdJ
 epak SOP NfhitahdJ jdp xd;whFk;. ,f; Nfhitapy; fhzg;gLk; rfy khwpfSk;
xt;nthU ngUf;fy; gFjpfspYk; (Product Term) fhzg;gLk;.
 cjhuzk;
AB CD  A B CD  ABC D
 epak SOP Nfhitfs; gpd;tUtdtw;wpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; cilajhff;

fhzg;gLfpd;wJ:
 cz;ik ml;ltizia epu;khzpj;jy;.
 fhNzhtpd; tiuglk; %yk; RUf;Fk; Kiw.
$l;Lj;njhifapd; ngUf;fy; (Product-of-Sum -POS) tbtk;.
 Xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l $l;ly; ml;ruq;fs;> ngUf;fg;gLk; NghJ $l;Lj;njhiffspd;

ngUf;fq;fspd; (POS) Nfhit tpisthfg; ngwg;gLk;.
 cjhuzq;fs;:
103
( A  B)( A  B  C )
( A  B  C )(C  D  E )( B  C  D)
( A  B)( A  B  C )( A  C )
 NkYk; A: A ( A  B  C )( B  C  D )
POS tbtj;jpy; xU jdp Nky; Nfhl;Lf; FwpaPL (overbar) xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l khwpfspd; Nky;
fhzg;gl KbahJ. vdpDk; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l khwpfs; xU gjj;jpy; fhzg;gLkhapd;
mk;khwpfs; xt;nthd;wpd; NkYk; jdpj;jdpahf Nky; Nfhl;L FwpaPL (overbar) ,Uf;f KbAk;:
cjhuzk;: A  B  C rupahdJ.
vdpDk; , A  B  C ,J jtwhdJ.
rpW gjq;fs;( Minterms) kw;Wk; ngUk; gjq;fs; (Maxterms)
rpW gjk; (Minterm)
cz;ik ml;ltizapd; xt;nthU epiuAk; cs;s Neub my;yJ epug;gp (complemented)

tbtpyhd khwpfspd; ngUf;fq;fs; rpW gjq;fs; (minterm) MFk;. ,J cz;ik
ml;ltizapd; xU epiuapy; rupahf 1 ,w;F rkdhf ,Uf;Fk; jd;ikiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,J ngUf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif tbtj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
ngUk; gjk; (Maxterm)
cz;ik ml;ltizapd; xt;nthU epiuapYk; cs;s Neub my;yJ epug;gp (complemented)

tbtpyhd khwpfspd; ngUf;fq;fs; ngU gjq;fs; (manterm) MFk;. ,J cz;ik
ml;ltizapd; xU epiuapy; rupahf 0 ,w;F rkdhf ,Uf;Fk; jd;ikiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,J $l;Lj;njhiffspd; ngUf;fk; tbtj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
on exactly one row of the truth table. SOP tbtj;jpd; ju;f;fr; rkd;ghL
MaxTerm
(POS) POS tbtj;jpd; ju;f;fr; rkd;ghL
MinTerm
(POS)
104
SOP mbg;gilapyhd ju;f;fr;Rw;W POS mbg;gilapyhd ju;f;fr;Rw;W
SOP ,id POS Mf khw;Wjy;.
rkd;ghl;bd; ,UGwKk; epug;gp vLj;jy;
B Nkhfd; tpjp
B Nkhfd; tpjp
,ul;il epug;gp tpjp
POS ,id SOP Mf khw;Wjy;.
rkd;ghl;bd; ,UGwKk; epug;gp vLj;jy;
B Nkhfd; tpjp
B Nkhfd; tpjp
,ul;il epug;gp tpjp
fhNdh tiuglk; (Karnaugh Maps)
fhNdh tiuglq;fs;> ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fis ,yFgLj;Jtjw;fhd xU khw;Wtopia

toq;Ffpd;wJ.
G+ypad; ml;ruf;fzpj RUf;f El;gKiwiag; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fg; gjpyhf ePq;fs; G+ypad;

$w;wpypUe;J (Boolean statement) my;yJ cz;ik ml;ltizapypUe;J ju;f;fg; ngWkjpfis
(logic values) fhNdh tiuglj;jpw;F khw;wp ,yFthfg; G+ypad; Nfhitfisr; RUf;f KbAk;.
105
fhNzh tiuglj;jpDs; 0 kw;Wk; 1 ,w;fhd Vw;ghlhdJ cq;fSf;F khwpfSf;fpilapyhd
ju;f;f njhlu;GKiwiaf; fhz;gjw;F cjTtNjhL Neubahfr; RUf;fg;gl;l G+ypad; $w;iwg;
ngw toptFf;fpd;wJ.
n
fhNdh tiuglj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; fyq;fspd; vz;zpf;if (Cell) = 2 MFk;.
(,q;F n MdJ khwpfspd; vz;zpf;if)
,uz;L cs;sPLfs; %d;W cs;sPLfs; ehd;F cs;sPLfs;

K-tiuglk; K- tiuglk; K- tiuglk;
2 3 4
fyk; (Cell) = 2 =4 fyk; (Cell) = 2 =8 fyk; (Cell) = 2 =16
A AB AB
B C CD
0 1 00 01 11 00 01 11 10
0 0 00
1 1 11
11
10
K – tiuglj;jpy; RUf;Ftjw;fhd tpjpfs;
1. G+r;rpaq;fs; mDkjpf;fg;gl khl;lhJ.

2. %iy tpl;lq;fs; ,y;iy.
3. Xt;nthU FOtpYk; 2 ,d; tY vz;zpf;ifAs;s fyq;fis ,izj;jy;.
4. FOf;fs; rhj;jpakhd msT ngupajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
5. Xt;nthU “1” ck; Fiwe;jJ xU FOtpyhtJ ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
6. Nkw; nghUe;Jjy; (Overlapping) mDkjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
7. Rw;wp klf;Ftjw;F (Wrap around) mDkjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
8. kpff; Fiwe;jsT FOf;fs; rhj;jpak;.
fhNdh tiuglj;jpy; xd;iwf; (ones) nfhz;bUf;Fk; mLj;Js;s fyq;fisf;

FOf;fshf;Ftjd; (grouping ) %yk; Nfhitfisr; RUf;Ftjw;fhfg; gpd;tUk; tpjpfisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 G+r;rpaj;ijf; (zero) nfhz;bUf;Fk; ve;jnthU fyj;ijAk; FOf;fspy; Nru;f;ff; $lhJ.
 FOf;fs; fpilahfNth my;yJ epiyf;Fj;jhfNth fhzg;glyhk;. Mdhy;

%iytpl;lkhff; fhzg;glhJ.
106
 FOf;fs; 1> 2> 4> 8 my;yJ nghJthf 2n fyq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 mjhtJ n = 1Mapd; FOthdJ ,uz;L 1f;fis mjhtJ 21 = 2 nfhz;bUf;Fk;. n=2
Mapd; FOthdJ ehd;F 1f;fis mjhtJ 22 = 4 nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 Xt;nthU FOTk; rhj;jpakhd msT ngupajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
107
 Xt;nthU fyj;jpYk; cs;s xd;W(one) Fiwe;jJ xU FOtpyhtJ fhzg;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
AB 00 01 11 10
CD Group 3
00 0 0 0 1
01 1 1 0 0
11 0 0 1 0
10 0 0 1 0
Group 1
FOf;fs; Nkw;nghUe;jyhk;. (overlap). Group 2
FOf;fs; ml;ltiziar; Rw;wp %lg;gl;bUf;fyhk;. ,lg;gf;fKs;s ,Wjpf; fykhdJ

tyJgf;fKs;s ,Wjpf; fyj;Jld; FOf;fshf ,Uf;fyhk;. kpfTk; NkYs;s fykhdJ kpfTk;
mbapy; cs;s fyj;Jld; FOf;fshf ,Uf;fyhk;.
108
Group 1
Group 1
Fiwe;jsT FOf;fshf ,Ug;gJ rhj;jpakhdJ. ,jdhy; Kd;ida tpjpfs; vjw;Fk;

Kuz;ghL Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
AB 00 01 11 10
CD
0 1
1 1 1 1
K-tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpj; ju;f;ff; Nfhitiar; RUf;Fjy;.
K-tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp ehd;F khwpfs; cs;s ju;f;ff; Nfhitia vt;thW tiuglg;

gLj;jyhk;?.
G+ypad; Nfhitapy; Nky; NfhL FwpaPL (bar) ,lg;gl;l ve;j xU khwpAk; 0 Mff; fUjg;gl
kw;iwait vy;yhk; 1 Mff; fUjg;gLk;.
0101 0111 11 01 11 11 00 01 1110
109
K-tiuglj;jpd; RUf;fg; gbKiw 2 (step 2)FOthf;Fjy;
gbKiw (Step 3)
A 00 01 11 10
CDB
00 0 0 0 0
01 1 1 1 0
Group 2
11 0 1 1 0
Group 3
10 0 0 1 0
Group 1
110
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 4.3 : ju;f;ftpay; gliyfisg; gad;gLj;jp vspa ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fisAk;
rhjdq;fisAk; tbtikg;ghu;.
ghlNtisfs; : 06
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 ehshe;j tho;tpy; ju;f;ftpay; gliyfisg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba re;ju;g;gq;fis

,dq;fhz;ghu;
 ,dq;fz;l re;ju;g;gq;fSf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd ju;f;ftpay; NfhitfisAk; cz;ik
ml;ltiziaAk; tbtikg;ghu;
 ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fis(Digital Circuit) tbtikg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
o tbtikg;GfSf;fhd cz;ik ml;ltizfSk; ju;f;ftpaw; NfhitfSk;

(%d;W cs;sPLfs; tiu)
o ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fspd;(Digital Circuit) tbtikg;G
 ntspaPl;bidg; ngWtjw;Fupa rupahd Nru;khdj;jpidj; njupT nra;jy;

 xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fs;
 ,yj;jpudpay; gyiffs;
 ehshe;j tho;tpd; ju;f;fr;Rw;Wfis gad;gLj;jg;glf;$ba re;ju;g;gq;fisf; Nfl;lwpe;J

mjw;fhd gpur;rpidfs; rpytw;wpid toq;fTk;
 mr;re;ju;g;gSf;fhd ju;f;fr; Rw;iw cUthf;Fk;NghJ xg;GUthf;fy; (simulator)
nkd;nghUnshd;iwg; gad;gLj;jTk;
 fPo; fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapyhd fye;Jiuahliy
Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
 ntspaPLfisr; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;Fr; Nru;khdq;fis vt;thW rupahfj; njupT nra;tJ?
o cs;sPL> ntspaPL vd;gtw;wpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd khwpg; ngau;fisg; ghtpj;jy;
o cs;sPL> ntspaPL vd;gtw;wpw;F cupa gpur;rpidapy; jug;glhj khwpg; ngau;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jtjhapd; mtw;iwg; ngauply;. c-k;: K1 = A, K2= B, K3= C
fzpg;gl
 fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s KjyhtJ cjhuzj;jpYs;s gpur;rpidf;F epfuhd gpur;rpidnahd;iw

toq;fpf; fPOs;stw;iw jahupg;gjw;F topfhl;lTk;
o G+ypad; Nfhitfs;
o mtw;wpw;fhd cz;ik ml;ltizfs;
o G+ypad; Nfhitia> G+ypad; ml;ru fzpjk; kw;Wk; fhNdh tiuglk; Mfpa
,uz;ilAk; gad;gLj;jpr; RUf;Fjy;
o RUf;fpg; ngw;w tpilia> xg;GUthf;f nkd;nghUisg; gad;gLj;jp cUthf;fy;
o mg;gpur;rpidia ,yj;jpudpay; gyifapd; cjtpAld; cUthf;Ftjw;Fj;
Njitahd Rw;Wf; $Wfspd; gl;bay; mt;Tjhuzj;jpy; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld;
mtw;iwf; nfhs;tdT nra;J ju;f;fr; Rw;Wfis cUthf;fy;
o Njitahd Rw;Wf; $Wfspd; gl;baiyg; ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjw;F Kd;>
Njitahd xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fspd; ,yf;fq;fis ,izaj;jpd; Clhfj;
Njbg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;F khztUf;Fr; re;ju;g;gk; toq;fTk;
111
,yj;jpudpay; Ntiyg; gyif> ,yj;jpudpay; Kd;itg;G> juf;fr; Rw;Wf;fhd $Wfs;> ,iza

trjp> xg;GUthf;f nkd;nghUs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
NkNy jug;gl;l glk; ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fis

nray;gLj;Jk; Crp ,izg;Gfs; cs;s %d;W tu;j;jf uPjpahff; fhzg;glf;$ba xd;wpize;j
Rw;Wf;fis tpgupf;fpd;wJ. Crpfs; 7 kw;Wk; 14 vd;git Rw;Wf;fs; ,aq;Ftjw;F tYit
toq;Ffpd;wd (G+r;rpa Nthy;w; kw;Wk; Ie;J Nthy;w;).
vspa ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fis tbtikj;jy;
c.k;.
01 ehd;F gpl;(bit) Kjd;ik vz;fis milahsg;gLj;jf; $ba ju;f;fr; Rw;iw
tiuf
i. cz;ik ml;ltizia tiuf.
A- KjyhtJ gpl;( First bit) , B- ,uz;lhtJ gpl; (Second bit),
C- %d;whtJ gpl; (Third bit), D- ehd;fhtJ gpl; (Fourth bit)
112
F- Kjd;ik vz; (ntspaPL)
A B C D F Minterm
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 A’B’CD’
3 0 0 1 1 1 A’B’CD
4 0 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 0 1 1 A’BC’D
6 0 1 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 1 1 A’BCD
8 1 0 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 0
10 1 0 1 0 0
11 1 0 1 1 1 AB’CD
12 1 1 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 1 1 ABC’D
14 1 1 1 0 0
15 1 1 1 1 0
ii. SOP iag; ngWf.

F= A’B’CD’ + A’B’CD + A’BC’D + A’BCD + AB’CD + ABC’D
fhNdh (K-map) tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpr; RUf;Ff.
AB 00 01 11 10
CD
A’B’CD A B’CD A’B’CD A’BC’D
00
A’B’CD’ A’B’CD A’B CD A BC’D
01 1 1
11 1 1 1 Group 2 F= A’B’C + B’CD + A’CD + BC’D

10 1
iii. RUf; 1l;l Group

fg;g
Group ntspa3Pl;Lf;fGroup
hd ju;
4 f;fr; Rw;iw tiuf.
113
,r; Rw;iw eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;Fg; gpd;tUk; Rw;Wf;Fupa cgfuzq;fs; Njit.
 Project board 1  DC 5V Power pack-1

 ON/OFF Switch 5v DC- 6  Logic IC HD74HC11-2 (TRIPPLE
 Resistors 1K-10 THREE INPUT AND GATE)
 Project board jumper wire set 1  Logic IC CD4069UBC (HEX
 LED Large size-4 INVERTER)
 Logic IC TC4072BP (DUAL FOUR
INPUT OR GATE)
Crpfspd; xOq;fikg;G (Pin arrangement )
CD4069UB
C
HD74HC11
TC4072BP
cjhuzk; 02
Kd; fjtpw;F ntspapy; cs;s tpsf;fhdJ ,Ul;lhFk; NghJk;> Kd; fjtpw;F Kd;dhy;
cs;s fhy;kpjpghapy; (doormat) ahuhtJ epw;fpd;w NghJk; jhdhf xspu;fpd;wJ.
114
 ghapd; fPOs;s mKf;f czup (A) MdJ ahuhtJ xUtu; fhy;kpjp ghapy; epw;fpd;w
NghJ jpwe;j epiyapype;J (OFF -0) %ba epiyf;F (ON -1) khWfpwJ.
 Xsp czup (B) MdJ xspu;T ,Uf;Fk; NghJ %ba epiyapy; (ON -1) MFk;.
,Ul;lhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ jpwe;j epiy (OFF -0) MFk;.
 gaduhy; ifKiwapy; (manually) Kiwikia epWj;Jtjw;F njhlu;GW/ njhluW
(on/off) Msp (C) MdJ cs;sJ. Msp njhlu;ig epWj;Jtjw;fhd G+ypad; (1) MfTk;
njhlu;ig Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhd G+ypad; nra;Kiw (0) MfTk; fUJf.
 gpd;tUk; epge;jidfspd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;fhdJ njhluW (off) epiyapy;

fhzg;gLk;.
o ve;j Neuj;jpYk; gadu; ifKiwahf Kiwikia epWj;Jjy;.: tpsf;F (0)
o ,Ul;lhfhJ (not dark) ,Uj;jy;. tpsf;F (0)
NkYs;s epiyikapidg; gpujpepjpg;gLj;Jfpd;w cz;ik ml;ltiziaj; jahu; nra;f.
A B C X SOP
(pressure (Light (Switch) (Lamp)
sensor) sensor)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 AB’C’
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
NkNyAs;s Njitiag; gpujpepjpg;gLj;Jfpd;w epak ngUf;fypd; $l;Lj;
njhifia (SOP) vOJf.
X=AB’C’
cjhuzk; 3:
1. tq;fpg; ngl;lfkhdJ (Vault) xt;nthU G+l;Lf;Fk; jdpj;jdpahd jpwg;Gfisf;

nfhz;Ls;s G+l;Lf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. jpwg;G A MdJ tq;fp KfhikahsUf;Fr;
nrhe;jkhdJ. jpwg;G B MdJ %j;j tq;fpj; JiwahsUf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdJ. jpwg;G
C MdJ tq;fpj; Jiwg; gapYdUf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdJ. ngl;lfj;jpd; fjitj;
jpwg;gjw;F Fiwe;jJ ,uz;L egu;fs; mtu;fspd; jpwg;Gfis xJf;fg;gl;Ls;s
G+l;Lf;fspy; xNu Neuj;jpy; cs;sply; Ntz;Lk;. tq;fpj;Jiwg; gapYdu; ngl;lfj;jpid
tq;fpKfhikahsUld; Nru;e;J kl;LNk jpwg;ghu;.
i. ,k; khjpupahd ,yf;fKiwg; G+l;bw;fhd Kiwikapd; cz;ik

ml;ltiziaj; jahupf;Ff.
X= tq;fp Kfhikahsu; (Bank Manager)
Y= %j;j tq;fpj; Jiwahsu; (Senior Bank teller)
Z= tq;fpj; Jiw gapYdu; (Trainee bank teller)
115
X Y Z Vault Minterm
(F)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 XY’Z
1 1 0 1 XYZ’
1 1 1 1 XYZ
ii) G+ypad; ml;rufzpj El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp Fiwe;jsthd AND-OR thapy;fisf;
nfhz;L G+l;L Kiwikiaj; njspthfg; Gupe;J nfhs;sf; $ba tifapy; tbtikf;f.
F= XY’Z+XYZ’+XYZ
= XY’Z + XY (Z’ + Z) guk;gy; tpjp
= XY’Z + XY (1) epug;gp tpjp
= XY’Z + XY guk;gy; tpjp
= X (Y’Z + Y) guk;gy; tpjp
= X (Z + Y) kpifik tpjp
cjhuzk; 4
xU tPl;bd; tuNtw;giwapy; cs;s gbfspy; ,Ue;J khbg;gbfspy; nrd;W khbapy;

fhy;gjpf;Fk; tiu xspu;tjw;F ,uz;L tpsf;Ffs; cs;sd. tpsf;Ffis tuNtw;giwapy;
fhzg;gLk; Msp kw;Wk; khbapy; fhy; gjpf;Fk; ,lj;jpy; cs;s Msp Mfpa ,uz;by;
VjhtJ xd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp epWj;jy;( OFF) kw;Wk; ,izj;jy; (ON) vd;gdtw;iwr; nra;a
KbAk;. ,uz;L MspfSk; Nru;e;J epWj;jy; ( OFF) my;yJ ,izj;jypy; (ON) ,Uf;Fk;
NghJ tpsf;Ffs; epWj;jg;glTk; (OFF) kw;Wk; ,uz;L Mspfspy;; xd;W ,izg;ghfTk; (ON)
kw;iwaJ epWj;jyhfTk; (OFF) ,Ue;jhy; tpsf;Ffs; ,izg;gpYk; (ON) ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
(i) ,k; Kiwikapd; cz;ik ml;ltiziag; ngWf.
A (Switch B (Switch F (Bulb) Minterm

1) 2)
0 0
0 1 1 A’B
1 0 1 AB’
1 1
(ii) Kiwikf;fhd ngUf;fy;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif (SOP) G+ypad; Nfhitiag;

ngWf.
A’B + AB’
116
(iii) Kiwikapid AND, NOT kw;Wk; OR ju;f;f thapy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp
eilKiwg;gLj;Jf.
(iv) xU ju;f;f thapiyg; gad;gLj;jp Nkw;$wpa Kiwikia eilKiwg;gLj;Jf.

XOR thapy; (Gate)
117
Nju;rr
; p kl;;lk; 4.4: kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpy; Nru;khd ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fs; vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gij Muha;tJld; ngsjpf epidtfj;jpy; njhlupay; Rw;Wfs;
vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gjidAk; Muha;thu;;
ghlNtisfs; : 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyfpd; gpujhd fl;likg;Gf; $Wfis ,dq;fhz;ghu;

 miu $l;br; Rw;Wf;fSf;fhd cz;ik ml;ltiziaAk; ju;f;ff; NfhitfisAk;
cUthf;Fthu;
 KO $l;br; Rw;Wf;fSf;fhd cz;ik ml;ltiziaAk;; ju;f;ff; NfhitfisAk;
cUthf;Fthu;
 vOtpOtpfspd; (flip flop) gad;ghl;ilr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 CPU tpd; fl;likg;Gf; $Wfs;

 miu $l;b (Half Adder)
 (Full Adder)
 ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fspy;; gpl;fisr; Nrkpj;jy;
 ; (feedback loop)
 ; (Flip – flops)
 miu $l;b
 KOik $l;b
 Nru;khdr; Rw;Wfs;
 njhlupay; Rw;Wfs;
 vO tpOtpfs;
 miu $l;b> KOik $l;b> vO tpOtpfs; Nghd;ww;wpd; Rw;wpr; nraw;ghLfis

xg;GUthf;fy; nkd;nghUnshd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; tpsq;fpf;
nfhs;tjw;fhd re;ju;g;gj;ijg; ngw;Wf; nfhLf;fTk;.
 Nkw;$wpa Rw;Wf;fis ,yj;jpudpay; gyifiag; gad;gLj;jp cUthf;Ftjd; %yk;
kpfj; njspthf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshf;fp xt;nthU FOitAk; fzpdpapy; ,yf;f Kiwikapd;

gad;ghl;bidf; fz;lwpar; nra;AkhW Nfl;gJld; mtu;fspd; fz;lwpjypid KO tFg;gpw;Fk;
Kd;itf;FkhW Nfl;fTk;
,yj;jpudpay; Ntiyg; gyif> ,yj;jpudpay; Kd;itg;G> ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fhd $Wfs;> ,iza

trjp> xg;GUthf;f nkd;nghUs;
118
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
miu $l;b (Half Adder)
 miuf; $l;bapd; cjtpAld; rhjhuz $l;liyr; nra;af; $ba jpwd; nfhz;l

Rw;Wf;fisj; ju;f;f thapy;fspd; cjtpAld; tbtikf;fyhk;.
 xw;iwg; gpl;Lf;fspd; (single bits ) $l;ly; gw;wp Kjypy; ghu;g;Nghk;
o 0+0 = 0
o 0+1 = 1
o 1+0 = 1
o 1+1 = 10
,it Fiwe;j rhj;jpakhd xw;iw gpl; Nru;f;iffs; MFk;. vdpDk; 1>1 ,d; tpisT 10
MFk;. mjdhy; $l;Lj;njhif tpisT kPz;Lk; 2-gpl; ntspaPLfspy; vOj Ntz;Lk;. MfNt
NkNy cs;s rkd;ghLfs; gpd;tUkhW vOjg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
0+0 = 00
0+1 = 01
1+0 = 01
1+1 = 10
,q;F ntspaPL 10 ,d; 1 MdJ ntspNa vLj;Jr;( carry-out) nry;yg;gLfpd;wJ. fPNo cs;s
cz;ik ml;ltizapy; tpisT fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ‘SUM’ MdJ rhjhuz ntspaPL kw;Wk;
‘CARRY’ MdJ ntspNa vLf;fg;gLtijAk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. (carry-out)
cs;sPLfs; ntspaPLfs;
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
KOikf; $l;b ( Full Adder)
KOikf; $l;bf;Fk; miuf; $l;bf;Fkpilapyhd Kf;fpa NtWghL vd;dntdpy; KOikf;

$l;bapy; %d;W cs;sPLfisAk; ,uz;L ntspaPLfisAk; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ. Kjy; ,uz;L
cs;sPLfs; A Ak; B Ak; kw;Wk; %d;whtJ cs;sPL Ve;jp (carry) MdJ cs;Ns
nry;tjw;fhf (Carry In) epakpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. xU KOikf; $l;b ju;f;fk; tbtikg;gpid
Nkw;nfhs;tjw;F vl;L (string) fis xd;WNru;j;J xU 8 gpl; $l;biaAk;> Ve;jp gpl; xU
$l;bapypUe;Jk; kw;iwa $l;bf;F nry;Yk;. (cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next)
Ve;jp (carry) MdJ Ve;jp ntspNa nfhz;Lnry;yTk; (Carry Out) $l;Lj;njhifahdJ(sum)

$l;Lj;njhifapid (Sum) epakpf;fTk; tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,tw;wpd; cz;ik ml;ltiz
fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk;: ,yf;fq;fisf; $l;Ltjpy; miuf; $l;bapdJk; KOikf; $l;bapdJk;

gpuNahfq;fs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. %d;W gpl;fs; $l;ly;fSk; ,uz;L gpl;fs;; $l;ly;fSk;
fhl;g;gLfpd;wd.
119
Number 1 1 0 1 1
Number 2 0 1 1 0 +
Carry In 1 1 1 0
Sum 1 0 0 0 1
Carry Out 1 1 1 0
,q;F Kjy; ,uz;L gpl;fs; Nru;f;fg;gLk; NghJ khj;jpuk; miu $l;b Njitg;gLfpd;wJ.
Vnddpy; cs;Ns Ve;jp gpl; (carry in bit ) fpilf;fhikahy; MFk;. kPjKs;s gpl;fisf; $l;Lk;
nghUl;L> KOikf; $l;b Nru;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Vnddpy; cs;Ns Ve;jp gpl; (carry in bit)
fhzg;gLtjhy; MFk;. ,uz;L miuf;$l;bfspd; (half adders) ,izg;G KOikf; $l;bahFk;
(Full adder).
cz;ik ml;ltiz kw;Wk; ju;f;fr; Rw;W vd;gtw;wpypUe;J vt;thW KOikf; $l;bia (full
adder) gpujpepjpg;gLj;JtJ?
Ve;jpahdJ (carry) A.B + B.C + A.C ,dhy; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ. $l;Lj;njhif(sum) A XOR B XOR
C ,dhy; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A B C Sum Carry A.B B.C A.C A.B+B.C+A.C A XOR B A XOR B XOR C
Carry In Sum Carry Out
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
NkNy cs;s cz;ik ml;ltiz vy;yh tupirf;Fkhd cs;sPl;Lg; ngWkjpfSf;Fkhd

ntspaPl;Lg; ngWkjpfisf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. epuy;fspd; ,yf;fk; 5kw;Wk; 9 vd;git xj;jitahf
fhz;gLfpwJ. $l;Lj;njhifahdJ A.B+B.C+A.C vd;Dk; G+ypad; Nfhitapdhy;
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ. epuy;fspd; ,yf;fk; 5>9 vd;git xj;jitahff; fhz;gLfpd;wd.
MfNt MdJ A XOR B XOR C vd;Dk; ju;f;fj;jpdhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ
KOikf; $l;br; Rw;W
120
,izg;Gr; Rw;Wf;fs; : ntspaPlhdJ cs;splg;gLk; nghOJ kl;Lk; jq;fpapUf;Fk;
njhlu;rr; pahd Rw;W: ntspaPlhdJ jw;NghJs;s cs;sPLfspy; khj;jpuk; jq;fpapUf;fhJ

Kd;ida cs;sPLfs; kw;Wk; ntspaPLfspYk; jq;fpapUf;Fk;. ,t;tifahd Rw;Wf;fs; NkYk;
cs;sPLfs; vLf;fhky; nray;fisj; njhlu;rr; pahfr; nra;tjw;Fj; Njitg;gLk;. epidtf
Nrkpg;Gf;fhf (SRAM) ,J gad;gLfpd;wJ.
vO tpOtpfs; ( Flip Flops)

ju;f;fr; Rw;Wf;fsp;d; gpuNahfkhf vO tpOtpfs; fhzg;gLfdpwd. G+ypad; ju;f;fj;jpd;
cjtpAld;; ,tw;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp epidtfj;ij cUthf;f KbAk;. vO tpOtpfs; kpfTk;
mbg;gil Nahridahd (idea) vOkhw;W mZfy; epidtfkhfTk; (Random-Access Memory)
fUjg;gl KbAk;. Fwpj;j cs;sPl;Lg; ngWkjpfs; nfhLf;fg;gLk; NghJ mit mtw;iw
epidtpy; itj;jpUf;Fk;.
vO tpOtpfspd; xU tbtk; Jy;ypakhff; fzpdpapd; kpd; Mspiag; Nghy; nraw;gLfpd;wJ :

Kjd; Kiw mjd; cs;sPL 1 MfpwJ> vO tpOtpfs; ntspaPl;il epWj;Jfpd;wJ. mjhtJ
vOtpOtpfs; cs;sPL 1 fpilf;fg;ngWtjd; fhuzkhf ntspaPl;ilj; jw;Nghija
epiyapypUe;J mjw;F vjpuhf khw;Wfpd;wJ. js;S nghj;jhidg; Nghy MspahdJ kpd;idf;
fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpd;wJ> vOtpOtpfs; njhlu;;r;rpahd cs;sPl;Lf;Fg; nghWg;gy;y -
cs;sPlhdJ ngWkjp 1 ,w;F Kd;dhy; 0 ,w;F fl;lhakhfj; jpUk;Gjy; MdJ vO tpOtpfs;
epiyia khw;Wtjw;Ff; fhuzkhf mikAk;. fPNo cs;s glkhdJ njhlu;rr ; pahd
cs;sPLfs; kw;Wk; tpisthd ntspaPL vd;gtw;iwf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
kbg;G vO tpOtpfs; (Latch Flip-flop)
R-S(Reset Set) vO tpOtpahdJ vy;yhtw;wpYk; vspikahdJk; tpsq;Ftjw;F

,yFthdJkhFk;. ,J mbg;gilapy; xU cgfuzkhFk;. ,J ,uz;L ntspaPLfisAk; xU
ntspaPL kw;iwajpd; Neu;khwhf my;yJ epug;gpahfTk; ,uz;L cs;sPLfisAk; nfhz;lJ.
cs;sPLfspy; xd;wpd; kPjhd Jbg;G Fwpg;gpl;l ju;f;f epiyia vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. kw;iwa
cs;sPl;Lf;Fk; ,Nj khjpupahd Jbg;igg; gpuNahfpf;Fk; tiu gpd;du; ntspaPLfs;; ,Nj
epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j ,uz;L cs;sPLfSk; Set kw;Wk; Reset vd miof;fg;gLk;. (rpy
Neuq;fspy; preset kw;Wk; clear inputs vd miof;fg;gLk;)
,t;tifahd vOtpOtpfs; ntWkNd ,uz;L FWf;F Neu;khw;W thapy;fs; NAND my;yJ

NOR thapy; gad;gLj;jp cUthf;fg;gl KbAk;. cUtk; 1(a) MdJ NAND thapiyg;
gad;gLj;jp RS vO tpOtpiaAk; kw;Wk; cUtk; (b) NOR thapiyg; gad;gLj;jp RS vO
tpOtpiaAk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
121
Nju;rr
; p 5 fzpdpapd; KO mstpyhd nraw;ghLfis Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F
,af;f Kiwikfis cgNahfpg;ghu;
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 5.1 fzdp ,af;f Kiwikapid tiuaiw nra;tJld; fzpdpapy;
mtw;wpd;; Njitfisf; fz;lwptu;.
ghlNtisfs; 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;
 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik vd;why; vd;d vd;gij (Operating Systems) tiuaWg;ghu;

 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd; gupzhkj;ijr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik (Operating System) gadUf;F toq;Fk; gpujhd nraw;ghLfisAk;
fUj;jpay;fisAk; (milTfs;> Nfhg;Gfs;> juTfs;) ,dq;fhz;ghu;
 fzpdpapd; tsq;fis ,af;f Kiwik (Operating Systems)vt;thW Kfhikj;Jtk;
nra;fpwJ vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;
 gadu;fs; - gzp; vd;gtw;wpd;mbg;gilapy; ,af;f Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;Jthu;
cs;slf;fk;
 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik (Operating System) mwpKfk;;

 ,af;f Kiwikapd; gupzhkk;
 ,af;f Kiwikapd; gpujhd njhopw;ghLfs;
 ,ilKfj;ij toq;fy;
 nray; Kfhikj;Jtk;
 ts Kfhikj;Jtk;
 ghJfhg;Gk; fhg;Gk;
 fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;jy;;
 jdpg;gadu;(Single User)– jdp gzp (Single Task)
 jdpg;gadu;(Single User)– gw;gzp (Multi Task)
 gw;gadu; (Multi User)– gw;gzp (Multi Task)
 gy;nrayhf;fk; (Multithreading)
 epfo; Neuk; (Real Time)
 Neug;gfpu;T Kiwikfs;
vz;zf;fUf;fSk; Kjd;ikg; gjq;fSk;:;

,af;f Kiwapd; tiuaiw
,af;f Kiwapd; gpujhd nraw;ghLfs;
,af;f Kiwapd; tiffs;
fzpdp ,af;fKiwapd; gad;ghL njhlu;ghf tpthjpj;jy;

fzpdp ,af;f Kiwapd; gpujhd nraw;ghLfs; njhlu;ghf tpthjpj;jy;
,af;f Kiwapd; tiffisf; $wp tpthjpj;jy;
fzpg;gl
P ;bw;Fk; kjpg;gPl;bw;Fkhd topfhl;b
khztu;fis FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; fPof ; hzg;gLk; jiyaq;fq;fspy;

Kd;itg;G xd;wpid cUthf;fp mjid Kd;itf;fr; re;ju;g;gk; mopj;jy;. (,af;f Kiwapd;
Njit> ,af;f Kiwapd; nraw;ghL> ,af;f Kiwapd;; tiffs; Nghd;wd. )
fzpdp> ,af;f Kiwik > ,Wtl;L> DVD kw;Wk; ,iza trjp
122
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
fzpdp ,af;f Kiwapd;; mwpKfk;
,af;f Kiwik vd;gJ xU Kiwik nkd;nghUshFk;. ,J xU nka;epfu; ,ae;jpukhFk;

(virtual machine ) mjhtJ td;nghUs; jfty;fis kiwj;Jg; gpuNahfq;fSf;Fk;
gadUf;Fkhd ,ilKfj;jpid toq;Ffpd;wJ. ,af;f KiwikahdJ tsg;gad;ghL>
tsq;fis mDkjpj;jy;> jtph;j;jy; kw;Wk; gpuNahf nkd;nghUl;fis Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;yy;
Nghd;wtw;iwf; fz;fhzpf;fpd;wJ.
,a
f;f Kiwikapd; gupzhk tsu;r;rp (Evolution of Operating System)
1) ,af;f Kiwik ,y;yhj fhyg;gFjp (1940 – 1950)
◦ njhlu; Kiwtopahf;fk; (serial Processing) – nray;fis xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf

Nkw;nfhs;Sk;.
◦ jdp;g;gadu; Kiwik (Single user system) MFk;.
◦ fzpdp nray;epuyhsu;fs; my;yJ gad;gLj;Jgtu;fs; NeubahfNt
td;nghUSld; njhlu;Ggl;L mwpTWj;jy;fis fzpdpf;F toq;Ftu;.
◦ ,q;F ,af;f Kiwik ,y;iy.
◦ nra;epuy;fs; Neubahff; fzpdpahy; cs;thq;fg;gLk;.
◦ fzpdpahdJ display lights, toggle switches ,tw;wpd; %yk; nraw;gLk;.
123
Nkyjpf tplaq;fs;
 ifKiwapyhd nkd;nghUs; jpl;lkply;.

 xw;iw epuyhf;fk; (uni programming).
 Fwpj;j nra;epuy; Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;fhff; nfhz;Lnry;yg;gLk; NghJk; Njitahd
cs;sPL kw;Wk; ntspaPLfisr; nraw;gLj;Jk; NghJk; nraypahdJ fhj;jpUf;Fk;.
2) vspa njhFjp Kiwik (Simple Batch System)

◦ nraypapd; gad;ghl;bid mjpfupg;gjw;fhf mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
◦ Fiwe;j nrytpyhd ,ae;jpuj;Jld; nra;epuy;fs; fhe;j ehltpy; gjpag;gLk;.
◦ gzpnray;KiwikahdJ ehlhtpy; ,Ue;J xU Neuj;jpy; xU nra;epuiy
kl;LNk Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;fhff; nfhz;Lnry;yg;gl;Lr; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
◦ Fwpj;j nrad;Kiwapd; nraw;ghL epiwtile;j gpd;> ,jDila ntspaPL
gpwpnjhU fhe;jehltpy; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;. gpd;du; mLj;j nrad;Kiw
Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;fhf vLj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
◦ KOj; njhFjp Kiwikapd; Kbtpy; ntspaPlhdJ nryT Fiwe;j
,ae;jpuj;jpdhy; mr;rplg;gLk;.
(Source: https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub54/2what_wrong.html)
Nkyjpf tplaq;fs;
• td;nghUl;fSld; Neub mZfy; ,y;iy

• xw;iwr; nra;epuyhf;fy; (Uniprogramming)
• cau; gjpyspg;G Neuk; (High response time)
• cs;sPL my;yJ ntspaPl;bd; NghJ nraypahdJ nrayw;W ,Uf;Fk;.
3) gy;epuy;gLj;jy; njhFjp Kiwik (Multi-Programmed batch Systems)
◦ jw;fhy ,af;f Kiwikapd;; gpujhdkhd vz;zf;fU ,JthFk;.

◦ cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ nraypahdJ nrayw;W ,Uf;Fk;
Neuj;jpidf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf 3k; jiyKiwapy; ,J mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
◦ gy;NtW nra;epuy;fis Nrkpj;J itj;jpUg;gjw;F epidtfkhdJ
gpuptplg;gLfpd;wJ.
◦ Fwpj;j nra;epuy;fis cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;bw;fhf fhj;jpUf;Fk; NghJ>
epidtfj;jpy; NtnwhU nra;epuy; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F ,af;f KiwikahdJ
nraypapid topg;gLj;Jk;.
◦ epidtfkhdJ gy nra;epuy;fis itj;Jf;nfhs;sf; $ba epiyapy;
,Uf;Fk;nghOJ nraypahdJ 100% nraw;gLk;.
124
4) Neug;gfpu;T Kiwik (Time Sharing System)
◦ nra;epuiy nraw;gLj;Jk; NghJ gadUldhd ,ilj;njhlh;gpid mjpfupf;fTk;

gjpyspf;Fk; Neuj;jpidf; Fiwg;gjw;fhfTk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
◦ re;ju;g;g Mspapidg; (context switch) gad;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
◦ gy;epuy;gLj;jg;gl;l nra;epuy;fSf;F ,ilapy; nraypapd; Neuj;jpidg; gfph;e;J
nfhs;s cjTfpd;wJ.
◦ gy;epuw;gLj;jg;gl;l nra;epuy;fs; xNu Neuj;jpy; nrad;Kiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; NghJ
mtw;iw kjpg;gL P nra;J mr;nra;epuy;fSf;fpilapy; tpiuthf khWk;.
,af;f Kiwikapd; Kf;fpa nraw;ghLfs;

nraw;ghl;L Kfhikj;Jtk; (Process Management)
 ts Kfhikj;Jtk; (Resource Management - Memory, I/O device, Storage)

 gadu; ,ilKfk; (User Interface)
 fhg;G Kfhikj;Jtk; (Security Protection)
,af;f Kiwikapd; tiffs;
 ,af;f Kiwikapd; tiffs;(gadu; mbg;gilapy;)

• jdpg;gadu; (Single user) – xU Neuj;jpy; xU gadNu Fwpj;j fzpdp
Kiwikapid gad;gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uj;jy;.
• gw;gadu; (Multi User) – xU Neuj;jpy; gy gadu;fs; Fwpj;j
fzpdpKiwikapidg; gad;gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uj;jy;.
 ,af;f Kiwikapd; tiffs;(gzp mbg;gilapy;)

• jdpg;gzp (Single Task) – xU Neuj;jpy; xU gzpapid kl;Lk; Nkw;nfhs;Sk;
• gy;gzp (Multi Task) – xU Neuj;jpy; gy gzpfis Nkw;nfhs;Sk;.
,af;f Kiwikapd; tiffs; (Different types of Operating Systems)
• jdpg;gadu; - jdpg;gzp (Single user - single task) – xU Neuj;jpy; Fwpj;j fzpdp

Kiwikapidf; nfhz;L xU gadhsupdhy; xU gzp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
• jdpg;gadu; - gy;gzp (Single user - Multi task) – xU Neuj;jpy; Fwpj;j fzpdp
Kiwikapidf; nfhz;L xU gadhsupdhy; gy gzpfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
• gy;gadu; - gy;gzp (Multi user - Multi task) – Fwpj;jnthU my;yJ ntt;NtWgl;l
Neuj;jpy; Fwpj;j fzpdp Kiwikapidf; nfhz;L gy gadhsupdhy; gy
gzpfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
• Multi-threading – Thread MdJ cgnray; (sub Process) vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
rkhe;ju cgnray;fspD}lhfg; gpuNahfq;fspd; njhopw;ghl;bid
mjpfupg;gjw;fhd topapid toq;Ffpd;wJ.
• epfo; Neuk; (Real Time) – cau; ek;gfj;jd;ikAilaJk;> Jy;ypakhd
Neuj;jpidAilaJkhd gpuNahfq;fis ,af;Ftjw;fhf tbtikf;fg;gl;lit.
epfo;Neu ,af;f Kiwikfspd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; epfo;Tfs; gw;wpa tpiuthd
kw;Wk; fzpf;ff;$ba gjpyspg;ghFk;;. nra;epuy;fSf;fhd ghJfhg;Gf; FiwT
fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; fhyjhkjk; my;yJ mjpfkhfr; nraw;glhkypUf;Fk;
re;jh;g;gq;fSf;fhf ,j;jifa ,af;fKiwikfs; Njitg;gLfpd;wd.
• Neug;gq;fPl;L Kfhik (Time Sharing Systems) – gy gadUf;fpilapy;/
gpuNahfq;fSf;fpilapy; nraypapd; Neuk; gfpug;gLfpd;wJ.
Neug;gq;fPl;L ,af;fKiwikapd; gz;Gfs;
o tpiuthd Jyq;fiy toq;Ffpd;wJ.
o CPU ,dJ nrayw;w Neuj;jpidf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ.
125
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 5.2 ,af;f Kiwik fzpdpfspy; Nfhg;G fisAk; (files) milTfisAk;
(directories/ folders) vt;thW Kfhik nra;fpd;wJ vd;gijf; fz;lha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 Nfhit kw;Wk; milT vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Fthu;

 jl;L tbtikj;jypd; (disk formatting) mtrpaj;ijr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Nfhg;G tiffspd; mtrpaj;ij ,dq;fhz;ghu;;
 Nfhg;G Kiwikf; fl;likg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
 Nfhg;G kw;Wk; milT vd;gtw;wpd; xOq;fikg;ig vLj;Jiug;ghu;
 Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;gpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwfs; gw;wpr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 ,af;f KiwikahdJ Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;gpid vt;thW Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ vd;gijr;
 fPOs;stw;iwr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
o mLj;jLj;jhd xJf;fPL
o ,izg;G xJf;fPL
o Rl;b xJf;fPL
 Jzpf;if ePf;fy;; vd;gijAk;; mJ vt;thW Vw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gijAk; tpsf;Fthu;;
cs;slf;fk;:
 Nfhg;G tiffs; (File Types)

o Nfhg;G tiffspd; mtrpak;(.exe, .jpg .txt Nghd;wd)
 milT (Directory)>Nfhg;G vd;gtw;wpd; xOq;fikg;G
o Nfhg;G gbepiy (Hierarchi)
 Nfhg;G Kiwikfs;; (File Systems)- FAT Nghd;wd
 Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;G (File Security)
o flTr;nrhy; (Passwords)> mZfy; cupik (Access Privileges)
 Nfhg;Gr; Nrkpg;G Kfhikj;Jtk;
o ,izg;G xJf;fPL
o Rl;b xJf;fPL (Index Allocation)
 Jzpf;if ePf;fy; (Defragmentation)
 Jiz epidtfj;jpd; guhkupg;G (Maintenance of Secondary Storage)
tl;L tbtikg;gpd; tUtpisTk; mtrpaKk; (Need and outcome of disk formatting)
 tl;L tbtikg;gpd; Njitfs;

 ntt;NtW tpjkhd gzprn ; ray; Kiwfspd; Nfhg;G Kiwfs;
 Nfhg;Gg; ghJfhg;Gg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwfs;
 xUq;fikj;jy; njhlu;ghd fhuzpfs;
 Nfhg;G Kfhikj;Jt Kiwik
Nfhg;Gfs; kw;Wk; mjd; gz;Gf;$Wfs; gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;
Nfhg;Gfspd; Kfhikj;Jtj;jpy; Nfhg;Gfspd; ghJfhg;Gj; njhlu;ghff; fye;Jiuahb
tpsf;fkopj;jy;
126
fzpg;gl
khztu;fis kztu;fs; vz;zpf;iff;F Vw;wthW FOf;fshfg; gpupj;jy;. xt;nthU

FOtpw;Fk; nghUj;jkhd nraw;ghl;L ml;ilapid toq;fp mjd; mbg;gilapy;
Kd;itg;gpid cUthf;fp mjid Kd;itg;gjw;Fr; re;ju;g;gk; toq;fTk;
fzpdp> ,af;f Kiwik> td;jl;Lf;fs; my;yJ DVD> ,iza trjp> nraw;ghl;L ml;il
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Nfhg;Gf;fs; (Files)
xd;Nwhnlhd;W njhlh;Ggl;l jfty;fspd; njhFg;G Nfhg;G vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J nghJthf

igl;Lf;fspd; tupir (sequence of bytes) MFk;.
Nfhg;G xd;wpid ,uz;L ntt;NtW topfspy; ghu;f;f KbAk;.
• ju;f;fuPjpahd/ nray;epuyhsu; Nehf;F (Logical/ programmer’s view):
xU gadh; xU Nfhg;gpid vt;thW Nehf;Ffpd;whu; vd;gJ njhlu;ghdJ.
◦ gjpTfspd; xOq;F Kiwahd njhFg;G
◦ gbkf; Nfhg;G (Image File) – fyq;fs;(gl%yk;) vd;gdtw;wpd; ngWkjpfs;
◦ igl;Lfspd; xOq;FKiwahd tupir.
• ngsjPf mbg;gilapyhd Nehf;F (Physical view) :
vt;thW Nfhg;Gfs; Jizj;Njf;fr; rhjdq;fspy; Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gJ
njhlu;ghdJ.
◦ gy rhj;jpaf;$Wfs; mLj;jLj;J ,Ug;gJ mtrpakhdit my;y.
Nfhg;Gfspd; gz;Gfs; (File Attributes)

xt;nthU Nfhg;Gk; xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,ize;j jfty;fspd; njhFg;gpidf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
• Nfhg;gpdJ ngau; (file name)
• Nfhg;gpdJ tif (type) (e.g., source, data, executable)
• cupikahsu; (Owner)
• ,uz;lhk; epiyr; Nrkpg;gfj;jpy; cs;s ,lk;
• mikg;G (c-k;:- sequential, indexed, random)
• gad;;gLj;Jtjw;fhd mDkjpfs; (access permissions)
◦ Fwpj;j Nfhg;gpYs;s jutpid thrpj;jy;> vOJjy;> mopj;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpw;Fg;
gadUf;F toq;fg;gLk; mDkjp
• Nfhg;gpid cUthf;fy;> jw;fhyg;gLj;jy;> ,Wjpahd gad;ghL vd;gdtw;wpd;
jpfjp kw;Wk; Neuk;
• Nfhg;gpdJ msT
Nfhg;G tiffs;
Nfhg;G tifapidj; jPu;khdpf;Fk; xU rhj;jpaf;$whd eilKiw El;gkhf>

Nfhg;GePl;rp gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
cs;slf;fj;jpid mbg;gilahf nfhz;L Nfhg;G tiffis ntt;NtW tifahf
tifg;gLj;jyhk;.
• ,aq;ff;$ba (Executable) - .exe
• thrfk; (Text ) - .txt, .docx, .Nghd;wd
• gbkk; (Image) - .bmp, .png, .jpeg, … Nghd;wd
• fhnzhsp (Video ) - .vob, .flv, .swf,… Nghd;wd
• xypmikg;G (Audio) - .wav, .mp3,… Nghd;wd
• neUf;fg;gl;l (Compressed) - .rar, .zip,… Nghd;wd
127
Nfhg;Giw kw;Wk; Nfhg;G mikg;G (Directory and file organization)
njhlu;rr
; pahf mike;j ju;f;fuPjpahd Nfhg;Gfis xOq;fikf;f Nfhg;Giw
Nfhg;G mikg;G
 xU Nfhg;gpdJ mikg;ghdJ ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sf; $ba tpjj;jpy;

mikAk;.
 xU Nfhg;ghdJ mjd; tiff;F Vw;g Fwpg;gpl;l tiuaWf;fg;gl;l fl;likg;igf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 xU thrff; Nfhg;ghdJ tupfshf xOq;fikf;fg;gl;l vOj;Jf;fspd; xU tupir MFk;.
 xU nghUl;Nfhg;G (object File) vd;gJ ,ae;jpuj;ijg; Gupe;J nfhs;sf;$ba
njhFjpfspy; cs;s xOq;fikf;fg;gl;l igl;Lf;fspd; xU tupirahFk;.
Nfhg;G Kiwik
juT vt;thW Nrkpf;fg;gl;L kPl;nlLf;fg;ggLfpd;wJ vd;gijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j> Nfhg;G

Kiwik gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
Nfhg;G xJf;fPl;L ml;ltiz (FAT)
 FAT MdJ Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS) ,dhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;l Nfhg;G
Kiwikfs; MFk;.
 Njf;fr;rhjdq;fspy; Nfhg;Gf;fspd; ghijapidr; Nrkpj;J itj;jpUf;fg; FAT
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;;.
 FAT kw;Wk; root directory vd;gd tl;bd; epiyahd ,lj;jpy; miktjdhy; fzpdp
Kiwikapd; njhlf;ff; Nfhg;Gfs; rupahd ,lj;jpy; epiyg;gLj;jgg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;.
njhFjpapidg; ghJfhf;f FAT ,d; ,uz;L gpujpfs; itj;jpUf;Fk;.
Gjpa njhopy; El;gf; Nfhg;G Kiwik. (NTFS)
Gjpa njhopDl;gf; Nfhg;G KiwikahdJ (NTFS) Microsoft epWtdj;jpdhy;

cUthf;fg;gl;l FAT ,Yk; rpwe;j xU Nfhg;G KiwikahFk;.
NTFS Nfhg;G Kiwikapd; Kd;Ndw;wq;fs;.
 tl;L njhlu;ghd gpiofspypUe;J jd;dpaf;fkhf kPl;Lf;nfhs;Sk; jpwd; nfhz;lJ. ,j;

jpwd; FAT Nfhg;gpy; ,y;iy.
 Adpf;Nfhl;L FwpKiw gad;gLj;jg;gl $bajhf cs;sJ.
 $ba nfhs;sstpidf; nfhz;l td;tl;LfSld; ,ize;J nraw;glf;$ba jd;ik
mjpfkhAs;sJ.
 mDkjpaspf;fg;gl;l gadh;fs; Fwpj;j Nfhg;gpid mZFtjw;F mDkjpfs; kw;Wk;
kiwFwpahf;fq;fs; Nghd;w ghJfhg;G El;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
Nfhg;G ghJfhg;G
 flTr; nrhy;
 mZfy; cupik (Access privileges)
mq;fPfhukspj;jy; (Authentication)
mq;fPfhuk; vd;gJ fzpdpapd; xt;nthU gadiuAk; milahsk; fhz;gJld; mg;
gadh;fSld; nray;gLk; fzpdp nra;epuy;fis ,izg;gijAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. Fwpj;j xU
nray;epuypy; ,aq;Fk; xU gadu; ek;gfkhdtu; vd;gij cWjpg;gLj;Jk; ghJfhg;G mikg;G
xd;iw cUthf;FtJ ,af;f Kiwikapd; nghWg;ghFk;. ,af;f KiwahdJ nghJthf
gpd;tUk; ,uz;L topfspy; gadiu milahsg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ/ mq;fPfhukspf;fpd;wJ.
128
gadu;ngau;/flTr;nrhy;
gadu; fzpdpapidg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;F Vw;fdNt gjpTnra;ag;gl;l gadu;ngau; kw;Wk;
flTr;nrhy; vd;gdtw;wpidg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
 gadu; gz;G (User attribute) - fingerprint/ eye retina pattern/ signature –
gadu; fzpdpapidg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fj; jdJ milahsg; gz;gpid
tbtikf;fg;gl;l cs;sPl;Lr; rhjdj;jpD}lhf cWjp nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
tl;L Jz;lhf;fy; (Disk Fragmentation)
Jz;lhf;fy; vd;gJ Fwpj;j juthdJ tl;by; ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy; Jz;L Jz;lhf Ntt;NtW
,lq;fspy; Nrkpf;fg;gl;bUg;gijf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,j; jutpid tpidj;jpwDld; Nrkpj;Jg;
gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
tl;L Jzpf;if ePf;fy; (Defragmentation)
ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; Jz;lq;fis xOq;FgLj;Jk; nraw;ghL tl;L xUq;fikj;jy;

MFk;.
Jzpf;if ePf;fypd; Kd;G

( Before Defragmentation) Jzpf;if ePf;fypd; gpd;G
(After Defragmentation)
(Source: https://www.auslogics.com/en/articles/defragmentation/)
Nfhg;G Nrkpg;G Kfhikj;Jtk; (File Storage Management)
 ,ilntsp xJf;fPL (Space Allocation)
,af;fKiwikapdhy; Nfhg;Gf;fs;> tl;L ,ilntspfspy;; xJf;fp

itf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Nfhg;Gf;fSf;fhd tl;L ,ilntspfis xJf;fPL
nra;tjw;F ,af;f Kiw gpd;tUk; %d;W Kiwfisg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
o ,izg;G xJf;fPL
o Rl;b xJf;fPL
mLj;jLj;jhd xJf;fPL(Contiguous Allocation)
,J mLj;jLj;j my;yJ njhlu;rpahd njhFjpfspd; Nru;f;if %yk;

tl;L ,lj;jpid xJf;Fk;. gad;gLj;jg;glhj tl;L ,ilntspfis
itj;jpUg;gjw;fhf ,k;Kiw gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
Nkyjpf tplaq;fs;:
• ,yFthdJ (Simple.)
• mZfy; ,yF (Easy Access.)
• Nfhg;gpd; nfhs;ssT Nfhg;G cUthf;fj;jpd; NghJ njupa
Ntz;bajpy;iy.
• Vw;fdNt gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Nfhg;gpd; nfhs;sstpidj;
jPu;khdpg;gJ fbdk;
• ntspg;Gw Jz;lhf;fy; (External fragmentation)
• gad;gLj;jg;glhj ,lq;fspd; ,ilntspfs; xJf;fPL nra;ag;gLk;.
129
,izf;fg;gl;l xJf;fPL (Linked Allocation)
xU Nfhg;gpd; xt;nthU njhFjpf;Fs;NsAk (Block); xU ,izg;Gvz; mLj;j
njhFjp vq;Nf cs;sJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gjw;fhff; fhzg;gLk;.
Nkyjpf tplaq;fs;:
• ntspg;Gw Jz;lhf;fy; ,y;iy (No external fragmentation)
• Nfhg;Gf;fis vspjpy; xd;W Nru;f;fyhk;.
• gy NjLjy; El;gq;fs; Nfhg;Gf;fspd; juTfisg; ngwg; gad;gLk;.
cjhuzk;: MSDOS FAT Nfhg;G Kiwik
Rl;b xJf;fPL (Indexed Allocation)

xt;nthU Nfhg;gpidAk; cUthf;Fk; nghOJ mf; Nfhg;gpw;F cupa ml;ltizapdJ
Rl;bfs; (Index) cUthf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j ml;ltizfs;> Gjpa
njhFjpfis (blocks) cUthf;Fk; NghJk; mopf;fg;gLk; NghJk;
khw;wj;jpw;F cs;shFk;. ,e;jr; Rl;Lk; ml;ltizAk; (index
table) njhFjp xd;wpy; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; :
UNIX Nfhg;G Kiwik
Nkyjpf tplaq;fs;:
 Nfhg;ghdJ nil pointer ,y; Kbtilfpd;wJ.
 ntspg;Gwj; Jz;lhf;fy; ,y;iy.
 xt;nthU njhFjpAk;; mLj;j njhFjpf;F cupa
Rl;bf;fhl;bapidf; (pointer) nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 neUf;fkhf;fy; ,y;iy
Jizr;Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdq;fspd; guhkupg;G
gadh; kw;Wk; fzpdp vd;gdtw;wpd; juTfisAk; nra;epuy;fisAk; Nrkpj;J itf;Fk; mopjfh

epidtfk; Jizr; Nrkpg;gfk; MFk;.
Jiz epidtfkhdJ nghJthff; fPo;fhzg;gLgtw;wpidr; Nrkpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
◦ %y epuy; (Source program)
◦ ,aq;ff;$ba nray;epuy;fs; (Executable programs)
◦ nra;epuYf;fhd juT (Data for the program)
◦ jw;fhypf juT (Temporary data )
tl;L tbtikj;jy; (Disk formatting)
tl;L tbtikj;jy; vd;gJ juT Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdj;ij mjd; Muk;g gad;ghl;bw;fhf

jhahupg;gjhFk;. ,J xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l Gjpa Nfhg;G Kiwikfis
cUthf;fyhk;. tbtikg;gpd; Kjy; gFjp mbg;gil> eLj;ju jahupg;igr; nra;Ak; ,J (low-
level formatting) “Fiw epiy tbtikg;G” vdf; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. ,jd; ,uz;lhtJ nraw;ghlhf
gpuptply; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Fwpj;j Nrkpg;Gr; rhjdj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; juTfs;
,aq;Fjsj;jpdhy; milahsq;fhzf;$bajhf tl;L gpuptplg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; %d;whtJ
nrad;KiwahdJ “cau;epiy tbtikg;G vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J ngUk;ghYk; Gjpa
Nfhg;G Kiwikia cUthf;Fk; nrad;Kiwapidf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
tbtikf;fg;gl;l tl;bd; juit kPl;nlLj;jy; (Recovery of data from a formatted disk)

,af;fKiwikapdhy; Nfhg;G ePf;fk; nra;ag;gLtjhy; xt;nthU cau; kl;l tbtikg;gpd;
NghJk; tl;bYs;s juTfs; Kw;wpYk; mopf;fg;glhJ. ,jw;Fg; gjpyhf Nfhg;Gfspd;
,izg;Gf;fs; mopf;fg;gLk;> Nfhg;Gf;fs; ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;jpy; ,d;DnkhU Nfhg;Gr; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;
tiu Fwpj;j ,lj;jpNyNa ,j;juT ,Uf;Fk;.
130
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 5.3 ,af;f KiwikahdJ fzpdpapd; nray;fis vt;thW epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ
vd;gij Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
nray;fis (process) tpsf;Fthu;

nray; xd;W cUthf;fg;gLk; NghJ ,af;fKiwikapd; gzpfisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
nray; tiffisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
nray; epiyfisg; gl;baw;gLj;Jthu;
nray; Kbtiljiy tpsf;Fthu;
nray;> nra;epuy; vd;gtw;iw NtWgLj;Jthu;
VO epiy nray;khw;wy; tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpr; nray;fis tpgupg;ghu;;
nray; xOq;fikg;igAk; nray; xOq;fikg;Gf; nfhs;ifiaAk; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
ePz;l> FWfpa> eLj;ju xOq;fikg;G Kiwfis xg;gpLthu;
gy; nra;epuyhf;fj;ijAk; mjd; NjitiaAk; tpgupg;ghu;
Neug;gq;fPl;L Kiwikia tpgupg;ghu;
gy; nra;epuyhf;fj;ijAk; Neug;gq;fPl;L KiwikiaAk; xg;gpLthu;
re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wiy (context switch) tiuaWg;ghu;
gpd;tUtdtw;iwr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
o te;J NrUk; Neuk; (Turnaround time)
o Jyq;fy; Neuk; ( Response time)
o nra;tPjk; (Throughput)
o fhj;jpUf;Fk; Neuk; (Waiting time)
 nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjpia tpsf;Ftjld; mjd; cs;slf;fq;fisg; gl;baypLthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 nray; xd;wpd; tiuaiw

 ,ilA+WfSk; ,ilA+W ifahsYk;;
 nray; Kfhikj;Jtk; (Process Management)
 nray; epiyfs;
 nray; epiykhwy; (Process Transitions)
 nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjp
 re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wy; (Context switching)
 nray; Kiwg;gLj;jpfs; (Process Schedulers)
vz;zf;fUf;fSk; Kjd;ikg; gjq;fSk;.
 xU nray; kw;Wk; nray;epuy; vd;gdtw;iw NtWgLj;jy;

 nray;fspd; epiyfis VO epiy nray;khw;wy; tiuglj;ij gad;gLj;jp tpgupj;jy;
 nray;epiyf; fl;Lg;ghl;Lg; ngl;;bapidg; gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLjy;
 nray;> nra;epuy; vd;gtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd NtWghL njhlu;ghff; fye;Jiuahly;
 nray;fspd; epiyfis VO epiy nray;khw;wy; tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jy;
njhlu;ghff; fye;Jiuahly;
 nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjp njhlu;ghff; fye;Jiuahly;
131
fzpg;gPl;bw;Fk; kjpg;gPl;bw;Fkhd topfhl;b
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOTk; gpd;tUtdtw;wpy; xd;iwj; njupT

nra;J (nray; kw;Wk; nra;epuy; vd;gdtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd NtWghL> nray;fispd;
epiyfis VO epiy nray; khw;W tiuglj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp tpgpupj;jy;> nray; fl;Lg;ghl;L
njhFjp> ePz;l> FWfpa> eLj;ju xOq;fikg;G Kiwfis xg;gpLjy;) Kd;itg;G xd;wpidj;
jahupj;J Kd;itf;fr; nra;jy;.
fzpdp> ,af;f Kiwik td;jl;Lf;fs; my;yJ DVD> ,iza trjp.
thrp;g;Gg; gj;jpuk;
nray; (process) vd;why; vd;d?
 etPd ,af;f Kiwikapd; mbg;gilf; fUj;J nray; MFk;.
 xU nray; vd;gJ nraw;gLj;jypYs;s xU nrad;Kiw.
 nray; (Process) vd;gJ xU nray;epuy; (Program) ,y;iy. Mdhy;> xU
nray;epuyhdJ gy nray;fisf; nfhz;lJ.
nray;fspd; tiffs;
• cs;sPL / ntspaPL gpizg;Gr; nray;fs; (I/O bound processes)
• Ez;nrayp gpizg;Gr; nray;fs; (Processor bound processes)
nray;fspd; Njitg;gLfs; (Process requirements)

xU nrayhdJ (Process) gpd;tUtdtw;wpidf; fl;lhakhff; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
• milahf;Fwp (ID)
• ,aq;ff;$ba FwpaPL (Executable code)
• nraw;gLk; epiyf;Fj; Njitahd juT
• nraw;gLk; re;ju;g;gk; (Execution context - PC, priorities, waiting for I/O or not)
nray; cUthf;fk; (Process creation)

nray; cUthf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzq;fs;
• Gjpa Ntiyj; njhFjp
• gadu; xU nray;epuypid njhlq;Fjy;
• ,af;f KiwahdJ xU Nritapid toq;f xU nraypid cUthf;fpd;wJ
• ,aq;Fk; nray;epuyhdJ kw;nwhU nraypidj; njhlf;Ffpd;wJ
nraypd; KbT (Process Termination)

• xU nray; Kbtile;jTld; ,af;f KiwikahdJ Fwpj;j nraYf;F XJf;fg;gl;l
midj;J tplaq;fisAk; kPsg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;.
• nray; KbTWj;jg;gLtjw;fhd fhuzq;fs;.
o ,ay;ghd KbT
o nraw;ghl;bw;fhd Neuk; Kbtile;jik
o nraw;ghl;bw;F Njitahd tsq;fs; fpilf;fg;ngwhik
o nraw;gLj;jy; tO
o epidtf mZfy; kPwy;
o ,af;fKiwikapd; my;yJ mbg;gilr; nraypd; Nfhupf;iffs;
o mbg;gil nray; KbTWj;jg;gly;
Nkw;$wg;gl;l ntt;NtW fhuzq;fspdhy; nray; xd;W KbTWj;jg;glyhk; my;yJ
,aq;Fnraw;ghl;bw;F xU tO mwpFwpia kPz;Lk; mspf;fyhk;. vy;yhr; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk;
mjhtJ nray; epiwtiljy; my;yJ njhlu;jy; epiyapy;> ,af;f Kiwik ,ay;ghd
nraiy toq;Fk;.
132
,ilA+Wfs;
 nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; nray;fspd; tupirKiwapid khw;wpaikf;Fk; epfo;T MFk;.
 ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; Nfhug;gLk; I/O ,w;fhd Neuk; KbtilAk; NghJ ,ila+W
Vw;glyhk;.
cjhuzk;:- xU tl;L ,af;fp Nfhug;gLk; jutpid mDg;gp Kbe;Js;s epiyapy;> gzp
epiwtile;jJ vd;W OS ,w;F mwptpf;Fk; nraw;ghL ,ila+W MFk;.
 ,ilA+Wfs; nraypapd; nraw;ghl;bw;Nfw;g ,iltplhky; epfOk;. MfNt>
,ilA+Wfspd; Neuq;fs; fzpf;f KbahjitahFk;.
,ilA+Wfisf; ifahOjy; (Interrupt Handling)
nghJthf I/O khjpupfs; CPU,id tpl nkJthf ,aq;Fk;. Xt;nthU I/O miog;gpw;Fk;
gpd;Gk;> I/O rhjdk; nray;ghl;il Kbf;Fk; tiu CPU nrayw;w epiyapypUf;Fk; mj;Jld;
nrayp jw;Nghija nray; Kiwapd; epiyiaAk;> nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; Vida nray;fisAk;
Nrkpf;fpwJ. I/O nraw;ghL Kbtile;jTld; I/O rhjdq;fs; CPU ,w;F xU ,ila+wpidf;
nfhLf;fpd;wJ. mjd; gpd;du; %y nraypidr; Nrkpj;Jr; nraw;ghl;bid Nrkpj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;.
nray; Kfhikj;Jtk; (Process Management)
gy;nra;epuyhf;f #oypy; nrayp ve;jr; nraypidg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ> kw;Wk; Fwpj;j

nraYf;F vt;tsT Neuk; toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid ,af;f KiwikahdJ
jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ. ,e;j epfo;thdJ nray; topg;gLj;jp (process scheduling) vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. nray; Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhf ,af;f KiwikahdJ gpd;tUk;
nraw;ghLfis Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ.
• nrayp nray;fisAk; kw;Wk; nray;fspd; epiyapidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,g; gzpf;F

nra;epuy; ngWg;ghFk;> ,J Nghf;Ftuj;Jf; fl;Lg;gLj;jp (traffic controller)
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
• nraypf;F (CPU) nraiy (process) xJf;Ffpd;wJ.
• nraYf;F ePz;l Neuk; Njitg;ghL ,y;yhjNghJ nraypapd; xJf;fPl;bid
epWj;Jfpd;wJ.
nray; epiyfs; (Process State)
 VO epiy nray;khw;wy; tiuglk; (Seven State Process Transition diagrams)
(Source: http://faculty.simpson.edu/lydia.sinapova/www/cmsc335/cmsc335-01/CH03-Processes.html)
133
1 nray; epiyfs; (Process State)
nraypd; jw;Nghija epiy.
cjhuzk; : (jahu;(ready), ,aq;F(running), fhj;jpUj;jy;(waiting) Mfpa ve;j epiyahfTk;
,Uf;fyhk;)
2 nray; ID (Process ID)
,af;f Kiwikapdhy; xt;nthU nraypidAk; jdpj;Jtkhf milahsg;gLj;jf;
$bajhd jdpg;gl;l milahsq;fs;.
3 nray; epuy; vz;zp (Program Counter),J mLj;jjhf Kiwtopahf;fg;gl Ntz;ba
mwpTWj;jypd; Kftupapidf; Fwpj;Jf;fhl;;Lk;.
nray; epiykhwy; (Process Transitions)

,af;f KiwikahdJ nray; epiyapd; cUthf;f epiyf;Fk; KbT epiyf;Fk; ,ilapy;
fhzg;gLk; nraw;ghLfis epu;tfpf;Fk; nraiyr; nra;fpd;wJ. jw;fhy ,af;f Kiwik
ahdJ nrayw;w epiyapy; fhzg;gLk; nray;fis Muk;gkhjy; epiyapy; ,Ue;J nraw;gL
epiytiuf;Fk; MjuT toq;Fk;> mj;Jld; ,J xU NghJk; KbTWj;jhJ.
Gjpjhf cUthfpa nrayhdJ nraYf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLtjw;fhf tupirapy; jahh;
epiyapypUf;Fk;.
nraw;gl;Lf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; nray; KbTWj;jg;gl;L my;yJ jLf;fg;gLk; NghJ mLj;j
nrayhdJ jahh; epiyf;Fr; nry;Yk;.
,q;F ,af;fKiwik mDg;Gduhfj; njhopw;gLfpwJ. mjhtJ tiuaWf;fg;gl;l
nfhs;iffSf;F mikthf Neu;ik> Kd;Dupik> ntspg;gil> ,iltpid Nghd;wtw;wpw;F
mikar; nray;fis mDg;Gjy;
mJ gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;Ltug;gLtjhy; me;epiy ,af;fepiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;Lr;
nraypf;F nfhz;L nry;yg;gLfpd;wJ my;yJ kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;Fr; nrd;W
fhj;jpUf;fpd;wJ.
,af;fepiyf;F cl;gLkhapd; me;epiy epiwT nra;ag;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J
ePf;fg;gl;L KbTw;w epiyf;F cl;gLfpd;wJ. my;yJ ,ilepWj;jg;gl;L kiwKf
epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gl;Lj; jLf;fg;gl;l epiyapy; itj;jpUf;Fk;.
nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjp (Process Control Block /PCB)
nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjp vd;gJ xt;nthU nray;ghl;bw;fhfTk; ,af;f Kiwikapdhy;

epu;tfpf;fg;gLk; juT fl;likg;G MFk;. PCB MdJ process ID (PID) ,dhy;
tiff;Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. PCB MdJ xU nray;Kiwapid epu;tfpf;fj; Njitahd
fPof; hl;lg;gl;l midj;J tplaq;fisAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
PCB ,d; fl;likg;ghdJ Kw;W KOjhf ,af;fKiwikapy; jq;fpAs;sJ. MfNt

ntt;Ntwhd jfty;fis xt;nthU ,af;fKiwikfSk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. fPo;fhl;lg;gl;lJ PCB
,d; vspikg;gLj;jg;gl;l tpsf;fg;glkhFk;.
Process ID
State
Pointer
Priority
Program Counter
CPU Register
I/O Information
Accounting
Information
etc
134
PCB jdJ KONeuj;jpidAk; xU nraiy topelj;Jtjw;fhfr; nryTnra;fpd;wJ.
mj;Jld; Fwpj;jnthU nray; Kbtile;jTld; PCB ,d; midj;Jj; jfty;fSk;
ePf;fg;gl;L jdJ nraw;ghl;bid epiwT nra;fpd;wJ. nghJthf I/O khjpup CPU ,id tpl
nkJthdit. xt;nthU I/O nraw;ghl;L miog;Gf;F gpd;dUk;> I/O rhjdq;fs; jkJ
nraw;ghl;il epiwT nra;Ak; tiu CPU nrayw;W ,Uf;Fk;. mj;Jld; nraypahdJ
nraw;ghl;bYs;s nray; epiyapid Nrkpj;J itj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;. I/O nraw;ghL
Kbtile;jTld; I/O rhjdq;fs; CPU ,w;F xU ,ila+wpidf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ. mjd;
gpd;du; %yr; nraiyr; Nrkpj;J nraw;ghl;bidr; Nrkpj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;.
re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wy; (Context Switching)
• re;jh;g;g epiykhw;wk; vd;gJ nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjpapy; CPU ,Dila

epiyapid Nrkpf;f my;yJ kPsg;ngwg; gad;gLk; nghwpKiw MFk;. ,jd; %yk;
ve;Neuj;jpYk; xU nrad;Kiwapid epWj;jpa epiyapypUe;J kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;j
KbAk;.
• ,j;njhopDl;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jpNa xU CPU MdJ gy nray;fisr;
nraw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,J gy;gzp ,af;fKiwapd; xU Kf;fpa gFjpahFk;.
• xU nraypy; ,Ue;J NtnwhU nraiyr; nraw;gLj;Jk; NghJ CPU ,id
ml;ltizg;gLj;jpahdJ Muk;gpf;Fk;> ,jd;NghJ ika Kiwtopahf;fpapdJ nray;
fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; njhFjpapypUe;J ePf;fg;gl;l nray;fSf;fhd nraypapdJ
cs;slf;fq;fis re;jh;g;g MspahdJ Nrkpf;Fk;.
• re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wy; xU xOq;FKiwahd Row;rpKiwahFk;.
• etPd fzpdpfspy; nghJthd kw;Wk; epiy gjpTfs; mjpfstpy; fhzg;gLtjhy;
mtw;wpd; nraw;ghLfspy; Fwpj;jsT ghjpg;gpidr; re;jh;g;gepiykhw;wkhdJ
Vw;gLj;jyhk;.
(Source:-https://www.gitbook.com/book/ayushverma8/test-book/details)
ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; (Types of Scheduling)
• ePz;l fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Long-term scheduling - Job scheduling):

,J nrayhf;fj;jpw;fhff; fzpdpapy; mDkjpf;fg;gl;l nra;epuy;fis
epu;zapf;fpd;wJ. gzp xOq;fikg;ghdJ nray; xd;wpid epuy; xd;wpy; ,Ue;J
(queue) njupTnra;fpd;wJ. gpd;du; epidtfj;jpy; Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;fhfg;
gjpfpd;wJ CPU Kiwg;gLj;jpfspy; nray;fs; epidtfj;jpy; gjpag;gLfpd;wd.
• eLj;ju fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Medium-term scheduling):
gpujhd epidtfk; kw;Wk; JizNrkpg;G epidtfj;jpw;F ,ilapy; gupkhw;wr;
nray;fSf;Fg; nghWg;ghFk;.
• FWfpa fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp; (Short-term scheduling - low-level scheduling):
135
mLj;j fl;lkhf CPU ,dhy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gl;L jahu; epiyapy; fhzg;gLk;
nraypidj; jPu;khdpf;Fk; ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfs;.
ePz;l fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp; (Long-term scheduling – Job Scheduling)

• Kiwtopahf;fj;jpw;;fhfr; nrayp ve;jr; nraypid mDkjpf;fpd;wJ vd;gijj;
jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ.
• gy;epuYf;fhd gbepiyapidf; fl;Lg;gLj;jy;.
NkYk; mjpf nray;fs; cs;thq;fg;gl;lhy;.
• CPU MdJ rpwe;j Kiwapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
• midj;Jr; nray;fSk; jLf;fg;gLk;.
• ePz;l fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp mjpfmsthd nrayp- gpizg;G (processor-bound), kw;Wk;
cs;sPL ntspaPL – gpizg;G nray;fs;(I/O-bound processes) vd;gtw;wpidf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
eLj;ju fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp; (Medium-Term Scheduling)
• gy;epuyhf;fk; epu;tfpf;f Ntz;bajd; mbg;gilapyhd khw;wq;fisg; gupkhw;WtJ.

• epidtf Kfhik nkd;nghUs; Clhf ,J Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
FWfpa fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp; (Short-Term Scheduling - CPU scheduling)

• ve;jr; nray; mLj;J ,aq;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjidj; jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ.
• FWfpa fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp dispatcher vd mwpag;gLfpd;wJ.
• xU nray; epWj;jg;gl;L NtnwhU nraiy CPU ,w;F mDg;gp itf;fpd;wJ.
ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfspd;; xg;gPL.
ePz;l fhy FWfpa fhy eLj;ju fhy

ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ml;ltizg;gLj;jp
gzp ml;ltizg;gLj;jp nrayp ml;ltizg;gLj;jp nray;fs; khw;Wtjw;fhd

(Job Scheduler) CPU scheduler ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Processes
swapping scheduler)
nray;fisj; njupT nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F jahu; epidtfj;jpy; kPz;Lk;

nra;J mtw;iwr; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; Fwpj;j nray;Kiwfisg; ngw;W
nraw;gLj;Jtjw;fhf nray;Kiwfisj; Kiwtopahf;fk; njhlu;e;J
epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L Nju;e;njLf;fpd;wJ eilngWk;
nry;Yk; (Swapped out/Re-introduces the
processes)
gy;epuyhf;fj;jpd; gy;epuyhf;fj;jpd; epiy gy;epuyhf;fj;jpd; epiy

epiyiaf; rpwpJ fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ
fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ
Ntfk; FWfpa fhy Vida ,uz;L Ntfk; ,uz;L

Kiwg;gLj;jpapid tplf; ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfis ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfSf;Fk;
Fiwthff; fhzg;gLk; tpl Ntfk; mjpfkhdJ ,ilg;gl;lJ.
136
nray; ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfs;; (Process Schedulers)
nray;fSf;F nraypapid (processor) xJf;Fjy;.
• KOr;nray; Neuk; (Turnaround time) : Neu mynfhd;Wf;Fs; nraw;gLj;jg;gl;L

Kbf;fg;gLk; nray;Kiwfspd; vz;zpf;if.
• gjpyspg;G Neuk; (Response time) : nray; Kiwnahd;wpf;F VNjDk; mwpTWj;jy;
fpilj;jy; Neuk; Kjy; mjid nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F Muk;gpf;Fk; tiuahd fhyk;.
• rhjpj;j msT (Throughput ): Neu mynfhd;Wf;Fs; nray;gLj;jg;gl;L Kbf;fg;gLk;
nray;fspd; vz;zpf;if. nray;fspd; jd;ikapidg; nghWj;J ,jd; tPr;R (10 /
second to 1 / hour )Mf mikayhk;.
• fhj;jpUf;Fk; Neuk; (Waiting time) : nray;xd;W nraypf;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhLg;gjw;F
Kd;G jahu;epiyapy; tupirg;gl;bUf;Fk; Neuk;.
nray; xOq;fikg;G (Scheduling Policies)

◦ Non-preemptive
◦ nraypf;F VjhtnjhU nray; mDg;gg;gl;lJk; mr;nray; epiwT ngWk;
tiu nraypapypUe;J mg;Gwg;gLj;jg;gl khl;lhJ. ,J KbTWj;jg;gLk;
tiuf;Fk; my;yJ ,ilepWj;jg;gLk; tiu njhlu;e;J nraw;gLk;.
◦ Preemptive
◦ jw;NghJ ,aq;Fk; nray; FWf;fPL nra;ag;glyhk; NkYk; jahuhd
epiyf;F efu;j;jg;glyhk;.
◦ ve;j xU nraiyAk; nrayp ePz;lNeuj;jpw;Fr; nraw;gLj;jpf;nfhz;L
,Uf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy; ,J rpwe;j Nritapid mDkjpf;fpwJ.
137
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; 5.4: ,af;f KiwikahdJ tsq;fis vt;thW epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij
Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd; NjitiaAk; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myifAk; RUf;fkhf

tpgupg;ghu;
 nka;epfu; epidtfj;ijr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 gf;fkply; kw;Wk; glkhf;fy; (Paging and Mapping) vd;gtw;iwr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 ,af;f KiwikahdJ cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fis vt;thW Kfhikj;Jtk;
nra;fpd;wJ vd;gijr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfisr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfspd; Njitiar; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Rw;Wjy;; (spooling) vd;gijr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 Gjpa Jizr;rhjdnkhd;iw ,izf;Fk; NghJ nghUj;jkhd rhjdr;nrYj;jpfis
epWTthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;
o epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; myF (MMU)
o ngsjPf epidtfk;
o nka;epfu; epidtfk;
 cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;Lr; rhjd Kfhikj;Jtk;
 rhjdr;; nrYj;jpfs;
 Rw;Wjy; (Spooling)
epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; kw;Wk; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myF njhlu;ghd tiuaiwfs;
 gf;fkhf;fy; kw;Wk; glkhf;fy;

 rhjd nrYj;jpfspd; gad;ghLfs;
 epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; kw;Wk; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myF njhlu;ghff;

fye;JiuahLjy;
 gf;fkhf;fy; glkhf;fy; vd;gdtw;wpid cjhuzj;jpd; Clhff; fye;JiuahLjy;
 rhjdr;nrYj;jpfs; njhlu;ghff; fye;JiuahLjy;
fzpg;gl
P ;bw;Fk; kjpg;gPl;bw;Fkhd topfhl;b.
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; gpd;tUtdtw;wpy; xd;W (epidtf

Kfhikj;Jk; kw;Wk; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myF> gf;fkhf;fy; kw;Wk; glkhf;fy;>
rhjdr;nrYj;jpfspd; gad;ghLfs;) njhlu;ghd Kd;itg;G xd;wpidj; jahupj;J Kd;itf;fr;
nra;jy;.
fzpdp> ,af;f Kiwik td;jl;Lf;fs; my;yJ DVD> ,iza trjp.
138
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; (Memory Management)
epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; vd;gJ ,af;f Kiwikapd; xU nraw;ghlhFk;. ,J gpujhd

epidtfj;ijf; ifahSfpwJ my;yJ epu;tfpf;fpwJ> mj;Jld; nray;ghl;bd; Kf;fpa
epidtfk; kw;Wk; tl;Lf;F ,ilapy; juTfisg; gupkhwpf; nfhs;Sk;.
epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; xt;nthU epidtf ,Ug;gplj;jpidAk; mit nray;fisf;
nfhz;Ls;sdth my;yJ ntw;wplkhf ,Uf;fpd;wdth vd;gjidf; fz;fhzpf;Fk;.
nray;KiwfSf;F vt;tsT epidtfk; xJf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,J rupghu;f;fpd;wJ.
,J ve;j Neuj;jpy; ve;j epidtfj;jpd; juTfisg; ngWfpd;wJ vd;gjid KbTnra;fpd;wJ.
rpy epidtf ,lq;fs; xJf;fg;gl;L my;yJ xJf;fg;glhkNyh ,Uf;Fk; NghJ me;j epiyik
gw;wpa tplaj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
,af;fKiwikahdJ epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;;fhfg; gpd;tUk; eltbf;iffis

Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ.
• Kjd;ik epidtfk; jlq;fs; ( tracks) gw;wpa tplaq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.

cjhuzk;:- ve;jg; gFjp ahuhy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ> ve;j gFjp gad;gLj;jg;gl tpy;iy
Nghd;w tplaq;fs;.
• gy;epuyhf;fj;jpy; ve;jr; nray; vg;NghJ vt;tsT gad;gLj;Jfpd;wJ vd;gJ njhlu;ghf
,af;f KiwikNa jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ.
• vg;nghOJ xU nray;> nraw;gLtjw;fhd Nfhupf;if tpLf;fpd;wNjh mjw;Fupa ,lj;ij
xJf;fPL nra;fpd;wJ.
• xU nray; ,dp;j; Njitg;glhJ my;yJ KbTWj;jg;gl;Ltpl;lJ vdpy; mjw;Fupa epidtf
,lj;jpid kPs xJf;fPL nra;fpd;wJ.
epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myF (MMU/ Memory Management Unit )
td;nghUs; rhjdq;fs; nka;epfu; Kftupf;Fg; glkhf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
■ epidtf Kfhikj;Jt myfpy;; gadu; nrayhf;fj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l xt;nthU

KftupAk; epidtfj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gLk; Neuj;jpy; ,lkhw;wg; gjptpy; Nrh;f;fg;gLk; ngWkjpfs;
fhzg;gLk;.
MMU MdJ ju;f;f Kftupfisg; ngsjPf Kftupfshf khw;wg; gpd;tUk; nghwpKiwapidr;

nraw;gLj;Jk;.
 gadh; nrayhf;fj;jhy;; cUthf;fg;gl;l midj;J KftupfSk; mbg;gil gjptpy;

Nrh;f;fg;gLk;. ,J epidtfj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gLk; Neuj;jpy; <Lnra;af;$bajhfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
cjhuzkhf mbg;gilg; gjpTg; ngWkhdk; 10000> gadu; gad;gLj;Jk; ngsjPf Kftup
100 vdpd;> ,J 10100 ,w;F vOkhw;whf xJf;fPL nra;ag;gLk;
 gadu; nray;epuy;fs; ju;f;f KftupfSld; njhu;Ggl;ld. ,it xU NghJk;
cz;ikahd ngsjPf KftupAld; njhlu;Gglhjd.
gf;fkhf;fy; (Paging)
 nray;epuy; xd;wpd; ju;f;f Kftupfs; njhlu;r;rpahff; fhzg;glhJ. nray;fs; ngsjPf

epidtfj;jpid xJf;fPL nra;fpd;wJ.
 ngsjPf epidtfj;jpid epiyahd msTila gFjpfshfg; gpupj;j gFjpr; rl;lfq;fs;
(frames) vd miof;fg;Lk;. (,jd; msT 512 Byte – 8192 Byte ,w;F ,ilg;gl;ljhf
,Uf;fyhk;)
 ju;f;f epidtfj;jpidr; rkmsT nfhz;l gFjpfshfg; gpupj;j gFjp gf;fk; (pages) vd
miof;fg;gLk;.
 midj;J ntWikahd rl;lfq;fisAk; fz;fhzpf;Fk;;.
 n gf;fq;fisf; nfhz;L Fwpj;j nray;epuy; Kiwtopahf;fg;gLk; nghOJ n
vz;zpf;ifahd ntWikahd rl;lq;fs; Njitg;gLk;.
 gf;f ml;ltizahdJ juf;fKftupfis ngsjPf Kftupahf khw;Wfpd;wJ.
139
 cs;sf Jz;lhf;fy;
glkhf;fy; (Mapping)
nray;epuy;fSf;F epidtfj;jpid xJf;fpLk; nghOJ ju;f;fKftupapidg; ngsjPf Kftupahf
khw;;Wtjpy; ,af;f Kiwik ngUk;gq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ.
td;nghUs; rhjdkhd MMU MdJ ju;f;f Kftupapidg; ngsjPf Kftupahfr; nraw;gL
Neuj;jpy; glkhf;Ffpd;wJ.
nra;epfu; epidtfk; (Virtual memory)
 nray;epuy; nraw;gLk; nghOJ KOnray;epuYk; epidtfj;jpy; gjpg;gplNtz;Lkh?

 epidtfj;jpidf; fhl;bYk; nray;epuy; ngupjhf ,Ue;jhy; vt;thW nray;epuy;
Kiwtopahf;Fk;?
 rkmsT nfhz;l gf;fkhf nka;epfu; epidtfk; gpupf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;.

 Kjd;ik epidtfKk; rk msT nfhz;l gf;fkhfg; gpupf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;
 gf;fj;jpdJ msT = rl;lfj;jpd; msT.
 nray;epuy; tUk; nghOJ> nray;epuYk; gf;fkhfg; gpupf;fg;gLk;.
 nka;epfu; ,ae;jpuj;jpy; nray;gLk; nray; td;nghUspd; jd;ikapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
 nka;epfu; epidtfj;jpd; Kftupapd; ,lj;jpw;F td;nghUs; xj;Jiof;Fkh vd;gijf;
ftdpj;jy;.
o nka;epfu; KftupahdJ ngsjPf Kftupapy; jq;fp ,Uf;fhJ.
 MMU ,d; gpujhd td;nghUs; gFjpfs;
o Kftup khw;wL P : nka;epfu; epidtfj;jpy; ,Ue;J ngsjPf epidtfj;jpw;F
o nka;epfu; Kftup ,ilntsp ghJfhg;ig cWjpg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
nka;epfu; epidtfk; ,uz;L NjitfSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.

o Kjyhtjhf ,J ngsjPfepidtfj;jpid tl;Lfspd; cjtpAld; mjpfupf;fg;
gad;gLfpd;wJ.
o ,uz;lhtjhf > xt;nthU nka;epfu; KftupAk; ngsjPf Kftupahf
khw;wl
P g;gLtjdhy; ,J epidtfg;ghJfhg;gpw;F trjpaspf;fpd;wJ.
140
nka;epfu; epidtfj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;
• ngsjPf epidtj;jpidf; fhl;bYk; mjpfkhf fhzg;gLk; gpuNahfq;fis

mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
• gFjpahf cs;sPL nra;j nray;epuy;fis nraw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ – nray;epuy; nraw;gLk;
nghOJ KOr;nray;epuYk; nraw;gl Ntz;ba mtrpak; ,y;iy.
• gy;epuyhf;fj;jpd; epiy : gy epuyhf;fq;fs; xd;whf epidtfj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;.
• gpuNahfq;fspd; nfhz;Lnry;yf;$ba jd;ik.
o gpuNahfq;fs; epidtfj;jpid epu;tfpf;fj; Njitapy;iy
o nray;epuy;fs; epidtff; fl;likg;gpy; jq;fpapUf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy.
• Epidtff; $Wfspd; my;yJ gFjpfspd; gfpu;it mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
o cjhuzk; : - thrpg;G kl;Lk; FwpaPl;Lg; gFjp nray;epuy;fSf;F ,ilapy;
gfpug;glNtz;Lk;.
cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;Lf; fUtpfspd; Kfhik.

 rhjdr; nrYj;jpfs; (Device driver)
rhjdr;nrYj;jpfs; nkd;nghUshFk;.
fzpdpfs; rhjdr;nrYj;jpfs; Clhfr; rhjdq;fSld;
njhlu;GgLfpd;wd.
xU nrYj;jpahdJ nkd;nghUs; ,ilKfj;jpid> td;nghUs;
kw;Wk; ,af;fKiwikf;F toq;Ftjdhy;> NtW fzpdp
nkd;nghUl;fs; Fwpj;j td;nghUs;njhlu;ghd tplak;
mwpahkNyNa Fwpj;j td;nghUspidg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
nrYj;jpahdJ td;nghUs; kw;Wk; fzpdpapy; fhzg;gLk;
,af;fKiwik Mfpa ,uz;bd; kPJk; jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
 Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On Line)

SPOOL vd;gJ Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On Line vd;gjd; RUf;fk; MFk;. SPOOL
MdJ juTfs; ntt;Ntwhd cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L Ntiyfspd; jq;fypy; (buffer)
fhzg;gLtjpidf; Fwpf;Fk;. jq;fy; MdJ Kjd;ik epidtfj;jpy; my;yJ td;jl;by;
cs;sPl;L /ntspaPl;Lr; nrYj;jpf;fhff; fhzg;gLk; rpwg;ghd epidtfkhFk;.
xU ,af;f KiwikahdJ tpepNahfpf;Fk; Kiwf;fhff; fPof

; hl;lg;gl;l nraw;ghLfis
Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ.
 Spooling , cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L rhjdq;fis ntt;NtW juT mZfy; tPjq;fisf;

nfhz;L ifahSfpd;wJ.
 Spooling jq;fypd; guhkupg;ghdJ> Ntfk; Fiwe;j rhjdq;fs; juTfis vLg;gjw;F
Vw;wtpjkhd ,ile;jq;fYf;F VJthf cs;sJ.
 ,J rkhe;ju fzpg;gpid
guhkupf;fpd;wJ Vnddpd; spooling
nraw;ghlhdJ xU fzpdpahf
fhzg;gl;L cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L
rkhe;ju nraw;ghLfis
Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ. ,jdhy; fzpdp
ehlhf;fspy; ,Ue;J juTfis
ngWtJ rhj;jpakhfpd;wJ kw;Wk;
tl;L> ehlh vd;gdtw;wpy; juTfisg;
gjpjy; kw;Wk; mr;rpLjy; Nghd;w
Kiwtopahf;fy; nraw;ghLfis
Nkw;nfhs;sf;$bajha cs;sJ.
(Source: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/os_quick_guide.htm)
ed;ikfs;.
 Spooling nraw;ghlhdJ ngupa jq;fy; cs;s tl;lhfg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
 Spooling MdJ cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;Lr; nraw;gLfis> Kiwtopahf;fpapdhy;
Nkw;nfhs;Sk;> xU Ntiyapy; ,Ue;J ,d;DnkhU Ntiyahf;Fk;> Nky;gbAk; jpwd;
nfhz;lJ.
141
NjHr;rp 6: jfty; gfpu;itr; nraw;wpwDs;s tifapy; gfpu;T nra;tjw;fhfj; juTj;
njhlu;ghly; kw;Wk; fzpdp tiyaikg;G vd;gtw;wpd; njhopDl;gq;fis Muha;thu;
NjHr;rp kl;lk;: 6.1. rkpf;iQfisAk; mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;GfisAk; Muha;thu;

ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 ,yf;fKiw kw;Wk; xg;Gik rkpf;iQfisAk; mtw;wpd; ,ay;GfisAk;

tiutpay; %yk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jthu;
 rkpf;iQg; gz;GfSf;fpilapyhd njhlu;G Kiw gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 rkpf;iQ tiffs;
 ,yf;f rkpf;iQ
 Xg;Gik rkpf;iQ
 rkpf;iQnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs;
 tPr;rk;
 mjpu;ntz;
 miyePsk;
 mtj;ij
 Clfnkhd;wpd; gug;gy; Ntfk;

 ,yf;f rkpf;iQ> Xg;Gik rkpf;iQ
 tPr;rk;
 mjpu;ntz;
 miyePsk;
 mtj;ij
fPOs;s tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzuf;$ba tifapy; fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
 ,yf;f rkpf;iQ> Xg;Gik rkpf;iQ
 tPr;rk;> mjpu;ntz;
 miyePsk;> mtj;ij
fzpg;gl
 khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J miynahd;wpd; tPr;rk;> mjpu;ntz;> miyePsk;>
mtj;ij v;dgtw;iw tpsf;Fk; tifapy; ml;ltizg;gLj;j topfhl;lTk;
fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;> tiyaikg;Gg; gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa

(CD), (DVD)
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
juTj;njhlu;ghlypd; mwpKfk;.
,uz;L my;yJ ,uz;Lf;F Nkw;gl;l njhlu;ghly; rhjdq;fSf;fpilapy;> juT
CLflj;Jk; Clfj;jpd; Clhfj; juTfis mDg;Gk; nraw;ghL juTj;njhlu;ghly; vdg;gLk;.
fzpdpfSf;F ,ilapyhd ,j;jifa ,izg;Gf;fs; fzpdp tiyaikg;G vdg;gLk;.
njhlu;ghly; xd;wpd; khjpup
 %yk;/mDg;Gdu; (Sender) - juTfis mDg;Gtjw;fhf cUthf;fYk;
jahu;gLj;jYk;
 CLflj;Jk; Kiwik (Transmission System) – ,yf;fpid Nehf;fp juT
gupkhw;wYf;Fg; nghWg;ghdJ.
142
 ,yf;F/ngWdu; (Receiver) - gupkhw;Wk; Kiwikapy; ,Ue;J juTfisg;
ngWfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; gad;ghl;bw;Fj; Njitahd tplaq;fis mDg;Gfpd;wJ.
fzpdp tiyaikg;G : juTfisg; gupkhw;wpf;nfhs;Sk; Nehf;Fld; ,izf;fg;gl;l ,uz;L
my;yJ ,uz;bw;F Nkw;gl;l fzpdpfisf; nfhz;l njhFjp fzpdp tiyaikg;G; vdg;gLk;.
rkpf;iQfs; (Signals)
1. xg;Gikr; rkpf;iQ (Analog signal):
xg;Gik rkpf;iQahdJ njhlu;rr

; pahf miy tbtpy;
juTfis nfhz;L nry;fpd;wJ. ,J ,yj;jpudpay; miy
Clhfg; gpujpaplg;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk;: rj;jk;> xsp kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy.
2. ,yf;fKiwr; rkpf;iQ (Digital Signal)
,yf;fKiwr; rkpf;iQahdJ xU ,yj;jpudpay;

mOj;jkhf my;yJ kpd;rhukhff; fhzg;gLk;. ,J
Neuj;Jld; khw;wkile;J nfhz;L nry;Yk;. ,J xU
KidapypUe;J kW Kidf;Fj; juTfisg;
gupkhw;Wtjw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
,yf;fKiw vd;gJ jdpj;Jtkhd ngWkhdq;fisf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ> vdNt> ve;jj; jftiyAk;

gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jtjw;F tpNrlkhd ngWkhdq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,yf;f
rkpf;iQapy; 1 kw;Wk; 0 (binary values) vDk; ,uz;L ngWkhdq;fs; kl;LNk ve;j xU
tplaj;jpidAk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg; gad;gLk;.
rkpf;iQfspd; ,ay;Gfs; :
 tPr;rk; (Amplitude) : miy xd;wpd; cauk; ,jd; myF m MFk;.

 mjpu;ntz;/ kPbwd; (Frequency) : xU nrf;fdpy; Fwpj;j xU gFjpapidf; fle;J
nry;Yk; miyfspd; vz;zpf;if. ,J N`l;]; (Hz) vDk; myfpdhy; msf;fg;gLk;.
 miyePsk; (Wavelength) : ,uz;L KidfSf;F ,ilapyhd Jhuk; kPww
; wpy;
msf;fg;gLk;.
 epiy / mtj;ij (Phase) : Fwpj;j xU Neuj;jpy; miy Row;rp Kiwapd;
Muk;gpf;Fk;; epiyahFk;.
Clfj;jpy; guTk; Ntfk; (Propagation speed in a media)

xU Fwpg;gpl;l Clfk; %yk; miy guTfpd;w Ntfk;. Clfj;jpd; gz;Gfis
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L xU Clfj;jpypUe;J ,d;ndhU Clfj;jpw;F miy guTk;;
Ntfk; khWgLk;.
143
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; : 6.2. rkpf;iQ CLflj;jy; Clfq;fis Ma;T nra;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 CLflj;jy; Clfq;fis> topgLj;jg;gl;lit kw;Wk; topgLj;jg;glhjit vd

tifg;gLj;Jthu;
 kiwepiy> gl;il mfyk;> ,iur;ry;> neha;ik> jpupG Nghd;wit juT
CLflj;jiy vt;thW ghjpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 tlq;fs; - topgLj;jg;gl;lit
oKWf;fpa Nrhb (Twisted Pair), Xur;R tlk; (Coaxial Cable), ,io
xspapay; (Fibre Optics) Nghd;wd
 ntw;W ntsp - topgLj;jg;glhj Clfq;fs;
 rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
o kiwepiy (Latency)
o gl;il mfyk; (Bandwidth)
o ,iur;ry; (Noise)
o neha;ik (Attenuation )
o jpupG (Distortion)
 vspa ,lj;jpay; - ,lj;jpw;F ,l (point-to-point) ,izg;G
 topgLj;jg;gl;l kw;Wk; topgLj;jg;glhj Clfq;fs;

 jhkjk;
 gl;il mfyk;
 ,iur;ry;
 neha;ik
 jpupgiljy;
 kiwepiy
 topgLj;jg;gl;l> topgLj;jg;glhj Clfq;fis tpsf;fTk;

 mtw;wpd; gz;GfisAk; ed;ik jPikfisAk; fye;JiuahlTk;
fzpg;gl
 topgLj;jg;gl;l topgLj;jg;glhj Clfq;fspd; gz;GfisAk; ed;ik jPikfisAk;

tpsf;ff;$ba tifapyhd Kd;itg;nghd;iw toq;Ftjw;F khztu;fis topgLj;jTk;
 ,iza trjp> nrayl;ilfs;
144
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
tlk; (Wires): xU tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdj;jpypUe;J gpwpnjhU tiyaikg;Gr;

rhjdj;jpw;Fj; juTfisg; gupkhWk; xU nghsjPf ClfkhFk;. tlkhdJ
topgLj;jg;gl;l Clfkhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. Vnddpy;> juTfis xU ,lj;jpy; ,Ue;J
,d;DnkhU ,lj;jpw;F mjpu;ntz; khwhky; gupkhw;Wtjw;F topfhl;Lfpd;wJ. juT
jpupgiljy; ,jdhy; Fiwf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; :
KWf;fpa fk;gpr; Nrhb (UTP and STP)
Xur;R tlk;
,io xspapay; ehu; tlk;
ntw;W ntsp; (Free space) – (tlk; ,y;yh CLflj;jy; my;yJ topgLj;jg;glhj
Clfk;) : rkpf;iQfs; #oYf;F mDg;gg;gLk; (fhw;W)> juthdJ ve;j jpirtopNaAk;
mDg;gg;glyhk;.
cjhuzk; :
thndhyp CLflj;jy;
nraw;iff;Nfhy; CLflj;jy;.
rkpf;iQfspd; gz;Gfs;
o kiwepiy: xU ,lj;jpypUe;J ,d;ndhU ,lj;jpw;F xU myF juT nry;tjw;F
vLf;Fk; Neuj;jpd; ntspg;ghlhFk;. ,J nghJthf kpy;yp tpehbfspy;
mstplg;gLfpd;wJ( milliseconds).
o gl;il mfyk;: gl;il mfyk; vd;gJ mjpu;ntz;fspd; tPr;rhFk;. ,J Hertz ,y;
mstplg;gLfpd;wJ.
o ,iur;ry;: ,J xU rkpf;iQapidj; je;jhYk; tpsf;fj;ijAk; ntspg;gLj;jhJ.
o neha;ik: Clfj;jpw;$lhf nry;Yk; nghOJ mjd; rkpf;iQ rf;jpapid
Fiwf;fpd;wJ.
o jpupG: njhlu;ghly; Clfj;jpd; nfhs;ssT kw;Wk; ,ay;Gfs;> gupkhw;wg;gl;l
rkpf;iQapd; gz;Gfspy; Vw;gLj;Jk; khWjy;fs;.
vspa ,lj;jpay; :
Xd;Wlndhd;W ,izg;G (point-to-point connection) - xd;Wlndhd;W ,izg;G ,lj;jpayhdJ

tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fSld; (computers, switches, routers, or servers) Neubahf xU tlj;jpd;
%yk; ,izj;J Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
145
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 6.3. rkpf;iQf; $Wfisg; gad;gLj;jp ,yf;fKiwj; juTfs; vt;thW
Fwpaplg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij tpgupg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs; : 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 ,U Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp juTfis ,yf;fKiw
FwpKiwahf;fiyAk; nkd;n[];lu; (Manchester) FwpKiwahf;fiyAk;
tiutpay; %yk; gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nra;thu;
 mjpu;ntz;> mtj;ij vd;gtw;wpy; khw;wq;fisr; nra;J rkpf;iQf;
$Wfshfg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba rhj;jpag;ghLfis tpsf;Fthu;.
 kiwFwpahf;fj;jpd; Njitia tpsf;FtJld; CLflj;jp kw;Wk; thq;fp
vd;gd kiwFwpahf;fk; nra;ag;glhjpUf;Fk; NghJ vOk; gpur;rpidfisAk;
tpgupg;ghu;
 vspa ,U bit thupahd Nthy;w;wsT FwpKiwahf;fy; kw;Wk; Manchester
FwpKiwahf;fy;; vd;gtw;wpy; rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; vt;tsT Ntfj;jpy;
khw;wg;gLfpd;wd vd;gtw;wpd; njhlu;G Kiwia xg;gpl;L NtWgLj;Jthu;
 rkepiy gpl; MdJ gpl; tOitf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;F ,ayr;nra;Ak; tpjj;ij
tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 juT gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jypy; rkpf;iQ $Wfspd; ,zf;fg;ghL
elg;nghOq;F ( a protocol)
 ,U vspa $Wfs;-,U Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fs; (tPr;rq;fs;)
 Vida rhj;jpag;ghLfs; (RUf;fkhf)
 mjpu;ntz;
 mtj;ij
 rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; khwf;$ba Ntfk;
 xj;jpirtpd; mtrpak;
 Neuk;/fbfhuk;
 Manchester Fwpaply;
 tOf;fisf; ifahSjy;
cjhuzk; : rkepiy (Parity)
o ,U Nthy;w;wsT kw;Wk; kd;nr];lu; Kiwfs; %yk; ,yf;fKiwj; juT

kiwFwpahf;fk;
o rkpf;iQf; $Wfshd mjpu;ntz;> mtj;ij vd;gtw;wpy; khw;wq;fisr; nra;jy;
o xUq;F epfo;tpd; mtrpak;
o mDg;GgtUf;Fk; ngWgtUf;Fkpilapy; xj;jpirT ,y;yhj NghJ Vw;gLk; rpf;fy;fs;
o kd;nr];lu; kiwFwpahf;fk;
o vspa ,U Nthy;w;wsT kiwFwpahf;fk;
o gp;l; Ntfk;
o rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; khwf;$ba Ntfk;
146
fPOs;stw;iwf; fye;JiuahlTk;
o juT gpujpepjpj;Jtj;jpw;Fr; rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; kPJ Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l cld;ghL
(protocol)
o rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; khWgLk; Ntfk;
o xj;jpirtpd; mtrpak;
o tOf;fisf; ifahsy;
fzpg;gl
 fPOs;stw;iw tpsf;ff;$ba tifapy; Kd;itg;nghd;wpw;F khdtu;fis topgLj;jTk;

o juT gpujpepjpj;Jtj;jpw;F rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; kPJ Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l cld;ghL (protocol)
o rkpf;iQf; $Wfs; khWgLk; Ntfk;
o xj;jpirtpd; mtrpak;
 ,iza trjp> nrayl;il
147
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
gz;Ngw;wk; (Modulations):
gz;Ngw;wk; vd;gJ xU jftiy> mDg;Gtjw;fhf mjd; mbg;gil ,ay;Gfshd

mjpu;ntz;> tPr;rk;> epiy (modulating signal) vd;gdtw;why; xU cau; mjpu;ntz;
rkpf;iQ(carrier signal) cld; ,izg;gjd; %yk; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jpj; (modulated signal)
> jfty;fis mDg;Gtjw;Fg; gad;gLk; El;gkhFk;. nghJthf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
KiwahdJ Jbg;G FwpaPl;L gz;Ngw;wk; (Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)) MFk;.
 tPr;r gz;Ngw;wk; (Amplitude Modulation (AM)

fhtp rkpf;iQapd; tPr;rj;jpid khw;Wtjd;
Clhf gz;Ngw;wg;gl;l miyapid
cUthf;fp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; gz;Ngw;wk;
,J thFk;. ,jd; NghJ tPr;rk;> epiy
vd;gd khw;wkilahky; fhzg;gLk;.
 kPbwd; gz;Ngw;wk; (Frequency Modulation (FM) )

fhtpr; rkpf;iQapd; kPbwid
khw;Wtjd; Clhf gz;Ngw;wr;
rkpf;iQ khw;wg;gLk;.
 mtj;ij gz;Ngw;wk; (Phase Modulation (PM))

xU miytupir juT rkpf;iQapd;
kpd;dOj;jj;jpy; (tPr;rk;) khw;wq;fisg;
gpujpgypg;gjw;fhf xU fhtp rkpf;iQapd;
epiy gz;Ngw;wg;gLk;.
,yf;f Kiwr; rkpf;iQapid xg;Gik rkpf;iQahf khw;wPL nra;jy;.

gz;Ngw;wg;gl ,Uf;Fk; rkpf;iQ xg;Gik rkpf;iQ vdpd; %d;W gz;Ngw;wj; jpl;lq;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
,e;j El;gKiwapy; xg;Gik fhtpr; rkpf;iQapd; tPr;rk; Jtpj juthf
gpujpgypf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,yf;fKiwj; juT ,yf;f vz; 1 I Fwpf;Fk; NghJ tPr;R 1
148
MfTk; kw;iwa re;ju;g;gj;jpy; tPr;R 0 MfTk; gpujpaplg;gLk;. fhtp rkpf;iQapd;
tPr;rKk; epiyAk; khw;wkilahky; fhzg;gLk;.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
,e;j khw;W El;gj;jpy; xg;Gik fhtpr; rkpf;iQapd; kPbwd; Jtpj juthf
gpujpgypf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
,e;j khw;W El;gj;jpy; xg;Gik fhtpr; rkpf;iQapd; epiy Jtpj juthf
gpujpgypf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
o xj;jpirT (Synchronization): xj;jpirT ,uz;L rhjdq;fSf;fpilapy; juTg;ghr;ry;

rupahd Kiwapy;> ngwg;gLjiyAk; mDg;gg;gLjiyAk; cWjpg;gLj;j cjTfpd;wJ.
nghJthf rupahd rkpf;iQ Neuj;jpidg; guhkupg;gjw;fhf xU fbfhu rkpf;iQ
njhlu;rr
; pahfj; juTj;njhFjpAld; mDg;gg;gLfpd;wJ
o rkpf;iQf; Fwpg;ghf;fj; jpl;lk; (Signal Encoding Schemes):

o Non-return to Zero Level (NRZ-L): ,f; Fwpahf;fj;jpy; juTfis
tiff;Fwpg;gjw;F 0>1 ,w;fhd ,uz;L NtWgl;l kpd;dOj;jq;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,it xU gpl; ,ilntspapy; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;
o Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I): ,e;j Fwpahf;fj;jpy; “1” MdJ ngsjPf
kl;lj;jpy; epiykhw;wk; eilngw;wjidAk;> “0” vd;gJ epiykhw;wk;
eilngwhjijAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ
 Manchester encoding: ,e;jf; Fwpahf;fj;jpy; kpd;dOj;jk; Fiwe;jjpypUe;J
$bajhf my;yJ $bajpypUe;J Fiwthf rkpf;iQapd; eLg;gFjpapy;
fhzg;gLk;.
 tOf;fisf; ifahSjy;: juT gupkhw;wj;jpd; NghJ rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspy; juT
gpl;Lf;fs; gy;NtW fhuzq;fspdhy; ,of;fg;glyhk;. ,j;jifa R+o;epiyfspy;
juT gpl; ngwg;gl;lJ jtwhFk;. gpiofz;lwpjy; vd;gJ juT gupkhw;wj;jpd;
NghJ juT gpl;L khw;wj;jpw;F cs;shdijf; fz;lwpAk; KiwahFk;.
gpiojpUj;jk; kw;Wk; kPl;nlLg;G topKiwfs; gpioahfg; ngwg;gl;l juT
gpl;fis milahsk; fz;L mjidr; rupnra;a cjTk; xU topKiwahFk;.
 rkepiyr; Nrhjid (Parity Check) : ,J xU vspa gpiofz;lwpjy; El;gkhFk;.
mDg;gg;gLk; jutpd; gpl; vz;zpf;ifAld; $Ljyhf xU gpl; Nru;f;fg;gl;;L
mDg;gg;gLk;. juT gpl; ,y;; fhzg;gLk; 1 fspd; vz;zpf;if fzpf;fg;gl;L mJ
xw;iw vz; vdpd; 1 ,idAk; my;yJ 0 ,idAk; $l;LtJ ,ul;ilr;
rkepiyahFk; (even parity). juT gpl; ,y;; fhzg;gLk; 1 fspd; vz;zpf;if
fzpf;fg;gl;L mJ xw;iw vz; vdpd; 0 ,idAk; my;yJ 1 ,idAk; $l;LtJ
xw;iwr; rkepiyahFk; (odd parity)
149
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 6.4. ,uz;L njhiy rhjdq;fis ,izg;gjw;Fg; nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l
njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;gpd; (Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN)) gad;ghl;il Muha;thu;
ghlNtis fs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 Xg;Gik Fuy; fhtp tlk; xd;whfg; nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp

tiyaikg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
 ,zf;fpfs; Xg;Gik rkpf;iQfis vt;thhW gz;Ngw;wk; nra;J mjidg; nghJ
Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;G Clhf mDg;Gfpd;wd vd;gij
tpgupg;ghu;
 nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;G Clhf ,U fzpdpfs;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s tpjj;ijf; fhl;Lk; jpl;l tiuglnkhd;iw tiuthu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;G (PSTN)
 ,U epiyfSf;fpilapy; xg;Gik Fuy; nry;tjw;F Rw;nwhd;iw toq;Fjy;
 gz;Ngw;wk;> gz;gpwf;fk; kw;Wk; ,zf;fp;
 xg;Gik rkpf;iQf; $Wfisg; gad;gLj;jpj; juTf; Fwpaply;
 Nkhnlk; gad;gLj;jp ,U rhjdq;fis ,izj;jy;
o nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;G

o gz;Ngw;wk;
o gz;gpwf;fk
 fPOs;s tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzuf; $ba tifapy; fye;Jiuahliy

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
o gz;Ngw;wk;
o gz;gpwf;fk
fzpg;gl
fPOs;s tplaq;fis tpsf;ff; $bathwhd xg;gilnahd;iwf; FOr; nraw;ghlhf toq;fTk;

o gz;Ngw;wk;
o gz;gpwf;fk
 fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;G gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa (CD), (DVD)
150
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l njhiyNgrp tiyaikg;G (PSTN)

o PSTN – Dial Up ,izg;G : Nkhnlk; kw;Wk; njhiyNgrp ,izg;G vd;git
Nrit toq;Fgtuplk; ,izg;gpid Vw;gLj;j mtrpakhdjhFk;.
gz;Ngw;wk; (Modulation)> gz;gpwf;fk; (Demodulation) kw;Wk; Nkhlk; (Modems):
Nkhlk; MdJ ,yf;fKiw rkpf;;iQapid xg;Gik rkpf;iQahf khw;wp
(gz;Ngw;wk;) > gz;Ngw;wg;gl;l rkpf;iQapidj; njhiyNgrp ,izg;gpDlhfr; nrYj;Jk;.
gpd; ngWk; ,lj;jpy; xg;Gik rkpf;iQapid ,yf;fKiw rkpf;iQahf khw;wk;
nra;Ak; (gz;gpwf;fk;). MfNt> ngWk; rhjdkhdJ jutpidr; rupahfg;
ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;.
juTfisg; gz;Ngw;wk; nra;tjw;Fg; gy;NtW jpl;lq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
Jbg;G FwpaPL gz;Ngw;wk; (Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)) vd;gJ xU xg;Gik
rkpf;iQapd; khjpupfs; vLj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gl;l xU KiwahFk;> gpd;du; ,e;j khjpupfs;
%yk; %y rkpf;iQapidg; ngw KbAk;.
151
Njh;rr
; p kl;lk;: 6.5. gy rhjdq;fis tiyaikg;nghd;wpy; ,izg;gjpy; cs;s
gpur;rpidfis vt;thW ifahs;tJ vd;gij tprhupg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs;: 03
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 mjpfsthd vy;yhr; rhjdq;fisAk; rfy ,lj;jpay; mikTfSlDk;

xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,izg;gJ eilKiwr; rhj;jpakw;wJ vd;gijr; nra;J
fhl;Lthu;
 ghl;ilnahd;wpd; vspikiar; nra;J fhl;Lthu;
 gy;NtW ,lj;jpay; mikTfis tiuglkpLthu;
 tiyaikg;nghd;wpd; tlkpliy ,yFthf;Ftjw;Ff; Ftpad;fs; kw;Wk;;
Mspfs; vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il tpsf;FtJld; mtw;wpd; njhopw;ghl;il
xg;gpl;L NtWgLj;Jthu;
cs;slf;fk;:

midj;Jr; rhjdq;fisAk; xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,izg;gJ eilKiwr;
rhj;jpakw;wJ
 jPu;T : ghl;il ,lj;jpay;
o vspik
o gpur;rpid : ghl;il mZfiyf; fl;Lg;gLj;jy; (Clfk;)
 Vida ,lj;jpay;fs;
o tpd;kPd; (Star)
o tisak; (Ring)
o fz;zp (Mesh)
 tlkpliy vspjhf;Fjy;
o ,izg;gp Ftpad; (Hubs)
o Mspfs; (Switches)
o tpd;kPd;
o tisak;
o fz;zp
o Ftpad;fs;> Mspfs;
fPOs;s tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzuf; $ba tifapy; fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
o tpd;kPd;> tisak;> fz;zp

o Ftpad;fs;> Mspfs;
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J fPOs;s jiyg;Gfis xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; toq;fp

mj;jiyg;gpw;fhd gl tpsf;fj;Jld; $ba ,yj;jpudpay; Kd;itg;nghd;iw tFg;gpw;F
toq;Ftjw;F topfhl;lTk;
o tpd;kPd;> tisak;> fz;zp> Ftpad;fs;> Mspfs;

o fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;G gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa (CD), (DVD)
152
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
 ghl;il ,lj;jpay; : ghl;il ,lj;jpaypd; gpujhd tlj;jpd; ,uz;L Kbtplq;fspYk;

Kbg;gpfs; (terminators) fhzg;gLk;. midj;J Kidaq;fSk; (Nfhg;G Nritafk;>
gzpepiyaq;fs;> rhjdq;fs;) gpujhd tlj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. gfpug;gl;l
nghJ njhlu;G Clfj;jpid Kidaq;fs; mZFk;> gy Kidfs; xNuNeuj;jpy; mZf
Kaw;rpf;Fk; nghOJ Kidaq;fs; gpur;rpidapidr; re;jpf;Fk;.
 tpz;kPd; ,lj;jpay; : tpd;kPd; ,lj;jpayhdJ mjpy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU KidaKk;
(Nfhg;G Nritafk;> gzpepiyaq;fs;> rhjdq;fs;) Neubahf xU ika tiyaikg;G
FtpaDld;; my;yJ MspAld; ,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;ff;$bajhf
tbtikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
 tisak; - ,lj;jpay; : tisa ,lj;jpaypy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU epiyaKk;
Neubahf mUfpy; fhzg;gLk; ,U epiyaq;fSld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. juthdJ
gupkhw;wg;gLk; nghOJ ,uz;L epiyaq;fSk; ,ilapy; ,Uf;Fk; midj;J
epiyaq;fspDhlhfTk; gupkhw;wg;gLk; (kzpf;$l;L jpirahf my;yJ vjpu;kzpf;$l;L
jpirahf)
 fz;zp ,lj;jpay;: ,e;j ,lj;jpaypy; xU tpUe;Njhk;gpf; fzpdp xd;W my;yJ
xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l tpUe;Njhk;gpf; fzpdpfSld; ,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. ,t;
,lj;jpaypy; fhzg;gLk; tpUe;Njhk;gpf; fzpdpfs; xt;nthd;Wk; xd;Wlndhd;W
,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. mNjNghd;W rpy tpUe;Njhk;gpf; fzpdpfs; rpy
tpUe;Njhk;gpf; fzpdpfSld; khj;jpuk; xd;Wlndhd;W mbg;gilapy;
,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
 Mspfs;> Ftpad;fs;: Ftpad;fs; kw;Wk; Mspfs; xU nghJ tiyaikg;Gr;

rhjdq;fs;. ,tw;wpd; gpujhd nraw;ghlhf tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fspid xU
nghJthd ,lj;jpy; ,izj;J xU tiyaikg;gpid Vw;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
o MspahdJ cs;tUk; ,izg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; rhjdj;jpd; jutpidg; ngw;W
mjid ntspr;nry;Yk; ,izg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; rhjdj;jpw;F khj;jpuk;; mDg;Gk;.
o Ftpad; MdJ cs;tUk; ,izg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; rhjdj;jpd; juTfisg; ngw;W
jdJ ntspr;nry;Yk; ,izg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; midj;Jr; rhjdq;fSf;Fk;
juitg; gug;Gk;. ,jDlhf MspahdJ Ftpadpidf; fhl;bYk; xU jpwikahd
rhjdkhfg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
153
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 6.6. Clf mZfy; fl;Lg;ghL (MAC) elg;nghOq;fpd; tfpgq;fpid
Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 mDg;GeiuAk; ngWeiuAk; milahsq;fhzf; $batifapy; rhjdq;fisj;

jdpj;Jtkhf (Kftupaply;) ngauplypd; Njitia tpgupg;ghu;.
 CLflj;jy; mynfhd;whf rl;lfq;fspd; tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;.
 ghl;ilAld; njhlu;Ggl;L Clfq;fis xOq;fikg;gpy; mZFtjw;F MAC
elg;nghOq;nfhd;wpd; Njitia tpsf;Fthu;.
 ALOHA Kjy; Ethernet tiuahd MAC elg;nghOq;Ffspd; gupzhkj;ij
RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;.
cs;slf;fk; :
 ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G (LAN)
 rhjdq;fis ,dq;fhzy;
o Kftupfs; :MAC Kftupfs;
 rl;lfq;fs;
 Clfq;fis tupirg;gb mZfy;
o kpf vspa elg;nghOq;F
cjhuzk;: ALOHA
o ALOHA tpypUe;J Ethernet w;fhd Kd;Ndw;wq;fs;
 njhiygug;gy; kw;Wk; jdpgug;gy; (Broadcasting and unicasting) nra;jpfs;
 mDg;GeiuAk; ngWeiuAk; milahsq;fhzy;

 rhjdq;fisj; jdpj;Jtkhf (Kftupaply;) ngauplypd; Njit
 CLflj;jy; mynfhd;whfr; rl;lfq;fspd; tfpgq;F
 ghl;il ,lj;jpay;
 elg;nghOq;Ffspd; Njit
 ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;Gfs;
 rhjdq;fis milahsq;fhzy;
o Nfhg;G Kftupfs;
o MAC Kftupfs;
 rl;lfq;fs;
 Clfq;fis tupirg;gb mZfy;
o kpf vspa elg;nghOq;F -ALOHA
o ALOHA tpypUe;J Ethernet w;fhd Kd;Ndw;wq;fs
 njhiygug;gy; kw;Wk; jdpgug;gy; (Broadcasting and unicasting) nra;jpfs;
fzpg;gl
 ghlj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd,lj;Jup tiyaikg;Gfs;> tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fis

mwpe;J nfhs;sy;> rl;lfq;fs;> Clfq;fis tupirg;gb mZfy; kw;Wk; nra;jpfs;
gug;gy; Nghd;w tplaq;fs; cs;slq;fpa Kd;itg;Gfis my;yJ Rtu; ml;ilfisj;
jahupg;gjw;fhd FOr; nraw;ghLfSf;F khztu;fis topg;gLj;jTk;.
 ,iza trjp> Kd;itg;Gfs;> nrayl;il
154
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G (LAN) : ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G vd;gJ xU fzpdp tiyaikg;ghFk;.

,J xU Fwpg;gpl;l tiuaWj;j ,lj;jpw;Fs; (,Ug;gplq;fs;> ghlrhiy> Ma;T$lk;>
gy;fiyf;fofk;) fhzg;gLk; fzpdpfis xd;Wlndhd;W ,izf;fpd;wJ.
rhjdq;fisf; fz;lwpjy; : MAC Kftupfs; vd;gJ> xU tiyaikg;G ,ilKfj;jpy;
fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU rhjdj;jpw;Fk; xJf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; xU jdpr;rpwg;ghd KftupahFk;. MAC
Kftupfs; 48 gpl;fs; ePskhdJk;> ,ul;ilKw;Wg;Gs;sp %yk; gpupf;fg;gl;l 6 njhFjpfisf;
nfhz;lit. xt;nthU njhFjpAk; 8 gpl; ePskhdJ/ mit kPz;Lk; 4 gpl; nfhz;l ,U
njhFjpfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. xt;nthU 4 gpl;Lk; gjpdWk vz;Kiwikapy;
Fwpj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLk;. xU MAC Kftup 4A:8F:3C:4F:9E:3D vDk; mikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk;.
tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; rhjdq;fs; juTfis tiyaikg;gpdpy; ngWk;NghJk;
mDg;Gk;NghJk; MAC KftupahdJ rhjdq;fspd; ,ilKfj;jpidj; jdpr;rpwg;ghf
milahsq;fz;L juTfisr; Nru;f;f cjTfpd;wJ.
rl;lfq;fs; (Frames) : juT %yj;jpypUe;J juT cUthf;fg;gl;Lj; njhlu;ghly; ,izg;gpd;
Clhf Data link layer ,y; mDg;gg;gLk; nghOJ> juT rl;lfq;fspy; ,izf;fg;gLk; ,lj;jpy;
mDg;gg;gLk; rhjdj;jpd; MAC KftupAk; mUfpy; fhzg;gL;k;. rhjdj;jpd; MAC KftupAk;
rl;lfj;jpd; jiyg;gpy; cs;slf;fg;gLk;. xU Nrhb rhjdq;fspid ,izf;Fk; juj;ijg;
nghWj;J xt;nthU rl;lKk; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
elg;nghOq;F (Protocol) : ,uz;L rhjdq;fSf;fpilapy; juT gupkhw;wg;gLk; NghJ juTfspd;
xOq;F tbtk; vd;gdtw;iw tiuaWf;fpd;wJ. tiyaikg;gpy; gy elg;nghOq;Ffs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mj;Jld; Clf nraw;gLj;jp fl;Lg;ghl;L elg;nghOq;fhdJ (media access
control protocol) mbg;gilr; nraw;ghl;bw;fhd nghJ gupkhw;w Clf njhlu;ghlYf;fhfr;
nraw;gLfpd;wJ. ghl;il ,lj;jpaypy; nghJthdnjhU ClfkhdJ gy rhjdq;fspD}lhfg;
gupkhwg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; Vw;gLk; juT NkhJifapidj; jtph;g;gjw;fhf medium access control
protocol MdJ Clfk; rupahd xOq;fpy; topg;gLj;jg;gLtjid cWjp nra;fpd;wJ.
ALOHA ,d; mwpKfKk; slotted ALOHA mjd; gupzhkKk;
Ethernet MdJ CSMA/CD apd; %yk; gy;nraw;ghl;L nghJ gupkhw;w Clfj;jpid
mDkjpf;fpd;wJ
jfty; xd;wpd; njhiygug;gYk; (Broadcast) jdpg;gug;gYk; (Unicast):
jftiyj; njhiygug;Gk; nghOJ xU jftyhdJ gy vz;zpf;ifahd ngWeUf;F
mDg;gg;gLk;. jdpg;guk;gypd; nghOJ xU jftyhdJ Fwpj;j xU fzpdpapy; ,Ue;J mjpy;
cs;slf;fg;gl;l jdpr;rpwg;ghd xU ngWeu; fzpdpapd; Kftupf;F kl;Lk; mDg;gg;gLk;.
155
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk;: 6.7. ,izaj;ij mikg;gjw;Fg; gy;tiyaikg;Gfs; vt;thW
xd;Nwhnlhd;W ,izf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 06
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 ,U ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;Gfis xd;wpizf;Fk; NghJ Eiothapypd; (gateway)

 jdpj;Jtkhd MAC elg;nghOq;nfhd;wpd; RahjPd Kftupaply; jpl;lj;jpd;;
NjitiaAk; mjw;fhf IP Kftup Mw;Wk; tfpgq;fpidAk; tpsf;Fthu;
 cgtiy kiwKfkikj;jypd; tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;
 toq;fg;gl;l IP Kftup njhFjpfs; kw;Wk; tiyaikg;G msT vd;gtw;wpd;
cgtiy kiwKfq;fs; kw;Wk; Kftup tPr;rk; vd;gtw;iwf; fzpg;ghu;
 ,af;fepiy IP Kftupfis xJf;Ftjw;F DHCP vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ
vd;gij tpsf;Fthu;
 mDg;GeuplkpUe;J ngWeu; tiuahd topiaf; fz;Lgpbj;jypy; topg;gLj;jpapd;
(Routers) tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;
 IP tiyaikg;Gfspy; nghjp kilkhw;wy; kw;Wk; rpwe;j tpepNahf Kaw;rp
vd;gtw;iw tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 rhjdnkhd;iw ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l tiyaikg;GfSld;
,izj;jy; – Eiothapy; (gateway)
 MAC Kftupaply; kw;Wk; LAN njhopDl;gk; vd;gtw;wpypUe;J RahjPdkhd
cyfshtpa jdpj;Jt rPuhd Kftupaplypd; mtrpak;
o IPv4 Kftupaply;
o IP fis tiyaikg;gpw;F xJf;Fjy;;
 cgtiyaikg;G
 cgtiy kiwKfk;
 CIDR FwpaPL
 jdpKiw ( Private)IP Kftupfs;
 DHCP
o IPv4 Kftupfspd; gw;whf;FiwAk; mjw;F jPu;thf IPv6 ck;
 Nrupl topiaf; fz;lwpjy;
o topr;nrYj;jYk; topg;gLj;jpAk; (Routing and routers)
o nghjp kilkhw;wy;; (Packet switching)
 rpwe;j Nru;g;gpg;G Kaw;rp
156
o Eiothapy;
o MAC Kftup
o IPv4 Kftu
o thf IPv6
o topr;nrYj;jYk; topg;gLj;jpAk;
o nghjp kilkhw;wy;
o nghUj;jkhd rhjdq;fisf; fhl;rpg;gLj;jp

o IPv4 ,IPv6 KftupfSf;fpilapyhd NtWghLfisj; njspTgLj;Jk; tifapy;
fye;Jiuahly;
o nghjp kilkhw;wy; vd;gij tpsf;fy;
fzpg;gl
o toq;fg;gLfpd;w Eiothapnyhd;iwg; ngaupl;L mjd;nraw;ghl;il tpsf;fr;

nra;aTk;
o IPv4 ,IPv6 KftupfSf;fpilapyhd NtWghLfisj; njspTgLj;Jk;
ml;ltiznahd;iwj; jahupf;f topfhl;lTk;
o nghjp kilkhw;wy; eilngWk; tpjj;ijr; rupahf tpsf;FtJld;
mr;nray;fis tiuglk; %yk; Fwpj;Jf;fhl;lf; $ba tifapyhd FOr;
nraw;ghnlhd;iw toq;fTk;
o fzpdpfs;> tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Eiothapy; (Gateway) - xU Eiothapy; vd;gJ midj;Jj; jfty;fSlDk;
nghUj;jg;gl;l xU topg;gLj;jp MFk;. ,J topr;nrYj;jpg; nghjpfis ,yf;F tpUe;Njhk;gpf;
fzpdpf;F mDg;Gfpd;wJ.
IP Kftup - IP KftupahdJ fzpdp tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU rhjdj;jpw;Fk;
toq;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; xU jdpr;rpwg;ghd KftupahFk;. ,J IP gjpg;G 4 (IPv4) MdJ 32 gpl;
ePskhdJ. ,k; Kiwapidg; gad;gLj;jp 4 gpy;ypad; tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fSf;F IP
Kftupfis toq;fKbAk;. IP Version 6 (IPv6) MdJ 128 gpl; ePskhdJ. ,jidg; gad;gLj;jp
kpfg;ngupa vz;zpf;ifapyhd tiyaikg;G rhjdq;fSf;F IP Kftup toq;fKbAk;.
Gs;spapl;l jrk FwpKiw (Dotted decimal notation) :
 gad;gLj;Jgtu;fspd; trjpf;fhf IP KftupahdJ Gs;spaplg;gl;l jrk FwpaPl;by;
vOjg;gLfpd;wJ.
 32 gpl;l KftupahdJ 8 (an octet or a byte) gpl; nfhz;l ehd;F gpupTfshfg;
gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 xt;nthU gFjpAk; 0 njhlf;fk; 255 tiuahd tPr;rpy; fhzg;gLk; jrk vz;fspdhy;
tiff;Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
157
 jrk vz;fs; Xt;nthd;Wk; (.) epWj;jy; Gs;spapdhy; NtWgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; : 11000000.10100000.00100000.0000101
192.160.32.5
A tFg;G tiyaikg;G (Class A networks) :
 Kjy; njhFjpahdJ 0 ,y; Muk;gpf;Fk;.
 Kjy; njhFjpapd; ngWkjp tPr;R 1 njhlf;fk; 126 tiuahdjhFk;.
 cgtiy kiwKfk; ( network mask) MdJ 8 gpl;Lfs;, /8 my;yJ 255.0.0.0 vd vOjg;gLk;.
Class A ,y;> 1.0.0.0 njhlf;fk; 126.0.0.0 tiuahd tiyaikg;Gfspy; xt;nthd;wpYk;
24
16777214 (2 -2) vz;zpf;ifahd tpUe;Njhk;gpfs; (hosts) fhzg;gLk;.
B tFg;G tiyaikg;G (Class B networks) :
 cgtiy kiwKfk; ( network mask) MdJ 16 gpl;Lfs;, /16 my;yJ 255.255.0.0 vd
vOjg;gLk;.
 Class B ,y;> 128.0.0.0 njhlf;fk; 191.255.0.0 tiuahd tiyaikg;Gfspy; xt;nthd;wpYk;
65534 (216-2) vz;zpf;ifahd tpUe;Njhk;gpfs; (hosts) fhzg;gLk;.
C tFg;G tiyaikg;G (Class C networks)
 cgtiy kiwKfk; ( network mask) MdJ 24 gpl;Lfs;, /24 my;yJ 255.255.255.0 vd
vOjg;gLk;.
 Class C ,y;> 192.0.0.0 njhlf;fk; 223.255.255.0 tiuahd tiyaikg;Gfspy;
xt;nthd;wpYk; 254 (28-2) vz;zpf;ifahd tpUe;Njhk;gpfs; (hosts) fhzg;gLk;.
 Nkyjpfkhd ,uz;L tFg;Gf;fshf Class D and Class E vd;gd fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 Assignment of IP Addresses : xU tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; midj;J tpUe;Njhk;gpfspdJk;
Kftupfspd; Kw;Nru;f;if xNu ngWkjpapidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. KftupfspdJ
Kw;Nru;f;ifahdJ ISPs ,dhy; ngwg;gl;L Kftup Kw;Nru;f;iffs; ika mjpfhuj;jhy;
xJf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU fzpdpf;Fk; vdj; jdpr;rpwg;ghd
xU gpw;Nru;f;if> tiyaikg;G Kfhikahsupdhy; toq;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;.
 cgtiyaikg;G (Sub-netting): 32 gpl; Kftupj; jpl;lkplypy; fhzg;gLk; Nkyjpf
tiyaikg;G Kftupfspd; vz;zpf;ifapidf; Fiwf;Fk; xU El;gkhf cgtiyaikg;G
cs;sJ. cgtiyaikg;gpy; cs;s xt;nthU ngsjPf tiyaikg;G KftupfSk; 32 gpl;
cgtiy kiwKfj;jpidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,J tiyaikg;Gf;fspy; ,Ue;J Fwpj;j
tiyaikg;gpid milahsk; fhzg; gad;gLk;. xNu cgtiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; vy;yh
rhjdq;fSk; xNu cgtiy kiwKfj;jpidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 tFg;gw;w cs;shu;e;j Ms;fs topr;nrYj;jy; (Classless Inter Domain Routing) (CDIR) :
tFg;Gf;fshd A, B or C tiyaikg;gpw;Fg; gjpyhf> ,jidg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ ,jpy; ve;j
vz;KftupfisAk; xJf;f KbAk;. ,e;jj; jpl;lk; ngupa topr;nrYj;jy; ml;lizfisf;
Fiwf;f cjTk;.
158
 The vanishing IP address space: IPv4 MdJ 2^32 Kftupfis kl;LNk nfhz;Ls;sd.
,iza mZfYf;fhd nghJ IP Kftupfspd; Njitg;ghLfs; jw;NghJ mjpfupj;J
tUfpd;wd. ,izakhdJ nghUj;jkhd ntspapy; fhzg;gLk; IP Kftupfisf; nfhz;L
,aq;Ffpd;wJ. IPV4 ,y; fhzg;gLk; Fwpj;j tPr;rpy; fhzg;gLk; KftupfSf;Fg; gjpyhf
jw;nghOJ IPV6 MdJ Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 jdpahs; IPs (Private): %d;W tpjkhd Kftup vy;iyfs; jdpahu; gad;ghl;bw;fhf
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8) – 16M Kftupfs;
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12) - 1M Kftupfs;
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16) – 64k Kftupfs;.
 khWk; tpUe;Njhk;gp cs;sikT newpKiw Nritaff; fzpdpfs; (DHCP) : tiyaikg;gpy;
fhzg;gLk; tpUe;Njhk;gpfSf;F IP Kftupfis tiuaiwnra;Ak; xU newpKiwahff;
DHCP fhzg;gLfpd;;wJ. MdhYk; tiyaikg;G Kfhikahsu; tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk;
tpUe;Njhk;gpfSf;F IP Kftupfis toq;fyhk;. DHCPahy; IP Kftupfs; jhdhfNt
tpUe;Njhk;gpfSf;F xJf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,yf;Fg; ghijapidf; fz;lwpjy; (Finding path to the Destination) :
juthdJ Muk;g ,lj;jpypUe;J ,yf;fpid Nehf;fp ntspNaWk; NghJ
xd;Nwhnlhd;W njhlu;r;rpahff; fhzg;gLk; gy rhjdq;fspD}lhfr; nry;yNtz;Lk;.
juTfs; Muk;g ,lj;jpypUe;J ,yf;FNehf;fpr; nry;tjw;F Ntz;ba
topr;nrYj;jy;fis topg;gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ. topr;nrYj;jy; vd;gJ Muk;g
,lj;jpypUe;J ,yf;F Nehf;fp tiyaikg;gpy; juT nry;tjw;fhd tpidj;jpwdhd
ghijapidj; njupT nra;jyhFk;. topg;gLj;jpahdJ tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk;
xj;j rhjdq;fSld; njhlu;Gnfhs;tjw;fhd jpwd; nfhz;l xU tiyaikg;Gr;
rhjdkhFk;. mjDld; ,ize;J njhopw;gLk; rhjdq;fis ,dq;fz;L juT te;j
ghijapidf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;Fk; ,J cjTk;. topg;gLj;jpahdJ jdf;fhd
,yf;Ffspd; ghijfis ml;ltizg;gLj;jp itj;jpUf;Fk;. ,J topr;nrYj;jy;
ml;ltiz vd miof;fg;Lk;. topg;gLj;jpahdJ jdJ topr;nrYj;jy;
ml;ltizapid Vida topg;gLj;jpfSf;F ,ilapy; gupkhwpf;nfhs;Sk;. ,jdhy;
Neuj;jpw;F Neuk; tpopr;nrYj;jy; ml;ltiz khw;wk; ngw;Wf;nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 nghjp kilkhw;wy; (Packet Switching) : xU juT %yj;jpypUe;J juthdJ
cw;gj;jpahFk; NghJ> mJ nghl;lyq;fs; vdg;gLk; rpW gFjpfshfg; gpupf;fg;gLk;.
Xt;nthU nghl;lyq;fSf;Fnkd jdpr;rpwg;ghf milahsg;gLj;jg;gl $ba jiyg;Gf;
fhzg;gLk;. mj;Jld; xt;nthU nghl;lyKk; jd;dpr;irahf mDg;gg;gLk;.
159
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; : 6.8. ,izaj;jpy; Nghf;Ftuj;J elg;nghOq;Ffspd; tfpghfj;ij Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 xU IP KftupapypUe;J kw;nwhd;wpw;F nra;jp gupkhWtJ NghJkhdjy;y
vd;gij xU nraypypUe;J kw;wr; nraYf;Nf njhlu;ghly; eilngWfpd;wJ
vd;gijr; nra;J fhl;b tpsf;Fthu;
 gy;Nru;g;G nra;jpfspd; NjitiaAk; Jiw ,yf;fq;fs; vt;thW Kbtplq;fis
milahsk; fhz;fpd;wd vd;gijAk; tpsf;Fthu;
 UDP apd; nraw;ghLfisAk; mjidg; gad;gLj;Jk; gpuNahfq;fisAk;
gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
 TCP apd; nraw;ghLfisAk; mjidg; gad;gLj;Jk; gpuNahfq;fisAk;
gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 xU gpuNahfr; nraypypUe;J kw;nwhU gpuNahfr; nraypf;F juitr; Nru;g;gpj;jy;
o IP apdhy; ,dq;fhzg;gl;l xU tpUe;Njhk;Gdupd; gy; gpuNahfq;fs;
 gy;Nru;g;G (Multiplexing) – mNj IP apy; gy;Kbtplq;fs;
o JiwfSk; thapy; ,yf;fq;fSk;
o UDP
 ,ay;Gfs;
 gpuNahfq;fs;
o TCP
 ,ay;Gfs;
 gpuNahfq;fs;
 JiwfSk; thapy; ,yf;fq;fSk;

 gy;Nru;g;G
 gadu; juTg; gupkhw;W elg;nghOq;Ffs;
 gupkhw;Wf; fl;Lg;ghl;L elg;nghOq;Ffs;
 fPOs;stw;iw ntspg;gLj;jf;$ba tifapyh fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;

o gy;Nru;g;G
o gadu; juTg; gupkhw;W elg;nghOq;Ffspd; nraw;ghLfs;
o gupkhw;Wf; fl;Lg;ghl;L elg;nghOq;Ffpd;; nraw;ghLfs;
fzpg;gl
 khztu;fs; mDgtj;ijg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Stjw;Fg; Nghjpag; gapw;rpfis toq;Fjy;
 fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;G gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa (CD), (DVD) Nghd;wd


160
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
gy tiyaikg;Gg; gpuNahfq;fs; xU rhjdj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; vd;gjhy;> Muk;g

,lj;jpypUe;J ,yf;F Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk; juTg; nghl;lyq;fspd; thapyhfr; nry;Yk;
gpuNahf nkd;nghUl;fs; rupahfr; nry;fpd;wdth vd;gjid cWjpnra;af;
fzpdpfSf;F Vjhtnjhd;W Njitg;gLk;. ,aq;Fk; gpuNahf njhlu;ghlypy; fhzg;gLk;
xt;nthU nray;KiwAk; xJf;fg;gl;l tiyaikg;G ,ilKfj;jpD}lhfj;
njhlu;ghlypid Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ. ,J Fij vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. tiyaikg;gpy;
fhzg;gLk; Xt;nthU Fijf;Fnkdj; jdpr;rpwg;ghd vz; cz;L. ,jidf; Fij vz;
vd;gu;> kw;Wk; ,J rhjdq;fSf;Ff; nfhLf;fg;gl;l IP KftupfSld; ,ize;J
xt;nthU Kiwtopf;Fkhfj; jdpr;rpwg;ghff; fhzg;gLk;. ,J Fwpj;j tpUe;Njhk;gypy;
eilngWfpd;wJ. ntt;NtW fzpdpfspy; ,aq;Fk; nray;Kiwfs; xNu ,yf;fpw;Fj;
jutpid mDg;Gk; NghJ> ntt;NtW Kiwtopahf;fj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; Fij vz;Zk;
IP KftupAk; Fwpj;j Kiwtopahf;fj;jpidj; jdpr;rpwg;ghf milahsg;gLj;jg; gad;gLk;.
Fij KftupapdJk; IP KftupapdJ Nru;f;iff;fhf Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;
Kiwtopahf;fKk; kw;Wk; rupahd Kiwtopahf;fj;jpid jPu;khdpg;gjw;fhfTk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; rupahd Kiwtopahf;fk; gy;Nru;g;G (multiplexing) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
gadu; juTr;nra;jp elg;nghOq;F (User Datagram Protocol):

UDP MdJ xU Nghf;Ftuj;J elg;nghOq;;fhFk; kw;Wk; DNS, SNMP Nghd;w gy ed;F
mwpag;gl;l gad;ghl;L mLf;F elg;nghOq;Ff;fhdJ. UDP MdJ vspa kw;Wk; Nfs;tp
mbg;gilapyhd jfty; njhlu;Gf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdJ> NkYk; ,J ,izg;Gr;
rhu;e;jjy;y. UDP neupry; fl;Lg;ghl;L El;gj;jpid toq;ftpy;iy. UDP MdJ jutpd;
cj;juit toq;f cj;juthjk; nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy.
gupkhw;wf; fl;Lg;ghl;L elg;nghOq;F (Transmission Control Protocol) :

TCP MdJ jutupirf;F ek;gfkhd jftiy toq;FfpwJ. ,J xU ,izg;Gr; rhu;e;j
; pahd xg;Gf;nfhs;tij (acknowledgment) ngWjy;
elg;nghOq;fhFk;. kw;Wk; njhlu;rr
Clhf juTg;nghl;lyq;fis mDg;Gk;. ,izak; kw;Wk; kpd;dQ;ry; Nghd;w
gad;ghLfSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
161
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk;: 6.9 . ,izaj;jpd; rpy gpuNahfq;fis Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 IP KftupfSf;Fg; gjpyhf khdpl el;Gilg; ngau;fspd; Njitia tpgupg;ghu;

 ngau;fis IP KftupfSf;F nkhopg;ngau;g;gjpy; Ms;fsg; ngau; Kiwikapd;
 DNS ,d; gbepiy kw;Wk; guk;gpa fl;likg;G vd;gtw;iw tiuapaypy;
gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nra;thu;
 HTTP apy; vspa GET Nfhupf;if kw;Wk; gjpyspg;G vd;gtw;iw tpgupg;ghu;
 DNS kw;Wk; HTTP vd;gtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp Nritg;gadu;> Nritaf
khjpupapid tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
 Ms;fsg; ngau; Kiwik (DNS)
o IP Kftupfis Qhgfk; itj;Jf;nfhs;tJ fbdk;
o khdpl el;Gilg; ngau;fs;
o gbepiyg; ngau; ntsp
o xt;nthU Ms;fsKk; mjd; fPOs;s ngau;fis Kfhik nra;tjw;F
nghWg;gha; ,Uj;jy;
o cau; kl;l Ms;fsq;fs;
o kPthrf gupkhw;W elg;nghOq;Ffs; HTTP
o Nritg; gadu; khjpup
o Ms;fsg; ngau; Kiwik

o kPthrf gupkhw;W elg;nghOa;Ffs; HTTP
o Nritg; gadu; khjpup
o fPOs;s tplaq;fs; ntspg;gLkhW fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;

 Ms;fsg; ngau; gy gFjpfisf; nfhz;Ls;sik
 Nritg;gadu; Nritafnkhd;wpy; tplag;ngau;fs; gy kl;lq;fspy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wik
 Nritg;gadu; Nritafnkhd;wpy; gadu; juT newpKf;fikthdJ vd
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshf;fp xt;nthU FOitAk; Ms;fyk; njhlu;ghd Kd;itg;nghd;iwj;

jahu; nra;J KOtFg;gpw;Fk; mjid Kd;itf;FkhW Nfl;fTk;
 fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;G gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa ,yj;jpudpay;
Kd;itg;Gfs; ((CD), (DVD))
162
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Ms;fsg; ngau; Kiwik (Domain Name System (DNS)) :

nfhLf;fg;gl;l URL kw;Wk; tiyKftupfSf;Ff; Nfhg;gf Nritapid toq;FfpwJ. HTTP
elg;nghOq;fhdJ nfhLf;fg;gl;l URL fspd; nghUj;jkhd tiy Kftupfis milahsk;
fhz DNS ,d; Nritfisg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
kPthrf gupkhw;W elg;nghOq;F The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP MdJ gfpu;T> $l;Lg;gz;G kw;Wk; kP Clfk; Nghd;w jfty; mikg;Gf;fisg;

gad;gLj;jg; gad;gLk; xU gpuNahf mLf;F newpKiwahFk;. HTTP vd;gJ cyfshtpa
tyaj;jpw;fhd juTj; jfty; njhlu;Gf;fhd mbj;jsk; MFk;.
Nritg;gadu;- Nrit khjpup (Client - Server model) :
Nritg;gadu; - Nritaf khjpupahdJ> gfpu;e;jspf;fg;gl;l gpuNahf mikg;Gf;fs;>

gpupf;fg;gl;l gzpfs; my;yJ gpuNahf mikg;Gf;fs; gpupf;fg;gl;l mikg;Gf;fs; Nghd;w
Nritapid toq;FtJ Nritafk; vdTk; ,jw;fhd Nfhupf;ifapid Nkw;nfhs;tJ
Nritg;gadu; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;
163
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk; : 6.10. tiyaikg;gpd; fl;likg;ig tpgupg;gjw;Ff; Fwpg;G khjpupfspd;
(Reference models) tfpghfj;ijf; fz;lwpthu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 TCP/IP kw;Wk; OSI khjpupfspd; mLf;FfsJ nraw;ghLfis tpgupg;ghu;.
 gy;NtW mLf;Ffspd; juT myFfis tpgupg;ghu; (packet, frame and bit).
 TCP/IP kw;Wk; OSI khjpupfisg; gad;gLj;jp tiyaikg;nghd;wpd; juT
gha;r;riy tpgupg;ghu;.
cs;slf;fk; :
 TCP/IP khjpup
o gpuNahfk;
o Nghf;Ftuj;J
o ,izak;
o tiyaikg;gpw;fhd Xk;Gdu;
 OSI khjpup
o gpuNahf mLf;F (Application Layer)
o Kd;itg;G mLf;F (Presentation Layer)
o mku;T mLf;F (Session Layer)
o Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F (Transport Layer)
o tiyaikg;G mLf;F (Network Layer)
o juT ,izg;G mLf;F (Data Link Layer)
o ngsjPf mLf;F (physical Layer)
 TCP/IP khjpup
 OSI khjpup
 TCP/IP , OSI khjpup mLf;Ffspd; nray;fs
 OSI , TCP/IP Mfpa khjpupfspd; khw;wq;fs;
 TCP/IP khjpup
o gpuNahfk;
o Nghf;Ftuj;J
o ,izak;
o Xk;GdpypUe;J tiyaikg;gpw;F
 OSI khjpup
o gpuNahf mLf;F
o Kd;itg;G mLf;F
o mku;T mLf;F
o Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F
o tiyaikg;G mLf;F
o juT ,izg;G mLf;F
o ngsjPf mLf;F
fzpg;gl
 tFg;igf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU ,lj;jpay;fspdJk; nraw;ghLfisg;
ngaupLtjw;F topg;gLj;jy;. ,U re;jug;gq;fspy; Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
 fzpdpfs;> ,iza trjp> tiyaikg;Gg; gw;wpa tpguq;fslq;fpa (CD), (DVD) Nghd;wd
164
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
TCP/IP newpKiw fl;likg;G :
4 gpuNahf mLf;F- tiyaikg;gpidg; gad;gLj;Jk; gpuNahfq;fSk; nray;fSk;

fhzg;gLk;
3 Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F - juT tpepNahf Nritfis ,uz;L Kbtplq;fSf;Fk;
,ilapy; toq;Fjy;
2 ,iza mLf;F - jutsT (Datagram) ,id tiuaiw nra;J jutpd;

topr;nrYj;jiy Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ
1 tiyaikg;G mZfy; mLf;F - ngsjPf tiyaikg;gpid mZFtjw;fhd
topr;nrYj;jy;fs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd
 tiyaikg;G mZfy; mLf;F

o TCP/IP gbKiwfspy; fPo;kl;lj;jpYs;s mLf;F
o tiyaikg;gpYs;s Vidar; rhjdq;fSf;Fj; juit toq;Ftjw;fhd
topfis toq;FfpwJ.
o IP jutsT (datagram) gupkhw;Wtjw;F tiyaikg;ig vt;thW gad;gLj;jy;
vd;gij tiuaWf;fpd;wJ.
o IP jutsT (datagram) MdJ rl;lfq;fSf;F cl;GFj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
o Ethernet ,y; IP KftupahdJ ngsjPf Kftupf;F khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,iza mLf;F
o Nky; mLf;F newpKiwfSf;Fk; tiyaikg;gpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd
njhlu;gpid Kfhkpf;fpd;wJ.
o KftupapliyAk; juT tpepNahfj;ijAk; ifahSfpd;wJ.
o Internet Protocol (IP) Nkw;Fwpj;j midj;J nraw;ghLfisAk;
Nkw;nfhs;Sfpd;wJ.
 Nghf;F tuj;J mLf;F
o Nghf;Ftuj;J fl;Lg;gLj;jp elg;nghOq;F (TCP)
o gadu; jutsT (Datagram) elg;nghOq;F (UDP)
 gpuNahf mLf;F
• gpuNahfq;fs; ,t; mLf;fpy; nraw;gLfpd;wd.
• Nfhg;G gupkhw;W elg;nghOq;F (FTP), njhiy mZfy; (Telnet), kpd;dQ;ry; (SMTP)
165
tiyaikg;G tbtikg;gpd; mLf;Ffs; (OSI – Open System Interconnection Model)
OSI mLf;fpd; nraw;ghLfs;
OSI tbtikg;G kw;Wk; TCP/IP tbtikg;gpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd xg;gL

P
OSI TCP/IP
gpuNahf mLf;F (Layer7)
Kd;itg;G mLf;F (Layer6) gpuNahf mLf;F
mku;T mLf;F (Layer5)
Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F (Layer4) Nghf;F tuj;J mLf;F
tiyaikg;G mLf;F (Layer3) ,iza mLf;F
juT ,izg;G mLf;F (Layer2) tiyaikg;gpw;fhd
ngsjPf mLf;F (Layer1) Xk;Gdu; mLf;F
166
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk;: 6.11. ,izaj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s rhjdq;fspd; ghJfhg;G kw;Wk;
njhlu;ghly; vd;gtw;wpd; ghJfhg;Gf; fhuzpfis Muha;th;.
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 ,izak; toq;fhj fhuzpfshd> nra;jpfspd; ,ufrpaj;jd;ik kw;Wk;

rhd;wspg;G (confidentiality and authentication) vd;gtw;wpd; Njitiaf; fz;lwpthu;
 nra;jpfis kiwFwpapLtjw;Fk; xg;gkplYf;Fk;; nghJr; rhtp kw;Wk; jdpKiwr;
rhtp vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;ilr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
 tiyaikg;ghf;fg;gl;l Kiwikfs; vjpu;nfhs;Sk; gy;NtW mr;RWj;jy;fisAk;
mjw;fhd fhg;G KiwfisAk; tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 kiwFwpahf;fKk; ,yf;f xg;gKk; - mwpKfk;
o nghJr; rhtp
o jdpKiwr; rhtp
o xg;gkply;
 mr;RWj;jy;fs;
o er;Repuy;fs;
o Trojans
o td;k nkd;nghUs; (Malware)
o tptuj; jpUl;L (Phishing)
 fhg;G
o jPr;Rtu;fs; (Firewalls)
o vjpu;er;Repuy; nkd;nghUs;
 fy;tp/ rpwe;j mwpT /ey;y gof;fq;;fs;
o nghJr; rhtp
o jdpKiwr; rhtp
o xg;gkply;
o er;Repuy;fs;
o Trojans
o td;k nkd;nghUs; (Malware)
o tptuj; jpUl;L (Phishing)
o jPr;Rtu;fs; (Firewalls)
o vjpu;er;Repuy; nkd;nghUs
fPOs;s tplaq;fs; ntspg;gLkhW fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
167
o nra;jpfis kiwFwpapLtjw;Fk; xg;gkplYf;Fk;; nghJr; rhtp kw;Wk; jdpKiwr; rhtp
vd;gtw;wpd; mtrpak;
o kiwFwpahf;fk; nghJr; rhtpiaf; nfhz;Lk; FwpePf;fy; jdpKiwr; rhtp rhtpiaf;
nfhz;Lk; eilngWfpwJ
o jdpKiwr; rhtp;> nghJr; rhtp Mfpa nghwpKiwfspdhy; jdpegu; milahsk;
ghJfhf;fg;gLtjpy;iy vd;gJ
o milahsk; ghJfhg;gjw;F ,yf;fKiw xg;gkpliyg; gad;gLj;jy;
fzpg;gl
 xt;nthU khztUf;Fk; fPof ; hZk; igj;jd; FwpKiwfis toq;fp mjid

igj;jd; Fwpfs; %yk; epuypl;L nraw;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; juitg; ngw;W mjw;F
FwpapliyAk; FwpePf;fiyAk; Nkw;nfhs;sf; $ba nraw;ghnlhd;iw toq;aTk;.
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;Jf; fPOs;s tplaq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd jfty;fis

,izaj;jpd; %yk; Njb mwpf;if jahupf;f topg;gLj;jTk;
jukhd vjpu;er;Repuy; gl;banyhd;W
tiyaikg;Gs;s igj;jd; nkd;nghUs; cs;s fzpdpfs;> ghlj;Jld; njhlu;ghd

,yj;jpudpay; rku;g;gdk;> ,iza trjp
168
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
kiwFwpahf;fKk; ,yf;f xg;gKk; (Encryption and digital signature) :
kiwFwpahf;fk; vd;gJ juTfisg; ghJfhg;ghfTk; ,ufrpakhfTk; mDg;Gjw;Fg;

gad;gLk; xU Fwpahf;ftpaypy; El;gkhFk;. ,uz;L tifahd kiwFwpahf;fq;fs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd:
I. rkr;rPu; rhtp kiwFwpahf;fk; (Symmetric Key Encryption)
rkr;rPu; rhtp kiwFwpahf;fj;jpy;> kiwFwpahf;fj;jpw;Fk; (encrypting)

kiwFwpahf;fj;jpid ePf;fYf;Fk; (decrypting) xNu rhtpNa gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. rkr;rPu; rhtp
kiwFwpahf;fj;jpidg; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ gadu; Kjypy; nghJr;rhtp (common key)
xd;wpidg; gupkhwpf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
II. rkr;rPuw;w rhtp kiwFwpahf;fk; (Asymmetric Key Encryption)
rkr;rPuw;w rhtp kiwFwpahf;fj;jpy;> juTfis kiwFwpahf;fk; nra;tjw;Fk; kPs;Fwpahf;fk;

nra;tjw;Fnkd ntt;NtW tpjkhd ,uz;L rhtpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,q;F xt;nthU
gad;ghl;lhsUk; jdpg;gl;l rhtp (private key) kw;Wk; nghJr; rhtp (public key) vd;w ,uz;L
tpjkhd rhtpfisAk; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;jr; rhtpfs; fzpj mbg;gilapyhd
njhlu;Gilait. xU rhtpia kiwFwpahf;fj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ> kw;iwa rhtp
kiwFwpahf;fg;gl;l thrfj;ij kPz;Lk; %y thrfkhf khw;Wk;.
kiwFwpahf;f rhtp kiwFwpePf;fr; rhtp
Plaintex Ciphertext Plaintext

t
kiwFwpahf;fk; kiwFwp ePf;fk;

(Encryption) (Decryption)
ifnaOj;jply; (Signing )
tof;fkhf xU nry;YgbahFk; Mtzk; fPo; ifnahg;gkplg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd;

fhuzkhf Fwpj;j Mtzj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; jfty;fs; ngWeupdhy; ek;gpf;iff;F
cs;shf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. tof;fkhd Mtzq;fs; NghyNt ,yf;fKiw Mtzq;fspYk;
fl;lhakhff; ifnaOj;Jf; fhzg;glNtz;Lk;. ,jd; fhuzkhf ,yf;fKiwf;
ifnaOj;jplyhdJ nra;jpfspd; mq;fPfhuj;jpw;F cjTfpd;wJ. ,yf;fKiwf;
ifnaOj;jplyhdJ nra;jp xd;wpid cUthf;fpatu;> cUthf;fpa jpfjp kw;Wk; Neuk;
vd;gdtw;wpid cWjpg;gLj;j cjTk;.
169
jPq;Fgaf;Fk; nkd;nghUs;fs; (Malware)
jPq;Fgaf;Fk; Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf vOjg;gLk; nkd;nghUl;fs;.
 fzpdp er;Repuy; (Viruses) – fzpdpapy; cs;Eioe;J> fzpdp mwpahkNy> fzpdpf;F

Nrjk; tpistpf;Fk; xU nray;epuyhFk;.
 NwhId; Fjpiu(Trojans Hourse) – jPq;fw;wJ Nghd;W Njhd;Wfpd;w NghjpYk;
jPq;Fgaf;Fk; nkd;nghUshfpa ,J gadu; mwpahkNyNa fzpdpAld;
njhlu;GgLfpd;wJ.
 Phishing – xU ek;gfkhd eguhf ebg;gjd; %yk; czu;jpwd;kpf;f gadu; ngau;fs;>
flTr;nrhw;fs;> fld;ml;il ,yf;fk; Nghd;w tpguq;fisg; ngWjy;.
 Mq;fPfupf;fg;glhj jPq;fpiof;Fk; mZfy;fSf;F vjpuhd ghJfhg;G
 jPr;Rtu; (Firewalls): juTfis mq;fPfupf;fg;glhj mZfYf;F vjpuhf > ghJfhg;gjw;fhf

nraw;gLk; mikg;G.
 vjpu;er;Repuy; nkd;nghUs; (Antivirus software): fzpdpf;F jPq;F tpistpf;Fk;
nkd;nghUl;fisf; fz;lwpe;J mtw;iw mfw;Wjy; my;yJ fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;Fg;
gad;gLk; nkd;nghUs;.
 fzpdp gad;gLj;Jdu; (Computer users) jPq;fpiof;Fk; jhf;Fjy;fSf;Fk; kw;Wk;
mq;fPfupf;fg;glhj mZfy;fSf;Fk; vjpuhf tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jf;
fzpdp gadu;fs; mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. jhf;Fjy;fspypUe;J Kiwikiag;
ghJfhg;gjw;F tYkpf;f flTr; nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;JtJld; vjpu;er;Repuy; mbf;fb
jw;fhyg;gLj;jiyAk; Nkw;nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;.
170
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 6.12. mf tiyaikg;Gfis (Home Networks) ,izaj;Jld; ,izg;gjw;fhfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs; (ISPs) kw;Wk; njhopDl;gk;
vd;gtw;wpd; tfpghfj;ij Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
 ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdupd; tfpgq;fpid tpgupg;ghu;

 tPl;Lf; fzpdpia ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu; tiyaikg;Gld; ,izg;gjw;F
,zf;fp kw;Wk; Row;wy; ,izg;G (dialup lines) vd;gtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il
tpsf;Fthu;
 DSL/ADSL vd;gtw;wpd; mD$yq;fis tpsf;Fthu;
 ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;gpy; jdpahu; IP Kftupfisg; gad;gLj;Jk; tiyaikg;G
Kftup ngau;g;G (NAT) kw;Wk; gjpyhl;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; tfpgq;fpid tpsf;Fthu;;.
cs;slf;fk; :
 ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs; (ISPs)
 ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fSld; ,izj;jy;
 Nkhnlk; (Modems)
 DSL/ADSL
 jdpKiw IP fis gad;gLj;Jk; mf ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G
 tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;G / gjpyhl;fs; (Proxies)
 ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs; (ISPs)

 tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;Gr; (NAT) nray;fs;
 jdpKiw IP KftupfSk; nghJ IP KftupfSk;
 tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;G / gjpyhl;fs; (Proxies)
 ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fSf;fhd cjhuzq;fisf; fye;JiuahlTk;

 fzpdp tiyaikg;nghd;wpy; fhzg;gLk; IP Kftup gw;wp fye;JiuahlTk;
 jdpKiw IP KftupfisAk; nghJ IP KftupfisAk; milahsq;fhzy;
 gjpyhl;fs; gw;wpAk; mjd; nraw;ghL gw;wpAk; tpsf;fTk;
 tiyaikg;G Kftup ngau;g;G gw;wp tpsf;fTk;
fzpg;gl
 ,iza trjpiag; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; tpjj;ijAk; tPl;bYs;s ,U fzpdpfis

,izaj;Jld; njhlu;G gLj;Jk; tpjj;ijAk; tiugl%yk; tpsf;Ftjw;fhd
re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;
tiyaikg;Gs;s cs;s fzpdpfs;> ghlj;Jld; njhlu;ghd ,yj;jpudpay; rku;gg

; dk;> ,iza
trjp> xspvwpfUtp
171
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs; (ISPs):
,iza Nritfis mZFtjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fkhd Nritapid ISP toq;Fk;

epWtdq;fshFk;. ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs; gy;NtW ,lq;fspy; my;yJ tbtq;fspy;
xOq;fikf;fg;glyhk;.
nkhlj;jpd; (MODEM) gad;ghLfs;
DSL: vy;yh tifahd DSL(digital subscriber lines) kw;Wk; ADSL(asymmetric digital

subscriber line) ,d; $l;lhf Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. ADSL vd;gJ> ,izaj;Jld; ,izf;fg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; DSL mfyg;gl;il jfty;njhlu;G njhopy;El;gj;jpd; xU tifahFk;.
ghuk;gupa nkhlj;Jld; xg;gpLk; nghOJ> ADSL MdJ mjpf juTfis> njhiyNgrp
nrg;G fk;gp topA+lhf mDg;GfpwJ.
DSL ,d; ed;ikfs;.
Rje;jpukhd Nritfs; : mjpNtf juT ,og;G vd;gJ> njhiyNgrp Nritia

,of;fg;gl;lJ vd;W nghUs;glhJ. xU epWtdj;jpd; amplifier/repeater nraypof;Fk;
NghJ njhiyNgrp> njhiyf;fhl;rp kw;Wk; ,iza mZfy; vd;gd nraypof;fpd;wd.
ghJfhg;G : tlj;Jld; fhzg;gLk; ,zf;fp Nghd;wy;yhJ xt;nthU gad;gLj;JduhYk;

(subscriber) fl;likf;f KbAk;> MfNt ,J xNu tiyaikg;gpy; ,Uf;fKbahJ.
tlj;Jld; fhzg;gLk; rpy ,zf;fp tiyaikg;Gfspy;> mNj tiyaikg;gpy; cs;s
Vida fzpdpfs; ghjpg;gpw;F cs;shff;$ba tifapYk;; juT mopit Vw;gLj;jf;
$bathWk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
xUq;fpizg;G (Integration) : ATM, Nx64, kw;Wk; WAN njhopDl;gq;fspd; ,yFthfg;

nghUe;Jfpd;w jd;ik DSL Yf;Fs;sJ. ,jD}lhf njhiyj;njhlu;G NkYk;
,yFthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
ADSL ,d; ed;ikfs;
kypthd tpiyfs; (Cheaper rates) : ,izar; Nrit toq;Fdu;fs;> ,iza

,izg;gpw;fhf> tof;fkhd xU epiyahd IP Kftupapidg; gad;gLj;jp vspa
ADSL ,izg;Gf;fis toq;Ffpd;wd.
KOikahd mftikg;gpaYik (Fully configurable) : WAN nghwpapayhsu;fshy;

jsq;fSf;F ,ilapy; cUthf;fg;gl;l VPN cUthf;fj;jpd; kPJ nkhj;jf;
fl;Lg;ghl;bidf; nfhz;Ls;sdu;. ve;jnthU tiyaikg;Gr; rpf;fy;fSf;Fk;
<LnfhLf;fNth my;yJ vOk; ve;jnthU gpur;rpidiaAk; rupnra;aNth
172
cjTtjw;fhfTk; mit ,aq;Ftjpy; cs;s khw;wq;fisr; rPu;nra;tjw;Fk;
,aYikg; ngw;wtu;fshAs;sdu;.
,yFthd tiy cyhty; kw;Wk; Ntfkhd cs;slf;f mZfy; (High-speed access) :
ADSL vd;gJ xU mfd;wgl;ilr; (broadband) NritahFk;. ,jDila juT

CLflj;Jk; Ntfk; xLq;fpagl;il (narrowband) Nritapid (ISDN and dial-up analog
modems tpl kpf mjpfkhFk;. ADSL MdJ cau;-nfhs;ssT (high-volume) juT
Nfhg;Gfisr; rpukkpd;wp gjptpwf;f cjTfpd;wJ.
jdpahd Private IP ,idg; gad;gL;k;> tPl;L ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G:
nghJ IP KftupahdJ ,izaj;jpy; mZff;$ba xU IP KftupahFk;. cq;fs;

tPl;bw;F xU jghy; mQ;riy mDg;gg; gad;gLk; mQ;ry; Kftup Nghy> xU nghJ
Kftup vd;gJ tiyaikg;gpy; rhjdq;fSf;F xJf;fg;gLk; xU jdpr;rpwg;ghd IP
KftupahFk;.
jdpahd IP KftupahdJ> Fwpj;j jdpahd ,lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; tiyaikg;Gr;

rhjdq;fSf;Fk; xJf;Fk;;. ,J ,izaj;jpw;F Neubahf ntspf;fhl;lhj IP
KftupahFk;.
cjhuzk; : cq;fs; tPl;bYs;s xt;nthU fzpdpAk; jdpg;gl;l IP

Kftupfisg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Nkw;Fwpj;j re;ju;g;gj;jpy; cq;fsJ
topg;gLj;jpahdJ nghJ Kftupapidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; mNjNtis cq;fs;
tiyaikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fshd fzpdp> njhiyNgrp
vd;gdtw;wpw;F topg;gLj;jpahdJ DHCP elg;nghOq;fpidg; gad;gLj;jpj; jdpahd IP
Kftupapid toq;Fk;.
• tiyaikg;G Kftup nkhopngau;gpfs; (Network Address Translation /Proxies)
NAT vd;gJ tiyaikg;Gr; rhjdq;fis topg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf> Internet Protocol (IP)

datagram packet headers ,d; tiyaikg;G jfty;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; Clhf xU IP
Kftupia ,d;DnkhU IP Kftupahf xg;gL
P nra;Ak; xU KiwahFk;. Nkw;Fwpj;j
KiwahdJ xt;nthU kPs; topg;gLj;Jk; neUf;fb tiyaikg;Gf;fspy; vy;yh
Ftpad;fspd; KftupfisAk; kPz;Lk; ,lhky; ,Ug;gjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
• ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;gpy; cs;s jdpg;gl;l ,iza Kftupfisg; gad;gLj;Jk;

gjpyhl;fs; IP (Proxies in a LAN that uses private IPs)
xU gjpyhs; Nritafk; (proxy server) vd;gJ gadhsUf;Fk; ,izaj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd

Neubj;njhlu;gpy; fhzg;gLk; xU fzpdpahFk;. ,J thbf;ifahsu; fzpdpfs; Neubahf Vda
tiyaikg;Gr;; Nritfspy; ,iztij mDkjpg;gjpy;iy. xU ngupa epWtdj;ij
,izaj;Jld; ,izf;Fk; NghJ Vw;gLk; Kftupfspd; rpf;fypid gjpyhs; Nritafk;
eptu;j;jp nra;fpd;wJ.
173
Nju;r;rp 7: jfty; Kiwik tpUj;jpapy; Kiwik vz;zf;fUit Muha;tJld;
fl;likg;G Kiwikg; gFg;gha;T tbtikg;G Kiwapaiyg; ghtpg;ghu;
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 7.1 Kiwikfspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
 Kiwikf;fhd tiuaiwia epidT$Uthu;

 Kiwiknahd;wpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfisg; gl;baw;gLj;jp tpgupg;ghu;
 Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;jp cjhuzq;fSld; tpgupg;ghu;;
cs;slf;fk; :
 Kiwik vz;zf;fU
 Kiwikfis tifg;gLj;Jjy;
o jpwe;j kw;Wk; %ba Kiwikfs;
o ,aw;if kw;Wk; nraw;if Kiwikfs;
o capu;thOk; kw;Wk; ngsjPf Kiwikfs;
 Kiwik vz;zf;fU kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;

 jpwe;j kw;Wk; %ba KiwikfSf;fpilahd NtWghLfspd; kPJ ftdk;
nrYj;jTk;
 ,aw;ifahd kw;Wk; kdpj cUthf;f Kiwikfs; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;
 thOk; Kiwikfs; kw;Wk; ngsjPf Kiwikfs; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;
 Kiwik tiuaiw
 jpwe;j KiwikfisAk; %ba KiwikfisAk; gl;bayplTk;
 ,aw;ifahd kw;Wk; kdpj cUthf;f Kiwikfisg; gl;bayplTk;
 thOk; kw;Wk; ngsjPf Kiwikfsg; gl;bayplTk;
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; Kiwik tifg;gLj;jy; xd;iw

toq;fp mjw;Fwpa cjhuzq;fisg; gl;bayplr; nra;aTk;
 Kd;itg;Gfs;> ,iza trjp
174
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Kiwik vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l Fwpf;Nfhis mila xU jpl;lj;jpd; gb xd;wpizf;fg;gl;l

kw;Wk; xd;Nwhnlhd;W rhu;e;j $Wfspd; xU xOq;fikg;ghFk;.
 xU jpwe;j Kiwik mjd; Rw;Wr;#oYld; gy ,ilKfq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,J

Kiwikapd; ,ilj;njhlu;Gfis> Kiwik vy;iyapd; Clhf mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
KiwikahdJ toq;Fgu;fsplk; ,Ue;J cs;sPl;bidg; ngw;W ntspaPl;bidr;
#oYf;F mDg;Gfpd;wJ.
 %ba KiwikahdJ #oypd; jhf;fq;fspypUe;J jdpikg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; : kdpj Rthrj; njhFjp - jpwe;j Kiwik
kdpj FUjpr; Rw;Nwhl;lj; njhFjp - %ba Kiwik
 kdpjdhy; jdJ Njitapid eptu;j;jp nra;a> cUthf;fg;gl;l Kiwik kdpjdhy;

cUthf;fg;gl;l Kiwik (manmade systems) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
 ,aw;ifahf cUthf;fk;ngw;w Kiwik ,aw;if Kiwik (natural systems) vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; : xUehl;bd; Nghf;F tuj;J mikg;G - kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l
Kiwik.
kdpj FUjpr; Rw;Nwhl;lj; njhFjp - ,aw;ifahd Kiwik
 thOk; Kiwik (Living systems) vd;gJ jhq;fs; Rw;Wr;R+oYld; njhlu;Gnfhs;tijj;

jf;fitj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;fhd jd;dpaf;f mikg;ghFk;. capupdq;fs; ,y;yhj
mikg;Gf;fs;> capupy;yh Kiwikfs; vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; : R+upa FLk;gk; - capupy;yh Kiwik
kdpj Rthr mikg;G - tho;f;if Kiwik
175
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 7.2 gy;NtWtif nraw;if Kiwikfis mtw;wpd;
Fwpf;Nfhs;fspdJk; nraw;ghLfspdJk; mbg;gilapy; xg;gpl;L
Ntwhf;Fthu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW Kiwikfspd; Nehf;fq;fisAk;

njhopw;ghLfisAk; xg;gpLthu;
o kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW Kiwikfspd; Nehf;fq;fisAk;
njhopw;ghLfisAk; NtWgLj;jpf;fhl;Lthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
o jfty; Kiwikfs;
o mYtyfj; jd;dpaf;f Kiwikfs; (OAS)
o gupkhw;w Kiwtopahf;f Kiwikfs; (TPS)
o Kfhikj;Jt jfty; Kiwikfs; (MIS)
o jPu;khd cjT Kiwikfs; (DSS)
o epiwNtw;W cjT Kiwikfs; (ESS)
o Gtpapay; jfty; Kiwikfs; (GIS)
o mwpT Kfhikj;Jt Kiwikfs; (KMS)
o cs;slf;f Kfhikj;Jt Kiwikfs; (CMS)
o epWtd %yts jpl;lkply; Kiwikfs; (ERPS)
o #l;bif Kiwikfs; (Smart systems)
 jfty; Kiwikfs;
 gy;NtW jfty; Kiwikfspd; nraw;ghLfs; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;jTk;
 jfty; Kiwik vd;gij tiuaWf;fTk;

 xt;nthU jfty; Kiwik kPJk; ftdQ; nrYj;jTk;
fzpg;gl
P ;bw;Fk; kjpg;gl
P ;bw;Fkhd topfhl;b:
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; Kiwik tifg;gLj;jy; xd;iw

toq;fp mjw;Fwpa Kd;itg;nghd;iw toq;fr; nra;aTk;
rku;g;gd nkd;nghUs;> ,iza trjp
176
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
mYtyfj; jd;dpaf;f Kiwikfs; (OAS) vd;gJ nrhy;Kiw topg;gLj;jy;

nkd;nghUs; Nghd;w xU fzpdp KiwikahFk;. kpd;mQ;ry; kw;Wk; gzp jpl;lkply;
mikg;Gfs; Mfpait mYtyfj;jpy; Copau;fspd; cw;gj;jpj;jpwid mjpfupf;f
tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
gupkhw;w Kiwtopahf;fy; Kiwikfs; (TPS) vd;gJ xU tzpfj;jpid elj;jj;

Njitahd> md;whl tof;fkhd guptu;j;jidfisr; nra;tjw;Fk; kw;Wk; gjpT
vd;gdtw;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk; cjTtNjhL xU epWtdj;jpd; nraw;ghl;L kl;l
gadu;fSf;Fr; Nrit nra;Ak; xU jfty; KiwikahFk;.
Kfhikj;Jt jfty; Kiwikfs; (MIS) vd;gJ jpl;lkply;> fl;Lg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk;
KbntLj;jy;> nray;ghLfisr; nraw;gLj;Jk; jfty; mikg;Gf;fs;> xU epWtdj;jpd;
epu;;thfj; jug; gadhsu;fSf;F tof;fkhd RUf;fk; kw;Wk; Gweil njuptpg;G
mwpf;iffs; toq;Fjy; Nghd;wtw;wpid Nkw;nfhs;Sk; xU jfty; KiwikahFk;.
jPu;khd cjT Kiwikfs; (DSS) vd;gJ juT kw;Wk; El;gkhd gFg;gha;T khjpupfis
xUq;fpizf;Fk; my;yJ epu;thf kl;lg; gadu;fSf;Fj; juT gFg;gha;T fUtpfis
xU mikg;gpd;> Fiw fl;likf;fg;gl;l(semi-structured) kw;Wk; fl;likf;fg;glhj
jPu;khdk; vLf;Fk; xU Kfhikj;Jt kl;l gadu;fspd; xU jfty; KiwikahFk;.
epiwNtw;W cjT Kiwikfs; (ESS) xU epWtdj;jpd; %Nyhgha kl;lgadu;fSf;F
Nkk;gl;l tiutpay; kw;Wk; njhlu;G %yk; fl;likg;gw;w KbntLf;Fk; jfty;
KiwikahFk;.
Gtpapay; jfty; Kiwikfs; (GIS) vd;gJ tiuglk;> khjpupfs;> tpdty; kw;Wk;
mtw;wpd; ,Ug;gplj;jpd;gb xU juTj;jsj;jpy; juTfis mjpf mstpy; Ma;T nra;a
mDkjpf;Fk; Kiwikfs;. fhl;rpfisf; fw;gid nra;J> rf;jp tha;e;j fUj;Jf;fis
toq;Ftjw;Fk; gaDs;s jPu;Tfis Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; GIS cjTfpd;wd.
mwpT Kfhikj;Jt Kiwikfs; (KMS) vd;gJ milahsk; fhZjy; kw;Wk;
cUthf;Fjy;> gpujpepjpj;Jtk; nra;jy;> tpepNahfpj;jy;> Ez;zwpT kw;Wk;
mDgtq;fisj; jUk; epWtdj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU gue;j eilKiwfis
cs;slf;fpa jfty; Kiwik. ,j;jifa Ez;zwpT kw;Wk; mDgtq;fs;> mwpT
rhu;e;jitahFk;> jdpegu;fSldhd cs;slf;fk; my;yJ epWtd nray;Kiwfs;
kw;Wk; eilKiwfspy; cl;nghjpf;fg;gl;lit MFk;.
cs;slf;f Kfhikj;Jt Kiwikfs; (CMS) vd;gJ ,yf;fKiw cs;slf;fq;fis
cUthf;Ftjw;Fk; jpUj;Jtjw;Fkhd fzpdp gpuNahfkhFk;. ,J gygadu;fs; xd;whf
gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd xU #o;epiyapd; cUthf;fj;jpw;F cWJizahfpd;wJ. CMS
,w;fhd cjhuzq;fshf ,iza mbg;gilapyhd ntspaPLfs;> tbtikg;G
Kfhikj;Jtk;> tuyhw;W tbtikg;G> ghu;it fl;Lg;ghL> ,yf;fkply;> NjlYk;
kPl;nlLj;jYk;> cs;slf;fk; kw;Wk; Kd;itj;jy; vd;gdtw;wpw;F cjTfpd;wd.
epWtd %yts jpl;lkply; Kiwikfs; (ERP) vd;gJ tzpf nray;Kiw Kfhik
KiwikahFk;. ,J xUq;fpize;j gad;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp tzpfj;jpid Kfhik
nra;a cjTfpd;wd. ERP KiwikahdJ njhopy;El;gj;Jld; njhlu;Gila gy
mYtyf nraw;ghLfisj; jhdpaq;F Nritfis toq;FtJld;> kdpj tskhfTk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ERP nkd;nghUs; KiwikahdJ cw;gj;jpj; jpl;lkpliyAk;
mgptpUj;jpiaAk;> cw;gj;jpiaAk;> tpw;gidiaAk;> re;ijg;gLj;jiyAk;
Nkw;nfhs;Sk;.
ty;Ydu; Kiwik (Expert Systems ) nraw;if Ez;zwptpidg; gad;gLj;Jk;
nkd;nghUs;fshFk;;. ty;Ydh; Kiwikapid tbtikf;Fk; xUtu;> kdpj ty;Yeu;fs;
vt;thW jPu;khdq;fis vLf;fpd;wdu; vd;gijAk; mt;tpjpKiwfis vt;thW fzpdp
Gupe;J nfhs;fpd;w tifapy; nkhopngau;f;fpd;wdu; vd;gijAk; MuhAk; mwptpay;
nghwpapaiy fw;W mwpe;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;
177
Source: http://www.igcseict.info/theory/7_2/expert/
#l;bif Kiwik MdJ fzf;fpay;> nraw;wpwd; kw;Wk; fl;Lg;gLj;jy; %yk;

fzpf;fg;gl;l my;yJ jfty; njhlu;G Kiwap;y; fpilf;ff;$ba jutpd; mbg;gilapy;
KbTfis vLf;fpwJ. xU #oiy tpgupf;Fk; kw;Wk; gFg;gha;T nra;tjw;fhd
topfisr; #l;bif eltbf;if cs;slf;fpAs;sJ. #l;bif mikg;Gfs; %ba Row;rp
fl;Lg;ghL> Mw;wy; jpwd;> kw;Wk; tiyg;gpd;dy; jpwd;fis mbg;gilahf nfhz;l
jd;dpaf;f eltbf;iffSf;Ff; fhuzkhf ,Uf;fpd;wd.
178
Njh;rr
; p kl;lk;: 7.3 gy;NtWgl;l jfty; Kiwik tpUj;jp khjpupfisAk; Kiwik
tpUj;jp Kiwapay;fisAk; Muha;thu;
ghlNtisfs;: 08
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o Kiwikfspd; khjpupfisg; gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;

o Xt;nthU khjpupfspdJk; gpuNahfj; jd;ikia mwpe;Jnfhs;thu;
o ePu;tPo;r;rp khjpupapd; Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;iftl;l fl;lq;fisg; gl;baypl;L
o RUsp khjpupapd; tho;f;iftl;l tpUj;jpf; fl;lq;fisg; gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf
tpgupg;ghu;
o Kiwik tpUj;jp Kiwapay;fisg; gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
o Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;l khjpupfs;
 ePu; tPo;r;rp (Waterfall)
 RUsp (Spiral)
 Agile
 Kd;tbtk; Prototyping
 Jupj gpuNahf tpUj;jp (Rapid Applications Development)
o Kiwik mgptpUj;jp Kiwapay;fs;
 fl;likg;G (Structrued)
 nghUs; Nehf;F (Object Oriented)

 Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lk;
 Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;l khjpupaq;fs;
 Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;l Kiwapay;fs;
 tPnlhd;iwf; fl;Ltjw;fhd nray;KiwfisAk; mjd; gbKiwfisAk;

mwpKfg;gLj;jTk;
 jfty; Kiwik xd;wpd; tpUj;jpia> tPnlhd;iwf; fl;LtJld; xg;gpl;Lf;
fye;JiuahlTk;
 Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;l khjpupaq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; fl;lq;fisAk;
tpsf;fTk;
 Kiwik tpUj;jpapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwapay;fisg; gw;wp fye;JiuahlTk;
fzpg;gl
khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; fPo; fhzg;gLk; Kiwik

tpUj;jp khjpupaq;fspy; xd;iw toq;fp> mk;khjpupaj;ij tiue;J tFg;gpw;F tpsf;Ftjw;F
topgLj;jTk;.
 ePu; tPo;r;rp (Waterfall)
 RUsp (Spiral)
 Agile
 Kd;tbtk; (Prototyping)
 Kd;itg;Gfs;> ,iza trjp
179
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
ePu;tPo;r;rp khjpupak; (Waterfall model)

ePu;tPo;r;rp khjpupak; vd;gJ njhlu;r;rpad nraw;ghL Clhd xU nkd;nghUs;
cw;gj;jp khjpupak; MFk;. xt;nthU gbapd; ntspaPLk; mLj;j gbf;F
rhj;jpa ts fw;if
Njitg; gFg;gha;T
Kiwik tbtikj;jy;
eilKiwg;gLj;jy;
gupNrhjid
epWTjy;
guhkupj;jy;
,e;j khjpupfs; Njitfs; ed;F ,dq;;fhzg;gl;l kw;Wk; epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk;

KiwikfSf;F kl;Lk; kpfg;nghUj;jkhdjhFk;.
RUspAU khjpupak; (Spiral model)

RUspAU khjpupak; vd;gJ kPs;Row;rp tpUj;jp khjpupak; (iterative development process;)
kw;Wk; njhlu;r;rpahd Neu;Nfhl;L tsu;rr ; p nray;Kiw (linear development process)
vd;gdtw;wpd; Nru;khdkhFk;. nraw;wpl;l Mgj;J eLj;juj;jpypUe;J cau;tilAk;>
rpf;fyhd Njitfs; fhzg;gLk; kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jpapd; NghJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
khw;wq;fs; Vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;w mikg;GfSf;F ,J nghUj;jkhFk;.
Agile khjpupak;
Agile khjpupak; eilKiwapYs;s Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;JtJld; jpl;lj;jpd;
NjitfSf;F Vw;wthW mtw;iw khw;wpaikf;fpd;wJ. gzpfs; xU ntspaPl;bw;fhf
Fwpg;gpl;l mk;rq;fis toq;f$bathW Neuj;Jld; Jz;Lfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,J xU kPs;Row;rp mZFKiwahf miktJld; nkd;nghUs; tpepNahfk; xt;nthU
kPs;Row;rpf;Fg; gpd;Gk; eilngWfpwJ. Xt;nthU cUthf;fKk; xU tsu;rr; pg;gbapy;
,Uf;Fk;. mj;Jld; ,Wjp cs;slf;fk; gadu; Nfhupa midj;Jr; nraw;ghLfisAk;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,k;khjpupakhdJ epiyahdJ my;yJ khWk; Njitfs; nfhz;l
KiwikfSf;F Vw;wJ.
Kd;tbt khjpupak; (Prototyping)

Kd;tbt khjpupak; MdJ cw;gj;jp nra;aTs;s nraw;ghl;bd; khjpupapid
Kd;$l;bNa fhl;rpg;gLj;Jk; Mdhy; KOr; nraw;ghl;bidAk; my;y. ,k;Kiwapidg;
gad;gLj;jpg; gadu;fspd; gpd;D}l;lypidg; ngw;W> gadu;fspd; Njitg;ghLfis
Muk;gfl;lj;jpNyNa tpsq;fp nkd;nghUis cUthf;ff;$bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. rupahd
gadu; Njitfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s ,J cw;gj;jpahsUf;F cjTfpd;wJ.
180
Jupj gpuNahf tpUj;jp (RAD)
,k; khjpupaj;jpy; nraw;ghl;Lj; njhFjpfs; Kd;tbt khjpupaj;jpw;F ,izahf
cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. mj;Jld; ,Wjpj; jahupg;G xU tpiuthd cw;gj;jpf;F mtw;iw
xUq;f
; pizg;gjd; %yk; nraw;gLfpwJ.
Kiwik tpUj;jp tiutpay;fs;

 fl;likf;fg;gl;l Kiwfs;
gzpfspd; gbfs; %yk; ed;F tiuaWf;fg;gl;l topfhl;L newpfspd; xU
fl;likg;ig toq;FfpwJ.
 nghUs; Nehf;Fila Kiwfs; (Object Oriented methodology)
xUq;fpize;J nraw;gLk; nghUs;fspd; njhFjpahff; fhzg;gLk; khjpup
mikg;G.
181
Njh;rr
; p kl;lk;: 7.4 fl;likg;G Kiwikg; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G
Kiwapaiyg; ghpNrhjpg;ghu; (SSADM)
ghlNtisfs;: 02
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; vd;gij
tiuaWg;ghu;;
o fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; %yk;
cs;thq;fg;gLk;; Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fisg;
gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
o fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; mwpKfk;
o Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fs;
 fl;likf;fg;gl;l Kiwikg; gFg;gha;Tk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay;fSk; (SSADM)

 SSADM %yk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;w SDLC apd; fl;lq;fs;
 Kiwik tpUj;jpapd; xU gFjpahd> Kiwikg; gFg;gha;Tk; tbtikg;Gk; vd;gjd;

Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijf; fye;JiuahlTk;
 SSADM ,d; fl;lq;fis tpgupf;fTk;
fzpg;gl
 SSADM ,d; fl;lq;fis cs;slf;Fk; tifapy; xg;gilfisj; jahupj;J toq;f

khztu;fis topgLj;jTk;
 ,iza trjp> nrayl;ilfs;> Vw;fdNt jahupf;fg;gl;l Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if

tl;l fl;lq;fis tpsf;Fk; ifNaLfs;
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapaypd; (SSADM) mwpKfk;.
 jw;Nghija mikg;ig mwptNjhL xU Gjpa mikg;ig cUthf;f my;yJ

jw;NghJs;s mikg;ig khw;Wtjw;F xU tiuglj;ij tiuf.
 1980 fspd; Muk;gj;jpy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;gpw;fhd xU fl;likf;fg;gl;l Kiwikfspy;
xd;W.
 Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency (CCTA), UK ,d; xU jukhf
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
 Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fspy;> rhj;jpats fw;ifapy; ,Ue;J
Kiwik tbtikg;G tiuahd nghUk;ghd;ikapidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;gpy; NkYk; tpgupf;fpd;wJ.
182
Kiwik tpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; fl;lq;fs; (SDLC) MdJ
fl;likg;G Kiwik gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tbtikg;G Kiwapay; (SSADM) Mf khw;wg;gly;.
SSADM Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; fl;lq;fs;
rhj;jpa tsf; fw;if

Kiwik tsu;rr
; pr; rhj;jpaj;jpidj; jPuk
; hdpf;f tzpfg; gFjp gFg;gha;T
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Njitfspd; gFg;gha;T
mgptpUj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba mikg;Gfspd; Njitfs; milahsk; fhzg;gl;L>
elg;G tzpfr; R+oy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l nray; Kiwfspd; mbg;gilapYk;> juT
Nrkpf;fg;gl;ljpd; mbg;gilapYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
Njitfspd; tpguf;Fwpg;G
tpupthd nray; rhu;e;j Njitfs; kw;Wk; nray;rhuhj; Njitfs;
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wd. kw;Wk; Gjpa Kiwikapd; Njitahd nrayhf;fj;ijAk; juTr;
Nrkpg;igAk; tiuaWf;f Gjpa nray; Kiwfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
ju;f;f Kiwik tpguf;Fwpg;G
njhopy;El;gr; rpf;fy;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;shky; ju;f;fuPjpahff; Fwpg;gplg;gl;l
Kiwikia cUthf;fp nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
ngsjPf tbtikg;G
ju;f;fuPjpahd tbtikg;ghdJ njhopy;El;gr; rpf;fy;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L ngsjPf
tbtikg;gpw;fhf khw;wpaikf;fg;Lfpd;wJ.
183
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk;: 7.5 Gjpa jfty; Kiwiknahd;wpw;fhd NjitiaAk; mjd;
rhj;jpag;ghl;ilAk; tprhupg;ghu;.
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o Muk;gfl;l fz;lha;tpd;NghJ Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl Ntz;ba gzpfis tpgupg;ghu;
o epWtfnkhd;wpd; jfty; gpur;rpidfis tpgupg;ghu;
o jPu;f;fg;gl Ntz;ba gpur;rpidfis Kd;Dupik mbg;gilapy; tpsf;Fthu;
o rhj;jpatsf; fw;ifapd; Njitia tpgupg;ghu;
o rhj;jpats tiffisg; gl;baypl;Lr; RUf;fkhf tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk;:
 G+u;thq;f Ma;T
 eilKiwapYs;s Kiwikapd; gpur;rpidfis ,dq;fhzy;
 jfty; Kiwikfspd; Njitfis Kd;Dupikg;gLj;jy;
 rhj;jpatsf; fw;if
 njhopDl;gr; rhj;jpag;ghL
 jhgdr; rhj;jpag;ghL
 ,Uf;Fk; KiwikapYs;s gpur;rpidfis mwpe;J nfhs;sy;

 khw;Wj; jPu;Tfis Kd;nkhopjy;
 jfty; Kiwikfspd; mtrpaj;jpw;F Kd;Dupik
 ,Uf;Fk; KiwikapYs;s gpur;rpidfis mwpe;J nfhs;sy; kw;Wk; mtw;wpw;fhd

jPu;Tfisf; fye;Jiuahly;
 ,dq;fz;l gpur;rpidfSf;fhd Kd;nkhopaf; $ba khw;Wj; jPu;Tfisg; gw;wpf;
fye;Jiuahly;
 ,r;nray;Kiwfspd; NghJ jfty; Kiwikfspd; mtrpaj;jpw;F Kd;Dupik
toq;Ftjd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg; gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahly;
fzpg;gl
 ghlrhiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; Kiwiknahd;iw (E}yfk;> rpw;W}z;br; rhiy> tpQ;Qhd

Ma;T $lk; Nghd;w) ,dq;fz;L> ,Uf;Fk; Kiwikapd; gpur;rpidfis mwpjy;>
khw;Wj; jPu;Tfis Kd;itj;jy; Nghd;wit cs;slq;fpa xg;gilnahd;iw toq;fp
KbTfis Kd;itg;nghd;wpd; %yk; toq;Ftjw;F khztu;fis topgLj;jTk;.
,iza trjp> nrayl;il> rku;gg

; d nkd;nghUSld; $ba fzpdp
184
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
G+u;thq;f Ma;T (Preliminary Investigation)

,J Kiwik mgptpUj;jp tho;f;if tl;lj;jpd; Kjw;fl;lkhFk;. ,J cz;ikapy;
ngsjPf KiwikahdJ vt;thW ,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ njhlu;ghd njspthd tpsf;fj;jpid
toq;Fk;. G+u;thq;f Ma;thdJ gpur;rpid tiuaiw kw;Wk; rhj;jpa ts fw;if vd;w ,uz;L
fl;lq;fshf eilngWfpd;wJ. gpur;rpid tiuaiw fl;lj;jpy; Kiwikapd; Nehf;fk;
milahsk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. rhj;jpa ts fw;ifapy; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikapd;
rhj;jpaf;$w;W kjpg;gL
P nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. xU mikg;gpd; rhj;jpak; vd;gJ xU Gjpa my;yJ
Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;l mikg;gpd; cUthf;fk; eilKiwapy; gaDs;sjhf vd;gJ njhlu;ghdJ.
rhj;jpa ts fw;ifahdJ cw;gj;jpahsu;fs; kw;Wk; gad;gLj;Jdu; njhlu;ghd

Njhw;wg;ghLfspy; ,Ue;J kjpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. cw;gj;jpahsu;fs;> Gjpa Kiwikia
cUthf;fj; Njitahd njhopy;El;gj;ijAk; kdpjtsj;ijAk;; nfhz;bUf;fpwduh vd;gij
kjpg;gpLfpd;wdu;. Gjpa KiwikahdJ gadu;fSf;F ed;ik gag;gjhf ,Uf;Fkh? gadu; Gjpa
Kiwikapid cUthf;f Ntz;ba nghUshjhu epiyapidf; nfhz;Ls;sduh? kw;Wk;
Kiwikapd; rhj;jpats fw;if MdJ njhopy;El;gk;> nghUshjhuk;> nraw;ghL kw;Wk;
jhgdk; Nghd;w ehd;F Kf;fpa mk;rq;fspy; kjpg;gL P nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
 njhopDl;gr; rhj;jpag;ghL
 jhgd rhj;jpag;ghL
njhopDl;gr; rhj;jpag;ghL: ,J cw;gj;jpahsu;fs; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;ig
epu;tfpg;gjw;fhd jpwidf; nfhz;Ls;sduh vd;gij kjpg;gL P nra;fpd;wJ. Gjpa Kiwikf;Fj;
Njitahd njhopDl;gk; rhu;e;j NjitfisAk; kw;Wk; rpf;fyhd Kiwik vt;thW cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; cw;gj;jpahsu;fs; Fwpj;j njhopy;El;gj;jpidg; gad;gLj;jypy;
mDgtj;jpidf; nfhz;L;s;sduh vd;gJ njhlu;ghd kjpg;gLP Kiwikf;F ,J
gjpyspf;ffpd;wJ.
nghUshjhur; rhj;jpag;ghL: ,J Kiwikapid tbtikg;gjw;fhd nryTfs; kw;Wk;
KjyPLfs; vd;gdtw;wpid kjpg;gL
P nra;fpd;wJ. tbtikg;ghsu;fspd; nryTk;
jPu;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; xU Kf;fpa tplak;> nryTg; gad;ghl;Lg; gFg;gha;T MFk;.
nraw;ghl;Lr; rhj;jpag;ghL: ,J Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;ig Mjupf;fTk; gad;gLj;jTk;
gadu;fspd; tpUg;gj;ijAk; jpwikiaAk; kjpg;gL P nra;fpd;wJ. cUthf;fg;gl ,Uf;Fk;
Kiwik epWtg;gLk; NghJ gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rhj;jpak; kjpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. Kiwik
tbtikg;gpw;Fg; gadu;fsplk; ,Ue;J vjpu;g;Gg; gw;wpa rhj;jpaKk; kjpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
Jhgdr; rhj;jpag;ghL: ,J Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;G epWtdj;jpd; %Nyhghaj;jpd;

Nehf;fq;fis Mjupf;Fk; mstpw;Fj; jPu;khdpf;fpwJ. ,q;F ,e;j mikg;ghdJ KO
mikg;gpd; Jizf;FOthf vLf;fg;gLk;.
rhj;jpa ts Ma;T KbT vd;gJ xU rhjuhz MtzkhFk; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l jPu;tpd; jd;ik

kw;Wk; Nehf;fk; gw;wpa xU mwpf;ifahFk;. rhj;jpaf;$W Ma;T Kbe;jJk;> ,e;j Ma;Tfspd;
gb xg;Gjy; my;yJ xg;Gjy;kWg;G vd;gd Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. jpl;lk; rhj;jpakhd kw;Wk;
tpUk;gj;jf;fjhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ vd;why;> nraw;wpl;lj;jpw;F xg;Gjy; fpilf;fg;ngWfpd;wJ.
tpUg;gj;jpw;F khwhff; fhzg;gbd; Nkyjpf nraw;ghLfs; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
185
Nju;rr
; pkl;lk;: 7.6 eilKiw Kiwikiag; gFg;gha;tjw;Fg; gy;;NtW Kiwfisg;
ghtpg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs;: 18
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o Njitg; gFg;gha;tpd; mtrpaj;ij tpsf;Fthu;
o jug;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd Njit tiffis cjhuzq;fSld; tpsf;Fthu;
o Njitfis IEEE juepakj;jpw;Nfw;g tiuaiw nra;thu;
o gFg;gha;Tf; fUtpfis gl;baypl;L mtw;wpd; mtrpaj;ij tpsf;Fthu;
o jug;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd tpahghu nraw;ghl;L khjpup> re;ju;g;g tiuglk;>
Mtzg; gha;r;ry; tiuglk;> juTg; gha;r;ry; kw;Wk; ju;f;fjuTf; fl;likg;G
vd;gtw;iw tiuthu;
o Muk;g fl;l nray; tpguq;fis vOJthu;
o tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfspd; Njitia tpsf;Fthu;
o tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfis Kd;nkhopthu;
o kpfg;nghUj;jkhd tzpf Kiwik tpUg;igj; njupT nra;thu;
cs;slf;fk;:
o Njitg; gFg;gha;T
 nray;ghl;Lj; Njitfs;
 nray;rhuhj; Njitfs;
o gFg;gha;Tf; fUtpfs;
 nraw;ghl;L tpsf;f tiuglq;fs;
 tzpf nraw;ghl;L; khjpupAUthf;fy;
o tzpf nraw;ghl;L; khjpup
 juT gha;r;ry; khjpupAUthf;fy; (DFM)
o juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk; (DFD)
 mbg;gil nra;KiwfSk; mbg;gil nra;Kiw tpgupg;GfSk; (EPD)
o ju;f;fj; juT khjpupAUthf;fy; (LDM)
o ju;;f;fj; juTf; fl;likg;G(LDS)
o tzpf Kiwik tpUg;Gfs; (BSO)
 Njitg; gFg;gha;tpd; mtrpak;

 Kiwiknahd;wpd; Njit tiffs;
 IEEE epakk;
 gFg;gha;Tf; fUtpfSk; mtw;wpd; nray;fSk;
 nray; tpgug;glk;> Mtz gha;r;ry; tiuglk;> juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk; kw;Wk; ju;f;fj;
juTf; fl;likg;G
 mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiw tpsf;fk;
 tzpf Kiwikj; njupTfspd; mtrpaKk; re;ju;g;gq;fSk;
 nray;rhu; Njitfs; kw;Wk; nray;rhuhj; Njitfs; gw;wp khztu;fs; tpsq;fpf;

nfhs;sf;$ba tifapyhd nraw;ghLfspy; <LgLj;jTk;
 khztu;fisr; nraw;ghLfspy; <LgLj;JtJld; fPo; fhz;gtw;iw tpsf;Ftjw;Fg;
nghUj;jkhd Kiwik cUthf;fk; xd;iwg; gad;gLj;jpj; jahupf;fg;gl;l
nrayl;ilnahd;iw khztu;fSf;F toq;fTk;
o tzpf nraw;ghLfspd; khjpupaply;
o juT gha;r;ry; khjpupaply;
186
o tzpf Kiwikj; njupTfs;
fzpg;gl
 juTj; jsnkhd;iw cUthf;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd mbg;gilj; juTfisAk;

mwpTUj;jy;fisAk; toq;fp> ,t;tyF G+uhTk; ngw;Wf; nfhz;l mwpit cgNahfpj;J>
juTj;js Kiwiknahd;iwf; fl;bnaYg;Gk; tifapyhd xg;gilnahd;iw toq;fTk;.
,iza trjp> nrayl;il
187
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
Njitg; gFg;gha;T
Njitg; gFg;gha;T vd;gJ Kiwikj;Njitfspd; tiuaiwf;Fs; fhzg;gLk; gadu;fspd;
Njitfisg; gFg;gha;T nra;tJk; mJ gw;wpf; fw;wYkhd nraw;ghlhFk;. ,jd; Kf;fpa
Nehf;fk; Gjpa Kiwikapd; vy;iyfisf; fz;lwptJk;> Gjpa KiwikahdJ gpur;rpid
mikg;gpw;F vt;thW jPu;thf mikfpd;wJ vd;gij mwptJkhFk;. gFg;gha;T MdJ gadu;
NjitfSf;fpilapyhd Kuz;ghLfisf; fz;lwpa kw;Wk; jPu;f;f cjTfpwJ.
 nray; rhu;e;j Njitfs; : Fwpj;j Kiwikapdhy; vd;d eltbf;iffs;
Kd;ndLf;f Ntz;ba Njitfspd; nraw;ghLfis tpgupj;jy; my;yJ
Kiwikapd; elj;ij.
 nray;rhuhj Njitfs; : ve;j mstpw;F my;yJ ve;j vy;iyf;Fs; Njit
jpUg;jpahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 Njitapd; tiuaiwf;F IEEE juepiy mtrpakhFk;.
 Kf;fpakhd Njitfis tiff;Fwpf;f “Shall” vd;Dk; gjKk; Kf;fpak; Fiwe;j
Njitfis tiff;Fwpf;f “Should” vd;Dk; gjKk; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
nraw;ghl;L tpsf;f tiuglq;fs;
 tzpfr; nraw;ghl;L; khjpup

Kiwikapd; Muha;jypy; Kiwikapy; vd;d elf;fpd;wJ vd;gijg; Gupe;J
nfhs;tjw;fhd njhlf;fj; njhopy;El;gkhFk;. Kiwikapy; fhzg;gLk; egu;fs; (actors)
kw;Wk; mtu;fsJ #oy;fs; vd;gdtw;wpy; tzpf eltbf;iffisf; fhz;gpf;f ,J
gad;gLfpd;wJ.
 juTg; gha;r;ry; khjpup (DFM)

DFM MdJ Kiwikapy; fhzg;gLk; juTg; gha;r;rypidf; fhz;gpf;fg;
gad;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Kiwikapid cgKiwikfshfg; gpupg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ. DFM
MdJ juTg; gha;r;ry; tiuglk; (Data Flow Diagrams/ DFD) kw;Wk; ,J rhu;e;j
vOj;JUthd tpsf;fq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. DFD MdJ Kiwikiar; Rw;wpj; juT
mDg;gg;gLfpd;w tpjj;ij tpgupf;fpd;wJ. kw;Wk; Kiwikapy; juT nrayhf;fg;gLtJ
vt;thW kw;Wk; juT Nrkpf;fg;gLtJ vt;thW vd;gd njhlu;ghf tpsf;FfpwJ.
DFD ,d; $Wfs;
 ntspg;Gw epiynghUs; (External Entity)
 Fwpj;j Kiwikapy; gad;gLk;> ntspg;Gwkhf cs;s kf;fs;> mikg;Gfs; my;yJ
gpw Kiwikfs; vd;git MFk;.
 xU %ykhf my;yJ juT ngWeuhf nray;gLfpwJ.
 ngau; nghJthd tifia (generic type) nfhz;ljhff; fhzg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
mj;Jld; me;j tifapy; xU cjhuzkhf mikaf;$lhJ.
 juTg; gha;r;ry; (Data Flows)
 Kiwikapd; cs;NsAk; ntspNaAk; juTg; gha;r;rypidf; fhl;LfpwJ.
 DFD ,d; Vida $Wfis ,izj;jy;.
 xU top my;yJ ,uz;L topfs; ,Uf;f KbAk;.
 jpl mk;Gfs; %yk; gpujpepjp;j;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLk;. mj;NjhL ,uz;L ntspg;Gwf; $Wfs;
,ilNa Md njhlu;gpw;F ,iltpl;l Nfhl;L mk;Gfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
,itfis tiuAk; nghOJ ,ilntl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; re;jpg;Gfs;
jtpu;f;fg;glNtz;Lk;.
 nrad;Kiw (Processes)
 Kiwikapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; tzpf eltbf;iffisg; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;
nra;fpd;wJ.
188
 xt;nthU nray;Kiwf;Fk; %d;W gz;Gfs; cz;L.
Id
Name
Location
 NkYk; gpupf;f Kbahj nray;Kiwfs; mbg;gilr; nray;Kiwfs; vd
miof;fg;gLk;.
 juTf; fsQ;rpak; (Data Stores)
 Kiwikapy; cs;s juTfisr; Nrkpg;gjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
 juTf; fsQ;rpak; ehd;F tifg;gLk;.
ifKiw (Manual) (M)
fzpdp kag;gLj;jg;gl;l (Computerized) (D)
jw;fhypf (Temporary) (T)
ifKiw jw;fhypf (Manual Temporary) T(M)
 juTf; fsQ;rpaj;jpd; ,ay;Gfs; %d;W cs;sd.
Id
Type
Name
 #oikT tupg;glk; (Context Diagram)
 cau;kl;l jpwe;j jd;ik nfhz;l juTg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glkhFk;.
 KOikahd njhFjpAk; jdpahd nrayhf vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLk;.
 Gwepiyg;nghUSld; ,iltpidr;nraw;ghLfis Nkw;nfhs;Sk; tpjj;jpidf;
fhl;Lk;.
 Mtzg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glk; (Document Flow Diagram)

 #o;epiy tupg;glk;> kw;Wk; juTg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glj;jpd; Kjyhk; fl;lk;>
Mfpatw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd ,izg;ghfj; njhopw;gLk;.
 Kiwikapidr; Nrhjpg;Gf;F cl;gLj;Jk; Jiwrhu;e;jjhf ngsjpf
tiutpaw;gLj;Jk; Mtzq;fshfg; gpd;tUtd gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. (fljhrpj;
jhs;fs;> njhiyNgrp ciuahly;> kpd;dQ;ry;> fzpdpfSf;fpilapy; gupkhwg;gLk;
juTfs;)
kl;lk; 1 juTg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glk; (Level 1 DFD)
 Kiwikapd; nray; gw;wpa cr;rkl;l fhl;rpia mspf;Fk;.
 Kiwikapd; gpujhd $WfSf;fpilapy; juTg; gha;r;riy tiughf;Ffpd;wJ.
 #o;epiy tupg;glj;Jld; ,iraf;$bajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
jho;kl;lj; juTg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glk; (Lower level DFDs)
 tpgukhd Gjpa tpguq;fis Njbr;nry;y topaikf;Fk;.
 NkypUe;J fPohd mZFKiwf;Fr; re;ju;g;gkspj;jy;.
 Nky;kl;l juTg; gha;r;ry; tupg;glj;jpw;F ,irthff;$bajhf ,Uj;jy;.
mbg;gil Kwtop (Elementary Process Descriptions) (EPD)
 nray;epuy; tiuaiwf;Fj; Njitahd Nghjpa jfty;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 vspaKiwapy my;yJ Nghypf; FwpKiwapy; vOjg;gl;ljhf ,Uf;Fk;.
 ju;f;fj; juT khjpupak; (Logical Data Modeling/ LDM)

DFM ,y; milahsk; fhzg;gl;L nray; Kiwfshy; nray;gLj;jg;gl;l mikg;Gfs; LDM
khjpupaq;fs; MFk;. ,J ngsjpf juT fl;likg;Gld; njhlu;Gila ciu tpsf;fq;fisAk;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. juT xt;nthUtUf;fpilapy; vt;thW njhlu;GgLfpd;wJ vd;gijAk; kw;Wk;
vt;thW juT Kiwfspy;> tzpf tpjpKiwfs; gpuNahfpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjidAk; LDM
tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
189
LDS ,d; $Wfs;
 cs;nghUs; (Entity)
 ju;f;fuPjpahf njhlu;GgLj;jf;$ba juTfshff; fUjf;$ba nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
vz;zf;fUf;fspd; njhFg;G.
 DFM ,w;nfd cs;s Gw cs;nghUl;fs; vd jtwhf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sf;$lhJ.
 cs;nghUl;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; gz;Gfs; (attribute) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
 ngauhdJ epiynghUspd; tifapid gpujpgypf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 njhlu;Gfs; (Relationships )
 epiynghUl;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;GWk; tpjk;.
 ngsjpf njhlu;Gfs; (juTf; fl;likg;gpy; cs;s ngsjpf ,izg;Gfs;)
 jUf;fj; njhlu;Gfs; (tu;j;jf $l;Lj;jhgd; my;yJ rl;lq;fs;)
 njhlu;gpd; msT (degree of a relationship)
 njhlu;gpd; vz; msT Cardinality vd miof;fg;gLk;.
 nfhLf;fg;gl;l njhlu;gpy; gq;Nfw;Fk; xt;nthU epiynghUspdJk;
vz;zpf;ifapdhy; tiff;Fwpf;fg;gLk.;
 xd;W xd;Wf;F> xd;Wf;F gy> gytpw;F gy vdj; njhlu;Glik %d;W tifg;gLk;.
 tpUg;gj;jpw;F cupa njhlu;Glik (optionality of a relationship)
 gq;Nfw;Fk; re;ju;g;gq;fs; midj;jpw;Fk; njhlu;Glik ,Ug;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
cs;nghUs; jhak; (Entity Matrix )

 epiynghUs;fSf;F ,ilapy; cs;s njhlu;Gfis ,dq;fhz cjTk;.
 Fwpj;j Kiwikapd; cs;s epiynghUs;fSf;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;Glikapd;
midj;Jr; rhj;jpakhd re;ju;g;gq;fisAk; toq;FfpwJ.
 vy;yh epiynghUs; NrhbfSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig xU jlit nrt;it
ghu;f;Fk;.
 njhlu;Glik njhlu;ghd G+uzkhd tpguj;jpid toq;fhJ.
 tzpf Kiwik khw;wL P fs; (Business System Options/ BSO)

BSO MdJ Kiwik vd;d nra;tJ vd;gij tptupf;fpd;wJ. xt;nthU BSO ck; Fiwe;j
gl;rk; Kiwik Njitfisj; jpUg;jp nra;tNjhL nray;ghl;L tpsf;fk;> cau;kl;l
njhopy;El;g tpsf;fk;> tzpfj;jpd; gpujhd ed;ik> kjpg;gplg;gl;l mz;zsthd nryT>
tbtikf;fj; Njitahd fhyg;gFjp,nFwpj;j Kiwikapd; kPJ nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; ntsp
Kiwikfs; vd;gdtw;wpidf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;fpd;wJ.
190
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk;: 7.7 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikia tbtikg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs;: 14
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o ju;f;f tbtikg;ig tpgupg;ghu;
o ju;f;f tbtikg;Gld; njhlu;Gila nraw;ghLfis tpgupg;ghu;
o Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd ju;f;f tbtikg;ig mbg;gil
nrad;KiwapypUe;J re;ju;g;g tiuglk; tiu kPs;epu;khdpg;ghu;;
o mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiw tpguf;$w;iwg; Nghypf;Fwpapy; vOJthu;
o ml;ltiz kw;Wk; gjpT tpguf;$w;Wfisf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lthu;
cs;slf;fk;:
o ju;f;f tbtikg;Gf; fUtpfs;
 ju;f;f juT khjpupAUthf;fy;
o Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd ju;f;f juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk;
o mbg;gilr; nra;KiwfSk; mbg;gilr; nra;Kiw tpgupg;Gk;
o gadu; ,ilKf tbtikg;G
 ju;f;f juT khjpupAUthf;fy;
o Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd ju;;f;fj; juTf; fl;likg;G
 juTj;js ngsjPf tbtikg;G
o ml;ltiz kw;Wk; gjpT tpguf;$w;Wfs;
o juT mfuhjp
o juTj;js tbtikg;G
 ju;f;f cUthf;fk;
 ju;f;f cUthf;ff; fl;lj;Jld; njhlu;Gila nraw;ghLfs;
 cj;Njr Kiwikapd; ju;f;f tbtikg;G
 mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiwfs;
 re;ju;g;g tiuglk;
 mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiw tpsf;fj;ijg; Nghypf;Fwp %yk; vOjy;
 ml;ltizfs; kw;Wk; Gsq;fs; gw;wpa tpguk;
 juT mfuhjpapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
 ju;f;f tbtikg;Gf; fUtpfis tpgupf;fTk;

 ju;f;fj; juT gha;r;ry; khjpupaply; mjd; cs;slf;fkhd (ju;f;fj; juT gha;r;ry;
tiuglk;> mbg;gilr; nrad;Kiwfs; kw;Wk; nrad;Kiw tpguk;> ,ilKf cUthf;fk;)
nray;fisf; nfhz;L tpsf;fTk;.
 ju;f;fj; juT khjpupaply; kw;Wk; mjd; mtrpak; vd;gtw;iwr; nraw;ghnlhd;wpd; %yk;
tpsf;fTk;.
 juTj;jsj;jpd; ngsjPf cUthf;fj;ijr; nraw;ghnlhd;wpd; %yk; gof;fg;gLj;jTk;
fzpg;gl
 juTj;js nkhd;iw cUthf;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd mbg;gilj; juT kw;Wk;

mwpTWj;jy; vd;gtw;iw toq;fp ,t;tyF KOtJk; fw;wtw;iw cgNahfpj;J
juTj;js nkhd;iw cUthf;Ftjw;fhd xg;gilnahd;iw toq;fTk;.
,iza trjp> nrayl;il
191
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk; (Logical Data Flow Modeling/ Logical DFM)

 ngsjPf DFM
 cz;ikapy; vt;thW juT nrayhf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjidf; Fwpj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
 gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwikapy; juthdJ cz;ikapy; vq;Nf Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
njhlu;ghd tplak; Fwpj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ju;f;f DFM
 fl;lhakhf vt;thW juT nrayhf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikapy; juT fl;lhakhf ,q;Nf Nrkpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 ju;f;f DFM MdJ DFD fspd; njhFg;G kw;Wk; njhlu;Gila ciu tpsf;fq;fisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;gpd; LDM
 LDM ,w;F Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;gpd; ve;j xU Gjpa nray;ghl;ilAk; Mjupf;fj;
Njitahd Gjpa $Wfis Nru;f;fpd;wJ.
 ju;f;fuPjpahd DFM ,w;fhf> LDM ,d; milahsk; fhzg;gl;l ju;f;f juT
Nrkpg;gfq;fis (epiynghUis) toq;FfpwJ.
 ve;j xU jw;fhypfkhf juT Nrkpg;gfj;jpidAk; ePf;FfpwJ. ,J jw;fhypfkhfj; juit
epWj;jp itf;fpd;wJ.
Kd;nkhopag;gl;l mikg;gpd; ju;f;fuPjpahd DFM
 Muk;g nray; KiwfspypUe;J ,J njhlq;Ffpd;wJ.
 xU nray;Kiwapd; ,lk; ngsjPf fl;Lg;ghL %yk; kl;LNk Fwpj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ
kw;Wk; midj;Jr; nraw;ghLfspypUe;Jk; ePf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ngsjpf DFM ,y; nray;Kiwg;gLj;jpa egu; ,g;nghOJ ju;f;f DFM ,w;F
cs;sPl;bid Kjy; xj;j nray;KiwfSf;F toq;fyhk;. gupkhw;wj;jpd; ,lk; Gw
cs;nghUshFk;.
 ve;j xU kdpj eltbf;iffisAk; ePf;fptpl;L xU ntspg;Gw csnghUSf;F mjid
khw;Wk;.
 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikapd; ve;j Gjpa nray;ghl;bw;Fk; MjuT Njitg;gLk; Gjpa
nray;Kiwfisr; Nru;f;fpd;wJ.
 mjDila nray;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; ju;f;f eilKiwfis kPsikg;gjd; %yk;
tupirKiwfisg; Gduikf;fpd;wJ.
 mbg;gilr; nray;fspd; nraw;ghLfisg; Nghypf;FwpaPl;L KiwapYk; EPD KiwapYk;
tpgupf;fpd;wJ.
juTj;jsj;jpd; ngsjPf tbtikg;G (Physical Design of Database)
ju;f;fj; jpl;lj;jpidj; njhlu;Glik jpl;lj;jpw;F xUq;F Nru;j;jy;.
ju;f;f jpl;lk; (Logical Schema) njhlu;Glik jpl;lk; (Relational Schema)
epiynghUs; (Entity ) ml;ltiz (Table)

gz;Gfs; (Attribute) Gyk; (Field)
Instance of an entity ml;ltizapd; gjpT (Record of a table)
jdpr;rpwg;ghd gz;G (Unique attribute) Kjd;ikr;rhtp (Primary key)
 njhlu;Glikj; jpl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; vy;yhj; njhlu;GlikapidAk; 3NF ,w;F

,ay;ghf;fy;.
 ml;ltiz Fwpg;gl P ;bd; gb ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; ,ay;ghf;fg;gl;l njhlu;Glik
jpl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; gjpTfspd; tpguf;Fwpg;Gk;.
 juTj;jsj;jpid tbtikg;gjw;fhd ngsjpf tbtikg;gpid toq;FfpwJ.
192
juT mfuhjp (Data Dictionary)
 ,J juTj;jsj;jpd; xU cs;shu;e;j gFjpahFk;.
 juTj;jsk; njhlu;ghd jfty;fisr; Nrkpj;J itj;jpUf;Fk;. mj;Jld; Nrkpj;J
itj;jpUf;Fk; juTfs; gw;wpa juTfisAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 juTj;jsj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; tpguq;fs; ahTk; Database Management System (DBMS)
juTj;js Kfhikj;Jt Kiwikapdhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
193
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; : 7.8 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Kiwikia tpUj;jp nra;J guPl;rpg;ghu;.
ghlNtisfs; : 06
fw;ww; NgWfs; :
o Gjpjhf tbtikf;fg;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd guPl;rpj;jy; Kiwfisg; gl;baypLthu;
o Gjpjhf tbtikf;fg;gl;l Kiwikf;fhd guPl;rpj;jy; Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
o nra;epuy; tpUj;jp;
o juTj;js tpUj;jp;
o guPl;rpj;jy;
o guPl;ir jUtha;fs; (Test cases)
 ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjid (White Box Testing)
 fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjid (Black Box Testing)
 myFr; Nrhjid (Unit Testing)
 xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;l Nrhjid (Integrated Testing)
 Kiwikr; Nrhjid (System Testing)
 Vw;Glikr; Nrhjid (Acceptance Testing)
 ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjid> fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjid> myFr; Nrhjid>

xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;lr; Nrhjid> Kiwikr; Nrhjid> Vw;Glikr; Nrhjid
 fPof
; hzg;gLk; tplaq;fis ntspf; nfhzUk; tifapyhd fye;Jiuahliy
Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
o ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjid
o fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjid
o myFr; Nrhjid
o xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;l Nrhjid
o Kiwikr; Nrhjid
o Vw;Glikr; Nrhjid
fzpg;gl
 khztu;fisf; FOf;fshfg; gpupj;J xt;nthU FOtpw;Fk; igjd nra;epunyhd;iw

toq;fTk;. igjd; nkd;nghUisg; gad;gLj;jp mr; nra;epuy;fisf; FwpKiwaplr;
nra;aTk;. toq;fg;gl;l igjd nra;epuiy ed;F Muha;e;J> fPOs;s guPl;rpj;jy;fis
Nkw;nfhs;SkhW topgLj;jTk;.
o ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;igr; nraw;gLj;jTk;
o TEST CASE khjpnahd;iw cUthf;fpf; fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;ig nraw;gLj;jTk;
ckJ FOf; fz;Lgpbg;Gfisr; nraw;wpwDs;sthWk; Mf;fj;jpwDlDk; tFg;gpw;F
Kd;itf;fTk;.
194
2.
igjd; nkd;nghUs; mlq;fpa fzpdp> ghlj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd rku;g;gdq;fs;;> ,iza trjp
195
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
guPl;rpj;jy; (Testing)
gpuNahf nkd;nghUs; xd;wpd; nraw;ghLfisAk; Fwpj;j Nehf;fj;jpidAk; rupghu;f;fg;
gad;gLk; xU nraw;ghlhFk;. guPl;ir epfo;thdJ nkd;nghUs; mgptpUj;jpapd; nghOJ Quality
Assurance team ,dhy; Nfhitg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
nkd;nghUs; Nrhjid El;gq;fs;

 ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjid (White box testing)
o nkd;nghUisg; gupNrhjpg;gjw;F> xU nkd;nghUspd; cl;nraw;ghl;il vLf;Fk;
guPl;irj; jUtha;fs;.
o Nrhjidr; nray;Kiwapd; Muk;g fl;lq;fspy; epfo;j;jg;gLfpwJ.
o xg;gl P ;lstpy; rpwpa nray;epuy; myFfisr; Nrhjpf;fg; gpuNahfpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
o nray;epuy;fis gFg;gha;T nra;J> nkd;nghUspd; (statements, branches, paths)
cs;shu;e;j tplaq;fisg; gupNrhjpf;f vj;jid guPl;ir jUtha;fs; NghJk;
vd;gjpidj; jPu;khdpf;Fk;.
 fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjid (Black box Testing)

o Nrhjidaplg;gLk; nkd;nghUs; xU fWg;Gg; ngl;b Nghy; nraw;gLfpd;wJ.
cs;sPLfis toq;Ftjd; %yk; ngwg;gLk; ntspaPLfis mtjhdpg;gjd; %yk;
Nkw;Fwpj;j Nrhjid Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
o xU nkd;nghUspd; Nehf;fk; rhu;e;j nraw;ghLfis mwpe;J nfhs;tjhy;
nkd;nghUs; mtw;iw toq;f KbAkh vd;gijg; ghu;g;gjw;Fr; Nrhjid
elj;jg;gLfpwJ.
o Nrhjid nkd;nghUspd; Njitapd; mbg;gilapyhd guPl;irj; jUtha;fs;
,q;F gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
nkd;nghUs; Nrhjid tiffs; (Software testing types)
Vw;Glikr; Nrhjid
Kiwik Nrhjid
xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;l Nrhjid
myF Nrhjpg;G
nkd;nghUs; tbtikg;gpy;,
 myFr; Nrhjid
o nkd;nghUs; KiwikahdJ cgKiwikahf cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
o cgKiwikfs; xt;nthU jdpj;Jtkhd nray;epuy;fspd; myfpy; (functions or
classes) ,Ue;Jk; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
o vdNt nkd;nghUs; Nrhjid ,e;j jdpg;gl;l jpl;l myfpw;Fs; Nrhjid
njhlq;FfpwJ.
o nghJthf fzpdp nray;epuyhsu;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; Nrhjid.
o nts;isg; ngl;b El;gq;fs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
196
 xUq;fpize;j Nrhjid
o ,r; Nrhjidfs; njhlu;rr
; pahd myFfspy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
o xUq;fpize;j Nrhjidfs; nghJthf xUq;fpizg;G Nrhjidahsu;fs;
my;yJ Nrhjid mzpfs; %yk; elj;jg;gLk;.
o nts;isg; ngl;b my;yJ fWg;Gg; ngl;br; Nrhjidahf ,Uf;fyhk;.
 Kiwikr; Nrhjid
o KOikahd Kiwikapd; Nrhjid.
o tof;fkhf Kiwikapid cUthf;fpa nray;epuyhsu;fspd; RahjPd
mzpapduhy; ,J Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
o fWg;Gg; ngl;b El;gq;fs; ,jw;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 Vw;Glikr; Nrhjid
o ,Wjpahf Kiwik gad;gLj;JdUf;F Vw;wjhf Kiwik fhzg;gLfpd;wjh
vd;gij mwpa ,J Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
o ,r; Nrhjid> nghJthf nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; epuyhsu;fsplkpUe;J RahjPdkhd
mzpfspdhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
o fWg;Gg; ngl;b El;gq;fs; ,jw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
197
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk; : 7.9 tpUj;jpahf;fg;gl;l Kiwikia eilKiwg;gLj;Jthu;
ghlNtisfs; : 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;l Kiwikia eilKiwg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfis tpgupg;ghu;
o Kiwik mKyhf;fypd;; gpd;du; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;w nraw;ghLfis tpgupg;ghu;
cs;slf;fk; :
o eilKiwg;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs; (Deployment)
 rkhe;juk; (Parallel)
 Neub (Direct)
 Kd;Ndhb (Pilot)
 fl;lk; (Phase)
o td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs; epWTif> juT ngau;r;rpAk; gadu; gapw;Wtpg;Gk;
o kPsha;T (Review)> cjtp (support) kw;Wk; guhkupg;G.
vz;zf;fUf;fSk; Kjd;ikg; gjq;fSk;:;
 rkhe;ju epWty;> Neub epWty;> Kd;Ndhb epWty; > fl;l epWty;
 fPOs;s tplaq;fis ntspf;fhl;Lk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;

o rkhe;juk;
o Neub
o Kd;Ndhb
o fl;lk;
fzpg;gl
 fPOs;s tplaq;fis cs;slf;fpa tpdhg;gj;jpuk; xd;iw toq;fp tpilaspf;fr;

nra;aTk;.
o epWty; tiffs;> cwpa nkd;nghUs; epWtypd; ez;ik jPikfs;> nkd;nghUs;
epWtypd; mtrpak;
fzpdp> ghlj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd rku;g;gdq;fs;;> ,iza trjp
198
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
nkd;nghUs; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwfs; (Software deployment)

nkd;nghUs; eilKiwg;gLj;jy; vd;gJ xU nkd;nghUs; mikg;igg;
gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd midj;J eltbf;iffisAk; cs;slf;fpaJ. nghJthd tpupTWj;Jk;
nraw;ghlhdJ gy xd;Nwhnlhd;W xd;wpize;j nraw;ghLfisAk; re;ju;g;gj;jpw;F Vw;wthW
mtw;Wf;fpilapy; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. ,e;jr; nraw;ghLfs; cw;gj;jpahsupd; my;yJ
gad;gLj;Jdupd; my;;yJ ,Utupd; rhu;ghfTk; epfoyhk;.
rkhe;ju gioa Kiwik

gioa kw;Wk; Gjpa
eilKiwgLj;jy; Kiwikfs; xNu
Gjpa Kiwik Neuj;jpy; gad;gLj;jy;
Neub gioa Kiwik gioa Kiwik epWj;jg;gl;L

eilKiwgLj;jy; Gjpa Kiwik
Gjpa Kiwik eilKiwg;gLj;jy;
fl;l Gjpa Kiwik gbKiw gbKiwahf

eilKiwgLj;jy; eilKiwgLj;jy;
gioa Kiwik
Kd;Ndhb gioa Kiwik Gjpa Kiwik KO KiwikAk; xNu

eilKiwgLj;jy; ,lj;jpy; eilKiwgLj;jy;
 rhkhe;ju eilKiwg;gLj;jy; (Parallel Deployment)

o gad;gLj;Jk; gioa KiwikiaAk; Gjpa KiwikiaAk; xNu Neuj;jpy;
eilKiwg;gLj;jy;.
o Gjpa Kiwik KOikahfr; nraw;gLj;Jk; tiu rkhe;jukhd
nraw;gLj;jg;gLj;jy; rkhe;ju eilKiwg;gLj;jyhFk;.
o ,J td;nghUshf my;yJ nkd;nghUshf ,Uf;fyhk;.
o eilKiwg;gLj;jy; ele;Jnfhz;bUf;Fk; nghOJ> Gjpa Kiwikapidg;
G+uzkhf tpsq;fpnfhs;Sk; tiu> gad;gLj;Jdu; ,uz;L KiwikfisAk;
gad;gLj;jpf; nfhz;bUg;ghu;.
o ,t;tifahd nraw;ghL rpy juT Nkw;nghUe;jy;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
cjhuzkhf juT ,uz;L KiwikfSf;Fk; cs;spl Ntz;Lk;.
Nkw;nghUe;JifahdJ juTfspd; juj;jpidg; ghjpf;Fk;. ,J xU
gytPdkhd KiwahFk;. ,J Neuj;jpid ,of;Fk; KiwahfTk;> tpiy
cau;e;j KiiwahfTk fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Neub eilKiwg;gLj;jy; (Direct Deployment)

o ,e;j tpupTWj;jyhdJ xU vspa topKiwahFk;.
o gad;gLj;jpa Kiwikapid epWj;jp Gjpa Kiwikapid cldbahf
eilKiwg;gLj;jy; Neub eilKiwg;gLj;jy; MFk;. ,J td;nghUshf
my;yJ nkd;nghUshf ,Uf;fyhk;.
o ,e; eilKiwg;gLj;jy; Kiwapidg; gad;gLj;jp Vida Kiwapid tplTk;
tpiuthfg; Gjpa Kiwikapid mKy;gLj;jyhk;. Vw;fdNt gad;gLj;jpa
Kiwik ePz;lfhyj;jpw;F fpilf;fhikapdhy; gad;gLj;Jdu; Gjpa
Kiwikapid tpsq;fpf;nfhs;shky; ,Uf;f KbahJ.
199
o NkYk; xNu Neuj;jpy; ,uz;L Kiwikfspy; Ntiy nra;Ak; NghJ Vw;gLk;
rpf;fy;fisg; gad;gLj;Jdu; jtpg;gu;. ,J tpiyFiwe;j xU mKy;gLj;jy;
KiwahFk; kw;Wk; ,jpy; ngupa rpf;fy;fs; ,y;iy. MdhYk; Gjpa
Kiwikapid cldbahf tpsq;fpf;nfhs;shj gad;gLj;JdUf;F ,t;tifahd
Kiwik fbdkhff; fhzg;gLk;.
o njhlu;rr; pahf mKy;gLj;jg;gLk; my;yJ epiwtilahJ fhzg;gLk; rpy
Kiwikfis ,k;Kiwapidg; gad;gLj;jpr; nraw;gLj;jy; fbdkhdjhFk;.
gad;gLj;jpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; Kiwikf;Fk; Gjpa Kiwikf;Fk; ,ilapy;
njhlu;Gfs; VJkpy;iynadpd; Neub eilKiwg;gLj;jy; KiwNa
nghUj;jkhdjhFk;.
 Kd;Ndhb eilKiwg;gLj;jy; (Pilot Deployment)

o Gjpa KiwikahdJ (td;nghUs; my;yJ nkd;nghUs;) gad;gLj;Jdu;fspd;
rpy FOf;fSf;F> guPl;rpg;gjw;Fk; kjpg;gL
P nra;tjw;Fkhfr; nraw;gLj;jy; Kiw
Kd;Ndhb eilKiwg;gLj;jy; KiwahFk;.
o ,r;nraw;gLj;jypd; NghJ njupTnra;ag;gl;l Fwpj;j Nrhjidf;FOtpd;
gpd;D}l;ly;fs; ngwg;gl;L Vida gad;ghl;lhsu;fs; ,yFthf gad;gLj;j
cjTk;. Fwpj;j Nrhjidf; FO mikg;GKiwf;F xg;Gjy; mspj;jTld; ,J
Fwpj;j epWtdj;jpw;Fr; nraw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
o Nrhjidahsu;fs; Fwpj;j Kiwikapy; fhzg;gLk; Vida gad;gLj;JdUf;F
cjtpnra;tu;. kw;Wk; Nrhjidf;FOthdJ Fwpj;j KiwikahdJ Fwpj;j
epWtdj;jpw;F mtrpakhdJ vd;gjidj; jPu;khdpf;Fk;.
 fl;l eilKiwg;gLj;jy; (Phased Deployment)

o Gjpa KiwikahdJ (td;nghUs; my;yJ nkd;nghUs;) gbKiw gbKiwahf
nraw;gLj;jy; fl;l eilKiwg;gLj;jy; MFk;.
o fl;l eilKiwg;gLj;jy; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; NghJ Gjpa Kiwikapd;
KOtplaKk; gad;gLj;Jdupd; xU ,lj;jpw;F my;yJ xU gFjpapdUf;F
Kiwik KOikahfr; nraw;gLj;Jk; tiu> jdpj;jdpahfr; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
o xNu Neuj;jpy; KOikahf Kiwikf;Fk; nraw;gLj;jg;glhjjhy; xNu Neuj;jpy;
gy rpf;fy;fs; Njhd;w tha;g;gpy;iy. NkYk; njhlf;f eilKiwfspy; ,Ue;J
fw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;l jfty;fs; kPjKs;s nray;Kiwia topelj;Jtjw;Fg;
gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;> ,jdhy; eilKiwg;gLj;Jk; NghJ rpy rpf;fy;fNs
Njhd;Wk;.
o gbg;gbahfg; gad;gLj;jpa Kiwikapid ePf;fpg; Gjpa Kiwikapidg;
gbg;gbahf nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F mDkjpf;fpwJ. xU epWtdj;jpy; ntt;NtW
Kiwikfis ntt;NtW FOf;fs; gad;gLj;jyhdJ mtu;fSf;fpilapy;
fUj;JKuz;ghLfisj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. ,J jutpd; juj;jpw;Fr; rpf;fy;fis
toptFf;Fk;.
guhkupj;jy; (Maintenance)
SDLC ,y; guhkupj;jy; epiyahdJ nkd;nghUspd; KOr; nraw;ghl;bw;Fg; gpwF
Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ghuhkupj;jy; fl;lkhdJ td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs;> kw;Wk;
Mtzq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; tpidj;jpwdhd nraw;ghl;bw;F Vw;g khw;wq;fisr; nra;tJk;
rupnra;tJkhFk;. ,J xU Kiwikapd; nray;jpwid Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhd
khw;wq;fisr; nra;tJ> gpiofisr; rupnra;tJ> ghJfhg;Gr; rpf;fy;fisf; ifahSjy;>
Gjpa gadu; Njitfis eptu;j;jp nra;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhf Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
guhkupg;gpd; NghJ Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fshdJ Kiwikapd; nray;jpwd;> ghJfhg;G>
mikg;G vd;gdtw;wpidr; rPuF; iyf;fhJ fhzg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
200
Nju;rr
; p kl;lk: 7.10 re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba
Kiwiknahd;iwf; nfhz;L Kiwik mKyhf;fiy tpgupg;ghu;
ghlNtisfs;: 04
fw;ww; NgWfs;:
o nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUspd; fpuak; kw;Wk; mD$yq;fis KjyPL>
,af;Fjy; kw;Wk; guhkupj;jy; fpuak; vd;gtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;; Muha;thu;
o jPu;thf mike;j nghjpnra;j nkd;nghUspd; jd;ikfisAk; ,aYikfisAk;
epak tzpf gpuNahfq;fs; rhu;ghf Muha;thu;
o jug;gl;l tzpf nray;Kiw kw;Wk; re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba
nkd;nghUs; nghjpfspd; jd;ikfs; vd;gtw;wpw;fpilahd NtWghLfis
,dq;fz;L tpgupg;ghu;
o nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUs; jPu;tpd;; gzpg;gha;r;riy tzpf nrad;Kiw
nraw;ghLfSld; tpupj;Jiug;ghu;
o jw;Nghija tzpf nray;Kiwapy; Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;ba khw;wq;fis
tpgupg;ghu;
o nghjpnra;ag;gl;l nkd;nghUs; jPu;tpd; jdpg;gadhf;fy; Njitg;ghLfis
tpsf;Fthu;
cs;slf;fk; :
o re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba nkd;nghUs; nghjpfs; ghtidapd; ed;;ik
jPikfs;
o ; jpwd;fs;> gzpg;Nghf;F vd;gd
o tzpf nray;Kiw ,ilntsp gFg;gha;T
o tzpf nray;Kiw glkhf;fy;
o tzpf nray;Kiw kPs;fl;likg;G
 nkd;nghUs;fs nghjpfs;> epak tzpfg; gpuNahfq;fs;
 fPot
; Uk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahliy Nkw;nfhs;sTk;
o nghjpapl;l nkd;nghUs;fSf;fhd nryT xg;gL P
o nghjpapl;l nkd;nghUs;fspd; ed;ik jPikfs;
o epak tzpfg; gpuNahfq;fSld; xg;gpLifapy; nghjpapl;l nkd;nghUs;fspd;
gz;Gfs;
o tzpf nraw;ghl;L khjpupak;
o tzpf nraw;ghl;L khjpupaj;ij kPs; fl;likj;jy;
fzpg;gl
 tzpfg; gpuNahf nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; nghjpapl;l nkd;nghUs; vd;gtw;iw xg;gpl;L

mwpf;ifnahd;iwr; rku;g;gpf;f topfhl;lTk;.
fzpdp> ghlj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd rku;g;gdq;fs;;> ,iza trjp
201
thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;
re;ijapy; nfhs;tdT nra;af;$ba nkd;nghUs; nghjpfs; (Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS)

Packages) ghtidapdhy; fpilf;Fk; ed;;ikfs;
COTS nkd;nghUs; mikg;Gfs; fpilkl;l kw;Wk; nrq;Fj;Jr; re;ijfSf;F Vw;g

tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. gyupd; Njitfisg; g+u;j;jp nra;tjw;fhf tpw;gidahsu;fs;> jq;fs;
KiwikfSf;F cyf tu;j;jf nray;ghLfis ,izj;Jf;nfhs;s kfj;jhd Neuj;jpidAk;
Kaw;rpiaAk; nrytpLfpd;wdu;. ,t;thW fhzg;gLk; nkd;nghUs; KiwikfSf;F xj;j
jdpj;jdp nkd;nghUs;fis jdpg;gadu; cw;gj;jp nra;jyhdJ nrytPdq;fspidj;
Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ. COTS nkd;nghUs; KiwikahdJ jdpg;gadu; cw;gj;jpapidf; fhl;bYk;
mjpf fl;likg;GfSf;F ,l;Lr;nry;fpd;wJ. ,J jdpg;gaduhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l nkd;nghUs;
Kiwikapidf; fhl;bYk; khw;wj;jpw;F cs;shf;fy; fbdkhFk;. NkYk; nghjp #oy;fspy;
gadu;fs; cldbahfg; gad;gLj;jhtpl;lhYk; vjpu;fhyj;jpy; mtu;fspd; Njitf;Fk;; Vw;wthW
gad;gLj;Jtu;. xU COTS nkd;nghUs; KiwikahdJ jdpegupdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;
nkd;nghUisf;fhl;bYk; Fiwe;j nrytpYk; Fiwe;j Neuj;jpYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
(COTS) Packages ghtidapd; jPikfs;

COTS nkd;nghUs; Kiwikfs; kpfTk; rpf;fyhditahfTk; xUNghJk;
gad;gLj;jhj gy tplaq;fis cs;slf;fpAk; ,Uf;Fk;. nkd;nghUshdJ ngupjhfTk;
rpf;fyhdjhfTk; ,Ug;gjhy; ,jid tpsq;fp nfhs;s ePz;l fhyk; vLf;Fk;. Kiwik
tbtikf;fg;gl;l tpjj;jpy; nghUe;Jk; nghUl;L Ntiy nra;aNtz;Lk;. epWtdj;jpd; tzpf
nray; Kiwfs; jdpj;JtkhdJ vd;why;> COTS nkd;nghUs; mikg;Gfs; jdpg;gadhf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk; my;yJ tzpf nray;Kiwfs; mtw;iw khw;wpf;nfhs;s Ntz;bapUf;fyhk;.
epWtdj;jpd; kw;iwa Nghl;bahsu;fs; mNj COTS nkd;nghUis thq;fTk; gad;gLj;jTk;
KbAk;> ,ijg; gad;gLj;jp ve;j Nghl;bahsUk; ed;ik ngwf;$Lk;.
nghjpnra;j nkd;nghUs; Kiwikapidg; gad;gLj;jypdhy; Vw;gLk; ed;ikfs;.

jdpg;gLj;jg;gl;l nkd;nghUs; Kiwikfs; jdpr;rpwg;ghf toq;fg;gl;l
Njitg;gLfSf;Fk; kw;Wk; rupahd nraw;ghl;L NjitfSf;Fkhf tbtikf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
NkYk; tzpfr; nray; jpwd;fis Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F my;yJ mtu;fspd; nray;jpwid
mjpfupg;gjw;fhf khw;wpaikf;fg;glyhk;. jdpegu; tbtikg;G nkd;nghUs;fs;> Vw;fdNt
fhzg;gLk; Kiwikfs;> kw;Wk; Nkyjpf Njitfs; vd;gdtw;wpy; xd;wpizf;fg;glyhk;. ,it
Njitahd nraw;ghLfis kl;Lk; toq;fyhk;. ,jidg; gad;gLj;Jdu; ,yFthfg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdu;. ,e;j nkd;nghUshy;> Nghl;bahsu;fshy; nra;a Kbahj gzpfisr;
nra;a Kbe;jhy;> epWtdj;jpd; Nghl;bj;jpwdpy; ed;ikfisg; ngwKbAk;. jdpj;Jtkhf
nkd;nghUs; xd;W xU epWtdj;jpd; nrhj;J MFk; kw;Wk; ,J tzpfj;jpw;F kjpg;Gr;
Nru;f;fyhk;.
nghjpnra;j nkd;nghUs; Kiwikapid gad;gLj;jypdhy; Vw;gLk; jPikfs;.

jdpegu; tbtikg;G nkd;nghUs;fs; Kiwiikapid tbtikg;gjw;F mjpfsthd
Muk;g KjyPL Njit kw;Wk; tsu;r;rp nray; Kiwfs; ePz;l fhykhf Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;.
tzpf nray;Kiw
xU tzpf nray;ghl;bid Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf nray;gL eltbf;iffs;> nghWg;Gfs;>
tsq;fs; kw;Wk; juTg;gha;Tfspd; njhFg;G vd;gd fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
tzpf nray;Kiw kPs;fl;likg;G (Business process modeling)

tzpf nray;Kiw kPs;fl;likg;G MdJ xU Mokhd gFg;gha;thFk; mj;Jld;
bottlenecks ,id ePf;fp tzpf nray;ghl;bw;F cfe;jjhf;Ffpd;wJ.
tzpf nray;Kiw ,ilntsp gFg;gha;T (Business process gap analysis)

COTS nkd;nghUs; jPu;thdJ Fwpg;ghf ve;j mikg;Gf;Fnkdj; jdpg;gl;l Njitfisg;
G+u;j;jp nra;a tbtikf;fg;gltpy;iy kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwikapy; fhzg;gLk; tzpf
nray;Kiwf;Fk;> COTS nkd;nghUs; Kiwikf;Fk; ,ilapy; xu; ,ilntsp fhzg;gLfpwJ.
202
eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;F Kd;du; ,e;j ,ilntspia ed;F Gupe;J nfhs;tJld; mjd; tzpf
nray; jpwid ,opTgLj;jhjthW epWtdj;jpd; ,e;j ,ilntspapid tpsq;fpnfhs;tJk;
fl;lhakhdjhFk;.
tzpf nray;Kiw glkhf;fy; (Business process mapping)

tzpf nray;Kiw glkhf;fy; MdJ xU Fwpj;j tplaj;jpy; Nju;rr ; pngw;w xU
FOtpd; FOr; nraw;ghlhFk;> ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ vt;thW tzpf nraw;ghL
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid gbKiw gbKiwahf tpsf;Fk;> tpsf;fgl%yk;
Nfhitg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,e;j tpiykjpg;gw;w fUtp jw;NghJ fhzg;gLk; tzpf Nkk;ghl;L
Kaw;rpfSf;Fk; nraw;ghLfis mwptjw;fhf MNyhrfu;fs; kw;Wk; tzpf epGzu;fshy;
ngUk;ghYk; ,J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
tzpf nray;Kiw glkhf;fyhdJ gzpahsu;fspilNa cw;gj;jpj;jpwid mjpfupg;gjw;Fk;>
eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; nray; Kiwikfisr; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;Fk;> mwpT %yjdj;ijg;
ghJfhg;gjw;Fk; cjTfpwJ.
ngUk;ghyhd COTS nkd;nghUs; Kiwikfspy;> epWtdj;jpw;Fj; Njitahdjw;Fk; Kiwik
toq;fpajw;Fk; ,ilapy; ,ilntsp fhzg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd xt;nthU ,ilntspiaAk;
vt;thW jtpu;j;Jf;nfhs;syhk; vd;gjid epWtdk; KbntLf;Fk; (Njitg;ghLfis ePf;fptpl;L
fUtpapd; nraw;ghl;bd;gb elj;jy;)> jPu;Tf;F ntspNa vt;thW khw;wyhk; vd;gijf; nfhz;L
khw;Wjy; (tzpf nray;Kiwapid khw;Wjy;) my;yJ Fwpj;j ,ilntspf;Fj; jFe;j
xd;wpid tbtikj;jy; (Njitf;F Vw;wtpjkhf). COTS nkd;nghUs; Kiwik ePf;fg;gl;lhy;
ve;jnthU Gjpa jahupg;G tsu;r;rpf;fhfTk; nraw;gLk; Gjpa jpwd;fSf;fhd Njitfis
KOikahff; Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
203
3.0 fiyj;;jpl;lf; FO
topfhl;lYk; mDkjpAk; fy;tprhu; mYty;fs; rig

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
ghl ,izg;ghsu; jpU v];. rz;;Kfypq;fk;

rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
tsthsu;fs;
jpU b.mDu [ayhy; gzpg;ghsu;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
jpU v];. rz;;Kfypq;fk; rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
fyhepjp jkpj fUzhul;d rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu; (UCSC)

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
fyhepjp fhkpzp tpN[uj;d gPlhjpgjp

fzpdp kw;Wk; njhopDl;gg; gPlk;
fsdpg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
fyhepjp vr;.Nf.up.Nf. tpN[rpuptu;jd rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu;

tpQ;Qhd gPlk;
fsdpg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
fyhepjp Nf. jNghjud; rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu;

tpQ;Qhd gPlk;
aho;g;ghzg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
fyhepjp gp.vk;.up.gp. re;jpupfk rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu;

nghwpapay; gPlk;
Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
fyhepjp vr;.vy;. gpNukuj;d rpNu];l tpupTiuahsu; (UCSC)

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf; fofk;
jpUkjp.vr;.gp. Uf;kyP cjtp fy;tpg; gzpg;ghsu;

jfty; njhopDl;gg; gpupT
fy;tp mikr;R
nry;tp vd;. b. ,]hdp epu;kyp Mrpupau;> mDyh tpj;jpahyak;

nfhOk;G
204
jpU N[. V. V. rp. [anfhb Mrpupau;> guhf;fpuk k. tp
wk;Gf;fid
nry;tp. V. gp. vd;. b. rpy;th Mrpupau;> my;Nkjh k. tp

mf;Fu];i]
jpUkjp gp. V. vd;. b. rkurpq;f Mrpupau;> Nwhay; fy;Y}up

nfhOk;G 7
jpU v];. kA+ujrd; Mrpupau;> aho;ghzk; ,e;Jf; fy;Y}up

aho;g;ghzk;
jpU v];.jNde;jpud; Mrpupau;> tl;lf;fr;rp kj;jpa fy;Y}up

tl;lf;fr;rp
nkhopr; nrt;tpjhf;fk;
jpU.v];.ru;Nt];tud; cg mjpgu;
t/irtg;gpufhr k.tp.
tTdpah
jpU V.vk;. t]Pu; epiya Kfhikahsu;

fzpdp ts epiyak;>
f`nfhy;y k.k.tp
jpaj;jyht
jpU J.KFe;jd; Mrpupa MNyhrfu;

`l;ld; fy;tp tyak;
`l;ld;
jpUkjp gp. gpukpsh Mrpupau;> Nwhay; fy;Y}up

nfhOk;G 7
fyhepjp g]Pu; up];fhd; tpupTiuahsu;

kfhtyp Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}up
nghy;nfhy;iy
205
English-Sinhala-Tamil Glossary
No English Sinhala Tamil
1. abstract model වියුක්ත ආකෘතිය fUj;jpay; khjpup
2. acceptance testing ප්රeති්හණ
e ප්රීකක්ාව Vw;Gr; Nrhjid
3. access privilege ප්රeවේශවීවේේ රප්රeසවදය mZfy; cupik
4. agile model සුචල්යc ආකෘතිය RWRWg;G khjpup
5. alternate key විකල්ය්ප්ර යතුර khw;Wr; rhtp
6. American Standard වේතවරතුරු හණු මවරු සඳහණව ූ jfty;
Code for ඇමරිකවනු සේමත වේක්තය ,ilkhw;Wf;fhd
mnkupf;f epak
Information tpjpf;Nfhit
Interchange (ASCII)
7. amplitude විස්තවරය tPr;rk;
8. amplitude විස්තවර මූර්ඡනව tPr;rg; gz;Ngw;wk;
modulation
9. analog ප්රeතිසම xg;Gik
10. anchor රැඳ ුම epiy epWj;jp
11. application layer අනුප්රeවේයග් ස්ථරය gpuNahf mLf;F
12. architecture නිර්මිතය fl;likg;G
13. arithmetic and අංක ්ණිත හණව තවර්කික vz;fzpj kw;Wk; ju;f;f
logical unit (ALU) ඒකකය myF
14. array අරව mzp
15. artificial intelligence කෘතිම බුද්ධිය nraw;if Ez;zwpT
16. Affective computing බුද්ධිමත් සහණ චිත්තවේශ්ී Ez;zwpT
ප්රරි් නය czu;jpwd;kpf;f
fzpj;jy;
17. associative law සංඝටන නcවය $l;L tpjp
18. attenuation ැහණැීකම/හණවයනය neha;ik
19. attribute උප්රල්යැකිය /්ු ය/ උප්රල්යක්ා ය gz;Gfs;
20. authoring tool සේප්රවදන වේම ල්යම gilg;ghf;ff; fUtp
21. Automated Teller ස් යංකෘත මුදල්ය් ්නුවේදනු jhdpaq;fpg; gzk;
Machine (ATM) යන් ත e ය ifahs;; ,ae;jpuk;
22. autonomous ස් යංප්රවල්යක/ RahjPd
ස් තන්තe/ස් වයත්ත
23. axiom ස් සිද්ධිය/ප්රeතcක්ාය ntspg;gil cz;ik
24. backups උප්රස්ථ fhg;ngLj;jy;
25. bandwidth කල්යවප්ර ප්රළල්ය/බඳස් ප්රළල්ය gl;il mfyk;
26. batch processing කවණ්ඩ සැකසුම njhFjp
Kiwtopahf;fk;
27. big data මහණව දත් ත ngupa juT
28. binary ද්විමය Jtpjk;> ,Ukk;
29. binary coded decimal ද්ීමය වේක්තික දවමය ,Ukf; FwpKiw jrkk;
(BCD)
30. bio-inspired ජෛ වේප්රeරි ් ත ප්රරි් නය/ capupay; cs;sPu;g;Gf;
computing ජෛ අනු වේ ප්රe ් රි ත ප්රරි් නය fzpg;G
31. bit coin බිටු කවසි Ez;fld; gzk;
nrYj;jy;
32. bitwise බිටු අනු ස වරිත gpl; thup
33. bitwise logical බිටු අනුසවරිත තවර්කික gpl; thup jHf;fr;
operation වේමවේහණයු ේ nraw;ghL
206
34. black box testing කවල්ය මංෛුසව ප්රීකක්ාව fWg;Gg;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;G
35. blogging වේ බ් සටහණනය tiyg;gjptply;
36. boot–up ප්රeවේශවනය njhlq;Fjy;
37. broadcasting විකවවනය njhiygug;gy;
38. browsing අතරික්සීම NkNyhly;
39. bubble sort බුබුළු වේත්ීකම/ යව-සැසඳුේ Fkpop tifg;gLj;jy;
වේත්ීකම
40. built-in තුළබැඳි / තිළැල්යි cl;nghjpe;j
41. business process re- cවප්රවර ක්රිeයව ල්යිවේය් ප්රeති tzpf nray;Kiw
engineering (BPR) ඉංජිවේන්රුකර ය kPs;fl;likg;G
42. candidate key නිරූප්රc යතුර gpujpepjpj;Jtr; rhtp
43. cardinality ් නීයතව vz;zsit
44. cathode ray tube කැවේතගඩ කිර නල්යය fNjhl;Lf; fjpu; Foha;
(CRT)
45. central processing මධ්යc සැකසුේ ඒකකය kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L
unit (CPU) myF
46. characteristics ්ති ල්යක්ා / ස් ල්යක්ා rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
47. check box සල්යකු ු වේකවටු rupghu;g;Gg; ngl;b
48. client-server model වේස් ව වේයගෛක-වේස් ව දවයක Nritg; gadu; khjpup
ආකෘතිය
49. clock ස්ප්රන්දකය fbfhuk;
50. cloud computing ල්යවකුළු ප්රරි් නය Nkff; fzpik
51. coaxial cable සමක්ාක වේක්බල්යය Xur;R tlk;
52. code editor වේක්ත සංස්කවරක FwpKiw njhFg;gp
53. comment වි ර ය tpsf;ff; Fwpg;G
54. commutative law නcවයවේද්ව නcවය gupkhw;W tpjp
55. compact disc සුසංහණිත ඩිස්කය Xspapay; tl;L
56. compatibility ්ැළප්රුම nghUe;Jif
57. compiler සේප්රවදකය njhFg;ghd;
58. component සංරචකය $W
59. composite key සංයුක්ත යතුර $l;Lr; rhtp
60. constant නියතය khwpyp
61. content management අන්තර්්ත කළමනවකර cs;slf;f
system (CMS) ප්රද්ධ්යතිය Kfhikj;Jt Kiwik
62. context switching සන්දර්භ සුවිචනය re;ju;g;g epiykhw;wy;
63. contiguous යවබද විභවෛනය mLj;jLj;jhd xJf;fPL
allocation
64. control structure ප්රවල්යන uහණය fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;G
65. control unit (CU) ප්රවල්යන ඒකකය fl;Lg;ghl;lyF
66. credit card යප්රත fldl;il
67. customization අභිරුචිකර ය jdpg;gadhf;fy;
68. data දත්ත juT
69. data and control bus දත්ත සහණ ප්රවල්යන ප්රථ juTk; fl;Lg;ghl;Lg;
ghl;ilAk;
70. database දත්ත සමුදවය කළමනවකර juTj;js Kfhikj;Jt
management system ප්රද්ධ්යති Kiwik
(DBMS)
71. data definition දත්ත නිර් චන භවාව juT tiuaiw nkhop
207
language ( DDL)
72. data dictionary දත්ත වබ්දවේකගාය juT mfuhjp
73. data flow diagram දත්ත ්ැල්යීේ සටහණන juT gha;r;ry; tiuglk;
74. data flow model දත්ත ්ැල්යීේ ආකෘතිය juT gha;r;ry; khjpup
(DFM)
75. data link layer දත්ත සබැඳි ස්ථරය juT ,izg;G mLf;F
76. data manipulating දත්ත හණැසුරුේ බස juT ifahsy; nkhop
language ( DML)
77. data migration දත්ත ප්රර්යටනය juT ngau;r;rp
78. debugging නිවේදවස් කිීකම tO ePf;fy;
79. තීර සහණවය ප්රද්ධ්යති jPu;khd cjT
decision support Kiwik
system (DSS)
80. declarative ප්රeකවවවත්මක mwptpg;G
81. default values වේප්රරනිමි අ්ය ,ay;Gepiy kjpg;G
82. defragmentation ප්රeතිඛණ්ඩනය Jzpf;if ePf;fy;
83. demodulation විමූර්ඡනය gz;gpwf;fk;
84. device උප්රවං්ය / උප්රක්රFමය rhjdk;
85. device driver උප්රවං් ධ්යව ක මෘදුකවං් rhjdr;; nrYj;jp
86. digital අංකිත ,yf;f Kiw
87. digital camera අංකිත කැමරව ,yf;fKiwg; glf;fUtp
88. digital economy අංකිත ආර්ථිකය ,yf;fKiwg;
nghUshjhuk;
89. digitizer සංඛcවංකකය ,yf;fkhf;fp
90. direct සෘෛුස්ථවප්රනය Neub mKyhf;fk;
implementation
91. disk formatting තැටි/ඩිසක හණැඩසශ ්ැන්ීම tl;L tbtikg;G
92. distortion විකෘතිය jpupG
93. distributive law විඝටන නcවය gq;fl P ;L tpjp
94. document flow වේල්ය්ඛන ්ැල්යීේ සටහණන Mtzg; gha;r;ry;
diagram tiuglk;
95. domain සම Ms;fsk;
96. domain name server සේ නවම වේස් වදවයකය Ms;fsg; ngau;
(DNS) Nritafk;
97. domain name system සේ නවම ප්රද්ධ්යතිය Ms;fsg; ngau;
(DNS) Kiwik
98. dynamic host ්තික ධ්යවරක ප්රවල්යන නියමව ල්යිය khWk; tpUe;Njhk;gp
configuration cs;sikT newpKiw
protocol (DHCP)
99. dynamic web page ්තික වේ බ් ප්රිටු ,af;Fepiy
tiyg;gf;fk;
100. e-commerce විදfත් වනිෛcය kpd; tu;j;jfk;
101. economical ආර්ථික වකcතව nghUshjhur;
feasibility rhj;jpag;ghL
102. elementary process මුල්යික ක්රිeයව ල්යි විස්තරය mbg;gilr; nra;Kiw
description(EPD) tpgupg;G
103. e-market place ඉ-වේ ළඳ වේප්රවළ ,yj;jpudpay; re;ij
,lk;
104. encryption ්ුප්ර්ත වේක්තනය kiwFwpahf;fk;
208
105. enterprise resource c සවය සේප්රත් සැල්යසුේ epWtd %yts
planning system ප්රද්ධ්යතිය jpl;lkply; Kiwik
(ERPS)
106. entity භූතවර්ථය/අභිභූතත් ය/සත්තව epiynghUs;
107. entity identifier භූතවර්ථ/අභිභූතත් ය epiynghUs;;
හණඳුන් නය milahsq;fhl;b
108. entity භූතවර්ථ සේබන්ධ්යතව epiynghUs;
relationship(ER) රූප්රසටහණන cwTKiw ml;ltiz
diagram
109. executable ක්රිeයවත්මක කළ හණැකි ,af;fj;jF
110. executive support විධ්යවයක සහණවය ප්රද්ධ්යතිය epiwNtw;W cjT
system (ESS) Kiwik
111. expert system විවේව්ාඥ ප්රද්ධ්යතිය epGzj;Jt Kiwik
112. extended binary විස්තෘත ද්ීමය වේක්තක දවම ePbj;j Jtpj FwpKiw
coded decimal jrk ,lkhw;wf; Fwp
interchange cod
(EBCDIC)
113. extended entity විස්තෘත භූතවර්ථ සේබන්ධ්යතව tpupthf;fg;gl;l
relationship (ER) රූප්ර සටහණන epiynghUs;
cwTKiw ml;ltiz
diagram
114. feasibility study වකcතව අධ්යcයනය rhj;jpag;ghL fw;if
115. feedback loop ප්රeතිවේප්රගා ලුප්රය gpd;D}l;ly; tisak;
116. fetch-execute cycle ආහණර -ක්රිeයවකර ුේ චක්රFය jUtpg;G epiwNtw;Wr;
Row;rp
117. fiber optic ප්රeකවව තන්තු ,io xspapay;
118. file වේ්වනු Nfhg;G
119. file hierarchy වේ්වනු ධ්යුරව ල්යිය Nfhg;G gbepiy
120. firewall ්ිනි ප්ර ුර jPr;Rtu;
121. normal form ප්රeථම ප්රeමත අ ස්ථව ,ay;ghf;fy; tbtk;
122. fixed internal hard අචල්ය අභcන්තර දෘඪ තැටි epiyahd cs;sf
disk td;jl;L
123. flash memory සැ / ක්ාණික මතකය gspr;rPl;L epidtfk;
124. flash memory card සැ / ක්ාණික මතක ප්රත gsPr;rpl;L epidtf
ml;il
125. flat file system ඒක වේ්වනු ප්රද්ධ්යතිය rkjsf; Nfhg;G
Kiwik
126. flip-flop ප්රිළි-වේප්රවළ vO-tpO
127. float ඉප්රුල්යිම/ඉප්රිල්යීම kpjit
128. floppy disk නමc තැටිය nefpo; tl;L
129. flow chart ්ැල්යීේ සටහණන gha;r;rw; Nfhl;Lg;glk;
130. folder වේ්වනු බහණලුම Nfhg;Giw
131. foreign key ආ්න්තුක යතුර me;epar;rhtp
132. formatting හණැඩසශ ්ැන්ීම tbtikj;jy;
133. frame රවමු rl;lfk;
134. frequency සංඛcවත මූර්ඡනය mjpu;ntz; gz;Ngw;wy;
modulation
135. full adder ප්රූර් වකල්යකය KOikf; $l;b
136. function වeත ි ය / කවර්යය rhu;G
137. functional කවර්ය බද්ධ්ය ප්රරවයත්තතව nray; rhu;Gepiy
209
dependency
138. functional කවර්ය බද්ධ්ය අ වcතව nray;gL Njit
requirement
139. quantum computing ක්වේ වන්ටේ ප්රරි් නය nrhl;L fzpg;G
mbg;gil
140. gateway වේදවරටු මඟ / වසල්ය් ද් වරය Eiothapy;
/ වහණල්ය්වේදවර
141. genetic algorithm සහණෛ ඇල්ය්වේ්වරිදමය kugZ topKiw
142. geographical භූවේ්ගල්යීය වේතවරතුරු ප්රද්ධ්යතිය Gtpapay; jfty;
information /මිහණිතැන් වේතවරතුරු ප්රද්ධ්යතිය Kiwik
system(GIS)
143. graph plotter ප්රeස්තවර ල්යකු ුකර ය gltiuap
144. graphic tablet චිතeකඵල්යකය tiutpay; tptukhf;fp
145. grid computing ෛවල්යක ප්රරි් නය Nfhl;Lr;rl;lff;
fzpik
146. guided media නියමු මවධ්යc topgLj;jg;gl;l Clfk;
147. half adder අර්ධ්යවකල්යකය miu $l;b
148. hand trace හණස්තවනුවේර්ඛනය ifr; RtLfs;
149. hard disk දැඩි තැටිය / දෘඪ ඩිස්කය td;jl;L
150. hardware දෘඪවං් td;nghUs;
151. hexadecimal ාඩ් දවමය gjpdWkk;
152. hierarchical model ධ්යූරව ල්යි ආකෘතිය gbepiy khjpup
153. host සත්කවරකය tpUe;Njhk;gp
154. hub නවභිය Ftpad;
155. human operator මිනිසක්රිe
් යවකරුවේ ග kdpj ,af;Fgtu;
156. hybrid approach වේදමුහණුන් ප්රeවේශවය fyg;G mZfy;
157. hyperlink අධිසේබන්ධ්යකය kP ,izg;G
158. Integrated circuits ( අනුකල්යිත ප්රරිප්රථ xUq;fpize;j Rw;W
IC)
159. icon නිරූප්රකය rpW glk;
160. identity සර් සවමc milahsk;
161. image රූප්රය gbkk;
162. imperative විධ්යවනවත්මක fl;lis
163. incremental ර්ධ්යනවත්මක VWkhd> mjpfupg;G
164. indexed allocation අනුක්රFමික විභවෛනය Rl;b xJf;fPL
165. information වේතවරතුරු jfty;
166. inkjet printer තීන්ත විදුේ මුද්රයකය ikj;-jhiumr;Rg;nghwp
167. instant messaging ක්ානික ප්රණි ුඩ යැීම cldbr; nra;jpaply;
168. integrated සවේමගධ්යවනික xUq;fpize;j tpUj;jp
development සං ර්ධ්යන ප්රරිසරය R+oy;
environment(IDE)
169. integration test අනුකල්යන ප්රීකක්ා ය xUq;fpize;j Nrhjpg;G
170. intelligent and බුද්ධිමත් සහණ චිත්තවේශ්ී Ez;zwpTk;
emotional ප්රරි් නය czu;jpwDkpf;f
fzpj;jy;
computing
171. interface අතුරු මුහණු ,ilKfk;
172. internet service අන්තර්ෛවල්ය වේස් ය සප්රයන්නව ,izar; Nrit
provider( ISP) toq;Fdu;
173. interpreter අර්ථවිනcවසකය nkhopkhw;wp
210
174. interrupt අතුරු බිඳුම ,ilA+W
175. intranet අන්ත:ෛවල්යය/ අන්වේතගෛවල්ය mftpizak;
176. internet of things සවර් ද්රය c අන්තර්ෛවල්යය/ nghUl;fspd; ,izak;
(IoT) සබැඳි ද්රය c අන්තර්ෛවල්යය
177. iteration ප්රුනර්කර ය kPs; nray;
178. karnaugh map කවවේනග සිතියම fhNdh tiuglk;
179. knowledge දැනුේ කළමනවකර ප්රද්ධ්යතිය mwpT Kfhikj;Jt
management system( Kiwik
KMS)
180. large scale විවවල්ය ප්රරිමව වේය් අ ුකල්යනය ghupa msT
integration (LSI) xUq;fpizg;G
181. latency ප්රමව /්ුප්ර්තතව kiwepiy
182. least significant අඩුමවේ වේසසි rpWk kjpg;G
183. legend විස්තර ප්රවඨය Fwp tpsf;fk;
184. life cycle of data දත්ත ජී න චක්රFය juT tho;f;if tl;lk;
185. light emitting ආවේල්යගක විවේමගචක දිවේයගඩ xspfhYk; ,Uthapj;
diode(LED) display සන්දර්වකය jpiu / xsp ckpOk;
,U Kidak;
186. linked allocation සබැඳි විභවෛනය ,izg;G xJf;fPL
187. linker සන්ධ්යවරකය ,izg;gp
188. liquid crystal ද්රය ස්ඵටික සන්දර්වකය jputg;gspq;Ff; fzpdpj;
display( LCD) jpiu
189. list ල්යැයිස්තු gl;bay;
190. liveware ජී වං් capu; nghUs;
191. local publishing ස්ථවනීය ප්රeසිද්ධ්ය කිීකම cs;sf ntspaPL
192. local area network ස්ථවනීය ප්රeවේද්ව ෛවල්යය ,lj;Jup tiyaikg;G
(LAN)
193. logic gate තවර්කික ද් වරය ju;f;fg; gliy
194. Logical Data තවර්කික දත්ත ආකෘතිකර ය ju;f;fj; juT
Modeling( LDM) khjpupAUthf;fy;
195. logical data structure තවර්කික දත්ත fහණය ju;;ff
; j; juTf;
fl;likg;G
196. logical design tools තවර්කික සැල්යසුේ වේම ල්යේ ju;f;f tbtikg;Gf;
fUtp
197. looping ලූප්රනය tisa tuy;
198. machine code යන්තe වේක්තය ,ae;jpuf; FwpaPL
199. machine-machine යන්තe-යන්තe සහණප්රැ ැත්ම ,ae;jpu- ,ae;jpu
coexistence xUq;fpUj;jy;;
200. magnetic ink චුේබකිත තීන්ත අනු ල්යකු ු fhe;j ik vOj;JU
character reader( කිය නය thrpg;ghd;;
MICR)
201. magnetic stripe චුේබක තීරු කිය නය fhe;jg;gl;b thrpg;ghd;
reader
202. magnetic tape චුේභක ප්රටිය fhe;j ehlh
203. malware අනිව්ඨ මවදුකවං් jPk;nghUs;
204. management කළමනවකර වේතවරතුරු Kfhikj;Jt jfty;
information system ප්රද්ධ්යතිය Kiwik
(MIS)
205. man-machine මිනිස-් යන්තe සහණප්රැ ැත්ම kdpjd; - ,ae;jpuk;
xUq;fpUj;jy;;
211
coexistence
206. media access control මවධ්යc ප්රeවේශව ප්රවල්යක Clf mZfy;
(MAC) fl;Lg;ghL
207. memory මතක කළමනවකර ඒකකය epidtf Kfhikj;Jt
management unit( myF
MMU)
208. mesh topology බැඳි ස්ථල්යකය fz;zp ,lj;jpay;
209. microprocessor ක්ාුද්රය සකසනය Ez;nrayp
210. microwave ක්ාුද්රය තරං් Ez;ziy
211. mini disk කුඩව තැටිය rpW tl;L
212. mobile computing ෛං්ම ප්රරි් නය nry;yplf; fzpik
213. mobile marketing ෛං්ම අවේළවිකර ය nry;yplr;
re;ijg;gLj;jy;
214. modularization වේමවඩියුල්යකර ය $W epiyahf;fk;
215. modulation මූර්ෛනය gz;Ngw;wk;
216. most significant ැඩිම වේ වේසසි mjpAau; kjpg;G
217. mother board ම ු ප්රු රු jha;g;gyif
218. multi agent systems බහණු කවරක ප්රද්ධ්යති gy;Kftu; Kiwik
219. multi user-multi task බහණු ප්රරිවීල්යක - බහණු කවර්යය gw;gadu;-gw;gzp
220. multi-core බහණු හණර සකසන gy;fU nrayp
processors
221. multimedia objects බහණු මවධ්යc ස්තු gy;Y}lf nghUs;
222. multiplexer බහණු ප්රථකවරකය gy;Nru;g;gp
223. multiplexing බහණු ප්රථකර ය gy;Nru;g;G
224. multiprocessing බහණු සැකසුම gd;Kiwtopahf;fp
225. multitasking බහණුකවර්ය කිරිම gw;gzp
226. multi-threading බහණු-අනුක්රිeයවයනය gy; nray;$W
227. nature inspired ප්රeකෘති වේප්රe්රිත ප්රරි් නය/ ,aw;if cs;sPu;g;Gf;
computing ප්රeකෘති අනුවේප්රe්රිත ප්රරි් නය fzpg;G
228. nested loop නීඩිත ලූප්රය ePbj;j tisak;
229. network addresses ෛවල්ය වේයවමු ප්රරි ර්තනය tiyaikg;G Kftup
translating (NAT) ngau;g;G
230. network architecture ෛවල්ය නිර්මිතය tiyaikg;Gf;
fl;likg;G
231. network layer ෛවල්ය ස්ථරය tiyaikg;G mLf;F
232. network model ෛවල්ය ආකෘතිය tiyaikg;G khjpup
233. neural network ස්නවයුක ෛවල්යය euk;gpay; tiyaikg;G
234. non-functional කවර්යබද්ධ්ය වේනව න අ වcතව nray;rhuhj; Njitfs;
requirement
235. normalization ප්රeමතකර ය ,ay;ghf;fy;
236. null අභිවන ූ c ntw;W
237. object code ස්තු වේක්ත/ nghUs; Fwp
238. object oriented ස්තු නැඹුරු / ප්රවදක nghUs; Nehf;Fila
239. object- relational ස්තු-සේබන්ධ්යක ආකෘතිය nghUs; cwTepiy
model khjpup
240. octal අා්ටමය vz;kk;
241. office automation කවර්යවල්ය ස් යංකර ප්රද්ධ්යතිය mYtyfj; jd;dpaf;f
system (OAS) Kiwik
212
242. offline මවර්් අප්ර්ත/ මවර්්්ත njhluW epiy
වේනව න
243. one’s compliment එවේකහණි අනුප්රූරකය Xd;wpd; epug;gp
244. online මවර්්්ත njhluwh epiy
245. open source වි ෘත මූල්යවවe jpwe;j %yk;
246. operational වේමවේහණයුේ වකcතව nraw;ghl;Lr;
feasibility rhj;jpag;ghL
247. operator category කවරක ප්රe ර්්ය nrayp tif
248. operator precedence කවරක ප්රeමුඛතව nrayp Kd;Dupik
249. optical character ප්රeකවව අ ු ල්යකු ු කිය නය xspapay; vOj;JU
reader (OCR) thrpg;ghd;;
250. optical mark reader ප්රeකවව ල්යකු ු කිය නය fhe;j ik vOj;JU
(OMR) thrpg;ghd;
251. output ප්රeතිදවනය ntspaP;L
252. packet switching වේප්රවදි හණු මවරු nghjp kilkhw;wy;
253. paging ප්රිටුකරනය gf;fkply;
254. paradigm සුසමවදර්වය/ Nfhl;ghl;Lr; rl;lfk;
ප්රeතිමවනය/ප්රeතිරූප්රය
255. parallel සමවන්තර ස්ථවප්රනය rkhe;ju mKyhf;fk;
implementation
256. parameter passing ප්රරවමිති යැීම gukhdf; flj;jy;
257. parity සමතව rkepiy
258. password මුර ප්රදය flTr;nrhy;
259. payment gateway වේ් ුේ වසල්ය් ද් වරය gzf; nfhLg;gdT
Eiothapy;
260. periodic refreshing ආ ර්ත ප්රeවේබගධ්යකර ය fhyKiw GJg;gpj;jy;
261. peripheral device ප්රර්යන්ත උප්රවං්ය / උප්රක්රFමය Gwr; rhjdk;
262. phablet ෆැබ්ල්යට් ngg;yl;
263. phased අ ධිස්ථවප්රනය / ප්රිය ර fl;l mKyhf;fy;
implementation ක්රිeයවත්මකකිීකම
264. phase modulation කල්යව මුර්ඡනය epiy gz;Ngw;wk;
265. phishing තතුබෑම topg;gwpj;jy;
266. physical layer වේභෞතික ස්ථරය ngsjPf mLf;F
267. physical memory වේභෞතික මතකය ngsjPf epidtfk;
268. pilot implementation නියවමක ස්ථවප්රනය / නියවමක Kd;Ndhb mKyhf;fy;
ක්රිeයවත්මක කිීකම
269. piracy වේචෞරත් ය/ ලුණ්ඨනය fsT
270. pirated software වේචෞර/ලුණ්ඨිත මෘදුකවං් jpUl;L nkd;nghUs;
271. plagiarism ්eන්ථ/රචනව වේචෞර්යය fUj;Jj; jpUl;L
272. point to point ඍෛු ල්යක්ාc සේබන්ධ්යතව Xd;Wlndhd;W
connection ,izg;G
273. pointing device දැක් ුේ උප්රවං්ය Rl;b rhjdk;
274. port වේකවේ නිය thapy;> Jiw
275. portable external ෛං්ම/සු හණනීය බවහණිර දෘඪ fhtj;jF Gw td;jl;L
hard disk තැටිය
276. portal ද් වරය/ ආමුඛද් වරය tiythry;
277. Point of sale (POS) විකු ුේ වේප්රවල්ය යන්තe tpw;gid ,l ,ae;jpuk;
machine
278. postulate උප්රකල්ය්ප්රනය vLNfhs;
213
279. power supply විදුල්යි සැප්රයුම/ෛ සැප්රයුම kpd; toq;fp
280. presence check තථcතව ප්රීකක්ාව ,Uj;jy; rupghu;j;jy;
281. presentation layer සමර්ප්රන/ඉදිරිප්රත් කිරිේ ස්ථරය Kd;itg;G mLf;F
282. primary key ප්රeවථමික/මුල්ය් යතුර Kjd;ikr; rhtp
283. primitive data type ප්රeවථමික දත්ත ර්්ය G+u;tPfj; juT tif
284. privacy වේප්රෞද්්ල්යිකත් ය me;juq;fk;
285. private key වේප්රෞද්්ල්යික යතුර gpuj;jpNafr; rhtp
286. process ක්රිeයව ල්යිය/ක්රිeයවයනය/ සැකසුම nray;/
Kiwtopahf;fy
287. process control ක්රිeයවයන ප්රවල්යන ඛණ්ඩය nray; fl;Lg;ghl;Lj;
block(PCB) njhFjp
288. process management ක්රිeයවයන කළමනවකර ය nray; Kfhikj;Jtk;
289. process states ක්රිeයවයන තත්ත් nray; epiy
290. process transition ක්රිeයවයන සංක්රFම ය nray; epiykhwy;
291. product නිා්ප්රවදන වණිෛcකර ය jahupg;G
commercialization tu;j;jfkakhf;fy;
292. product of sum ඓකcයන්වේ්් ්ුණිතය $l;Lj;njhifapd;
(POS) ngUf;fk;
293. program translator ක්රFමවේල්ය්ඛ ප්රරි ර්තක nra;epuy;
nkhopngau;g;ghd;
294. proprietary හණිමිකේ සහණිත jdpAupik
295. protocol නියමව ල්යිය elg;nghOq;F
296. prototyping මූල්යවකෘතිකර ය %ytif khjpup
297. proxy server නිවේයගෛන වේස් වදවයකය gjpyhs; Nritafk;
298. pseudo code cවෛ වේක්තය Nghypf;Fwp
299. public switch වේප්රවදු ස්ීච දූරකථන ෛවල්යය nghJ Mspaplg;gl;l
telephone network njhiyNgrp
tiyaikg;G
(PSTN)
300. public key වේප්රවදු යතුර nghJr; rhtp
301. pulse code ස්ප්රන්ද වේක්ත මූර්ෛනය Jbg;Gf;Fwp gz;Ngw;wk;
modulation
302. pulse width ස්ප්රන්ද විතර මුර්ෛනය Jbg;G mfyg;
modulation gz;Ngw;wk;
303. radio button විකල්ය්ප්ර වේත්ීකම NubNah nghj;jhd;
304. random access සසේභවී ප්රeවේශව මතකය jw;Nghf;F mZfy;
memory (RAM) epidtfk;
305. range check ප්රරවස ප්රීකක්ාව tPr;R rupghu;j;jy;
306. rapid application වීඝe වේයද ුේ සං ර්ධ්යනය Jupj gpuNahf tpUj;jp
development (RAD)
307. read only memory ප්රඨන මවතe මතකය thrpg;G kl;Lk;
(ROM) epidtfk;
308. real time තථc කවල්යික epfo;Neuk;
309. record උප්රල්යැකියවන gjpT
310. redo නැ ත කිීකම kPsr; nra;
311. redundancy සමතිරික්තතව kpifik
312. reference model වේයවමු ආකෘතිය tiyaikg;gpd;
fl;likg;G
313. refreshing ප්රුබුදු කිීකම Gj;Japu;g;gpj;jy;
214
314. register memory වේරජිස්තර මතකය gjptfk;
315. relational සේබන්ධ්යක njhlu;G> cwTepiy
316. relational model සේබන්ධ්යක ආකෘතිය cwTepiy khjpup
317. relational database සේබන්ධ්යක දත්ත සමුදවය cwTepiy juTj;jsk;
318. relational instance සේබන්ධ්යතව නිදර්වනය njhlu;G Kiw
vLj;Jf;fhl;L
319. relational schema සේබන්ධ්යතව ප්රරිප්රවටික සටහණන njhlu;G Kiwj; jpl;lk;
320. relationship සේබන්ධ්යතව ය njhlu;GKiw
321. remote දූරස්ථ njhiy> J}u
322. render විදැහණු toq;F
323. repeater ප්රුනර්කථකය kPsp> kPl;b
324. repetition ප්රුනරුක්තිය kPs; nray;
325. reset button ප්රeතcවරේභ වේබවත්තම kPsikg;Gg; nghj;jhd;
326. retrieve සමුද්ධ්යර kPsg;ngW
327. return value ප්රeතcව්මන අ්ය jpUk;gy; ngWkhdk;
328. reverse auction ප්රeතිවේ න්වේද්සිය vjpu;khw;W Vyk;
329. ring topology මුදු ස්ථල්යකය tisa ,lj;jpay;
330. router මං හණසුරු topg;gLj;jp>
topr;nrYj;jp
331. routing මං හණැසිරවිම topr;nrYj;jy;
332. scanner සුප්රිරික්සකය EZF Nehf;fp
333. scheduler නියමකර ය xOq;FgLj;jp
334. scope of variable විචල්යc ප්රරවසය khwp nraw;gug;G
335. query විමසුම tpdty;
336. selection වේත්ීකම njupT
337. selector රකය Nju;tp> Nju;e;njLg;gp
338. sensor සංවේශදකය czup
339. sequence අනුක්රFමය njhlu;
340. sequential circuit අනුක්රFමික ප්රරිප්රථය njhlu;r; Rw;W
341. sequential search අනුක්රFමික වේස ුම tupirKiwj; Njly;
342. server වේස් වදවයකය / අනු්eවහණකය Nritafk;
343. session layer සැසි ස්ථරය mku;T mLf;F
344. sharable pool හණු මවරු ප්රුංෛය gfpujF nghJ ,lk;
345. sign-magnitude ල්යකු ු ත් ප්රeමව ය / සංල්යක්ාිත FwpAila tPr;rsT
ප්රරිමව නය / අංකිත
ප්රරිමව නය
346. single user-multi task ඒක ප්රරිවීල්යක-බහණු කවර්යය jdpg;gadu;-gw;gzp
347. single user-single ඒක ප්රරිවීල්යක-ඒක කවර්යය jdpg;gadu;-jdpg;gzp
task
348. smart card සුහණුරු කවඩ්ප්රත #l;bif ml;il
349. smart phone සුහණුරු දුරකථනය #l;bifj; njhiyNgrp
350. smart system සුහණුරු ප්රද්ධ්යතිය #l;bif Kiwik
351. social networking සමවෛ ෛවල්යකර ය r%f
tiyaikg;ghf;fy;
352. software මෘදුකවං් nkd;nghUs;
353. software agent මෘදුකවං් කවරක nkd;nghUs; Kftu;
354. sort වේත්ීකම tupirg;gLj;J
355. source ප්රeභ %yk;
215
356. spiral model සර්ප්රිල්ය ආකෘතිය RUsp khjpup
357. spooling එතීම Rw;Wjy;
358. Star topology තවරකව ස්ථල්යකය tpd;kdP ; ,lj;jpay;
359. stepwise refinement ප්රිය රවකවර ප්රිරිප්රහණදු gbKiw ePf;fy;;
360. storage ආචයනය Nrkpg;G
361. storage allocation ආචයන විභවෛනය Nrkpg;G xJf;fy;
362. stored program ආචිත ක්රFමවේල්ය්ඛ සංකල්ය්ප්රය Nrkpf;fg;gl;;l nra;epuy;;
concept vz;zf;fU
363. structure fහණය fl;likg;G
364. structure chart fහණ සටහණන fl;likg;G tiuG
365. structured fහණ්ත fl;likg;Gila
366. structured query fහණ්ත විමසුේ බස fl;likg;G tpdty;
language( SQL) nkhop
367. submit button වේයවමු වේබවත්තම rku;g;gpj;jy; nghj;jhd;
368. subnet mask උප්ර ෛවල්ය ආ ර ය cgtiy kiwKfk;
369. sub-netting උප්ර-ෛවල්යනය cgtiyaikg;G
370. sub-program උප්ර-ක්රFමවේල්ය්ඛය Jizr; nra;epuy;
371. sum of products ්ුණිතයන්වේ්් ඓකcය ngUf;fq;fspd;
(SOP) $l;Lj;njhif
372. supply chain සැප්රයුේ දවම කළමනවකර ය tpepNahf
management rq;fpypj;njhlu;
Kfhikj;Jtk;
373. swapping ප්රeතිහණර ය ,lkhw;wy;
374. switch ස්විචය Msp
375. syntax කවරක ීකති njhlupay;
376. system development ප්රද්ධ්යති සං ර්ධ්යන ජී න චක්රFය Kiwik tpUj;jp
life cycle(SDLC) tho;f;if tl;lk;
377. table ්ු ml;ltiz
378. table check ්ු ප්රීකක්ාව සංවේරගධ්යකය ml;ltiz rupghu;j;jy;
constraint fl;Lg;ghL
379. tag උසුල්යනය Xl;L
380. Technical feasibility තවක්ාණික වකcතව njhopDl;gr; rhj;jpaf;
fw;if
381. telecommuting දුරස්ථ සං වදය / දුර njhiynray;
සන්නිවේශදනය
382. testing strategy ප්රීකක්ා උප්රක්රFමය guPl;rpj;jy; cghak;
383. text and font ප්රවඨ සහණ අක්ාර thrfKk; vOj;JUTk;
384. text formatting ප්රවඨ හණැඩසශ ්ැන්ීම thrf tbtikg;G
385. text input ප්රවඨ ආදවන thrf cs;sPL
386. normal form ප්රeමත අ ස්ථව ,ay;ghf;fy; tbtk;
387. thumbnail සැවේකවි රූ FWk;glk;
388. time division කවල්ය වේබදුේ මූර්ඡනය Neug; gpup;Tg; gz;ghf;fk;
modulation (TDM)
389. time sharing කවල්ය විභෛනය Neug;gfpu;T
390. timing කවල්ය ් නය Neuf;fzpg;G
391. top down design මුදුන් බිේ සැල්යසුම NkypUe;J fPohd
tbtikg;G
392. touch pad ස්ප්රර්වක උප්රධ්යවනය / ප්රවදකය njhL ml;il
393. touch screen ස්ප්රර්වක තිරය njhLjpiu
216
394. transaction ්නුවේදනු සැකසුේ ප්රද්ධ්යතිය gupkhw;wr; nrayhf;f
processing system( Kiwik
TPS)
395. transitive සංක්රFවන්ති ප්රරවයත්තතව khWk; rhu;G epiy
dependency
396. transport layer ප්රe වහණන ස්ථරය Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F
397. transport protocol ප්රe වහණන නියමව ල්යිය Nghf;Ftuj;J
elg;nghOq;F
398. tuple උප්රල්යැකියවන/වේප්ර්ල්යිය gjpT/epiu
399. twisted pair ඇඹරි යු්ල්ය KWf;fpa Nrhb
400. two’s compliment වේදවේකහණි අනුප්රූරකය ,uz;bd; epug;gp
401. type check ප්රeරූප්ර ප්රීකක්ාව tif rupghu;j;jy;
402. constraint සංවේරගධ්යනය fl;Lg;ghL tif
403. ubiquitous සර් ර්ති ආ් නය vq;Fk; tpahgpj;j
computing fzpik
404. undo අවේහණගසි කිීකම nray;jtpu;
405. unguided media නියමු වේනව න මවධ්යc topgLj;jg;glhj Clfk;
406. uni-casting සෘෛු සේවේප්රe්ා ය jdpg;gug;gy;
407. unicode යුනිවේකගඩ්/ ඒකවේක්ත Xw;iwf;Fwp Kiw
408. unique constraint අනනc සංවේරගධ්යකය jdpj;Jtf; fl;Lg;ghL
409. unit testing ඒකක ප්රීකක්ා ය myFr; Nrhjid
410. universal සවර් තe nghJ
411. updating යව ත්කවල්යීන කිීකම jw;fhyg;gLj;jy;
412. user ප්රරිවීල්යක gadu;
413. user defined ප්රරිවිල්යක නිර් වචිත gadu; tiuaiw
414. validation ල්යං්ු කිීකම nry;Ygbahf;fy;
415. variable විචල්යcය khwp
416. very large scale ඉතව විවවල්ය ප්රරිමව වේය් kpfg; ngupastpyhd
integration (VLSI) අනුකල්යිත xUq;fpizg;G
417. video graphic ද්රයවc චිතeක අනුහණුරුකුරු fhnzhsp tiuap
adapter (VGA) nghUj;jp
418. virtual community අතථc ප්රeෛව nka;epfu; r%fk;
419. virtual memory අතථc මතකය nka;epfu; epidtfk;
420. virtual storefront අතථc වේ ළඳ ප්රeදර්වනව්වරය nka;epfu; filKfg;G
421. waterfall model දියඇල්යි ආකෘතිය ePu; tPo;r;rp khjpup
422. wave length තරං් ආයවමය miy ePsk;
423. web portal වේ බ් ද් වරය tiy thry;
424. web server වේ බ් වේස් වදවයකය ,iza Nritafk;
425. web service provider වේ බ් වේස් ව සැප්රයුේකරු ,iza Nrit
toq;Fdu;
426. white box testing ස්වේශත මංෛුසව ප්රීකක්ාව ntz;ngl;br; Nrhjpg;G
427. world wide වේල්යගක විසිරි වියමන cyfshtpa tiy
web(WWW)
428. uniform resource ඒකවකවරි සේප්රත් නිව්චවයකය rPu;ik ts
locator (URL) ,Ug;gplq;fhl;b
429. uniform resource ඒකවකවරි සේප්රත් හණඳුන් නය rPu;ik ts
identifier(URI) milahsq;fhl;b
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jfty; njhopDl;gj; Jiw

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