Bpag - 171 (E)

BPAG-171
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM
BPAG
171 Disaster Management Unit Writer
Block 1 Introduction
Unit 1 Meaning and Classification of Dr. Poonam Rautela
Disasters Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Unit 2 Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability Dr. Poonam Rautela
Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Unit 3 Natural and Man-made Disasters Dr. Poonam Rautela
Associate Professor,M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Unit 4 Disaster Profile of India Dr. Poonam Rautela
Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Block 2 Disaster Management: Concepts and Institutional Framework
Unit 5 Disaster Management: Act, Dr. Poonam Rautela
Policy and Institutional Associate Professor,M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Arrangements
Unit 6 Disaster Management Cycle Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
with Focus on Preparedness, Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration
Prevention and Mitigation SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 7 Disaster Relief and Response Dr. Kamla Bora
Assistant Professor,Govt. P G College, Rudrapur (Uttarakhand)
Unit 8 Damage Assessment Dr. Kamla Bora
Assistant Professor,Govt. P G College, Rudrapur (Uttarakhand)
Unit 9 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction Dr. Ranju Joshi Pandey
and Recovery Academic Associate, Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Block 3 Interrelationship between Disasters and Development
Unit 10 Climate Change Dr. Bhagwati Joshi
Assistant Professor, Govt. PG College, Rudrapur (Uttarakhand)
Unit 11 Disasters and Development Dr. Ranju Joshi Pandey
Academic Associate, Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Block 4 Disaster Management: Cross-cutting Issues
Unit 12 Relevance of Indigenous Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
Knowledge Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 13 Community Based Disaster Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
Management Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration
Unit 14 Disaster Management Strategies Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration
Unit 15 Disaster Management: Case Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal
Studies Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration
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Course Contents
Pages
Introduction 6
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
Unit 1 Meaning and Classification of Disasters 15
Unit 2 Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability 29
Unit 3 Natural and Man-made Disasters 49
Unit 4 Disaster Profile of India 64
BLOCK 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTS AND

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Unit 5 Disaster Management: Act, Policy and Institutional Arrangements 81
Unit 6 Disaster Management Cycle with Focus on Preparedness,
Prevention and Mitigation 93
Unit 7 Disaster Relief and Response 107
Unit 8 Damage Assessment 123
Unit 9 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery 134
BLOCK 3 INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISASTERS AND

DEVELOPMENT
Unit 10 Climate Change 149
Unit 11 Disasters and Development 160
BLOCK 4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Unit 12 Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge 177
Unit 13 Community Based Disaster Management 189
Unit 14 Disaster Management Strategies 201
Unit 15 Disaster Management: Case Studies 213
INTRODUCTION
Disaster, natural or human induced, is an unwelcome guest and leaves a permanent
impression of its visit on the victims. Disasters play havoc with the lives of people. They
cause excessive losses to the humanity and infrastructure. Due to disasters, the normal
life is thrown out of gear and the existing patterns of regulatory and development
administration suffers heavily. The economic, social and psychological dimensions of
the wrath of disasters adversely affect the environment around. Frequencies as well as
intensity of natural disasters are increasing globally including India. Disaster impacts
are felt more in developing countries due to borderline economic status of the vulnerable
population, which have inadequate adjustment capacity. India, with a wide range of
climatic and topographic conditions, is subject to various types of natural disasters like
floods, cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, etc., in various degrees. Ever since, disasters
have been causing substantive loss to the community and the exchequer. It not only
stalls the ongoing functioning and pattern of life, but puts on hold the development
actions planned in the nearby future as the fund earmarked for such development is
diverted to disaster relief and response.
There are elements at risk with regard to each disaster. Risk is not an inherent property
of a hazard alone. The weak structures are more at risk. It depends on the fury of the
disaster as well as the vulnerability of the affected region. Thus, the local communities
are required to be prepared to face the aftermath of the disasters effectively. The first
step in this direction is to undertake vulnerability analysis, which brings to light the
elements at risk such as the population, buildings and infrastructure. The most vulnerable
members of the community are the expectant and lactating women, single women,
children, old, disabled, handicapped, sick and ailing people. Their needs have to be
kept in view while making the analysis. Likewise, the physical vulnerability elements
have to be recognised by the community for the purpose of initiating specific measures
to reduce the extent of losses in their regions. The community should also identify the
potential threats in order to cope with the intensity of future disasters.
Human vulnerability to disasters is an age-old phenomenon. Besides nature’s wrath,

human interventions have also precipitated many calamities in the recent past. People
face the most debilitating consequences in the form of economic and social disruption
caused by disasters. The aftermath of disasters is a grim picture of death, destruction
and suffering. The long history of disasters and the suffering caused as a result is reason
enough to ponder over the question of their management.
The scope of disaster management is quite vast and could be understood through two
sub-divisions. These are: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Concerns. Theoretical
foundations include elements and facets like planning, organising, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. The Practical concerns of the scope of disaster
management include subject matter or issue specific namely administration, agriculture,
education, food, health, livelihood, livestock, reconstruction, recovery, rehabilitation,
relief, rescue, shelter, etc. It also comprises human elements touching upon psychological,
social, and economic dimensions. Furthermore, close two-way relationship between
disasters and development reveals the development orientations of disasters. In all
practical terms, the scope of disaster management is much detailed and comprehensive
and calls for a set of systematic approaches to appropriately deal with disasters. Disaster
management is not only a post-disaster management activity but is a detailed and
proactive approach and exercise to be initiated and put in place at various levels with
6 rather active cooperation of all concerned stakeholders. Gone are the days when relief
distribution in a post-disaster scenario was the only facet of disaster management Introduction
engaging serious attention.
For disaster management to be effective and efficient, it is not only the government that
has to play an active role, but all concerned stakeholders need to work in unison for
desired results. Emphasis, of late, has been on sensitising and capacitating the community
as the ‘first responder’.
Disaster management has evolved into a methodical approach that focuses on systematic
observations, their analysis and dissemination of likely events to structure informed
application of resources in time. It aims to prevent avoidable loss of life and property,
minimise human suffering and expedite recovery and rehabilitation. The most crucial
goal of disaster management programmes, as of now, is to take all possible measures
for disaster prevention and preparedness to the extent possible besides initiating prompt
measures towards effective disaster response, rehabilitation and recovery.
Disaster losses can be substantially minimised and the disaster management systems
can be more effective, if serious efforts through research, documentation, knowledge
sharing, networking, etc., in the area of disaster management are carried out and the
same supplement the initiatives undertaken by the laid-down structures in India.
Disaster management education seeks to provide understanding of different types of

hazards, disaster management techniques and impediments in the way of disaster
reduction. It could play a crucial role in the areas of analysing risks in disaster
management, planning for contingencies, streamlining warning systems, mapping disaster
zones, developing data bases, preparing emergency response plans, reducing hazards
and vulnerability, and conceiving disaster coping strategies.
The Course on Disaster Management at Under-graduate level is to orient the learners

about the negative aspects of the disasters and also to sensitise them with the methods
and techniques for effective management of disasters so that the losses arising out of
disasters could either completely avoided or minimised to a substantive extent. Disaster
management is nothing, but in essence it is everything. When it is said that disaster
management is nothing, it is because of the fact that various facets given attention to in
disaster management are from other disciplines and professions. For example, when
policies and programmes for managing disasters are referred to, it is found as having
been taken from political science; geographical considerations, regional planning, spatial
planning, etc., stem from geography; reference to community, society, individuals, groups,
and the like are from the field of sociology; statistical resources, decision making,
computation models are from the areas of statistics and mathematics; plan formulation,
micro finance, macro finance emanate from economics; ecological foundations are from
the field of biology; and past practices as well as treatment to earlier disasters are from
the field of history. It makes one feel that disaster management has nothing of its own
and so it is nothing. The other side of it reveals that disasters affect the polity, society,
economy, environment, development planning, administration, management, etc., and
without appropriate management of disasters each of the professions and disciplines
that contribute to the management of disasters is out of place unless there are appropriate
mechanisms for disaster management. Thus, disaster management is everything and is
equally important and significant for all sections of the society. In keeping with the ‘vast
reach of and impact of disasters’, the said course on Disaster Management shall be of
significance to almost all disciplines of studies, may it be social sciences; sciences,
engineering, architecture, commerce and management; health sciences, etc. This Course
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Disaster Management comprises 4 Blocks, having 15 Units, each covering different important facet of disaster
management.
Block 1 Introduction
Unit 1 Meaning and Classification of Disasters
It explains the meaning and classification of disasters. It brings to light the long history of
disasters. It signifies that disasters have been affecting societies and had been posing
problems and threats to the people and structures. The term ‘disaster’ composed of
two words ‘bad’ and ‘star’. It also highlights the major impacts of disaster, namely,
loss of life and property, adverse impact on economy and social structure,
epidemiological threats, migration, etc. There is mention of various types of disasters in
the Unit, viz. Water and Climate related disasters; Geologically related disasters;
Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear Related disasters; Accident related disasters; and
Biological disasters in the Unit. It specifically focuses on natural disasters, namely,
earthquake, volcanic activity, landslide, tsunami, avalanche, flood, extreme temperature,
drought, wildfire, cyclone and storm surge, and epidemics. Besides, man-made disasters
namely complex emergencies/conflicts, famine, displaced populations, transport accidents
and industrial accidents are highlighted in this Unit.
Unit 2 Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability
Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability are three most important and significant concepts in
disaster management. Disaster management has undergone a change with the passage
of time. It is no more a piecemeal strategy, but an integrated process. In order to
understand disaster management thoroughly, the Unit explains the terms ‘Hazard’ and
‘Disaster’ and brings forth the differentiation between the two. It further explains the
term ‘Risk’ for you to better understand Risk Perception and Risk Identification. Detailed
explanation of Vulnerability and its various types shall help you better understand
Vulnerability and Risk Assessment. The concept of vulnerability covers risk of hazards
and the measure of risk combined with the relative inability to cope with the resulting
stress. In line with it, various factors contributing to both natural and man-made disasters
have been discussed in the Unit.
Unit 3 Natural and Man-made Disasters
Disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk, which is a

resultant of a combination of hazard and vulnerability. Natural disasters, causing loss of
life or property damage, are naturally occurring physical phenomena, whereas man-
made disasters are events that are caused by humans and occur in or close to human
settlements. In order to have proper understanding of various disasters, different natural
and man-made disasters have been discussed at length in the Unit. For better
understanding of the learners, natural disasters, referred to in the Unit, are sub-divided
in four major types, namely, Geophysical, Hydrological, Climatological, and Biological.
Likewise, under man-made disasters, the focus of discussion is on Complex emergencies
and conflicts, Famine, Displaced population, and Transport and industrial accidents.
Unit 4 Disaster Profile of India
India is among the world’s most disaster prone areas and a large part of the country is
exposed to natural hazards, which often turn into disasters causing loss of life and
property. Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities
8
contributing to a situation where disasters seriously threaten India’s economy, its
population and sustainable development. You shall be able to know about the vulnerability Introduction
profile of India classified into three geological divisions, that is, Himalayas, also known
as the Extra-Peninsula; Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Peninsula. The Unit provides
details about major natural disasters in India, namely Earthquakes, Tsunami, Landslides,
Floods, Cyclones, Droughts, and Heat Waves and Cold Waves.
Block 2 Disaster Management: Concepts and Institutional Framework
Unit 5 Disaster Management: Act, Policy and Institutional Framework
In keeping with the substantive loss of life and property caused by disasters, a need for
coordinated and concerted efforts towards effective disaster management in the country
was felt strongly especially after Super Cyclone of Odisha in 1999 and Bhuj Earthquake
in 2001. This Unit highlights the institutional arrangements for disaster management in
India. To this effect, you shall be able to know about the Disaster Management Act,
2005, as a new multidisciplinary focus on disaster prevention and risk reduction and a
move away from a relief-centric regime. It also highlights, at length, the evolution of
National Disaster Management Authority and its major functions. It further brings to
light the role of other major forces/agencies like National Executive Committee, State
Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), District Disaster Management Authority
(DDMA), National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), and National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF). Besides role of Central Government and State Governments
and District Administration, the Unit also discusses other important institutional
arrangements viz. Armed Forces, Central Armed Police Forces, State Police, Fire
Services, Civil Defence (CD) and Home Guards, Civil Defence (CD) and Home Guards,
Local Elected Bodies, Community, International Cooperation, etc. It also brings to
fore the aims of the National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009, and
salient features of the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016.
Unit 6 Disaster Management Cycle with Focus on Preparedness, Prevention

and Mitigation
The focus in disaster management is more towards disaster prevention, preparedness

and mitigation. It is more rightly felt required as it not only helps in preventing a disaster
or/and minimising its loss to the humanity, but also saves lot of economic losses. Disaster
management is a holistic process and is viewed as a Cycle comprising three stages, that
is, pre-disaster; during disaster and post-disaster. Each stage consists of various facets.
Accordingly, the Unit discusses prevention, preparedness and mitigation in pre-disaster
stage; relief and response in during disaster stage; and rehabilitation, reconstruction and
recovery in post-disaster stage.
Unit 7 Disaster Relief and Response
Disasters, in most of the cases, occur suddenly and unexpectedly. These cause lot
much of devastation and destruction. India is one of the most disaster prone countries
in the world. A major disaster occurs in India almost in every 2-3 years and about 50
million people are affected annually from these disasters. On an annual basis, around 1
million houses are damaged along with human, social, economic and other losses. The
requirement is to provide relief to the victims immediately after the disaster. The Unit
shall enable you to know about disaster relief carried out through a number of efforts
including Evacuation, Search and Rescue (SAR) Shelter, Distribution of Food, Water
and Fodder, Clearance of Debris, Movement of Injured to Hospitals, Disposal of Dead
Humans, Disposal of the Dead Animals, Sympathetic Attitude towards Victims, Assisting
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Disaster Management Rescue Teams, Property Security, Information Dissemination and Checking of Rumours,
Immediate Damage Assessment, and Filing of Claims. It also refers to Response
Mechanism with focus on Emergency Operations Centre
Unit 8 Damage Assessment
Damage assessment is an important tool for retrospective and prospective analysis of

disasters to assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster. It is a prerequisite for effective
disaster response effort. It makes an initial and preliminary onsite evaluation of damage
or loss that has been caused by an accident or disaster. Through damage assessment
exercise, an attempt is made to put on record the amount and degree of damage and
also to point out what can be replaced, restored or salvaged. The discussion in the Unit
is on various elements and dimensions of damage assessment. The unit also lays emphasis
on framework of damage assessment in two parts. It brings forth damage assessment
plan for assessing loss and damage to various critical sectors, namely, Human Life,
Housing, Community Infrastructure, Environment, Livelihood, and Health, etc.
Unit 9 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery
In the post-disaster phase, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery are important

and inevitable aspects that are to be paid utmost care in bringing back the life of people
to normalcy. This phase follows immediately after the disaster relief and response.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction are the integral part of recovery and effective
rehabilitation and reconstruction ensures the resilience of the society. This Unit explains
the concept of rehabilitation and its types such as physical rehabilitation, social
rehabilitation, economic rehabilitation and psychological rehabilitation. It also analyses
the major steps of reconstruction and gives special emphasis to the funding arrangement
patterns for reconstruction which encompasses National Disaster Response Fund; State
Disaster Response Fund; National Disaster Mitigation Fund; Recommendations of the
Fourteenth Finance Commission; District level funds; Member of Parliament Local
Area Development Scheme; Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund; and other Insurance
schemes. Finally, it also discusses about recovery mechanism and the problems involved
in recovery areas.
Block 3 Interrelationship between Disasters and Development
Unit 10 Climate Change
In the contemporary context, climate change is a major environmental and developmental

problem, which has no boundary. It affects both the natural ecosystem and society
directly as well as indirectly. The major reason for climate change is the human activity
towards the global atmosphere in the name of development. The impacts are, thus, the
increased frequency of extreme weather, flood, drought, sea level rise and extreme
climate variability. In this Unit, the concepts such as weather, climate, climate change
and its impact are discussed. Moreover, climate vulnerability and climate change
adaptation are also explained from the learners’ perspective.
Unit 11 Disasters and Development
This Unit highlights the interrelationship between disasters and development. Sometimes,
disasters lead to development and likewise development also leads to disasters. Disaster
affects development and causes loss of resources, shifts resources to emergency
response, depresses the investment climate and also affects the non-formal sector. In
10
the same way, development also increases vulnerability through dense urban settlement,
development of hazardous sites, environmental degradation, technological failures or Introduction
accidents, imbalance of pre-existing natural or social systems. This Unit discusses the
relationship between disaster and development and specifically focuses on the aspects
such as development programs and vulnerability; disasters as opportunities for
development initiatives; and missed development opportunities. It brings out the
importance of developing infrastructure in a sustainable manner. Finally, emphasis is
given to long-term job opportunities, livelihood options and the statutory provisions for
mainstreaming disaster risk reduction.
Block 4 Disaster Management: Cross-cutting Issues
Unit 12 Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge
The successful and sustainability of risk reduction activities depends upon the involvement
of local populace, their knowledge, culture and traditional practices. In this context,
increasing the adaptive capacity of the communities helps in bringing back resilience
and also in reducing the levels of vulnerability. The adaptive capacity of community
could be maximised by laying more emphasis on the traditional knowledge. This Unit
enables us to understand the traditional knowledge and in line with it, discusses the
indigenous knowledge and disaster risk reduction. It provides details about the indigenous
knowledge and early warning system. Further, it also discusses the indigenous knowledge
and coping strategies with special reference to cyclone, flood and drought.
Unit 13 Community Based Disaster Management
Community is the first respondent to any kind of disaster and the major stakeholders of
the disaster risk reduction activities. They are the major crusader in bringing back
resilience of the society. The concept of Community Based Disaster Management
(CBDM) is about bringing together the community and involving them in the various
phases of disaster management activities. This is a bottom-up approach to deal with a
disaster. This Unit explains the concept of CBDM and Community Based Risk
Assessment (CBRA), which covers aspects such as hazard, vulnerability, risk and
capacity assessment. It highlights the principles of CBDM and brings out the differences
between the traditional approach and the CBDM approach. It also focuses on the
institutional framework related to CBDM and gives more emphasis on the planning
measures in the pre, during and post-disaster phase.
Unit 14 Disaster Management Strategies
Globally, the occurrence of disasters is increasing due to extreme weather conditions,

population growth, unplanned urbanisation and increasing pressure on natural resources.
It proves that disaster has no boundaries and it makes setbacks on development. It
was in such a context that the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
convention was adapted worldwide in the 1990s. After that the relief-oriented approach
changed towards risk reduction approach. More emphasis was given to improving the
capacities of communities through various disaster risk reduction strategies. This Unit,
thus, introduces the concepts and components of disaster management strategies. It
brings out various disaster management strategies at the international level such as
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction; Yokohama Strategy for Disaster
Reduction; Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction; and Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction. It also highlights the disaster management strategies that
were adopted in the Indian context.
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Disaster Management Unit 15 Disaster Management: Case Studies
Case studies of past disasters are more important to understand a disaster and also to
examine the measures taken to deal with a disaster. Past disasters serve as an opportunity
to learn from the experiences and helps in streamlining disaster risk reduction activities.
In earlier days, India had followed relief-oriented approach and it did not have proper
institutional mechanism to handle a disaster. The major policy changes and the institutional
mechanisms were created after the Odisha cyclone in 1999, Gujarat earthquake in
2001 and the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2005. This Unit highlights the major lessons
learnt from the above mentioned three major disasters; besides bringing out the
experiences of Uttarakhand Floods, 2013 and Cyclone Phailin, 2013.
BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION
14 Blank
UNIT 1 MEANING AND CLASSIFICATION
OF DISASTERS*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Disaster
1.3 Types of Disasters
1.4 Natural Disasters
1.5 Man-made Disasters
1.6 Other Classification of Disasters
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Glossary
1.9 References
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
 Acquire conceptual understanding of relevant disaster terminology;
 Understand the difference between natural and man-made disasters; and
 Give a general overview of classification of disasters.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster has been with us as long as recorded history, and probably even longer.
Our ancestors have had to withstand disasters. They have suffered the consequences
and recovered from them, and life has continued. Most of the old problems remain
as threatening as ever. Natural phenomena such as earthquakes, cyclones, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides, and droughts still persist. So do
man-made disasters such as major accidents. These disasters continue to cause
human casualties, economic and social loss, and damage to the environment. It is
certainly true that we have learned to cope with these problems to some extent.
However, we have neither eliminated nor contained them.
1.2 MEANING OF DISASTER

The term ‘Disaster’ owes its origin to the French word ‘Desastre’ which is the
combination of two words – ‘des’ meaning ‘bad’and ‘astre’ meaning ‘star’. In
earlier days, a disaster was considered to be due to some unfavourable star.
Nowadays, the term ‘Disaster’ is commonly used to denote any odd event, be it
natural or man-made, which brings about immense misery to a region so that it
becomes difficult to cope with the situation through local resources.
* Contributed by Dr. Poonam Rautela, Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani
(Uttarakhand). 15
Introduction As per Disaster Management Act, 2005, “disaster means a catastrophe, mishap,
calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes,
or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human
suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property or damage to, or degradation
of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping
capacity of the community of the affected area.” A more detailed meaning of
disaster, according to the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies, is: “A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously
disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material,
and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s
ability to cope using its own resources. A disaster occurs when a hazard impacts
vulnerable people” (UNISDR, 2009). Disasters are serious disruptions of the
functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses
which exceed the ability of the affected people to cope using its own resources.
The following are the related impacts of disasters:
 Falling apart of normal pattern of life.
 Loss of life and property.
 Adverse impact on economic and social structure.
 Disruption in community needs of shelter, food, clothing and medical help.
 Onset of psychological trauma.
 Loss of livelihood.
 Disruption of communication, transport and infrastructure.
 Law and order problems
 Epidemiological threats.
 Migration (Both short-term and long-term).
However, the above impacts are not always negative, since the negatives could
open up positive avenues of development and growth, as depicted in the table
below:
Table 1.1: Disaster: Negative and Positive Aspects
Aspects Negative Positive
D Damage Development
I Interruption Innovation
S Severe Sharing
A Antagonistic Awareness
S Scourge Self-sufficiency
T Trauma Transformation
E Emergency Education
R Risk Resilience
16 Source: IGNOU, 2012.

Meaning and
1.3 TYPES OF DISASTERS Classification of
Disasters
As per High Powered Committee Report (2001), disasters can be classified into
two major categories (both natural and man-made) and several sub-categories.
Overview of the disasters categorises them into:
i) Water and Climate Related Disasters
 Floods
 Cyclones
 Tornadoes and Hurricanes
 Hailstorm
 Cloud Burst
 Heat Wave and Cold Wave
 Snow Avalanches
 Droughts
 Sea Erosion
 Thunder and Lightning
 Tsunami
ii) Geologically Related Disasters
 Landslides and Mudflows
 Earthquakes
 Dam Failures/ Dam Bursts
iii) Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear Related Disasters
 Chemical and Industrial Disasters
 Nuclear Disasters
iv) Accident Related Disasters
 Forest Fires
 Urban Fires
 Mine Fires
 Mine Flooding
 Oil Spill
 Major Building Collapse
 Serial Bomb Blasts
 Festival Related Disasters
 Electrical Disasters and Fires
 Boat Capsizing
 Village Fire
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Introduction v) Biological Disasters
 Biological hazards
 Epidemics
 Pest Attacks
 Cattle Epidemics
 Food Poisoning
Out of these, some major disasters are focused in the following sections.
1.4 NATURAL DISASTERS

Natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by
rapid or slow onset of events which can be geophysical, hydrological, climatological
and biological.
Earthquakes
Earthquake is the result of forces responsible for the structural deformation deep
within the earth’s interior. Sudden break within the upper layers of the earth,
resulting in the vibration of the ground, which when strong enough causes the
collapse of buildings and destruction of life and property. Earthquakes usually
happen at faults along plate boundaries. Earthquakes often trigger landslides, tidal
waves and tsunamis. Magnitude scales, like the Richter magnitude scale, measure
the size of the earthquake at its source. On the Richter scale - the most devastating
effects are seen on level 6 and above, and if the epicentre of the earthquake is
located in highly populated areas, it can cause large numbers of deaths and injuries
as well as serious destruction of buildings and infrastructure. The basic characteristics
of earthquake include: forecasting is not possible; sudden onset; areas prone to
earthquakes are generally well known and identified due to geological features
and past occurrences (IGNOU, 2006).
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are discharged from a volcanic
vent. The most dangerous type of volcanic eruption is referred to as a ‘glowing
avalanche’. This is when freshly erupted magma forms hot pyroclastic flows which
have temperatures of up to 1,2000 C. The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock
fragments following a volcanic explosion, the flow surges down the flanks of the
volcano at speeds of up to several hundred kilometers per hour, to distances
often up to 10km and occasionally as far as 40 km from the original disaster site.
There are two modes in which the volcanoes usually erupt. These are explosive
eruptions and effusive eruptions. In the former mode of eruption, the gas contents
are high and magma is thick and viscous. Sudden release of confining pressure
allows the gases to boil explosively from the magma. In the later mode, the gas
content in the magma is low and the magma is of relatively low viscosity, therefore
the gases boil out less violently (IGNOU, 2006a).
Landslides
A landslide is the movement of soil or rock controlled by gravity and the speed of
the movement usually ranges between slow and rapid. It can be superficial or
deep, but the materials have to make up a mass that is a portion of the slope or
18
the slope itself. The term landslide is used in its broad sense to include downward Meaning and
and outward movement of slope forming materials (natural rock and soil). It is Classification of
Disasters
caused by heavy rain, soil erosion as well as earth tremors and may also happen
in areas under heavy snow. Landslides are difficult to estimate as an independent
phenomenon. It seems appropriate, therefore, to associate landslides with other
hazards such as tropical cyclones, severe local storms and river floods.
Tsunami
Tsunamis (Japanese for “harbour wave”), also known as a seismic sea wave, are
a series of very large waves with extremely long wavelength, in the deep ocean,
the length from crest to crest may be 100 km and more. It is usually generated by
sudden displacements in the sea floor caused by earthquake, landslides, or volcanic
activity (Government of India, 2016). Tsunamis are a series of large waves generated
by sudden displacement of seawater by earthquakes or volcanic eruption, capable
of propagation over large distances and causing a destructive surge on reaching
land (CRED, 2011). Tsunamis can originate hundreds or even thousands of miles
away from coastal areas. Local geography may intensify the effect of a tsunami
(Kanal, 2013). The impact in coastal areas can be very destructive as the waves
advance inland and can extend over thousands of kilometers. Triggers of a tsunami
can be: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mass movements, meteorite impacts or
underwater explosions.
Avalanches
Avalanche describes a quantity of snow or ice that slides down a mountainside
under the force of gravity. It occurs if the load on the upper snow layers exceeds
the bonding forces of the entire mass of snow. It often gathers material that is
underneath the snow pack like soil, rock, etc. A debris avalanche is a type of
slide characterised by the chaotic movement of rocks, soil and debris mixed with
water or ice (or both). They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. Snow Avalanche can be classified as “dry snow type” or “wet snow
type”. Both these types can be further sub-divided into “direct action” or “delayed
action” avalanches. It brings forth four categories of Snow Avalanches, namely
Dry Snow Direct Action Avalanche; Dry Snow Delayed Action Avalanche; Wet
Snow Direct Action Avalanche; Wet Snow Delayed Action Avalanche. (IGNOU,
2003).
Floods
Floods are also a regular phenomenon of the country and almost every year, one
or the other parts of the country is frequently affected by floods (Kanal, 2013). A
flood is an overflow of water on land which is usually dry. Sometimes a water
resource (river, lake or pond) gets flushed too much with water, resulting in floods
in the nearby regions. The National Disaster Management Division of the Ministry
of Home Affairs defines that “floods are a temporary inundation of large regions
as the result of an increase in reservoir, or of rivers flooding their banks because
of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surge along coast, tsunami, melting
snow or dam bursts”. Flash floods are defined as floods which occur within six
hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with cloud
bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localised warnings and immediate response
if damage is to be mitigated (NDMA, 2008). Unusually heavy rain can also
cause floods. A particular kind of flood, that is, flash flood, is sudden wherein
extreme volume of water flow rapidly and cause inundation.
19
Introduction Extreme Temperature
A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot and sometimes also humid
weather relative to normal climate patterns of a certain region. Heat kills by pushing
the human body beyond its limits. Conditions that can induce heat-related illnesses
include stagnant atmospheric conditions and poor air quality. A cold wave can be
both a prolonged period of excessively cold weather and the sudden invasion of
very cold air over a large area. Along with frost, it can cause damage to agriculture,
infrastructure and property. Cold waves, heavy snowfall and extreme cold can
immobilise an entire region. Winter storms can result in flooding, storm surge,
closed highways, blocked roads, drowned power lines and hypothermia.
Droughts
Drought is defined as a deficiency of rainfall over an extended period – a season,
a year or several years – relative to the statistical multi-year average for the region.
It is an insidious phenomenon. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-
arid zones. Droughts can occur due to long spells of water shortage as a result of
scanty rainfall, inadequate water management techniques, and sheer government
neglect. The severity of drought depends on the degree of moisture deficiency,
duration of dry spells, extent of irrigation facilities; and size of the affected area.
An erratic pattern, both low (less than 750 mm) and medium (750-1125 mm)
makes 68 per cent of the total area in India vulnerable to periodic droughts (IGNOU-
NDMA, 2012). Unlike rapid onset disasters, it tightens its grip over time, gradually
destroying an area. In severe cases, drought can last for many years and have a
devastating effect on agriculture and water supplies. Due to lack of rainfall, there
is inadequacy of water supply for plants, animals and human beings. A drought
may result in other disasters like food insecurity, famine, malnutrition, epidemics
and displacement of populations.
Wildfires
Wildfire is a general term which includes forest fires, grassland fires, bushfires,
brush fires and any other vegetation fire. Speed of onset of a wildfire may vary. It
can be rapid under conditions of high temperatures and high wind, when major
fire fronts advance very quickly. Also, during high winds, fragments of fire from a
main front may be carried forward by the wind, starting new fires further ahead.
This causes the fire to spread much faster. They occur more in coniferous forests
and evergreen broadleaf forests. If the basic requirement of air and the burning
fuel (grass, bush, fallen leaves, branches of trees, deadwood) is dry, fires are
more likely. Hot sunny days with low humidity and strong breeze are conducive
to the rapid spread of fire in a forest. Many trees in forests emit oily or wax-like
substance, which intensifies forest fire. Extinguishing a forest fire is not easy.
Generally forest fire once started, continues until there is heavy rain or the burning
fuel is finished (IGNOU-NDMA, 2012).
Cyclones and Storm Surges
A cyclone is a largescale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low
atmospheric pressure. Cyclone is characterised by inward spiraling winds that
rotate about a zone of low pressure. The term “cyclone” refers to the storms’
cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. A tropical cyclone is a storm
system characterised by a low-pressure centre and numerous thunderstorms that
20 produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released
when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the Meaning and
moist air. Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred Classification of
Disasters
to by other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm,
tropical depression, or simply as a cyclone. A storm surge is a coastal flood or
tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure
weather systems (such as tropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by
the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the
timing of tides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of
storm surges.
Epidemics
Epidemic is a derivation of two Greek words epic (upon/among) and demons
(people). An epidemic is the unusual increase in the number of cases of an infectious
disease which already exists in a certain region or population. It can also refer to
the appearance of a significant number of cases of an infectious disease in a region
or population that is usually free from that disease. Epidemics may be the consequence
of disasters of another kind, such as tropical storms, floods, earthquakes, droughts,
etc. Epidemics may also attack animals, causing local economic disasters. The
types of diseases generally recognised as communicable or transmissible include:
hepatitis, typhoid, diphtheria, malaria, cholera, influenza, enteritis, diarrhea, skin
diseases, food poisoning, etc. Health affecting lifestyle like smoking, drug addiction
and health related events like accidents also fall into category of epidemics. But
during disasters, we are more concerned about the epidemics of communicable
diseases (IGNOU, 2003).
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Define ‘disaster’ and list its various types.
.............................................................................................................
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2) Briefly discuss the nature of Earthquakes and Landslides.
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3) Explain the nature of Cyclones and Storm Surges.
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21
Introduction
1.5 MAN-MADE DISASTERS
Technological or man-made disasters are events that are caused by humans and
occur in or close to human settlements. This can include environmental degradation,
pollution and accidents. Some disasters can result from several different hazards
or, more often, from a complex combination of both natural and man-made causes
of vulnerability. Food insecurity, epidemics, conflicts and displaced populations
are some of the examples.
Complex Emergencies/Conflicts
It is a humanitarian crisis in a country, region or society, where there is total or
considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict
and which requires an international response. On a national level, conflict may
involve warlike encounters between armed groups from the same country which
take place within the borders. Such outbreaks of war may pose large-scale medical
problems such as epidemics, lack of water, accumulation of rubbish, displaced
persons, refugees, food shortage, hunger, etc. Internationally, war may break out
between two or more armies from different countries. Similarly such conflict may
cause large scale mass movements of refugees and displaced persons. Such “complex
emergencies” are typically characterised by extensive violence and loss of life;
displacements of populations; widespread damage to societies and economies
and the need for large-scale, multi-faceted humanitarian assistance.
Famines
Foodsecurity emergencies are complex disasters with multiple root causes. Severe
drought and/or conflict can produce an acute food emergency, whereas chronic
food insecurity is often a reflection of poverty, a worsening debt crisis, and economic
effects at household level of the HIV/AIDS pandemic or mismanagement or abuse
of water resources. In such cases, food can be both unavailable (insufficient production)
and inaccessible (distribution problems, beyond consumers’ purchasing power).
Poor nutrition, brought on by food shortages, reduces people’s resistance to disease,
and makes outbreaks of preventable diseases likely. Water shortages, which force
people to use polluted water, increase the risk of waterborne diseases. Food-
security problems may drive populations to other areas, such as the outskirts of
towns, in search of better living conditions.
Displaced Populations
“Displaced populations leave their homes in groups, usually due to a sudden impact,
such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict. There is usually an intention
to return home. Migration and displacement are interlinked, but must be distinguished.
Displaced populations – either across borders such as refugee influxes, or within
a country because of disasters or armed conflict – usually need relief operations
combined with efforts aiming at collective and lasting solutions. Migration on the
other hand usually involves more individual social assistance, legal protection and
personal support. The responsibility for refugees and all displaced populations
primarily rests with the host government. It is the mandate of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees to protect and assist refugees.” (IFRC, 2017)
Transport Accidents
These are used to describe technological transport accidents involving mechanised
modes of transport. It comprises four disaster subsets: accidents involving air,
22 boat, rail transport and accidents involving motor vehicles on roads and tracks.
Transport accidents will address issues pertaining to bulk transportation of chemicals Meaning and
both by road, rail or marine means and safe transportation of petroleum products Classification of
Disasters
including combustible gases through pipelines. Comprehensive rules and guidelines
under various acts provide for safe transportation of hazardous chemicals or dangerous
goods. Transportation on land under the Petroleum Rules has laid down safety
requirements for tank vehicle, tank capacity, engines, electrical installations etc.,
and has also highlighted restriction on loading/unloading of tank vehicles (NDMA,
2007).
Industrial Accidents
These accidents include explosions such as chemical explosion, nuclear explosion
and mine explosion. Disasters will only be classified as explosions when the explosion
is the actual disaster. If the explosion is the cause of another disaster, the event
will be classified as the resulting disaster. Such disasters result in subsequent disasters
such as:
 Pollution and degradation of one or more aspects in the environment by
noxious industrial, chemical or biological wastes, from debris or man-made
products and from mismanagement of natural and environmental resources.
 Acid rain: A washout of an excessive concentration of acidic compounds in
the atmosphere, resulting from chemical pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen
compounds. When deposited they increase the acidity of the soil and water
causing agricultural and ecological damage.
1.6 OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

Disasters are on a rise throughout the world. Frequency of disasters provides
evidence of human ignorance or neglect to certain key developmental issues. It is
worth noting that one of the most important decisive factors in any disaster is its
disruptive impact that creates pervasive uncertainty, suffering and trauma. Disasters
cause severe loss to lives and property, destroy infrastructure and productive
capacity, interrupt economic activity and create irreversible changes in a country’s
natural resource base. Besides, there is an adverse affect of disasters on development
process of the society because there is diversion of scarce resources towards
relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation activities. Disasters are also classified as
compound and complex. Compound disaster is explained as one type of hazard,
for example, disaster leading to other contingencies, such as famines followed by
civil strife, mass displacement of peoples, etc.
Complex disasters are those that lead to collapse of the political authority or lead
to some other complexity where the problems involved/generated are intensely
political in nature such as communal bias in distribution of relief, etc.
1) Bring out the difference between Natural and Man-made disasters.
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23
Introduction
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2) Describe Famines.
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3) Discuss the impact of Industrial Accidents.
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1.7 CONCLUSION
Most disasters that affect our society are often a combination of two or more
disasters. For example, earthquakes and volcanic activities can cause an industrial
accident; or droughts which can lead up to famine. A major factor which bears
upon today’s situation is that new disaster threats have developed, particularly
since World War II. Increased social violence has drastically affected many nations
and communities. Hijacking, terrorism, civil unrest, and conflict with conventional
arms have become very common all over the world. These have sometimes inflicted
intolerable burden on governments and societies whose existence is already precarious
because of poor economic and social conditions. Though we have devised various
methods to manage crisis caused due to disasters, many more challenges still
persist.
1.8 GLOSSARY
Disaster : A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that
seriously disrupts the functioning of a community
or society and causes human, material, and
economic or environmental losses that exceed
the community’s or society’s ability to cope
using its own resources. A disaster occurs when
a hazard impacts vulnerable people.
Natural Disaster : A natural disaster is caused by natural
phenomenon which can cause loss of life or
24
property damage, and typically leaves some Meaning and
economic damage in its wake, the severity of Classification of
Disasters
which depends on the affected population’s
resilience or ability to recover and also on the
infrastructure available.
Man-made Disasters : Technological or man-made disasters are events
that are caused by humans and occur in or
close to human settlements. This can include
environmental degradation, pollution and
accidents.
Compound Disaster : Compound disaster is explained as one type
of hazard, for example, disaster leading to other
contingencies, such as famines followed by civil
strife, mass displacement of peoples etc.
Complex Disasters : Complex disasters are those that lead to
collapse of the political authority or lead to
some other complexity where the problems
involved/generated are intensely political in
nature such as communal bias in distribution
of relief, etc.
1.9 REFERENCES
ADRC. (2005). Definition of Disaster Risk Total Disaster Risk Management: Good
Practices. Retrieved from http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/TDRM2005/
TDRM_Good_Practices/PDF/Chapter1_1.2.pdf
Alexander, D. (2002). Principles of Emergency Planning and Management.

Harpend: Terra Publishing. Edinburgh: Terra Publishing.
Allen, K. (2003). Vulnerability Reduction and the Community Based Approach.

In M. Pelling, Natural Disaster and Development in a Globalising World. London:
Routledge.
Anderson-Berry, L. J. (2000). Cyclone Rosita,Post-Disaster Report. Cairns:Centre

for Disaster Studies, James Cook University.
Bankoff,G., Frerks, G., & Hilhorst, D. (Eds.). (2003). Mapping Vulnerability:

Disasters, Development and People. London: Routledge.
Carr, L.J. (1932). Disaster and the Sequence-Pattern Concept of Social Change.
American Journal of Sociology.38(2),207-218.
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). (2011). Annual

Disaster Statistical Review 2011: The numbers and trends. Brussels.
Coburn, A.W., Sspence, R.J.S. & Pomonis, P.W. (1994). Vulnerability and
Risk Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge Architectural Research limited, Artifax
Services, U.K.
Government of India. (2016). National Disaster Management Plan. New Delhi:

National Disaster Management Authority.
25
Introduction International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2002). World
Disasters Report 2002 – Reducing Risk. Retrieved from http://www.ifrc.org/en/
publications-and-reports/world-disasters-report/wdr2002/
IFRC. (2017). Complex/manmade hazards: displaced populations. Retrieved from
http://www.ifec.org.
IGNOU. (2003). Foundation Course in Disaster Management. Certificate Course
in Disaster Management (CDM-01). New Delhi: Faculty of Public Administration.
IGNOU. (2003). Disaster Management: Methods and Techniques. Certificate Course
in Disaster Management (CDM-02). New Delhi: Faculty of Public Administration.
IGNOU. (2006). Understanding Natural Disasters. Post Graduate Diploma in
Disaster Management (MPA-001). New Delhi: Faculty of Public Administration.
IGNOU. (2006a). Understanding Man-Made Disasters. Post Graduate Diploma
in Disaster Management (MPA-001). New Delhi: Faculty of Public Administration.
IGNOU. (2012). Training Manual on Conceptual and Institutional Framework
of Disaster Management. New Delhi: IGNOU-NDMA.
Kanal, S. (2013). Disaster Management in Tamil Nadu: A Case Study of
Nagappatinam District. Unpublished thesis. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National
Open University.
Lynn, H. (n.a.). Landslide Hazard Information. Retrieved from www.geology.com.
McCarthy, J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J. & White, K.S. (Eds.).
(2001). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Medury, U. (2003). Disaster Risk Reduction: A Preparedness Approach. In Pardeep
Sahni and Madhavi Ariyabandu, (Eds.), Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia.
New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
NDMA. (2007). Guidelines on Management of Chemical Disasters. New Delhi:
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
NDMA. (2008). Guidelines on Management of Floods. New Delhi: Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India.
UNDP. (2002). A Climate Risk Management: Approach to Disaster Reduction
and Adaptation to Climate Change. Retrieved from
https://www.mona.uwi.edu/cardin/virtual_library/docs/1140/1140.pdf
UNHABITAT. (n.d.). Displaced Populations And Human Settlements. Retrieved
from http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/rdmu/documents/dpopulations.pdf.
UNISDR. (2009). Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Retrieved from https:/
/www.unisdr.org/files/7817_UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf
University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Center. (n.d.). Natural Hazards:
Causes and Effects, Lesson.1: Introduction to Natural Hazards. Retrieved from
http://www.dmc.engr.wisc.edu/courses/ssenglish.htm
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. & Davis, I. (2004). At Risk - Natural Hazards,
People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. London: Routledge.
26
Meaning and
1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Classification of
EXERCISES Disasters

1) Your answer should include the following points:
 A disaster is a sudden calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, or
destruction.
 Five types of disaster such as Water and Climate Related disasters;
Geological disasters; Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear related disasters;
Accident related disasters; and Biologically related disasters.
 Earthquakes are the result of forces deep within the earth’s interior.
Sudden break within the upper layers of the earth, resulting in the vibration
of the ground, which when strong enough cause the collapse of buildings
and destruction of life and property.
 Landslide is the movement of soil or rock controlled by gravity and the
speed of the movement usually ranges between slow and rapid. It can
be superficial or deep, but the materials have to make up a mass that is
a portion of the slope or the slope itself.
 It is used in its broad sense to include downward and outward movement
of slope forming materials (natural rock and soil).
 Cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of
low atmospheric pressure. Cyclones are characterised by inward spiraling
winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure.
 The term “cyclone” refers to the storms’ cyclonic nature, with
counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.
 A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterised by a low-pressure
center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding
rain.
 Storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising
water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems (such
as tropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness
and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the timing
of tides.
 Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm
surges.
 Natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either
by rapid or slow onset events which can be geophysical, hydrological,
climatological and biological.
27
Introduction  Technological or man-made disasters are events that are caused by humans
and occur in or close to human settlements. This can include environmental
degradation, pollution and accidents.
 Famine is a complex disaster with multiple root causes.
 Severe drought and/or conflict can produce an acute food emergency,
whereas chronic food insecurity is often a reflection of poverty.
 Pollution and degreadation of one or more aspects in the environment
by noxious wastes.
 Acid rain.
28
UNIT 2 HAZARD, RISK AND
VULNERABILITY*
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Understanding Hazards
2.3 Understanding Risks
2.3.1 Risk Assessment and Evaluation
2.3.2 Risk Perception
2.3.3 Risk Identification
2.4 Understanding Vulnerability

2.4.1 Vulnerability Identification
2.4.2 Types of Vulnerability
2.5 Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

2.6 Vulnerability Factors
2.7 Conclusion
2.8 Glossary
2.9 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Acquire conceptual understanding of relevant disaster terminology;
 Discuss vulnerability factors in brief; and
 Understand vulnerability and risk assessment.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Throughout the twentieth century, the theory and practice of disaster management
had been dominated by the scientific perspective, whereby, disasters were thought
of purely as a geological or a climatic problem, the solutions for which lay in
engineering and management sciences. In the last two decades, there has been a
paradigmatic shift in the understanding of disasters per se the human factor, which
had been neglected in the earlier approach, is now in focus. The attempt consequently
is to inquire into sociological processes that determine or undermine a community’s
resilience, coping capacity and response to disasters. Presently, the term disaster
is a more inclusive concept, in that it includes man- made, and technological hazards,
as also terrorism, which has added a new dimension to its understanding.

(Uttarakhand). 29
Introduction There are two important perceptions on disasters. According to one school of
thought, disasters are natural, revengeful acts of nature: an opportunity for man to
atone for his sins, wherein death and destruction are inevitable. As per the other
perspective, disasters are man-made. An event, whether a product of natural
phenomena or human activities, turns out to be a catastrophic disaster, if the
community or society fails to adequately cope up with it. Natural hazards do not
necessarily lead to disasters. Intense, inevitable or unpredictable natural hazards
like tsunamis, cyclones and earthquakes prove to be disasters only when the population
is affected and more so when it is unprepared to respond to and unable to cope
with it.
Disaster sociologist Carr (1932) has endeavoured to understand disasters in terms
of social action. Carr indicates that disasters are the collapse (that is, failure or
inadequacy) of cultural protection, a result of human activities and not of natural
or supernatural forces; therefore, they are essentially human-made. An understanding
of causes of disasters and timely appropriate intervention can effectively reduce
the disaster threat.
2.2 UNDERSTANDING HAZARDS

Hazard is defined as a potential or a latent/dormant cause, which is activated
when the right configuration of factors, natural or man-made or both, present
themselves. For example, a chemical plant in a populated area presents a hazard
having a potential threat to life and property in that area or within defined vicinity.
Disaster is the actual occurrence of the apprehended catastrophe. Hence, disaster
is “any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life,
deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an
extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”(World Health
Organisation (WHO)).
A hazard technically is not a disaster unless the ‘trigger’ (natural or man- made)
sets it off. Disaster, involving large-scale loss of life and property, is a sudden
onset event, on a scale large enough to require outside assistance, which threatens
the continuity of social systems and processes. “A disaster should be defined on
the basis of its human consequences, not on the phenomenon (hazard) that caused
it. Earthquakes, floods and cyclones are ‘natural hazards’ which cause large-scale
loss of life and property (disaster) when the trigger mechanism (natural or man-
made) is activated.” Risk is a technical concept, which is used by engineering and
management specialists to arrive at an estimation of losses in the event of a disaster
and the expected probability of its occurrence. ‘Elements’ are identified as life
and property likely to suffer damage in the event of a disaster. Observation and
perception of risk involves ascertaining, specifically, such ‘elements’ at risk.
“Identification of risk involves inquiring into the specific natural, technological or
chemical, etc., processes that create the vulnerability of the elements identified
for risk analysis”.
Vulnerability can be natural or man-made. It can be physical, owing to factors
such as weak buildings, habitation in hazard prone areas; or socio economic,
arising due to poverty or marginalisation of the weaker sections of society who
lack the wherewithal of defending themselves in the event of a disaster.
Hazards
“Extreme geophysical events, biological processes and major technological accidents,
30
characterised by concentrated release of energy or materials, which pose a largely Hazard, Risk and
unexpected threat to human life, and can, cause significant damage to goods and Vulnerability
the environment” are described as hazards.
The difference between a hazard and a disaster is very important and crucial. A
disaster takes place when a community is affected by a hazard (usually defined as
an event that exceeds the community’s capacity to cope). In other words, the
impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability
to the hazard. This vulnerability is not natural. It is the human dimension of disasters,
the result of the whole range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political
and even psychological factors that shape people’s lives and create the environment
that they live in (Twigg, 2001).
Observation and Perception of Hazards
Though hazards could be classified on many criteria; some of the general classifications
are as follows (S. Gopalakrishnan). Hazards could be:
 Sudden onset hazards — (geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes, tsunamis,
floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides.
 Slow onset hazards — (environmental hazards) drought, famine, environmental
degradation, desertification, deforestation, and pest infestation.
 Industrial/technological—system failures/accidents, spillages, explosions, fires.
 Wars and civil strife—armed aggression, insurgency, terrorism, and other
actions leading to displaced persons and refugees.
 Epidemics—water and/or food-born diseases, person-to-person diseases
(contact and respiratory spread), vector-born diseases and complications
from wounds.
Hazards could also be classified as direct and indirect. For example, earthquake
hazard would lead to direct and indirect consequences, tabulated as under (ibid):
Direct Hazards
i) Ground shaking;
ii) Differential ground settlement;
iii) Soil liquefaction;
iv) Immediate landslides or mud slides, ground lurching and avalanches;
v) Permanent ground displacement along faults;
vi) Floods from tidal waves, Sea Surges & Tsunamis, etc.
Indirect Hazards
i) Dam failures;
ii) Pollution from damage to industrial plants;
iii) Delayed landslides.
Besides, Hazards can be of both short term and long-term duration, as per the
classification proposed by K. Smith (1996).
31
Introduction Identification of Hazards
Identification of hazards involves analysis of scientific data to trace the causal
path of events leading up to a disaster. For example, identification of chemicals
causing water pollution; their source, impact on specific ‘elements’ such as human
health, etc.; inquiring into the nature and characteristics of a hazard with a view to
distinguish the man-made and natural components thereof; for example, floods,
which are caused by both natural and man-made factors. Man-made factors include
bad land use management policies such as allowing habitation and locating critical
facilities in flood prone areas, etc., which increase the vulnerability of ‘exposed’
populations. It also entails policy analysis in that the unintended consequences
of policies have to be examined with a view to framing more environment friendly
legislation in the future. Hazard analysis is the basis of ‘sustainable development’
policies. For example, desertification is a slow-onset disaster. Desertification arises
from the interaction between a “difficult, unreliable and sensitive dry land environment
and the human use and occupation of it in an effort to make a living.” Following a
hazard analysis of the process of desertification, effective strategies can be devised
to address the problem.
Hazards can be of short- term duration. Most of the widely recognised hazards,
viz., earthquakes, volcanoes, severe weather conditions, occur naturally in the
environment. Another group of hazards is created by the action of human beings.
Pollution of water, fire hazard and air frequently fall into the man-made hazards
category and include high levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) in the atmosphere. Other man-made hazards include oil spills, pesticides,
etc., which build up in the environment as a result of or due to excessive or
repeated application of chemicals by agriculturalists, and flooding and erosions
resulting from inappropriate land management practices. Flooding, for example,
may be the result of ill-conceived policies, which has allowed construction and
intensive land use on flood plains and flood-prone regions.
2.3 UNDERSTANDING RISKS

Risk is precisely defined by the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
as “the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries,
property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting
from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions”.
Conventionally, risk is expressed by the notation:
Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability.
Some disciplines also include the concept of exposure to refer particularly to the
physical aspects of vulnerability. In scenario analysis, risk is different from threat.
Threat is a more abstract concept; risk is an expression of perceived threat in
specific terms. Threat is a danger that has an extremely low probability of occurrence.
For purposes of public policy, threat has to be articulated objectively in terms of
component risks, the probability of their occurrence and damages involved. The
difference is most clearly illustrated by the ‘precautionary principle’, which needs
specific articulation of risks involved for development of comprehensive strategy
to mitigate risks involved. A set of well-defined risks has to be derived from
threat before an action; project, innovation or experiment is allowed to proceed.
For example, apprehension of terrorism was a threat. No policy could be devised
to meet the threat, which led to September 11 attacks in United States. Threat
32 was not articulated as risk for preventive policy in this regard. Vulnerability is
understood as system faults or weaknesses, which a threat exploits to create the Hazard, Risk and
negative ‘impact.’ Risk management involves minimising the vulnerabilities so as Vulnerability
to reduce the impact of the threat. Risks, created, or exist, are both inherent in
social systems, due to specific environmental variables in the ‘ecology’ of a system.
The ecological context is therefore significant in understanding of vulnerabilities of
people in different cultures as the causes of vulnerability and the level of risk
perception in different countries is likely to be different.
Risk contains a probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths,
injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged)
resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable
conditions.
Risks are mainly witnessed due to the increased pressure on resources or because
of the side effects of external linkages and interventions. Intense use of a resource
in mountains exposes them. As a result, it leads to serious degradation. Major
forces behind such intensified resource use are rapid population growth, market
induced demand, greed of the rich and resource exploitative public policies.
Irrespective of the factors behind resource use intensification, invariable consequences
are the disruption of conditions conducive to biophysical processes that finally
harm the stability and sustainability of mountain environments.
2.3.1 Risk Assessment and Evaluation

Risk assessment is defined as “the methodology to determine the nature and extent
of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability
that could pose a potential threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the
environment on which they depend”.
Such assessment has significant administrative implications in that precise understanding
of the underlying process of formulation of targeted risks reduction policies. Precise
quantification of risk is often difficult in the absence of adequate data and proper
analysis techniques. Moreover, certain areas are multi-hazard prone, which pose
another challenge for risk assessment. Risk reduction policy for such areas would
require risk assessments regarding each hazard to arrive at an estimation of total
loss. Besides, risks are not amenable to simple quantification and cannot be easily
either identified or quantified.
Disaster risk is seen as a function of the hazard, exposure and vulnerability,
denoted by the mathematical function:
Disaster Risk = function (Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability)
Where “Exposure” refers to the element, which is affected by natural disasters;
people and/or property.
To reduce disaster risk, it is important to reduce the level of vulnerability and to
keep ‘exposure’ as far away from hazards as possible by relocating populations
and property away from the hazard prone zone”(Wisconsin Disaster Management
Center).
“The process of conducting a risk assessment is based on a review of both the
technical features of hazards such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability;
and also the analysis of the physical, social, economic and environmental dimensions
of vulnerability and exposure, while taking particular account of the coping capabilities
pertinent to the risk scenarios….”(ISDR). Risk evaluation entails assessment of 33
Introduction proposed risk reduction measures from the point of view of cost efficiency. Efficiency
is examined by means of cost benefit comparisons, which imply assessing benefits
procured or expected to be procured from a measure against costs likely to be
incurred.
2.3.2 Risk Perception

Risk perception is understood as the ‘awareness’ of risk, which differs among
societies. Poor countries with other pressing problems do not attach too much
priority to disaster mitigation. General level of awareness among people regarding
the significance of disaster mitigation and preparedness is also quite low. Consequently,
there is less interest articulation for policy inputs in this area. On the other hand,
risk perception is found to be quite high in the developed world where much
effort has been put in disaster mitigation efforts, though vulnerability is low as
compared to developing countries. It has been stated that Risk Perception depends
on the following four specific factors (Coburn, Sspence & Pomonis., 1994).
Exposure: actual quantitative risk level, as articulated through risk assessments.
Familiarity: personal experience, which makes one alive to the dangers of disasters.
Dread: horror of the disasters’ scale and consequences, which makes policy imminent.
Preventability: belief in prevention methods, which leads to disaster mitigation
policies.
2.3.3 Risk Identification

The political representatives informally do risk assessments as part of daily governance,
which use it to justify legislations in foreign policy, the judicial system, law enforcement,
etc. Risk assessments are now being conducted in more sophisticated ways,
particularly in the field of environmental legislation. Risk has to be ‘empirically’
ascertained, for which subjective biases arising due to cultural or ideological inclinations
need to be kept out of policy judgments. The best example of risk assessment
comes from the insurance industry where “the insurers have well-defined roles of
actuary, underwriter, agent, auditor and adjustor.” Each of these is an assessor in
somewhat different circumstances or stages of the insuring, reinsuring, adjustment,
recovery and claims payment processes. Hence, risk assessment is a continuous
process of ‘articulation’, which needs to be undertaken periodically at every stage,
or phases in a said activity/process. Objectivity of the risk assessment depends
on the availability of adequate and timely data.
Risk, essentially in the context of disasters, is the probability that injury to life
or damage to property and the environment may happen. However, in disaster
management, risk refers to the combined susceptibility and vulnerability of the
community to potential damage caused by a particular hazard within a specified
time period. Risk is rooted in conditions of physical, social, economic and environmental
vulnerability that need to be assessed and managed on a continuing basis.
Further, for understanding the above concepts, a technical evaluation process is
usually undertaken, commonly called hazard assessment, vulnerability analysis,
and risk analysis. These are structured analytical procedures for identifying hazards
and estimate the probability of their occurrence and consequences given certain
conditions. Taken altogether a similar structured analysis of actual or potential
vulnerabilities, these estimations are compared with a standard criterion in order
34
to decide whether or not an action is desirable to reduce the probabilities or to Hazard, Risk and
protect the people, property, or environment. Realistically, it is necessary also to Vulnerability
consider that to what extent perceived constraints of time and resources may
slow down the application of desirable countermeasures.
Hazard and vulnerability are aggregated into risk. Risk can be seen subjectively
or objectively analysed or perceived. A subjective risk is the risk perceived by
the people affected which determines their willingness to accept a potential hazard
and take steps to tackle it.
1) What do you mean by Hazards?
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2) Explain the concept of Risk.
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3) Discuss the nature of Risk Assessment.
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2.4 UNDERSTANDING VULNERABILITY

Vulnerability gives the extent to which a community is affected by a disaster. It
involves the measure of ‘resilience’ and ‘coping capacity’ of a community in the
face of adversity. Resilience and coping capacity develop over time as a result of
proactive government policies. Vulnerability is an ‘inclusive’ concept in which
vulnerability of a particular community to a particular type of disaster (flood or
earthquake) is a resultant effect of a number of factors, which include physical
factors, (geographical perspective) social (sociological perspective) and economic 35
Introduction factors (income and employment, involving micro and macroeconomic policy) besides
institutional or administrative, which are essentially governance related issues. The
process of vulnerability has been evidenced as proceeding along phases as follows;
root causes, dynamic pressures that translate these into active problems, which
are a result of a priority decision-making in governance related matters over time,
for example, drought in a dry land area, leading to a famine in the absence of
disaster mitigation efforts.
Social scientists and climate scientists often interpret vulnerability differently. Social
scientists tend to view vulnerability as representing the set of socio-economic
factors that determine people’s ability to cope with stress or change (Allen, 2003).
Climate scientists often view vulnerability in terms of the likelihood of occurrence
and impacts of weather and climate related events. Related terms are fragility,
stability, resilience and sensitivity of a system. These are the constituents of
‘vulnerability’. There are some definitions of vulnerability and vulnerability assessment
like: “Vulnerability is the likelihood that an individual or group will be exposed to
and adversely affected by a hazard. It is the interaction of the hazard of place
(risk and mitigation) with the social profile of communities” (Cutter, 1993). “By
vulnerability, we mean the characteristics of a person or a group in terms of their
capacity to anticipate, copes with, resists, and recovers from the impact of a
natural hazard. It involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to
which someone’s life and livelihood are put at risk by a discrete and identifiable
event in nature or in society” (Blaikie, et.al, 1994). So, vulnerability is conceived
as both physical risk and social response within a specific location and time.
The science of ecology, as Turner and Benjamin have pointed out, lacks a precise/
accepted definition of ecosystem fragility. Ecologists use “fragility” to denote a
“system at risk”, where the notion of “risk” is linked to ecological concepts of
stability/instability and susceptibility. The chain of linkages characterising the system
provides the ecological base for the notion of fragility. This complex internal structure
of the organic ties of species at risk, is receiving detailed analysis in the emerging
field of ecological risk assessment. (Travis & Morris, 1992).
According to Holling (1986), “Stability” is “the propensity of a system to attain
and retain the equilibrium condition of a steady state or stable oscillation,” where
as “resilience” is “the ability of a system to maintain its structure and patterns of
behaviour in the face of disturbance”.
“Sensitivity” is used to measure the magnitude of negative impacts of environmental
change. Change can have both positive and negative impact on human societies.
Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) use the terms “sensitivity” and “resilience” to describe
the quality of land system. They use “sensitivity” to refer to “the degree to which
a given land system undergoes change due to natural forces, following human
interference” and “resilience” to refer to “ the ability of land to reproduce its
capability after interference, and the measure of the need for human artifice to
that end”. In such manner, we may define sensitivity or susceptibility as “the degree
of ecosystem or ecosystem component change associated with a given degree of
human induced stress”, and resilience as “ the ability of a particular ecosystem to
maintain the basic structure essential to support human uses during perturbations
and to recover from such (and especially damaging) changes”.
“Fragility” reflects both of these properties of human ecosystem interactions. This
way, fragility is “the sensitivity of a particular ecosystem to human induced perturbations
36 and its resilience to such perturbations.”
Green (1990), in reference to flood hazards, expresses vulnerability as a relationship Hazard, Risk and
between changing conditions and normal use patterns. He defines vulnerability as Vulnerability
a function of “susceptibility (the extent to which the presence of water will affect
inputs or outputs of an activity); “dependency” (the degree to which an activity
requires a particular good as an input to function normally); and “transferability”
(the ability of an activity to response by deferring demand, using substitutes or
relocating)”
2.4.1 Vulnerability Identification

Vulnerability is defined as the conditions determined by physical, social, economic,
and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a
community to the hazards. Vulnerability identification implies examining the root
causes of vulnerability that could lie in technological, physical, or socio economic
conditions and addressing the same through empirical research and policy. Identification
of vulnerability is challenging because in that complex processes interact in resultant
vulnerability of a system or a specific region/ people(s). Tackling vulnerability
involves both short-term and long-term measures in that the problem of vulnerability
has essentially come across as a problem of development. The solution therefore
lies in policy analyses of developmental planning with a view to making sustainable
development measures more precise and ‘need based’ with respect to reducing
of vulnerability.
2.4.2 Types of Vulnerability

Type Nature
Material/Economic Vulnerability Inadequate access to resources
Social Vulnerability Disintegration of local institutions and
structures
Ecological Vulnerability Degradation of environment and inability
to protect it
Organizational Vulnerability Lack of strong central, state and
grassroots institutional structures
Educational Vulnerability Insufficient access to information and
knowledge
Attitudinal and Motivational Low levels of public awareness and
Vulnerability desire to change
Political Vulnerability Limited access to political power and
representation
Cultural Vulnerability Blind faith in beliefs and customs
Physical Vulnerability Weak building and other infrastructure,
as well as physically weak or vulnerable
people
Source: IGNOU, 2006.
37
Introduction
2.5 VULNERABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT
The international community pioneered by the United Nations has attempted to
analyse disasters over time and prepare an inventory of causes that lead to them,
the extent of damage suffered, what and how mitigation needs to be applied, and
where, successfully. Risk assessment is an investigation into the disaster phenomenon
through detailed study and investigation of repeat events over time, such as floods
or earthquakes, assessment of damage and estimation of future losses possible in
the absence of disaster mitigation measures. Vulnerability assessment is a subset
of risk assessment, which analyses differential vulnerability of communities in differential
areas of disaster impact (such as increasing or decreasing degree of hazard proneness).
Precise quantification of risk, however, is difficult. At best, a gross estimation of
risk is possible, for example, number of deaths and the number of people exposed
to a hazard. Such crude estimates give only a limited idea of the likely damage
from a hazard for different people at different places or even the probability of its
occurrence.
Vulnerability Analysis entails assessing the loss of life and property from a particular
hazard striking at a particular intensity. For example, ‘x’ number of people are
expected to be killed and property worth ‘y’ destroyed, if a cyclone strikes with
strong winds at 130km/hr.
Disaster vulnerability needs to be studied over time. It does not happen all of a
sudden; rather communities gradually slip into a disaster mode. Thus, comprehensively,
disaster vulnerability is understood both as ‘products’ and ‘processes’ in three
main aspects:
 As ‘product’ of ongoing social-cultural and economic transformation ‘processes’
within communities;
 As product of normal (under) developmental process; and
 As product of immediate and long term disaster response.
An attempt should be made at redefining disasters in a dynamic and integrated
perspective, integrating socio-cultural, developmental and ecological outlook.
The desirable in an academic analysis of vulnerability with the practical perspective
of policy design shall include:
 Development of an integrated perspective, integrating socio-cultural,
developmental and ecological perspectives to develop a comprehensive
framework on disaster mitigation;
 Emphasis on poverty alleviation and community empowerment through local
control on land and material resources, cultural continuity and compatibility,
sustainability of livelihoods, equitable participation through empowerment,
ethics, roles and responsibilities of local governance.
2.6 VULNERABILITY FACTORS

The concept of vulnerability covers risk of hazards and the measure of risk combined
with the relative inability to cope with the resulting stress. Timmerman (1981)
defined vulnerability at the society or community scale as ‘the degree to which a
system, or part of a system reacts adversely to a hazardous event.’ Most signs of
38
reducing system scale vulnerability can be seen as expressions of either resilience Hazard, Risk and
or reliability. Anderson (2000) showed how the concept of human vulnerability Vulnerability
has been refined through time, although there is still no fully acceptable and discipline
free, definition available.
‘Resilience’ is a measure of the rate of recovery from a stressful experience,
reflecting the social capacity to absorb and recover from the occurrence of a
hazardous event. Traditionally, resilience has been the main weapon against hazard
in poverty-dominated areas where disaster is often accepted as a ‘normal’ part of
life. In this situation, community coping strategies are important. For example,
nomadic herdsmen in semi-arid areas have tended to accumulate cattle during
years with good grazing lands as an insurance against drought.
‘Reliability’, on the other hand, reflects the frequency with which protective devices
against hazards fail. This approach is applicable to developed areas, where technology
and engineering design have provided what is perceived to be a high degree of
reliability for most urban services. However, extreme stress, for example, from an
earthquake, can easily disrupt road networks, electric power lines or water systems.
In Asia and the Pacific, a significant number of people lost their lives from natural
disasters over the past 45 years. The region was only hit by around 43 per cent
of the disasters experienced globally, but the impact of these disasters in terms of
lives lost was notable. Between 1970 and 2014, more than 2 million people died,
accounting for 56.6 per cent of the total deaths in the world due to disasters. The
impact and susceptibility of Asian and Pacific countries to disasters is evident
when considering the total number of people affected. Over 6 billion people in
the region have suffered from natural disasters, accounting for 87.6 per cent of
the global total (UNESCAP, 2015). Most of these people are in poor regions,
where vulnerability arises from poverty, discrimination and lack of democratic
functioning hampering the development process. The poorest people often have
little choice but to live in unsafe settings, whether it is urban shanties or degraded
rural environments. In terms of loss of life and relative economic impact, disasters
hit hardest where poverty stricken people are concentrated. In less developed
countries, rural inhabitants outnumber people in the urban areas. Even then, now
there are more urban dwellers in the third world than in Europe, North America
and Japan in total. Metropolitan cities are growing at faster rate. In urban squatter
settlements, population densities may reach as high as ten times of present level.
Many buildings, without suitable material or construction skills, are erected on
steep slopes or flood prone land, exposed to strong winds and landslides. In
highly populated rural areas, population density can exceed 1000 per km² and
life is a recurrent struggle to secure cultivable land. Many people are landless and
disadvantaged by land tenure systems, which deny them access to the means to
support themselves.
As has been rightly pointed out, “The study of the vulnerability of human and
natural systems to climate change and variability, and of their ability to adapt to
changes in climate hazards, is a relatively new field of research that brings together
experts from a wide range of fields, including climate science, development studies,
disaster management, health, geography, policy development and economics, to
name but a few areas. There is need for an integrating framework to bring together
diverse traditions in a coherent yet flexible fashion, allowing researchers to assess
vulnerability, and the potential for adaptation in a wide variety of different
contexts”(IPCC, 2001).
39
Introduction Both natural and man-made factors contribute to vulnerability. Some of the contributing
factors are discussed below:
Population Displacement
Population displacement is both a cause and a consequence of disaster. There is
evidence of correlation between poverty and economic inequality and rural to
urban migrations, in that more the level of poverty, more is the extent of rural to
urban migrations. The phenomenon is most observed in poor third world countries
where the poor migrate from rural to urban areas in search of livelihood options.
The social order remains basically ‘oligarchic’ and ‘oligopolistic’ in that inequality
in income and wealth distribution persists. System change through ‘soft’ democratic
options, such as legislation and rhetoric is not successful as entrenched powers
are hard to reconcile to socialist philosophy. Result has been corruption and
implementation hurdles, more specifically at the implementation level. This largely
explains why land reforms and social forestry legislations have not met with expected
success. While the size of agricultural holdings has gradually reduced, ‘exploitation’
at the hands of rich and resourceful farmers has persisted. Frequent droughts
have compounded existing problems. The cumulative effect of such conditions
has been mass migration of rural folk to urban metropolitan towns.
Urbanisation
Rural to urban migration has led to unmanageable urbanisation and urban congestion
that has forced human and physical capital extension in high-risk zones. Consequently,
the loss potential of hazards has gone up. Urbanisation has brought in its wake
growth of informal settlements, unsafe living conditions, disease, class conflict and
social capital depletion as some segments have been socially and economically
marginalised. Globalisation has also contributed in many ways to increasing the
vulnerability of the urban poor by creating ‘uncertain’ conditions regarding employment
though the obvious impact seems to be betterment of life and better opportunities
for all. Though urbanisation is a worldwide phenomenon, it is more pronounced
in the third world, because of the above recounted factors. Illustrations to this
effect from India substantiate it, as per the 2011 census figures, (provisional) 377
million, that is, 31.16% of the total population lived in 7,935 cities and towns in
the country. The number of cities and towns has increased by 2,774 since last
Census. Corresponding figures from the first census of India, (the 1901 census)
indicate that 25.8 million persons, that is, one-tenth of the total population lived in
1,917 cities and towns. It thus shows vast increase in the number and proportion
of total population living in cities and towns since the first census (Census, 2011).
On the other hand, population displacement is also a consequence of disasters. In
the event of disasters, large-scale displacement of populations from affected areas
takes place, which leads to temporary to permanent loss of livelihood for people.
Small-scale industries and micro enterprises are particularly hit. Much work has
not been done on providing insurance against disasters to people residing in hazard
prone areas. Though some initiatives have been taken, all disasters have not yet
been covered properly and resource mobilisation also is far from adequate (Dhar,
2002). Relocation options have also to be carefully weighed so as not to result in
unintended consequences that negate the very purpose of the exercise. Unintended
consequences as different forms of vulnerability that might be induced because of
relocation for example, loss of livelihood for small businessmen because of increased
distance from urban commercial centers.
40
Migration also has significant cultural impact, besides the more obvious, physical
dislocation of populations in that mass migrations introduce communities to alien Hazard, Risk and
cultural practices which disturb the cultural homogeneity of a community. In extreme Vulnerability
conditions, they can cause civil strife. Different building practices and construction
technologies may be introduced, which might be unsuited to the requirements of
that particular area. Besides, administrative and political problems are caused
due to the influx of refugees, which disturb the political and social matrix of the
region, like the influx of Bangladeshi refugees did in India, following the 1971
war. Epidemics and congestion are other administrative problems caused due to
mass influx of refugees.
Gender
Gender based vulnerability is an accretion over time which causes disempowerment
of women in social economic and political spheres. Gender inequality in social,
economic and political spheres results in vast differences between men and women
in emergency communication; household decisions about use of relief assets; voluntary
relief and recovery work; access to evacuation shelter and relief goods; and
employment in disaster planning, relief and recovery programmes, are among other
areas of concern in disaster relief. Disaster mitigation as also response policy,
particularly concerning control over relief resources, have to factor this component
in decision-making with a view to making it more equitable and on the whole,
more effective.
Economic Factors
Close correlation has been evidenced between poverty, disasters and environmental
degradation. Relative vulnerability of people is comparatively much higher in developing
third world countries than in the developed world. As per United Nations estimates,
although least developed countries show less physical exposure to hazards (11%),
they account for far greater number of casualties, (53%). On the other side, the
most developed countries represent more (15%) physical exposure to hazards
and account for significantly less (2.8%) victims. The inference drawn is that the
magnitude of disaster suffered is directly correlated to the level of development,
which explains largely the fact of the third world accounting for significantly more
losses than the developed countries. This difference is shown by a list of disaster
events and fatalities over 1960-82. Japan suffered 43 earthquakes and other disasters
and lost 2,700 people that mean 63 deaths per disaster. Peru suffered 31 disasters
with 91,000 dead, the vast majority lost in the single event of the 1970 earthquake.
Economic Damage (million USD) in the World (1987-2016)
Source: ADRC, 2017.

The world economy functions and works against the poor who have little opportunity 41
Introduction to process and market what they produce and are dependent on the imports from
the industrialized nations for manufactured goods which are quite often unstable.
The poor regions have little opportunity to process and market what they produce
and are dependent on the import from the industrialised nations of manufactured
goods, which are often highly priced or tied to aid packages. The progressive
hardship for the small-scale farmer, combined with a foreign debt burden that
may be many times the normal annual export earnings, takes resources away
from long-term development in a process that has been described as a transfusion
of blood from the sick to the healthy. The cycle is reinforced when natural disaster
destroys local products and undermines incentives for investment. Major disasters,
such as the drought, disrupts and destroys local economies, and brings shortages
in neighbouring regions, as a result create innumerable international refugees and
stimulate aid programmes to the extent that the consequences of environmental
hazards are truly global. The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) report
on “atlas of mortality and economic losses from weather, climate and extreme
events” mentioned that around 2,682 extreme events have occurred in Asia during
1970-2012, resulting in 0.92 million deaths and US$ 798.8 billion of economic
damages (WMO, 2015). The above diagram shows that the economic damage
caused by natural disasters, in the year 2016 sees an increase from the year
2015. By contrast, in the 5-year period average analysis, the 2012-2016 average
sees a decrease (ADRC, 2017).
Poverty situation increases vulnerability to disasters and contributes in enabling
poverty. In order to facilitate sustainable development, it is essential to eliminate
this vicious circle. The sustainable development, with emphasis on the long-term
and intergenerational aspects, also enables us to face challenges. Compatibility
between economic growth and sustainable development demands a method to
measure the kind of growth that encompasses all important aspects pertaining to
quality of life, such as human exposure to risk situations and species and lifestyles.
Geographical Factors
Global warming threatens to disrupt agriculture in developing countries though
most green house gas emission has taken place from the developed world. Global
warming has particularly increased the vulnerability of coastal areas, especially in
the Small Island Development States (SIDS) sea level rise will threaten the fragile
eco system of these regions, raising the frequency and intensity of natural hazards
like tsunamis, cyclones, floods and storm surges. Coastal zones, wetlands and
coral reefs are likely to be harmed which act as natural buffers against hazards
like cyclones. The magnitude of disasters is also likely to be greater because of
the increased pace of infrastructure development that has taken place in these
regions in the last few years, owing to population pressure and growing attractiveness
of these regions from the point of view of tourism (UNDP, 2002).
1) Define Vulnerability.
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42
Hazard, Risk and
............................................................................................................. Vulnerability
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2) What are the types of Vulnerability?
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3) Discuss various factors of Vulnerability.
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2.7 CONCLUSION
Shift of emphasis from disaster response to risk reduction has opened up areas of
exploratory research in the subject of disaster management. Vulnerability analysis
seeks to preempt disaster management by ensuring timely preparedness on the
part of people and institutions and government agencies involved. Disaster management
is an imminent administrative task for reduction of disasters through prevention,
preparedness, mitigation and response. There has been a paradigmatic shift of
emphasis in the last decade from disaster relief and rehabilitation to prevention
and mitigation strategies. Post-occurence treatment of disasters has proved an
insufficient measure for proper protection of lives and property. There is also an
emphasis on mainstreaming disaster management in everyday governmance by
treating it as integral to policy formation and implementation process. In keeping
with it, the focus in this Unit has been on Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability.
2.8 GLOSSARY
Biological Hazards : Processes of organic origin or those conveyed
by biological vectors, including exposure to
pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and
bioactive substances, which may cause the loss
of life or injury, property damage, social and
economic disruption or environmental
degradation. Examples of biological hazards
are outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or
animal contagion, insect plagues and extensive
infestations.
43
Introduction Disaster : Serious disruption of the functioning of society,
causing widespread human, material or
environmental losses which exceed the ability
of the affected people to cope using its own
resources. Disasters are natural and man-made.
Geological Hazards : Geological hazards include internal earth
processes or tectonic origin, such as
earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic activity and
emissions as well as external processes such
as mass movements: landslides, rockslides, rock
falls or avalanches, surface collapse, expansive
soils and debris or mud flows. Geological
hazards can be single, sequential or combined
in their origin and effects, for example, floods,
debris and mud floods; tropical cyclones, storm
surges, thunder/hailstorms, rain and wind storms,
blizzards and other severe storms; drought,
desertification, wild land fires, temperature
extremes, sand or dust storms; permafrost and
snow or ice avalanches.
Hazard : A precise definition of hazard is difficult. The
International Secretariat of Disaster Reduction
has defined hazard as a potentially damaging
physical event, phenomenon or human activity
that may cause the loss of life or injury, property
damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation. Hazards have both
natural and human components.
Hydro-meteorological Hazards : These hazards are of atmospheric,
hydrological or oceanographic nature. Hydro-
meteorological hazards include: floods, debris
and mud floods; tropical cyclones, storm
surges, thunder/hailstorms, rain and wind storms,
blizzards and other severe storms; drought,
desertification, wild land fires, temperature
extremes, sand or dust storms; permafrost and
snow or ice avalanches. Hydro-meteorological
hazards can be single, sequential or combined
in their origin and effects.
Risk : Risk is explained as the likelihood or probability
of a loss (es). Risk could be voluntary as for
example, a game of boxing or bull fighting, or
involuntary, which is unforeseen and unprepared
for. The word is employed in general usage
as also technical usage whereby it denotes the
extent of likely damage or the hazard potential
of a particular event.
44
Hazard, Risk and
2.9 REFERENCES Vulnerability
ADRC. (2005). Definition of Disaster Risk”. Total Disaster Risk Management:
Good Practices. Retrieved from http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/TDRM2005/
ADRC. (2017). Natural Disaster Data Book 2016: An Analytical Overview. Kobe:
The Asian Disaster Reduction Centre.
Conceptual Model: Hazard, Risk, Vulnerability, and Damage. (n.d.). Retrieved
from https://wadem.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/chapter_4.pdf
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2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXCERCISES
 Hazard is a potential or a latent/dormant cause, which is activated when
the right configuration of factors, natural or man-made or both, present
themselves.
 Disaster takes place when a community is affected by a hazard and the,
impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s
vulnerability to the hazard.
 Risk is a probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths,
injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment
damaged) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced
hazards and vulnerable conditions.
 Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability.
 It is as a function of the hazard, exposure and vulnerability.
 Risk Assessment is a methodology to determine the nature and extent
of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions
of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or harm to people,
property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend.
 It is a continuous process of ‘articulation’, which needs to be undertaken
periodically at every stage, or phases in a said activity/process.
Check your Progress 2
 Vulnerability is the conditions determined by physical, social, economic, 47
Introduction and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility
of a community to the hazards.
 It is a function of susceptibility, dependency, and transferability.
 Material/Economic Vulnerability; Social Vulnerability; Ecological
Vulnerability; Organizational Vulnerability; Educational Vulnerability;
Attitudinal & Motivational Vulnerability; Political Vulnerability; Cultural
Vulnerability; and Physical Vulnerability.
 Population Displacement
 Urbanisation
 Gender
 Economical factors
 Geographical factors.
48
UNIT 3 NATURAL AND MAN-MADE
DISASTERS*
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Natural Disasters
3.2.1 Geophysical Disasters
3.2.2 Hydrological Disasters
3.2.3 Climatological Disasters
3.2.4 Biological Disasters
3.3 Types of Man-made Disasters
3.4 Conclusion
3.5 Glossary
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand various types of natural disasters; and
 Explain different types of man-made disasters.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately
managed risk. These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and
vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become
disasters, as in the case of uninhabited regions. A disaster occurs when a hazard
impacts vulnerable people, and it can be classified into two broad categories:
Natural disasters and Man-made disasters.
A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves
some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected
population’s resilience or ability to recover and also on the infrastructure available.
Man-made disasters are result of human actions. This can include environmental
degradation, pollution and accidents. The difference between natural and man-
made disasters is the element of human intent or negligence that leads to human
suffering and environmental damage.
Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins. The combination
of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative consequences
of risk results in disaster.

(Uttarakhand). 49
Introduction
3.2 TYPES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural disasters can be classified into four major categories and several sub-
categories categories:
 Geophysical: Geophysical disasters are those destructive events that originate
within or are caused by the processes of the earth. These disasters include:
Earthquakes, Volcanic activity, Landslides and Tsunamis.
 Hydrological: Hydrological disaster is a violent, sharp and harmful amendment
either in quality of earth’s water or in distribution or movement of water
ashore below the surface or in atmosphere. These disasters include: Avalanches
and floods.
 Climatological: Climatological disasters are defined as events caused by
long-lived/meso to macro scale processes in the spectrum from intra-seasonal
to multi-decadal climate variability. Such events are further classified as: Extreme
Temperature; Drought; Wildfire and Cyclones.
 Biological: Biological disasters define the devastating effects caused by an
enormous spread of a certain kind of living organism – that may cause the
spread of a disease, virus, or an epidemic. Biological disasters can also be
simply, a sudden growth in the population of a certain kind of plants or
animals, e.g., a locust plague.
3.2.1 Geophysical Disasters

Earthquakes
Earthquake has been termed as a devastating phenomenon. It is felt that the key
to reduce its toll on human life, livestock and property lies in understanding the
causes and mechanisms of earthquake. (Sinvhal, 2010). Earthquakes are the vibrations
caused by rupturing of rocks under stress. The underground surface along which
the rock breaks and moves is called a fault plane. The size or magnitude of earthquakes
is determined by measuring the amplitude of the seismic waves recorded on a
seismograph and the distance of the seismograph from the earthquake. These are
put into a formula which converts them to a magnitude, which is a measure of the
energy released by the earthquake. For every unit increase in magnitude (measured
by Richter Scale), there is roughly a twenty three-fold increase in the energy
released. The focus of an earthquake is the point where it originated within the
Earth. The earthquake epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above
the focus. The amplitude of the shaking caused by an earthquake depends on
many factors, such as the magnitude, distance from the epicentre, depth of focus,
topography, and the local ground conditions.
Earthquake effects, as noted by people, are rated using the Modified Mercalli
(MM) intensity scale, which ranges from I (imperceptible) up to XII (total destruction).
At the Earth’s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located
offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Shaking
and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting
in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity
of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude,
the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological
50 conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. Earthquakes, along
with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave, and wildfires, can produce Natural and Man-made
slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Earthquakes can Disasters
also cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.
“The Great Chilean Earthquake” – world’s largest earthquake with an instrumentally
documented magnitude occurred on May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, in southern
Chile. It was assigned a magnitude of 9.5 by the United States Geological Survey.
It is referred to as the “Great Chilean Earthquake” and the “1960 Valdivia Earthquake”
(Geologynat, 2017).
Volcanic Eruption
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that
allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below
the surface. Earth’s volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into rigid tectonic
plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on earth, volcanoes
are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging and most
are found underwater. Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterised as either
explosive eruptions, sudden ejections of rock and ash, or effusive eruptions, relatively
gentle outpourings of lava.
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into
the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres above the earth’s surface. The
most significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur
dioxide to sulfuric acid, which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine
sulfate aerosols. These aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the
upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify
the earth’s radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride
are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground
as acid rain. Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft,
especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating
temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their
shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Erupting volcanoes can pose many
hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Large eruptions can
affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool
the earth’s lower atmosphere (causing volcanic winters); however, they also absorb
heat radiated from the earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere).
Historically, volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines. While many eruptions
only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area, Earth’s largest eruptions
can have a major regional or even global impact, with some affecting the climate
and contributing to mass extinctions.
The massive Tambora Strato Volcano forms the entire 60-km-wide Sanggar Peninsula
on northern Sumbawa Island. On 10 April 1815, Tambora produced the largest
eruption known on the planet during the past 10,000 years. The volcano erupted
more than 50 cubic kilometers of magma and collapsed afterwards to form a 6
km wide and 1250 m deep caldera. The eruption produced global climatic effects
and killed more than 100,000 people, directly and indirectly (Klingaman, W.K.
& Klingaman, N.P., 2013).
Landslides
A landslide is the slope down movement of rock, debris or earth. They result
from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven by 51
Introduction the force of gravity. Landslides are also known as landslips, slumps or slope
failure. It has been pointed out by Crozin and Glade (2005) that “In general
terms, landslides generate a small but important component of the spectrum of
hazard and increasing the risk that faces mankind. Landslides present a threat to
life and livelihood throughout the world ranging from minor disruption to social
and economic catastrophe”. Some of the most common types of landslide are
earth slides, rock falls and debris flows. The movement of landslide material can
vary from abrupt collapses to slow gradual slides and ranges from almost undetectable
to extremely rapid. Sudden and rapid events are the most dangerous because of
a lack of warning and the speed at which material can travel down the slope as
well as the force of its resulting impact. Extremely slow landslides might move
only millimeters or centimeters a year and can be active over many years. Although
this type of landslide is not a threat to people, however, they can cause considerable
damage to property.
Landslides can be triggered by natural causes or by human activity. They range
from a single boulder in a rock fall or topple to tens of millions of cubic meters of
material in a debris flow. They can also vary in their extent, with some occurring
very locally and impacting a very small area or hill slope while others affect much
larger regional areas. The distance travelled by landslide material can also differ
significantly with slides travelling from a few centimetres to many kilometres depending
on the volume of material, water content and gradient of the slope. Slope material
that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow.
The resulting slurry of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus
blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its path.
Landslides occur when the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition.
A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting
together or alone.
Natural causes of landslides include:
 increase in groundwater (pure water) pressure destabilizing the slope;
 loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure
(for example, after a wildfire – a fire in forests lasting for 3–4 days);
 erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves;
 weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melting, glaciers melting, or
heavy rain;
 earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope;
 earthquake-caused liquefaction resulting into destabilize slopes;
 volcanic eruptions.
Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as
 deforestation, faulty cultivation and ill-conceived construction, which destabilize
the already fragile slopes.
 vibrations from machinery or traffic or blasting
 earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on
an existing slope
52
 construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount Natural and Man-made
of water infiltrating the soil. Disasters
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the
sea. Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase
in height. But as the waves travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights
as the depth of the ocean decreases. When a tsunami travels over a long and
gradual slope, it allows time for the tsunami to grow in wave height. This is called
shoaling and typically occurs in shallow water less than 100 m. Successive peaks
can be anywhere from five to 90 minutes apart. In the open ocean, even the
largest tsunamis are relatively small with wave heights of less than one meter. The
shoaling effect can increase this wave height to a degree such that the tsunami
could potentially reach an onshore height of up to 30 meters above sea level. The
speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from
the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep
waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While tsunamis are
often referred to as tidal waves, this name is discouraged by oceanographers
because tides have little to do with these giant waves.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred on 26 December with the epicenter
off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The shock had a moment magnitude of
9.1–9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The undersea megathrust
earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted under the Burma
Plate and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses
bordering the Indian Ocean, killing 230,000–280,000 people in 14 countries,
and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 meters (100 ft) high. It
was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the
hardest-hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand (Government of
India, 2016).
3.2.2 Hydrological Disasters

Avalanches
An avalanche is considerable amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. It
can be compared to a landslide, only with snow instead of earth. Another common
term for avalanche is “snowslide”. As an avalanche reaches nearer to the bottom
of the slope, it gains speed and power, this can cause, even the smallest of snowslides,
to be a major disaster.
There are two common types of avalanches, a surface avalanche that occurs when
a layer of snow with different properties slides over another layer of snow, for
example, when a layer of dry loosely packed snow slides over a dense layer of
wet snow. The other common avalanche is known as a Full-Depth Avalanche
which occurs when an entire snow cover, from the earth to the surface, slides
over the ground. Although primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large
avalanches have the capability to entrain ice, rocks, trees, and other surface material.
Avalanches happen on mountains with extreme amounts of slow fall and build-up.
Wherever snow is lying on ground on an extreme and sufficient angle there is
potential for a sleeping avalanche. Three main factors effect whether or not avalanches
are probable to occur. These three factors are the weather, the snow pack and
the terrain. The weather is the most important factor when deciding whether avalanches
53
Introduction are likely to happen or not. For example, if the temperature were to have a rapid
increase then a wet slab avalanche is likely to occur. The height of the snow
pack is also dependent on the weather.
Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain range
that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter
or spring but glacier movements may cause ice and snow avalanches at any time
of year. In mountainous terrain, avalanches are among the most serious objective
natural hazards to life and property, with their destructive capability resulting from
their potential to carry enormous masses of snow at high speeds.
Floods
A flood occurs when water overflows or inundates land, that’s normally dry. This
can happen in a multitude of ways. Most common is when rivers or streams
overflow their banks. Excessive rain, a ruptured dam or levee, rapid ice melting
in the mountains, or even an unfortunately placed beaver dam can overwhelm a
river and send it spreading over the adjacent land, called a floodplain. Coastal
flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to surge inland.
Moving water has awesome destructive power. When a river overflows its banks
or the sea drives inland, structures poorly equipped to withstand the water’s strength
are no match. Bridges, houses, trees, and vehicles can be picked up and carried
off. The erosive force of moving water can drag soil from under a building’s
foundation, causing it to crack and tumble.
When floodwaters recede, affected areas are often blanketed in silt and mud.
The water and landscape can be contaminated with hazardous materials, such as
sharp debris, pesticides, fuel, and untreated sewage. Potentially dangerous mold
blooms can quickly overwhelm water-soaked structures. Residents of flooded
areas can be left without power and clean drinking water, leading to outbreaks of
deadly waterborne diseases like typhoid, hepatitis A, and cholera.
3.2.3 Climatological Disasters

Extreme Temperature
Heat Waves: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot and sometimes
also humid weather relative to normal climate patterns of a certain region. Heat
kills people by stressing the human body beyond its limits. In extreme heat and
high humidity, evaporation is slowed and the body must work extra hard to maintain
a normal temperature. Most heat disorders occur because the victim has been
overexposed to heat or has over-exercised for his or her age and physical condition.
Older adults, young children, and those who are sick or overweight are more
likely to succumb to extreme heat. Conditions that can induce heat-related illnesses
include stagnant atmospheric conditions and poor air quality. Consequently, people
living in urban areas may be at greater risk from the effects of a prolonged heat
wave than those living in rural areas. Also, asphalt and concrete store heat longer
and gradually release heat at night, which can produce higher nighttime temperatures
known as the “urban heat island effect.”
Cold waves, winter storms and extreme winter conditions: A cold wave can be
both a prolonged period of excessively cold weather and the sudden invasion of
very cold air over a large area. Along with frost, it can cause damage to agriculture,
infrastructure, and property. Cold waves, heavy snowfall and extreme cold can
54 immobilise an entire region. Even areas that normally experience mild winters can
be hit with a major snowstorm or extreme cold. Winter storms can result in flooding, Natural and Man-made
storm surge, closed highways, blocked roads, downed power lines and hypothermia. Disasters
Droughts
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region; resulting in
prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or
ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after
as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture
of the affected region and harm to the local economy. Periods of heat can significantly
worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapor.
Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought
tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their
ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-
permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. Prolonged
droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crises. Droughts can be
categorised into:
 Meteorological drought is specific to different regions.
 Agricultural drought accounts for the water needs of crops during different
growing stages. For instance, not enough moisture at planting may hinder
germination, leading to low plant populations and a reduction in yield.
 Hydrological drought refers to persistently low water volumes in streams,
rivers and reservoirs. Human activities, such as drawdown of reservoirs, can
worsen hydrological droughts. Hydrological drought is often linked with
meteorological droughts.
 Socio-economic drought occurs when the demand for water exceeds the supply.
Examples of this kind of drought include too much irrigation or when low
river flow forces hydroelectric power plant operators to reduce energy
production.
Wildfires
A wildfire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside
or rural areas. Depending on the type of vegetation where it occurs, a wildfire
can also be classified more specifically as a brush fire, bush fire, desert fire, forest
fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire or vegetation fire. Earth is an intrinsically flammable
planet owing to its cover of carbon-rich vegetation, seasonally dry climates,
atmospheric oxygen, and widespread lightning and volcano ignitions.
Wildfires can be characterised in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical
properties, the combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire.
Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have many beneficial
effects on native vegetation, animals, and ecosystems that have evolved with fire.
Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction.
However, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native
vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour
and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels, physical
setting, and weather.
The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property.
However, the release of hazardous chemicals from the burning of wildland fuels
55
Introduction also significantly impacts human health. Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of
carbon dioxide and water vapor. Other common smoke components present in
lower concentrations are carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, acrolein, polyaromatic
hydrocarbons, and benzene. Despite carbon dioxide’s high concentration in smoke,
it poses a low health risk due to its low toxicity. Rather, carbon monoxide and
fine particulate matter have been identified as the major health threats.
The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length,
severity, duration, and proximity of the fire. People are exposed directly to smoke
via the respiratory tract though inhalation of air pollutants. Indirectly, communities
are exposed to wildfire debris that can contaminate soil and water supplies.
Cyclones
In meteorology, a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong
center of low atmospheric pressure. The term “cyclone” refers to the storms’
cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise rotation in the southern hemisphere. Cyclones are characterised by
inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure. The largest low-
pressure systems are polar vortices and extra tropical cyclones of the largest
scale (the synoptic scale). Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and
subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale. Mesocyclones, tornadoes
and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale Cyclogenesis is the development
or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere. Cyclogenesis is an umbrella
term for several different processes that all result in the development of some sort
of cyclone. It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic
scale.
Tropical cyclones are formed as a result of significant convective activity, and
have warm core. Mesocyclones are formed as warm core cyclones over land,
and can lead to tornado formation. There are six main requirements for tropical
cyclogenesis:
 sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures
 atmospheric instability
 high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
 enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center
 a preexisting low-level focus or disturbance
 low vertical wind shear.
Tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they
are also able to produce high waves and a damaging storm surge. The winds
increase the wave size, and in so doing they draw more heat and moisture into
their system, thereby increasing their strength. They develop over large bodies of
warm water, and hence lose their strength if they move over land. This is the
reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone,
while inland regions are relatively safe from strong winds. Heavy rains, however,
can produce significant flooding inland. Storm surges rise in sea level, caused by
the reduced pressure of the core that in effect “sucks” the water upward and
from winds that in effect “pile” the water up. Storm surges can produce extensive
coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres from the coastline. Although their effects on
56 human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought
conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport Natural and Man-made
it toward temperate latitudes, which make them an important part of the global Disasters
atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain
equilibrium in the Earth’s troposphere as well.
3.2.4 Biological Disasters

Disease epidemics
An epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people
in a given population within a short period of time, usually two weeks or less. For
example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per
100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic (CTI Reviews,
2017).
Epidemics of infectious disease are generally caused by several factors including
a change in the ecology of the host population (for example, increased stress or
increase in the density of a vector species), a genetic change in the pathogen
reservoir or the introduction of an emerging pathogen to a host population (by
movement of pathogen or host). Generally, an epidemic occurs when host immunity
to either an established pathogen or newly emerging novel pathogen is suddenly
reduced below that found in the endemic equilibrium and the transmission threshold
is exceeded.
An epidemic may be restricted to one location; however, if it spreads to other
countries or continents and affects a substantial number of people, it may be
termed a pandemic. The conditions which govern the outbreak of epidemics include
infected food supplies such as contaminated drinking water and the migration of
populations of certain animals, such as rats or mosquitoes, which can act as disease
vectors. Certain epidemics occur at certain seasons.
1) Discuss Geophysical disasters.
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2) Explain Climatological disasters with special reference to cyclone.
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Introduction
3) Write a note on Biological disasters.
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3.3 TYPES OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Complex emergencies and conflicts
“Complex emergencies” are typically characterised by:
 extensive violence and loss of life;
 displacements of populations;
 widespread damage to societies and economies;
 the need for large-scale, multi-faceted humanitarian assistance ;
 the hindrance or prevention of humanitarian assistance by political and military
constraints;
 significant security risks for humanitarian relief workers in some areas.
Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including
crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is
usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic,
and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a
period of famine throughout history.
According to the United Nations humanitarian criteria, even if there are food shortages
with large numbers of people lacking nutrition, a famine is declared only when
certain measures of mortality, malnutrition and hunger are met.
The criteria are:
 At least 20% of households in an area face extreme food shortages with a
limited ability to cope
 The prevalence of acute malnutrition in children exceeds 30%
 The death rate exceeds two persons per 10,000 persons per day.
Food shortages in a population are caused either by a lack of food or by difficulties
in food distribution; it may be worsened by natural climate fluctuations and by
extreme political conditions related to oppressive government or warfare.
Transport and industrial accidents
Transport disaster is a term used to describe technological transport accidents
involving mechanised modes of transport. It comprises of four disaster subsets:
58
accidents involving air, boat, rail transport and accidents involving motor vehicles Natural and Man-made
on roads and tracks. Disasters
Industrial disasters are non-natural disastrous occurrences that include:

 Accident release occurring during the production, transportation or handling
of hazardous chemical substances.
 Explosions disasters (only be classified as explosions when the explosions is
the actual disaster). If the explosion is the cause of another disaster, the
event will be classified as the resulting disaster.
 Chemical explosion: violent destruction caused by explosion of combustible
material, nearly always of chemical origin.
 Nuclear explosion/Radiation accidental release of radiation occurring in civil
facilities, exceeding the internationally established safety levels.
 Mine explosion accidents which occur when natural gas or coal dust reacts
with the air.
 Chemical pollution: A sudden pollution of water or air near industrial areas,
leading to internal body disorders with permanent damage of the skin.
 Atmosphere pollution: Contamination of the atmosphere by large quantities
of gases, solids and radiation produced by the burning of natural and artificial
fuels, chemicals and other industrial processes and nuclear explosions.
 Pollution or degradation of atmosphere.
 Acid rain.
1) Discuss the types of man-made disasters?
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2) Write a note on famines.
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Introduction
3) Discuss transport and industrial accidents.
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3.4 CONCLUSION
In recent years, disasters took toll of thousands of lives and caused massive destruction
of property. These have adversely affected the vital sectors of our development
as agriculture, communication, irrigation, power projects and rural and urban
settlements. The time and cost overrun in some cases have been enormous but
their indirect impact on our economy has never been calculated. India is among
the world’s most disaster prone areas and a large part of the country is exposed
to natural hazards, which often turn into disasters causing loss of life and property.
The unique geo-climatic conditions have exposed this country to natural catastrophes.
They are sudden, drastic and normally occur without any alarm or warning. Some
disasters may be short lived such as earthquakes and some other may be of long
duration, such as drought. However, irrespective of the duration of a disaster, the
damage in the form of deaths, injuries and losses of property is immense. The
magnitude of the disasters can be judged by the fact that only during the past two
decades; occurrences of floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, etc. have killed
several million people. Though most of the disasters have a natural origin, man-
made disasters are also becoming significant. Since we cannot control the natural
disasters, it is necessary to keep a check on human activities so as to reduce the
possibilities of occurrences of man-made disasters. Furthermore, we can mitigate
the suffering caused by disasters by following an effective disaster management
plan for reduction of disasters through prevention, preparedness, mitigation and
response.
3.5 GLOSSARY
Natural Disaster : A natural disaster can cause loss of life or
property damage, and typically leaves some
economic damage in its wake, the severity of
which depends on the affected population’s
resilience or ability to recover and also on the
infrastructure available.
Man-made Disaster : Man-made disasters are events that are caused
by humans and occur in or close to human
settlements. This can include environmental
degradation, pollution and accidents.
Geophysical Disaster : Geophysical disasters are those destructive
events that originate within or are caused by
the processes of the earth. These disasters
include: earthquakes, volcanic activity, landslides
60 and tsunamis.
Hydrological Disasters : Hydrological disasters are violent, sharp and Natural and Man-made
harmful amendment either in quality of earth’s Disasters
water or in distribution or movement of water
ashore below the surface or in atmosphere.
These disasters include: avalanches and floods.
Climatological Disasters : Climatological disasters are defined as events
caused by long-lived/meso to macro scale
processes in the spectrum from intra-seasonal
to multi-decadal climate variability. Such events
are further classified as: extreme temperature;
drought; wildfire and cyclones.
Biological Disasters : Biological disasters define the devastating effects
caused by an enormous spread of a certain
kind of living organism – that may the spread
a disease, virus, or an epidemic. Biological
disasters can also be simply, a sudden growth
in the population of a certain kind of plants
or animals, e.g., a locust plague. These disasters
include: Disease epidemics.
3.6 REFERENCES
ADRC. (2005). “Definition of Disaster Risk”. Total Disaster Risk Management:
Good Practices. Retrieved from http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/ TDRM2005/
TDRM_ Good _ Practices/PDF/Chapter1_.
Alexander, D. (2002). Principles of Emergency Planning and Management.
Harpended: Terra Publishing.
Anderson-Berry, L. J. (2000). Cyclone Rosita,Post-Disaster Report. Cairns:Centre
for Disaster Studies, James Cook University.
Bankoff,G., Frerks, G., & Hilhorst, D. (Eds.). (2003). Mapping Vulnerability:
Disasters, Development and People. London: Routledge.
Blaikie, P. & Brookfield, H. (1987). Land Degradation and Society. London:
Methuen and Company ltd.
Crozin, M. J. & Glade, T. (2005). Landslide Hazard and Risk: Issues, Concepts
and Approach. In Thomas Glade (et.al), eds. Landslide Hazard and Risk. Sussex:
John Wiley and Sons.
CTI Reviews. (2017). Sustaining the Earth. Cram101 Textbook Reviews.
Davis, L. (2008). Natural Disasters. New York: Checkmark Books.
Geologynat. (September 9, 2017). World’s Largest Recorded Earthquake9.5
Magnitude – May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, Chile. Retrieved from: https://
geologynat.wordpress.com/2017/09/09/worlds-largest-recorded-earthquake9-5-
magnitude-may-22-1960-near-valdivia-chile/
61
Introduction Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2001). Third Assessment
Report on Climate Change 2001, The Scientific Basis. Geneva: WMO: Geneva.
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2002). World
Klingaman, W.K. & Klingaman, N.P. (March 1, 2013). Tambora Erupts in 1815
and Changes World History. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/
article/1816-the-year-without-summer-excerpt/
Lynn, H. (n.a.). Landslide Hazard Information. Retrieved from www.geology.com.
Mohan, N., Narain, A., Deepu & Rozario, C. (2005). Relief and Rehabilitation:
Ensuing, Inclusion. Economic and Political Weekly. 40(15).
Sinvhal, A. (2010). Understanding Earthquake Disasters. New Delhi: McGraw
Hill.
UNDP. (2004). Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development. Geneva:
UNDP.
UNHABITAT. (n.d.). Displaced Populations And Human Settlements. Retrieved
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. & Davis, I. (2004). At Risk - Natural
Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. London: Routledge.

EXERCISES
 Geophysical disasters are destructive events that originate within or are
caused by the processes of the earth.
 Earthquakes, Volcanic activity, Landslides and Tsunamis.
 Climatological disasters are events caused by long-lived/meso to macro
scale processes in the spectrum from intra-seasonal to multi-decadal
climate variability.
 Extreme Temperature; Drought; Wildfire and Cyclones are considered
as climatological disasters.
62
 Cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of Natural and Man-made
low atmospheric pressure. Disasters
 Based on the intensity the tropical cyclones are referred as hurricane,

typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply
as a cyclone
 Biological disasters is the outcome of devastating effects caused by an
enormous spread of a certain kind of living organism – that may the
spread a disease, virus, or an epidemic.
 It may be called disaster epidemics.
 Epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of
people in a given population within a short period of time.
 It occurs when host immunity to either an established pathogen or newly
emerging novel pathogen is suddenly reduced below that found in the
endemic equilibrium and the transmission threshold is exceeded.
 Complex emergencies and conflicts.
 Famine.
 Transport and Industrial Accidents.
 Famine is a scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop
failure, population imbalance, or government policies.
 It is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation,
epidemic, and increased mortality.
 Transport disaster is a technological transport accident involving mechanised
modes of transport. Accidents involving air, boat, rail transport and accidents
involving motor vehicles on roads and tracks are come under the category
of Transport and Industrial Accidents.
 Chemical/Nuclear/Mine Explosion, Pollution degradation, Acid rain and
Chemical/Atmospheric Pollution are considered as industrial accident
related disasters.
63
UNIT 4 DISASTER PROFILE OF INDIA*
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vulnerability Profile of India
4.2.1 The Himalayan Region
4.2.2 The Gangetic Plain
4.2.3 Arid and Semi-arid Regions
4.2.4 Deccan Plateau
4.2.5 Western and Eastern Ghats
4.2.6 Coastal Region
4.3 Natural Disaster Profile

4.3.1 Earthquakes
4.3.2 Tsunami
4.3.3 Landslides
4.3.4 Floods
4.3.5 Cyclones
4.3.6 Droughts
4.3.7 Heat Waves and Cold Waves
4.4 Conclusion
4.5 Glossary
4.6 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the disasters that occur in India;
 Understand the statistics of natural disasters in India; and
 Know the Disaster Profile of India.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian sub-continent is among the world’s most disaster prone areas. Almost
85% of India’s area is vulnerable to one or multiple hazards. Of the 29 states and
7 union territories in India, 22 are multi-disaster prone. It is vulnerable to wind
storms spawned in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea; earthquakes caused
by active crustal movement in the Himalayan mountains; floods brought by monsoons,
and droughts in the country’s arid and semi-arid areas. India is vulnerable, in
varying degrees, to a large number of disasters. More than 58.6 per cent of the
landmass is prone to earthquakes (high seismic zones III–V) of moderate to very

64 (Uttarakhand).
high intensity; over 40 million hectares (12%) of its land is prone to floods and Disaster Profile
river erosion; close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to of India
cyclones and tsunamis; 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and,
its hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches. Moreover, India is also
vulnerable to Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies
and other man-made disasters (NDMA, 2016).
Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related
to changing demographics and socio-economic conditions, unplanned urbanisation
and development within high-risk zones, environmental degradation, climate change,
geological hazards, epidemics and pandemics. Clearly, all these contribute to a
situation where disasters seriously threaten India’s economy, its population and
sustainable development.
4.2 VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

India, due to its, physiographic and climatic conditions is one of the most disaster
prone areas of the world. It is vulnerable to windstorms from both the Arabian
Sea and Bay of Bengal. Floods brought about by heavy rains and drought in arid
and semi-arid areas also contribute in making hostile environment of this sub-
continent. The western region of the country, represented by the Thar Desert and
the central India by the Deccan Plateau, face recurring droughts due to acute
shortage of rainfall. India has increasingly become vulnerable to Tsunamis since
the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. India has a coastline running 7600 km long; as
a result is repeatedly threatened by cyclones.
India has been classified into three main geological divisions, that is, Himalayas,
also known as the Extra-Peninsula; Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Peninsula. The
Himalayan is sub-classified by two methods. In method-1, the Himalaya is divided
from west to east, into four regions. They are Punjab Himalaya-the area between
Indus and Sutlej rivers, Kumaon Himalaya-area between Sutlej and Kali Rivers,
Nepal Himalaya- area between Kali and Tista Rivers and Assam Himalaya-area
between Tista and Brahmaputra Rivers. As per method-2, the Himalaya is divided
in to three regions only. These are the Nepal Himalaya that constitutes the Central
Himalayas, the mountainous area on its west and east as western and eastern
Himalayas. Every region has its own risk of disaster. The region and risk wise
classification will be explained in subsequent paragraphs.
4.2.1 The Himalayan Region

As per Hindu mythology, the Himalayas are the place of abode for Gods and
thus every year, thousands of pilgrims religiously visit the important sacred places
in this region. However, the young Himalayan mountain range on the north still
shows focal signs of neo-tectonism. High atmospheric precipitation concentrated
to the monsoon season, together with high relative relief and highly trusted, folded,
faulted, metamorphosed and weathered rocks make this region highly prone to
landslides and flash floods. Landslides are a routine phenomenon in the region.
The Malpa slide (1998), Okhimath (1998), Uttarkashi (2003 & 2012) Uttarakhand
flash flood (2013) represent the extreme events. The entire Himalayan region is
seismically highly active and marked in Zones V and IV on earthquake risk map.
The seismic hazard in the Himalayan region is very high. It doesn’t mean the
other regions are safe from the threat of earthquakes. No part of the country that
falls in the least affected Zone I of the seismic risk map. The Uttarkashi earthquake
65
Introduction (1991), Killari earthquake (1993), Koyana earthquake (1997), Chamoli earthquake
(1999), Bhuj earthquake (2001), Jammu and Kashmir earthquake (2005), Sikkim
earthquake (2011) are some of the recent ones.
In mountainous region, the area above 3500 meters is devoid of vegetation and
normally snow bound. These areas are considered as high altitude areas. The
weather is much unpredictable. There is shortage of oxygen in the atmosphere.
The steep mountainous peaks, permanent glaciers, moraines, and cold water lakes
are common. Area is cold, windy and prone to crevasses; fresh snow falls and
avalanches. In summer due to melting of snow and glacier, the water inflow increases
in lakes and stream, which may cause flood. The hilly area below 3500 feet,
depending up on the geographical and climatic condition, is more prone to heavy
rain, cloud burst, flash flood, landslide and mudflow. The major natural risks in
this region are: Earthquake, Landslides, Forest fires, Soil erosion, Snow avalanches
and Flash floods.
4.2.2 The Gangetic Plain

The Indo-Gangetic plain that is densely populated and is drained by the Himalayan
river is prone to both floods and droughts. Floods in the Indo–Gangetic–Brahmaputra
plains are an annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions
are rendered homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year.
Nearly 75% of the total rainfall occurs over a short monsoon season (June –
September). 40 million hectares, or 12% of Indian land, is considered prone to
floods. Floods are a perennial phenomenon in at least 5 states – Assam, Bihar,
Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In the other extreme, about 50 million
people are affected annually by drought. Of approximately 90 million hectares of
rain-fed areas, about 40 million hectares are prone to draught (Rajan, 2018).
4.2.3 Arid and Semi Arid Regions

Arid and semi-arid regions are characterised by a climate with no or insufficient
rainfall to sustain agricultural production. Within India, almost 53.4 per cent land
area comprises arid and semi-arid region (Patra, 2016). The rains are erratic and
often come in a few heavy storms of short duration, resulting in high run-off,
instead of replenishing the ground water. Protective vegetation cover is sparse
and there is very little moisture for most part of the year. In these regions, cultivation
is restricted to more productive but limited land, while a large animal population
depends on native vegetation. Irrigation with surface or ground water is inevitable
for growing crops in the arid and semi-arid zones. The rainfall pattern roughly
reflects the different climate regimes of the country, which vary from humid in the
northeast (about 180 days rainfall in a year), to arid in the Thar deserts of Rajasthan
(20 days rainfall in a year) (Pechlivanidis & Arhemer, 2015).
4.2.4 Deccan Plateau

The Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India that includes inland
sections of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Deccan
is delineated by the Western Ghats on the west, the Nilgiri Hills on the south,
the Eastern Ghats on the east, and the Aravalli and Chota Nagpur hills on the
north. The Deccan Plateau also faces acute scarcity of water though there are
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
rivers flowing in this area. These rivers have mostly well defined stable courses.
They have adequate capacity within the natural banks to carry the flood discharge
66
except in the delta area. The lower reaches of the important rivers on the East Disaster Profile
Coast have been embanked, thus largely eliminating the flood problem. of India
4.2.5 Western and Eastern Ghats

The Western and Eastern Ghats running parallel to the coastline face the problem
of landsliding and droughts in the rain shadow areas. The Western Ghats extend
from the Satpura Range in the north, to south past Maharashtra, Goa,
through Karnataka and into Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Western Ghats is one of the
33 recognised ecologically sensitive zones in the World. The Western Ghats and
Nilgiris are geologically stable but still prone to landslide in rainy season. The
environmental degradation rising out of population pressure, illegal mining, curies,
deforestation has made both ghats very vulnerable from natural disasters. The
Eastern Ghat is not a continuous range of scrap lands as the Western Ghat. Also
scraps are nearly absent here. The range is actually cut up into a number of
separate circumdenudation hills. The only compact mountainous region is found in
Orissa. Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna that have cut gaps through Eastern Ghat
and have completely broken its continuity. The mountains are much more away
from the sea than the Western Ghat. The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay
of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern
Ghats and Western Ghats. The coastal plains, including the Coromandel Coast region,
lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Eastern Ghats are not
as high as the Western Ghats. The structure of the Eastern Ghats
includes thrusts and strikeslip faults.
4.2.6 Coastal Region

The Indian subcontinent is one of the worst affected regions in the world. The
subcontinent with a long coastline of 7,500 KM is exposed to nearly 10 per cent
of the world’s tropical cyclones. Of these, the majority has their initial formulation
over the Bay of Bengal and strike the east coast of India. On an average, five to
six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be severe.
More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is
approximately 4:1. Cyclones occur frequently on both the coasts (The west coast
– Arabian Sea; and the east coast – Bay of Bengal). An analysis of the frequency
of cyclones on the east and west coasts of India between 1877 and 2005 shows
that nearly 283 cyclones occurred (106 Severe) in a 50 km wide strip on the east
coast. Less severe cyclonic activity has been noticed on the west coast, with 35
cyclones occurring in the same period, out of which 20 of them were severe.
Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November (NDMA,
2016).
4.3 NATURAL DISASTER PROFILE

4.3.1 Earthquakes
Earthquakes are a sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great
destruction, as a result of movements within the earth’s crust or volcanic action.
Of the total earthquake-prone areas, 12% is prone to very severe earthquakes,
18% to severe earthquakes and 25% to damageable earthquakes. The biggest
quakes have occurred in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kutch, Himachal
and the North-East. The Himalayan regions are particularly prone to earthquakes.
The last three major earthquakes shook Gujarat in January 2001; Jammu and
Kashmir in October 2005; and Sikkim in 2011. Many small-scale quakes have 67
Introduction occurred in other parts of India in 2006. 7 North-East States of India (Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya), Andaman
& Nicobar Islands; and parts of 6 other states in the North/North-West (Bihar,
Jammu and Kashmir & Uttarakhand) and West (Gujarat), are in Seismic Zone V
(Government of India, 2016). Table-4.1 below brings to light the location and
magnitude of earthquakes in India during the past 200 years.
Table 4.1: Major Earthquakes in India
Date Location Magnitude
16 Jun 1819 Kutch, Gujarat 8

10 Jun 1869 Near Cachar, Assam 7.5
30 May 1885 Sopor, J&K 7
12 Jun 1897 Shilong Plateau 8.7
04 Apr 05 Kangra, HP 8
08 Jul 18 Srimangal, Assam 7.6
02 Jul 30 Dhubri, Assam 7.1
15 Jan 34 Bihar- Nepal Border 8.3
26 Jun 41 Andaman Island 8.1
23 Oct 43 Assam 7.2
15 Aug 50 Arunachal Pradesh- China Border 8.5
21 Jul 56 Anjar, Gujarat 7
10 Dec 67 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5
19 Jun 75 Kinnuar, HP 6.2
06 Aug 88 Manipur-Myanmar Border 6.6
21 Aug 88 Bihar- Nepal Border 6.4
20 Oct 91 Uttarkhashi, Uttarakhand 6.6
30 Sep 93 Latur- Osmanabad, Maharashtra 6.3
22 May 97 Jabalpur, MP 6
29 Mar 99 Chamoli Dist, UK 6.8
26 Jan 01 Bhuj, Gujarat 7.7
08 Oct 05 Kashmir 7.6
18 Sep 2011 Sikkim 6.9
Source: Government of India, 2011.
The Indian sub-continent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason
for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is
driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. Geographical statistics
of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World
Bank & United Nations Report estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in
India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of
seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India
assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words,
the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3,
4 and 5) unlike its previous version, which consisted of five or six zones for the
68
country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of Disaster Profile
seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. of India
4.3.2 Tsunami
A tsunami (in Japanese “tsu” means harbor and “nami” means wave) is a series of
water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water,
usually an ocean. Seismicity generated tsunamis are the result of abrupt deformation
in the sea floor resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water. Earthquakes
occurring beneath the sea level displace the water above the reformed area from
its equilibrium position. Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions under the sea. Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not
dramatically increase in height. But as the waves travel inland, they build up to
higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases. The speed of
tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from the source
of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters,
only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While tsunamis are often referred
to as tidal waves, this name is discouraged by oceanographers because tides
have little to do with these giant waves. The sudden release of energy produces
tsunami waves which have small amplitude but a very long wavelength (often hundreds
of kilometer long). It may be caused by non-seismic event also such as marine
landslides or impact of a meteor. The Tsunami in Indian Ocean on 26 December
2004 had devastating effects on India. Many people died and millions were displaced.
The hardest hit areas were on Southern coast and the Andaman and Nicobar
Island (Government of India, 2016).
4.3.3 Landslides
A landslide is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They result
from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven by
the force of gravity. Landslides are also known as landslips, slumps or slope
failure. India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas, which are
formed due to collision of Indian and Eurasian plate, the northward movement of
the Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on the rocks rendering
them friable, weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes. The slow motion of
the Indian crust, about 6 cm/year accumulates stress to which natural disasters
are attributed. Some landslides make devastating and unparalleled catastrophes.
Landslides and avalanches are among the major hydro-geological hazards that
affect large parts of India. Besides the Himalayas, the northeastern hill ranges, the
Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans, covering about
15 % of the landmass, are some other potential landslide zones. The Himalayas
alone count for landslides of every fame, name and description- big and small,
quick and creeping, ancient and new. The Northeastern region is badly affected
by landslide problems of a bewildering variety. Landslides in the Darjeeling district
of West Bengal as also those in Sikkim, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam,
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems, causing recurring economic
losses worth billions of rupees. A different variety of landslides, characterised by
a lateritic cap, pose constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the
steep slopes overlooking the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris, which is highly landslide
prone.
Some spectacular events of tragedies are reported as Chamoli Garhwal landslide
(1868), Nainital landslide (1880), Malpha landslide (1998) Pithoragarh district,
Ukhimath landslide (2001) in Chamoli district, Varnavat landslide(2003) Uttarkashi 69
Introduction District, Dasgaon landslide (2005) Raigad district and Paglajhora (2010) in Darjeeling
district as well as in Sikkim, Aizawl sports complex, Mizoram (Parkash & Kathait,
2014). The problem, therefore, needs to be tackled for mitigation and management
for which hazard zones have to be identified and specific slides to be stabilised
and managed in addition to monitoring and early warning systems to be placed at
selected sites. Landslides occur in the hilly regions such as the Himalayas, North-
East India, the Nilgiris, and Eastern and Western Ghats. Landslides in India are
another recurrent phenomenon. Landslide-prone areas largely correspond to
earthquake-prone areas, that is, North-west and North-East, where the incidence
of landslides is the highest (NDMAa, 2016).
1) Bring out the Vulnerability Profile of India.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) Write a short note on Earthquakes in India.
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3) Discuss the nature of Tsunami and Landslide with reference to India.
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4.3.4 Floods
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river,
lake, or ocean, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of
that water escaping its usual boundaries. It may also occur due to the accumulation
of rainwater on saturated ground. On an average, in India, about 30 million people
are affected annually. Floods in the Indo–Gangetic–Brahmaputra plains are an
annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions are rendered
homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year. 40 million hectares,
or 12% of Indian land, is considered prone to floods. Floods are a perennial
phenomenon in at least 5 states – Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal (Rao, 2018). On account of climate change, floods have also occurred in
70 recent years in areas that are normally not flood prone. The principal reasons for
flood lie in the very nature of natural ecological systems in this country, namely, Disaster Profile
the monsoon, the highly silted river systems and the steep and highly erodible of India
mountains, particularly those of the Himalayan ranges. The average rainfall in India
is 1150 mm with significant variation across the country. The annual rainfall along
the western coast and Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over most of the Brahmaputra
valley amounts to more than 2500 mm (ADRC, 2015). Table 4.2 brings about
the major floods in India from 2008 to 2018.
Table 4.2: States hit by Flood from 2008 to 2018
Year Location Killed
2008 Tamil Nadu, Karnataka 37
2008 West Bengal, Orissa 1063
2008 Assam, Bihar, Gujarat NA
2008 Assam 142
2008 Bihar 47
2008 Bihar 245
2008 Assam, Tamil Nadu 54
2009 Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal 992
2009 Bihar, West Bengal 52
2009 Karnataka 300
2009 Tamil Nadu 70
2010 Andhra Pradesh 27
2010 Bihar 98
2010 Haryana 53
2010 New Delhi 11
2010 Jammu and Kashmir 196
2010 Assam NA
2010 Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh NA
2010 Uttarakhand 200
2010 Tamil Nadu 203
2011 Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand 50
2011 Uttar Pradesh 19
2011 West Bengal 47
2011 Assam 204
2011 Assam 7
2011 Odisha 42
2011 Odisha 239
2012 Assam 120
2012 Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh 30
2012 Himachal Pradesh 26
2012 Rajasthan 37
2012 Uttarakhand 45
2012 Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh 21
2013 Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh 580; 5,474
2015 Gujarat 70
2016 Assam 1.8 million
People affected
2017 Gujarat 200
2018 Kerala NA
Source: Government of India, 2011 & www.emdat.de.

71
Introduction 4.3.5 Cyclones
Any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric pressure in
a counter clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction
to the south is known as cyclone. Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions
of the earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or
snow. Also occurring in much the same areas are anticyclones, wind systems that
rotate about a high-pressure centre. Anticyclones are so called because they have
a flow opposite to that of cyclones — that is, an outward-spiraling motion, with
the winds rotating clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in
the southern. These winds are usually not as strong as the cyclonic system and
commonly produce no precipitation.
About 8% of the land in India is vulnerable to cyclones of which coastal areas
experience two or three tropical cyclones of varying intensity each year. Cyclonic
activities on the east coast are more severe than on the west coast. The Indian
continent is considered to be the worst cyclone-affected part of the world, as a
result of low-depth ocean bed topography and coastal configuration. The principal
threats from a cyclone are in the form of gales and strong winds; torrential rain
and high tidal waves/storm surges. Most casualties are caused due to coastal
inundation by tidal waves and storm surges. Cyclones typically strike the East
Coast of India, along the Bay of Bengal, that is, the states of West Bengal, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, but also parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat in
the West Coast in front of Arabian Sea. Table 4.3 reveals the number of causalities
due to cyclones in India is over the years.
Table 4.3: Major Cyclones in India
Year Name of the Place No. of Death
1737 Hoogli, West Bengal (India) 3,00,000
1876 Bakerganj (Bangladesh) 2,50,000
1885 False point (Orissa) 5,000
1971 Paradeep, Orissa (India) 10,000
1977 Chirala, Andhra Pradesh 10,000
1990 Andhra Pradesh 990
1998 Porbander Cyclone, Gujarat 1,173
1999 Paradeep, Orissa 9,885
2011 Thane Cyclone, Tamil Nadu & Puducherry 47
2013 Phailin Cyclone, Odisha & Andhra Pradesh 45
2014 Hudhud Cyclone, Andhra Pradesh 124
2016 Vardah Cyclone, Tamil Nadu & Andaman 38
and Nicobar Islands
2017 Ockhi Cyclone, Kerala, Tamil Nadu & Gujarat 282
Source: Government of India, 2011 & www.emdat.de.
72
4.3.6 Droughts Disaster Profile
of India
A drought is a period of belowaverage precipitation in a given region; resulting
in prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water
or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared
after as few as 15 days.
About 50 million people are affected annually by drought in India. Of approximately
90 million hectares of rain-fed areas, about 40 million hectares are prone to scanty
or no rain. The primary cause of any drought is deficiency of rainfall and in particular,
the timing, distribution and intensity of this deficiency in relation to existing reserves.
Drought is not uncommon in certain districts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, etc. Although a slow onset emergency, and to an extent
predictable emergency, drought has caused severe suffering in the affected areas
in recent years, including effects on poverty, hunger, and unemployment. A prolonged
period of relatively dry weather leading to drought is a widely recognized climate
anomaly. Drought can be devastating as water supplies dry up, crops fail to grow,
animals die, and malnutrition and ill health become widespread The environmental
effects of drought, include salinisation of soil, groundwater decline, increased pollution
of freshwater ecosystems and regional extinction of animal species.
4.3.7 Heat Waves and Cold Waves

A heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal
maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the north-western
parts of India. Heat waves typically occur between March and June, and in some
rare cases they even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant
atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions. Extreme
positive departures from the normal maximum temperature result in a heat wave
during the summer season. The rising maximum temperature during the pre-monsoon
months often continues till June, in rare cases till July, over the northwestern parts
of the country.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for
heat waves:
 Heat wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station
reaches at least 400C for plains and at least 300C for hilly regions;
 When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to
400C, heat wave departure from normal is 50C to 60C. Severe heat wave
departure from normal is 70C or more;
 When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 400C heat
wave departure from normal is 40C to 50C. Severe heat wave departure
from normal is 60C or more; and
 When actual maximum temperature remains 450C or more irrespective of
normal maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared. Higher daily
peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the
impact of climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which
are more intense in nature with each passing year, and have a devastating
impact on human health thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.
73
Introduction A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by cooling of the air.
Cold waves are recurrent phenomenon in North India. Hundreds of people die of
cold and related diseases every year, most of them from poor urban areas in
northern parts of the country.
1) Discuss the nature of Floods in India.
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2) ‘India is much prone to Cyclones’. Discuss.
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3) Explain Heat Waves and Cold Waves.
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4.4 CONCLUSION
India is much prone to multi-disasters. Major natural disasters, over the years, in
India have been discussed in the Unit. These disasters have been causing great
loss of life and property in the country. These disasters are droughts, floods,
tsunami, landslides, cyclones among others.There is much felt need for concerted
and coordinated endeavours for effective disaster management.
4.5 GLOSSARY
Hills of Circumdenudatioin : Denudation around or in hills which have been
produced by surface erosion. These are the
elevators which have been left after denudation
74 of a mass of high ground.
Seismic Zone : A seismic zone is an area of seismicity probably Disaster Profile
sharing a common cause. of India
Richter scale : The Richter magnitude scale was developed

in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California
Institute of Technology as a mathematical device
to compare the size of earthquakes. The
magnitude of an earthquake is determined from
the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded
by seismographs. Adjustments are included for
the variation in the distance between the various
seismographs and the epicenter of the
earthquakes.
4.6 REFERENCES
ADRC. (2005). Definition of Disaster Risk. Total Disaster Risk Management:
Good Practices. Retrieved from http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/TDRM2005/
ADRC. (2015). Country Report, INDIA. New Delhi: Disaster Management Division.
De, U.S., Dube, R. K. & Rao, P.G S, J. (2005). Extreme Weather Events over
India in the last 100 years. GEOPHYS. UNION. 9(3): 173-187.
Government of India. (2006). Report of Working Group on Disaster Management
for the Eleventh Five year Plan (2007-2012). New Delhi: Department of Planning
Commission.
Government of India. (2006).Crisis Management from Despair to Hope. New
Delhi: Second Administrative Reforms Commission.
Government of India. (2011). Disaster Management in India. New Delhi: Ministry
of Home Affairs.
Jain, M.K. & Ghosh, M. (2005). Emerging Trends of Urbanisation In India: An
Analysis of 1991 Census Result. New Delhi: Office of The Registrar General and
Census Commissioner, India.
Jigyasu, R. (2002). The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India
and Nepal. Retrieved from https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/handle/11250/230996.
Mall, R.K., Kumar, R. & Bhatla, R. (2011). Climate Change and Disasters in
India. Journal of South Asian Disaster Studies.4(1): 27-76.
National Centre for Disaster Management. (2001). The Report of the High Powered
Committee on Disaster Management in India. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public
Administration.
NDMA. (2016). Vulnerability Profile. Retrieved from http://www.ndma.gov.in/en/
vulnerability-profile.html
NDMAa. (2016). Landslide. Retrieved from https://ndma.gov.in/en/media-public-
awareness/disaster/natural-disaster/landslides.html
75
Introduction Parkash, S. & Kathait, A. (2014). A Selected Annotated Bibliography and
Bibliography on Landslides in India. New Delhi: National Institute of Disaster
Management.
Patra, J. (2016). Review of Current and Planned Adaption Action in India. CARIAA
Working Paper No.10. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Pechlivanidis, I & Arheimer, B. (2015). Large-Scale Hydrological Modelling by
Using Modified PUB Recommendations: The India-HYPE Case. Hydrology and
Earth System Sciences, 19(11):4559-4579.
Rajan, K. (September 26, 2018). Head it’s Flood; Tails it is drought. Retrieved
from: http://worldnewsreport.in/heads-flood-tails-draught/
Rao, J. (2018). Preparing for the monsoon. Retrieved from http://unicef.in/Story/
293/Preparing-for-the-monsoon-.
Talwar, P.P. (n.a.) Urban Scenario in Asian Countries. Retrieved from http://
www.auick.org
Twigg, J. (2001). Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness among NGOs in Gujarat
State, India. Ahmedabad: Disaster Mitigation Institute.
and Adaptation to Climate Change. Retrieved from http://www.mona.uwi.edu/
cardin/virtual_library/docs/1140/1140.pdf
Watts. (1983). On the Poverty of Theory, Natural Hazards Research in Context.
In K. Hewitt (Ed), Interpretations of Calamity. New South Wales: Allen & Unwin.
Yodmani, S. (n.a.). Poverty, Vulnerability and Disaster Risk Reduction for the
Poor. Retrieved from http://www.proventionconsortium.org/files/microfin_020200/
yodami.pdf.

EXERCISES
 India’s 57% of the land is vulnerable to earthquake (high seismic zones
III–V) and 68% is to drought.
 12% of land is vulnerable to floods and river erosion.
 Out of 7,516 KM coastline, 5700 KM are vulnerable to Cyclone.
 Earthquakes are a sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing
great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth’s crust or
volcanic action.
 Reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that
the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/
year.
76
 12% is prone to very severe earthquakes,18% to severe earthquakes Disaster Profile
and 25% to damageable earthquakes. of India

 A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a
large volume of a body of water in the ocean.
 It’s a giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under
the sea.
 Landslide is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. It’s
the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven
by the force of gravity.
 It may be called as landslips, slumps or slope failure.
 The Himalayas, the Northeastern hill ranges, the Western Ghats, the
Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans are vulnerable to the
Landslides.
 Flood is occurring due to overflow of water from water bodies.
 Floods in the Indo–Gangetic–Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature.
On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions are rendered homeless
and several hectares of crops are damaged every year 40 million hectares,
or 12% of Indian land, is considered prone to floods. Floods are a
perennial phenomenon in at least 5 states – Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal.
 Cyclone is a large system of winds that circulates about a centre of
low atmospheric pressure in a counterclockwise direction north of the
Equator and in a clockwise direction to the south.
 Indian sub continent is considered to be the worst cyclone-affected part
of the world, as a result of low-depth ocean bed topography and coastal
configuration. The principal threat from a cyclone is in the form of gales
and strong winds; torrential rain and high tidal waves/storm surges. Most
casualties are caused due to coastal inundation by tidal waves and storm
surges.
 Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the
normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in
the North-Western parts of India.
 It typically occurs between March and June, and in some rare cases
even extends till July.
 Cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling
of the air and which are recurrent phenomenon in North India.
 Uttarpradesh and Bihar rank the highest in terms of casualties from cold
wave.
77
78 Blank
BLOCK 2
DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTS
AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
80 Blank
UNIT 5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT,
POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS*
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Disaster Management Act, 2005
5.3 Institutional Framework under the Disaster Management Act
5.3.1 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
5.3.2 National Executive Committee (NEC)
5.3.3 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
5.3.4 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
5.3.5 National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
5.3.6 National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
5.4 Role of Central and State Government

5.4.1 Central Government
5.4.2 State Government
5.4.3 District Administration
5.4.4 Management of Disasters impacting more than one State
5.5 Other Important Institutional Arrangements

5.6 Disaster Management Policy
5.6.1 National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
5.6.2 National Disaster Management Plan, 2016
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 Glossary
5.9 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand:
 Policies of disaster management in India;
 Acts related to disaster management in India; and
 Institutional structure of disaster management in India.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster management can be defined as the organisation and management of resources
and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in
(Uttarakhand). 81
Disaster Management: particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact
Concepts and Institutional of disasters. The institutional arrangements for disaster management in India can
Framework
be understood through the various steps initiated in the country for managing disasters
effectively.
5.2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT, 2005

The Disaster Management Act, 2005, (23 December 2005) received the assent
of the President of India on 9 January 2006. The Act extends to the whole of India.
The Act provides for “the effective management of disasters and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto”. The Disaster Management Act, enacted in 2005,
has a new multidisciplinary focus on disaster prevention and risk reduction and a
move away from a relief-centric regime.
 The institutional framework under the Act mandated the creation of the National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs) as the bodies responsible for disaster preparedness
and risk reduction at the respective levels.
 The Disaster Management Division of the Ministry of Home Affairs retained
responsibility for overall steering of the national disaster response.
 It mandated the concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own
plans in accordance with the National Plan.
 The Act further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as the
creation of funds for the response, National Disaster Mitigation Fund and
similar funds at the state and district levels.
5.3 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK UNDER THE

DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT
5.3.1 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
Evolution of NDMA
Emergence of an organisation is always an evolutionary process. NDMA has also
gone through the same process. The Government of India (GOI), in recognition
of the importance of disaster management as a national priority, set up a High-
Powered Committee (HPC) in August 1999 and a National Committee after the
Gujarat earthquake, for making recommendations on the preparation of Disaster
Management plans and suggesting effective mitigation mechanisms. The Tenth Five-
Year Plan document, for the first time, also had a detailed chapter on Disaster
Management. The Twelfth Finance Commission was also mandated to review the
financial arrangements for Disaster Management.
On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management
Act, which envisaged the creation of National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities
(SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers, to spearhead and implement a
holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) as the apex body for disaster
management has the responsibility for laying down policies, plans and guidelines
for disaster management and coordinating their enforcement for effective response.
82 The Guidelines have assisted the Central Ministries, Departments and States to
formulate their respective Disaster Management (DM) plans. It can also take Disaster Management
other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention, mitigation, Act, Policy and
Institutional
preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disastrous situation. Arrangements
Central ministries or departments and State Governments are expected to extend
necessary cooperation and assistance to NDMA for carrying out their mandate.
NDMA has to oversee the provision and application of funds for mitigation and
preparedness measures. It has the power to authorise the departments or authorities
concerned to make emergency procurement of provisions or materials for rescue
and relief in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
The NDMA is mandated to deal with all types of disasters, natural or man-made.
Whereas such other emergencies including those requiring close involvement of
the security forces or intelligence agencies such as terrorism, counter-insurgency,
law and order situations, serial bomb blasts, hijacking, air accidents, chemical,
biological, radiological and nuclear weapon systems, mine disasters, ports and
harbour emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires and oil spills will continue to be
handled by the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC). NDMA may,
however, formulate guidelines and facilitate training and preparedness activities in
respect of Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies. Cross-
cutting themes like Medical Preparedness, Psycho-Social Care and Trauma,
Community Based Disaster Preparedness, Information and Communication
Technology training, Preparedness awareness generation, etc., of natural and man-
made disasters in partnership with the stakeholders concerned. Resources available
with the DM authorities at all levels, which are capable of discharging emergency
support functions, will be made available to the nodal ministries and agencies
concerned during times of such disasters (Government of India, 2011).
Functions of NDMA
The major functions of NDMA are as follows:
i) Lay down policies on disaster management;
ii) Approve National Plan;
iii) Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or departments of the Government
of India in accordance with the National Plan;
iv) Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up
the State Plan;
v) Lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or departments
of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating the measures for
prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development
plans and projects;
vi) Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for
disaster management;
vii) Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
viii) Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may
be determined by the central Government;
ix) Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation, or
preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the threatening disaster
situation or disaster as it may consider necessary;
x) Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National
Institute of Disaster Management. 83
Disaster Management: 5.3.2 National Executive Committee (NEC)
Concepts and Institutional
Framework The National Executive Committee (NEC) is composed of Secretary level officers
of the Government of India in the Ministries of Home, Agriculture, Atomic Energy,
Defence, Water Resources, Environment and Forests, Finance (Expenditure), Health,
Power, Rural Development, Science and Technology, Space, Telecommunication
and Urban Development, with the Home Secretary serving as the Chairperson,
ex officio. The NEC under section of the Act is responsible for the preparation of
the National Disaster Management Plan for the whole country and to ensure that
it is “reviewed and updated annually”.
5.3.3 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

All State Governments are mandated under Section 14 of the Act to establish a
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) in their States. The SDMA consists
of the Chief Minister of the State as the Chairperson, and not more than eight
members appointed by the Chief Minister. State Executive Committee is responsible
(Section 22) for drawing up the State Disaster Management Plan (SDMP), and
implementing the National Plan. The SDMA is mandated under section 28 to ensure
that all the departments of the State prepare disaster management plans as prescribed
by the National and State Authorities.
5.3.4 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

The Chairperson of District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is the Collector
or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner of the district. The elected representative
of the area is an ex officio co-Chairperson.
5.3.5 National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

In 1995, the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction IDNDR), with
the purpose of ensuring the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction, prompted the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) under
the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, the then nodal ministry for disaster
management in India to establish a National Centre for National Centre for Disaster
management (NCDM). With the transfer of the subject of disaster management
to the Ministry of Home Affairs on 16th October 2003, NCDM was later upgraded
as the National Institute of Disaster management (NIDM). The Institute was inaugurated
by the Home Minister of India on August 11, 2004.
The Disaster Management Act of 2005 granted statutory status to NIDM. The
Act holds the institute responsible for “planning, promoting training and research
in the area of disaster management, documentation and development of national
level information base relating to disaster management, policy formulation, developing
prevention mechanisms and promoting mitigation measures”.
The NIDM has been mandated by the Government of India (NDMA – as per
DM Act 2005, guidelines for NIDM) to be a deemed University and institute of
excellence of higher learning and capacity building. UGC has worked out with
NIDM and developed a model curriculum for strengthening disaster management
in higher education and research. Most Central Universities have envisaged Centre
for Disaster Management under their School of Environmental Studies. A core
group is being formed with UGC-NIDM to promote the subject at Academic
Staff Colleges as well.
84
5.3.6 National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Disaster Management
Act, Policy and
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialised force constituted Institutional
“for the purpose of specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster” Arrangements
under the Disaster Management Act, 2005: section 44–45. When ‘calamities of
severe nature’ occur, the Central Government is responsible for providing aid and
assistance to the affected state, including deployment of Armed Forces, the Central
Paramilitary Forces, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), at the State’s
request, as well as communication, air and other assets, as are available and
needed. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is under the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA). The head of the NDRF is designated as Director
General. The Director General of NDRF is IPS officer on deputation from Indian
police organisations. Director General wears the uniform and badges of rank of
an army three-star general. In the Kashmir-floods of September 2014, NDRF
played a vital role in rescuing the armed forces and tourists, for which NDRF
was awarded by the Government of India.
The NDRF is a top-heavy organisation which in addition to the Director General
has several Inspector Generals (IG) and Deputy IGs. National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF) is a force of 12 battalions, organised on para-military lines, and
manned by persons on deputation from the Indian para-military forces: three Border
Security Force (BSF), three Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), two Central
Industrial Security Force CISF), two Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) and
two Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB). The total strength of each battalion is approximately
1,149 persons. Each battalion is capable of providing 18 self-contained specialist
search and rescue teams of 45 personnel each including engineers, technicians,
electricians, dog squads and medical/paramedics (Eapen, 2016).
5.4 ROLE OF CENTRAL AND STATE

GOVERNMENTS
5.4.1 Central Government
In accordance with the provisions of the Disaster Management Act, 2005, the
Central Government will take all such measures, as it deems necessary or expedient,
for the purpose of disaster management and will coordinate actions of all agencies.
The Central Ministries and Departments will take into consideration the
recommendations of the State Governments while deciding upon the various pre-
disaster requirements and for deciding upon the measures for the prevention and
mitigation of disasters. It will ensure that the Central Ministries and departments
integrate measures for the prevention and mitigation of disasters into their developmental
plans and projects, make appropriate allocation of funds for pre-disaster requirements
and take necessary measures for preparedness and to effectively respond to any
disaster situation or disaster. It will have the power to issue directions to NEC,
State Governments/SDMAs, SECs or any of their officers or employees, to facilitate
or assist in disaster management, and these bodies and officials will be bound to
comply with such directions. The Central Government will extend cooperation
and assistance to the State Governments as required by them or otherwise deemed
appropriate by it. It will take measures for the deployment of the Armed Forces
for disaster management if required. The role of the Armed Forces will be governed
by the instructions laid out in Instructions on Aid to Civil Authorities1970. The
Central Government will also facilitate coordination with the UN agency for disaster
85
Disaster Management: management. Ministry of External Affairs, in co-ordination with MHA, will facilitate
Concepts and Institutional external co-ordination and cooperation.
Framework
i) Role of Central Ministries and Departments
As disaster management is a multi-disciplinary process, all Central Ministries and
departments will have a key role in the field of disaster management. The Secretaries
of the Nodal Ministries and Departments of Government of India, that is, the
Ministries of Home Affairs (MHA). Agriculture, Civil Aviation, Environment and
Forests, Health, Atomic Energy, Space, Earth Sciences, Water Resources, Mines,
Railways, etc., are all members of the NEC and will continue to function as nodal
agencies for specific disasters based on their core competencies or as assigned
to them.
ii) National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
NCMC, comprising high level officials of the Government of India headed by the
Cabinet Secretary, will continue to deal with major crises which have serious
ramifications. It will be supported by the Crisis Management Groups (CMG) of
the Central Nodal Ministries and assisted by NEC as may be necessary. The
Secretary, NDMA, will be a permanent invitee to this Committee.
5.4.2 State Governments

The primary responsibility for disaster management rests with the States. The
institutional mechanisms put in place at the Centre, State and District levels will
help the States manage disasters in an effective manner. The Disaster Management
Act, 2005, mandates the State Governments, inter alia, to take measures for
preparation of state disaster management plans, integration of measures for prevention
of disasters or mitigation into state development plans, allocation of funds, establishment
of early warning systems and to assist the Central Government and other agencies
in various aspects of disaster management.
5.4.3 District Administration

At the District level, DDMAs will act as the planning, coordinating and implementing
body for disaster management and will take all measures for the purposes of
disaster management in the respective Districts in accordance with the Guidelines
laid down by NDMA and the concerned SDMA.
5.4.4 Management of Disasters impacting more than one

State
At times, the impact of disasters occurring in one State may spread over to the
areas of neighbouring states. Similarly, preventive measures in respect of certain
disasters, such as floods, etc., may be required to be taken in one State, though
the impact of their occurrence may affect another. The administrative hierarchy of
the country is organised into the National, State and District level administrations.
This presents some difficulties in case of disasters impacting more than one state.
Management of such situations call for a coordinated approach which can respond
to a range of issues quite different from those that normally present themselves,
before, during and after the event. NDMA will encourage identification of such
situations and promote the establishment of mechanisms on the lines of Mutual
Aid Agreements, for coordinated strategies, to be dealt by the States, Central
Ministries and Departments and other agencies concerned (Eapen, 2016).
86
Disaster Management
5.5 OTHER IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONAL Act, Policy and
ARRANGEMENTS Institutional
Arrangements
i) Armed Forces
Traditionally, the Armed Forces are called upon to assist the civil administration
only when the situation is beyond their coping capacity. In practice, however, the
Armed Forces are immediate responders in all serious disaster situations. As a
result of their training, vast experience, risk taking mentality, swiftness and enormous
resources at their disposal, the Armed Forces have historically played a major
role in emergency support functions. These include emergency communications,
search and rescue operations, health and medical facilities, transportation, airlift,
helicopter lift, movement of relief material, emergency response to neighbouring
countries, etc. The Armed Forces do give training to trainers, and disaster management
managers, especially in Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN)
aspects, helicopter-insertion, high-altitude rescue, watermanship and training of
paramedics. At the National level, the Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff to
the Chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee, is a member of the NEC.
ii) Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs)
The CAPFs which are also the Armed Forces of the Union but under the Ministry
of Home Affairs also play a key role in disaster response. The NDRF is a deputation
force made out of CAPFs. Each CAPF pools personnel and officers from their
share. Besides this, CAPFs over a period of time develop their own capabilities
and respond to any disasters which may occur in their area of deployment. As the
CAPFs are spread all over India, the resource potential and nationwide presence
make their mobilisation much faster. Moreover, they are directly under Union
Ministry of Home Affairs, the nodal ministry for disaster management.
iii) State Police, Fire Services and Home Guards
The State Police Forces, the Fire and Emergency Services and Home Guards are
crucial and the immediate responders to any incident/disasters. The Police have
only limited training in multi-hazard rescue operation. However, Fire Service is
better off and adequately trained in emergency response. Home Guard volunteers
also will be a force multiplier, if they can be trained in disaster preparedness,
emergency response, community mobilisation, etc.
iv) Civil Defence (CD) and Home Guards
The Civil Defence (CD) and the Home Guards can be assigned the responsibility
of community preparedness and public awareness in urban area. A culture of
voluntarily reporting to duty stations in the event of any disaster, reactivating CD
set up in every District can pay dividends in disaster response as the neighbouring
community is always the first responder in any disaster. The proposal to make
CD District centric and be involved in disaster response has already been approved
by the Government of India. However, no visible efforts have been seen from
State Governments to organise them properly.
v) Local Elected Bodies
The DM Act, 2005, has defined the roles of Notified Area Committees (NACs),
Municipalities, Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils and Panchayat Raj
Institutions (PRIs) under section 41 (1) (2). These bodies are supposed to ensure
87
Disaster Management: that their officials and employees are trained in disaster management and resources
Concepts and Institutional relating to disaster management. These bodies are also required to carry out relief
Framework
activities in the affected areas in accordance with State and District disaster
management Plans. The SDMAs/DDMAs are to assign the specific roles and
responsibilities to local bodies in their Disaster Management Plan and suitably
integrate them with Integrated Response System (IRS).
vi) Community Participation in Disaster Response
The community based organisations such as NGOs, Self-Help Groups (SHGs),
Youth Organisations, Volunteers of National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Service
Scheme (NSS), Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS), and workers of different
projects funded by Government of India like National Rural Health Mission (NRHM),
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), etc., normally volunteer their services
in the aftermath of any disaster. Potential of these youth based organisations can
be optimised by giving them special training on disaster management.
vii) International Cooperation
Disasters are not limited by geographical boundaries. Major disasters may often
simultaneously affect several countries. It should be the endeavour of each nation
to develop close cooperation and coordination at the International level in disaster
management. Here diplomacy plays a vital role (Eapen, 2016).
1) Explain the salient features of Disaster Management Act, 2005.
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2) Discuss the role of SDMA and DDMA.
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3) Write a note on National Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
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Disaster Management
5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT POLICY Act, Policy and
Institutional
5.6.1 National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), Arrangements
2009
The National Policy Framework has been prepared after due deliberation and
keeping in view the National Vision to build a safe and disaster-resilient India by
developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster and technology-driven strategy for
disaster management. It was understood that this could be achieved through a
culture of prevention, mitigation and preparedness to put in place a prompt and
efficient response during disasters. The entire process centre-staged the community
and provide momentum and sustenance through the collective efforts of all government
agencies and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).
In order to translate this vision into policy and plans, the NDMA has adopted a
mission-mode approach involving a number of initiatives with the help of various
institutions operating at the national, state and local levels. Central ministries,
States and other stakeholders have been involved in the participatory and consultative
process of evolving policies and guidelines.
This Policy aims at:
 Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels
through knowledge, innovation and education;
 Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom
and environmental sustainability;
 Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process;
 Establishing institutional and technological frameworks to create an enabling
regulatory environment and a compliance regime;
 Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of
disaster risks;
 Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by
responsive and fail-safe communication with information technology support;
 Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the
needs of the vulnerable sections of the society;
 Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures
and habitat for ensuring safer living; and
 Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster
management.
5.6.2 National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016

The Prime Minister of India released the National Disaster Management Plan
(NDMP), as a first ever national plan prepared in the country.
Salient Features
The NDMP incorporates substantively the approach mentioned in the Sendai
Framework. The plan covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation,
response and recovery. It provides for horizontal and vertical integration among
all the agencies and departments of the government. The aim of the plan is to
make India disaster resilient. It is designed to maximise the ability of the country 89
Disaster Management: to cope with disasters at all levels by integrating disaster risk reduction into development
Concepts and Institutional and by increasing the preparedness to respond to all kinds of disasters.
Framework
The plan also takes into account the Global trends in disaster management. It
incorporates the approaches for disaster risk reduction mentioned in the Sendai
Framework (2015- 2030), which is an agreement under the United Nations to
which India is a signatory.
 The plan has assigned roles and responsibilities at all levels of Government,
right up to Panchayat and Urban Local body level in a matrix format.
 As the plan follows the regional approach, it is beneficial not only for disaster
management, but also for development planning.
 It also identifies major activities such as early warning, information dissemination,
medical care, fuel, transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc., to
serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a disaster.
 The plan emphasises on preparing communities to cope with disasters, so it
stresses on a greater need for Information, Education, and Communication
activities.
National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) is also based on the four priority
themes of the Sendai Framework, namely: understanding disaster risk, improving
disaster risk governance, investing in disaster risk reduction (through structural
and non-structural measures) and disaster preparedness, early warning and building
back better in the aftermath of a disaster. NDMP covers all phases of disaster
management: prevention, mitigation, response and recovery. It also identifies major
activities such as early warning, information dissemination, medical care, fuel,
transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc., to serve as a checklist for
agencies responding to a disaster. It also provides a generalised framework for
recovery and offers flexibility to assess a situation and build back better. To prepare
communities to cope with disasters, NDMP emphasises on a greater need for
Information, Education and Communication activities.
1) Write down the key points of National Policy on Disaster Management.
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2) Bring out the features of National Disaster Management Plan, 2016.
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Disaster Management
5.7 CONCLUSION Act, Policy and
Institutional
There had been great loss of lives and property after major disasters like the Arrangements
Super Cyclone in 1999 and the Earthquake in 2001. As a result of the large
scale devastation, there were measures initiated in India towards making institutional
arrangement for disaster management. Major initiatives such as the Disaster
Management Act, Disaster Management Policy and agencies for disaster management
at the Central, State and District levels have been discussed at length in this Unit.
5.8 GLOSSARY
Disaster Management : The Disaster Management Act, 2005, (23
Act, 2005 December 2005) received the assent of
The President of India on 9 January 2006. The
Act extends to the whole of India. The Act
provides for “the effective management of
disasters and for matters connected therewith
or incidental thereto”.
National Disaster : The NDMA is responsible for “laying down
Management Authority the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster
(NDMA) management” and to ensure “timely and effective
response to disaster”. It is responsible for laying
“down guidelines to be followed by the State
Authorities in drawing up the State Plans”.
National Disaster Response : The National Disaster Response Force
Force (NDRF) (NDRF) is a specialised force constituted “for
the purpose of specialist response to a
threatening disaster situation or disaster” under
the Disaster Management Act, 2005: section
44–45. When ‘calamities of severe nature’
occur, the Central Government is responsible
for providing aid and assistance to the affected
state, including deploying, at the State’s request,
of Armed Forces, Central Paramilitary Forces,
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF),
and such communication, air and other assets,
as are available and needed. National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF) is under the National
Disaster Management Authority.
National Institute of : The NIDM has been mandated by the
Disaster Management (NIDM) Government of India (NDMA – as per DM
Act 2005, guidelines for NIDM) to be a
deemed University and institute of excellence
of higher learning and capacity building. UGC
has worked out with NIDM and developed
a model curriculum for strengthening disaster
management in higher education and research.
5.9 REFERENCES
Eapen, A. (2016). Role of Indo-Tibetan Border Police in disaster response in
hill area border villages: An analytical study. Unpublished Thesis. New Delhi:
IGNOU.
91
Disaster Management: Government of India. (2005). Disaster Management Act, 2005. New Delhi:
Concepts and Institutional National Disaster Management Authority.
Framework
United Nations General Assembly Session 54 Resolution 219. (2000). Retrieved
from https://unisdr.org/files/resolutions/N0027175.pdf
National Institute of Disaster Management. Retrieved from http://www.nidm.gov.in/
National Disaster Management Authority. Retrieved from https://ndma.gov.in/en/
National Disaster Response Force. Retrieved from http://www.ndrf.gov.in

EXCERCISES
 Disaster Management Act was enacted in 2005.
 Institutional frameworks such as NDMA, NEC, NDRF, SDMA and
DDMA
 State Disaster Management Authority
 District Disaster Management Authority
 NDRF is a specialised force constituted for the purpose of specialist
response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
 It is a consist of forces from Border Security Force, Central Reserve
Police Force, Central Industrial Security Force, Indo-Tibetan Border
Police and Sashastra Seema Bal.
 Evolution and aims of the National Policy on Disaster Management,
2009.
2) Your answer should the following points:
 NDMP covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation,
response and recovery.
 It points out the roles and responsibilities of all levels of Government
right up to Panchayat and Urban Local Body level in a matrix format.
 It will help to maximise the ability of the country to cope with disasters
at all levels by integrating disaster risk reduction into development and
by increasing the preparedness to respond to all kinds of disasters.
92
UNIT 6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
WITH FOCUS ON PREPAREDNESS,
PREVENTION AND MITIGATION*
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 International and National Approach towards Disasters
6.3 Disaster Management Cycle
6.4 Disaster Prevention
6.5 Disaster Preparedness
6.5.1 Key Components of Disaster Preparedness Framework
6.5.2 Types of Preparedness
6.6 Disaster Mitigation

6.7 Conclusion
6.8 Glossary
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the disaster management cycle and its stages;
 Examine the concept and principles of disaster prevention;
 Elaborate the disaster preparedness measures and its types; and
 Explain the concept of disaster mitigation and discuss its approaches.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster management measures in earlier times were oriented mostly to the relief
measures, wherein items of relief are distributed to the victims after the disaster.
However, there was a realisation in later times on disaster management and it was
felt that rather than serving the needs of the victims after a disaster happens, it is
better to engage in prevention and mitigation measures which can contribute towards
not only preventing huge loss of life and property, but also contribute towards
preventing huge burden on the exchequer.
Both at the international and national level, the approach towards disaster management
has changed and the focus is on concentrating on the disaster management cycle
and promoting the culture of disaster risk prevention and mitigation. In this Unit,
* Contributed by Dr. A. Senthamizh Kanal, Consultant, Faculty of Public Administration, SOSS,

IGNOU, New Delhi. 93
Disaster Management: you will be introduced to the Disaster Management Cycle, which encompasses
Concepts and Institutional various stages viz. pre-disaster, during-disaster and post-disaster. Rather than focusing
Framework
on the post-disaster measures, emphasis has been made on the pre and during-
disaster measures which cover aspects such as prevention, preparedness and mitigation.
6.2 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL

APPROACH TOWARDS DISATER
As stated earlier, the initial measures of disaster management only meant distribution
of relief to the victims. It was only after the Yokohama Strategy for Disaster
Reduction in 1994 that the approach at the international level took a shift from
relief to mitigation and prevention. The Yokohama Strategy states that “disaster
prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster relief as the latter
only leads to temporary results with high costs, while the former contributes to
lasting improvement in safety thereby focusing on integrated disaster management”
(UNISDR, 1994). The same point has been reiterated by UNICEF (2016), which
states that, on an average “every $1 spent on preparing is worth more than $2 in
the emergency response, and that preparedness saves responders over a week of
operational time – doubling the impact of donors’ and taxpayers’ contributions”.
In the Indian context too, the approach towards prevention and mitigation can be
found in the Disaster Management Act of 2005. The Act states that the National
Plan shall include:
i) measures to be taken for prevention of disasters or the mitigation of their
effects;
ii) measures to be taken for the integration of mitigation measures in the development
plans;
iii) measures to be taken for preparedness and capacity building to effectively
respond to any threatening disaster situations or disaster; and
iv) roles and responsibilities of different Ministries or Departments of the Government
of India in respect of measures on the three aspects mentioned above
(Government of India, 2016).
Thus, the shift in approach can be observed both at the international as well as
national level and the core objective of India towards disaster management is to
promote the culture of disaster risk prevention and mitigation at central, state and
local levels.
6.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

Disaster Management is not a single entity. It involves so many actions and actors
as a disaster is not confined to any particular area/ location. It can happen anywhere
and at any time, which is so sudden and it makes enormous damage to the lives
of the people and the infrastructure. In managing disaster situation, emphasis has
been made on the Disaster Management Cycle, which is a new approach to look
into disasters in a holistic way. The Disaster Management Cycle thus:
 integrates various isolated activities, attempts and different actors;
 shows new path in handling disasters, which makes a shift from relief-oriented
approach to proactive approach.
94
As per Disaster Management Act, 2005, “Disaster Management” means a continuous Disaster Management
and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and implementing measures Cycle with Focus on
Preparedness,
which are necessary or expedient for – (i) prevention of danger or threat of any Prevention and
disaster; (ii) mitigation or reduction of risk any disaster or its severity or consequences; Mitigation
(iii) capacity building; (iv) preparedness to deal with any disaster; (v) prompt
response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster; (vi) assessing the severity
or magnitude of effects of any disaster; (vii) evacuation, rescue and relief; and
(viii) rehabilitation and reconstruction. All these components mentioned in the Act
are not an isolated or single activity and should be holistic, integrated and inter-
connected. Hence these components should be inbuilt into the development programmes
for effective disaster management. Such effective disaster management is based
upon the partnership among the Central, State and Local levels to ensure the
protection of the people through measures of proper preparedness, mitigation,
response, relief, recovery and rehabilitation.
Stages of Disaster Management Cycle

The Disaster Management Cycle can be divided into three stages, that is, Pre-
disaster, During-disaster and Post-disaster.
Pre-disaster: Preparedness, Prevention and Mitigation are the major activities in

pre-disaster stage. It is based upon the principle that prevention is better than
cure. In this stage, various preventive measures and activities are undertaken well
in advance so as to respond to disasters in an effective way. Much of the disastrous
effects could be avoided, if we are well equipped with preparedness, prevention
and mitigation measures and give serious attention to the early warnings. Pre-
disaster activities should, thus, concentrate on creating disaster resilient structures
and communities. For example, in India, cyclones are a common phenomenon
that occurs and warnings are generally given beforehand. If preparatory activities
can be undertaken well in advance, then it becomes easy to prevent huge losses
in terms of lives and property, in the aftermath phase.
During-disaster: Response and Relief are the important activities in the during-
disaster stage. It will start in the aftermath of a disaster. It includes immediate
95
Disaster Management: activities like search, rescue and evacuation, identification of and management of
Concepts and Institutional dead bodies and debris management, provision of first-aid, food, water, shelter,
Framework
safety and security, health care and sanitation, restoration of basic facilities, etc.
For example, when the Indian Ocean Tsunami struck in 2004, one can reflect
that all these measures were undertaken immediately.
Post-disaster: The major activities in the post-disaster phase include: Rehabilitation,
Reconstruction and Recovery. These activities will ensure that the disaster affected
community becomes resilient and return back to normalcy. Generally, this phase
takes a long time, as the efforts are made to restore all essential facilities to pre-
disaster status. The major focus of this phase is on the measures that could pave
way for long-term recovery of social, economic and physical structures, as well
as processes in such a way that future disasters are unable to impact severely and
irreversibly.
As discussed earlier, the activities undertaken in all the three phases are not an
isolated one and hence proper preparedness and mitigation measures are essential
for an effective response and recovery of the society. Further insights on the
different stages of a disaster have been made here to provide better understanding
(IGNOU-NDMA, 2012):
Prevention Prevention activities aim at totally avoiding the adverse impact

of hazards and providing means to minimise environmental,
technological and biological disasters. Depending on social
and technical feasibility and cost-benefit considerations,
investing in preventive measures is justified in areas frequently
affected by disasters.
Mitigation Mitigation means any action taken to minimise the extent of
a disaster or potential disaster. Mitigation can take place
before, during or after a disaster, but the term is most often
used proactively to refer to actions against potential disasters.
Mitigation measures are physical and both structural and
non-structural. Structural measures are measures that can
be easily seen or perceived such as strengthening of buildings,
disaster-resistant construction, and erection of infrastructure.
The non-structural measures are intangible in nature. These
cannot be easily quantified, but are very important such as
generation of awareness, education and training, adherence
to the rules and byelaws.
Preparedness Preparedness entails activities and measures taken in advance
to ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including
the issuance of timely and effective early warnings, preparation
of emergency plans, maintenance of inventories, at-risk planning
and temporary evacuation of people and property from
threatened locations. It involves measures that enable
governments, community and individuals to respond rapidly
to disaster situations and effectively cope with them. The
following are the important components of disaster
preparedness, that is, evacuation plans, incident response
96
set-up, logistics management, standardisation of relief Disaster Management
Cycle with Focus on
procedures, land-use planning, disaster insurance, awareness Preparedness,
on vulnerability of women, elderly, children and disadvantaged Prevention and
sections of society, pertinence of disaster task force, role Mitigation
of traditional wisdom and community based disaster
management.
Response/Relief Relief can be of an immediate, short-term, or protracted
duration. For example, search and rescue of the affected
people and provision of food, temporary shelter and medical
care to the persons affected by the disaster are some common
areas of intervention after a disaster. Relief involves strategies
and ways that can help to reduce the level of suffering and
mitigate the distress, so as to bring out the affected people
from the shock and trauma of suddenly losing their means
of livelihood. Further, the main objective of relief is to assist
the affected persons to start their normal activities again.
The following are important components of disaster response,
that is, role of search and rescue, health assessment,
epidemiological survey, standard operation procedures,
emergency operations centre, emergency health care,
geographical information system and remote sensing, community
radio and internet, communication and alarm systems and
evacuation plans (See Unit 7 for more information).
Rehabilitation Rehabilitation process includes all operations and decisions
taken after a disaster with a view to restoring an affected
community to its former living conditions, by encouraging
and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes
caused by the disaster (See Unit 9 for more information).
Reconstruction Process of Reconstruction includes the actions taken to re-
establish a community, following rehabilitation after a disaster.
These actions generally include construction of permanent
housing, complete restoration of all services and physical
infrastructure to the pre disaster state (See Unit 9 for more
information).
Recovery Recovery refers to decisions and actions related to
rehabilitation and reconstruction taken after a disaster with
a view to restoring or improving the pre-disaster living
conditions of the affected community. At the same time, it
also focuses on encouraging and facilitating necessary
adjustments to reduce disaster risk. Recovery activities make
use of disaster risk reduction measures to improve the situation
in affected areas. The aim is to also develop the areas in a
way that vulnerability and risk to disasters are minimised.
All development programmes in the area need to be
mainstreamed with recovery programmes in order to treat
disasters as development opportunities (See Unit 9 for more
information).
Source: Adapted from IGNOU-NDMA, 2012.
97
Disaster Management:
Concepts and Institutional 6.4 DISASTER PREVENTION
Framework
As we know, disasters are inevitable and unavoidable. But appropriate preventive
measures will help in reducing the impact of a disaster. The High Powered Committee
(HPC) Report on Disaster Management (2001) considers “development of a culture
of prevention as an essential component of an integrated approach to disaster
reduction”. The Committee also pointed out that the ‘culture of prevention’ should
be developed among the people, government and other community based organisations.
In recent times, the system of disaster management has undergone a major change
and importance has been given to disaster prevention too. The National Policy on
Disaster Management (2009) considers it essential to put in place “appropriate
institutional framework, management systems, and allocation of resources for efficient
prevention and handling of disasters”. Developing early warning systems and
developmental planning are the key measures towards disaster prevention. For
achieving long-term development or sustainable development, the country should
include the disaster preventive components in the policies, plans and the projects.
Ideally, these preventive measures will be helpful during the stages of preparedness,
response, recovery and rehabilitation. Following are some of the measures towards
disaster prevention:
6.4.1 Measures towards Disaster Prevention

HPC has listed the following measures towards disaster prevention.
 Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful
disaster reduction policies.
 Disaster prevention should focus on reducing the need for disaster relief.
 Disaster prevention should be an integral part of the developmental policy
and planning at national, regional, bilateral, multilateral and international stage.
 Early warning of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using
telecommunication are the key factors to successful prevention.
 Preventive measures should involve participation at all levels, from the local
community to national level to the regional and international level, to ensure
effectiveness.
 Application of proper design and patterns of development focused on target
groups through appropriate education and training is essential for the reduction
of vulnerability.
 There should be acceptance on the part of the international community to
share necessary technology to prevent disasters, which should be made freely
available and done in a timely manner as an integral part of technical cooperation.
 Each country bears the primary responsibility of protecting its people,
infrastructure and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters.
The international community should demonstrate strong political determination
required to mobilise adequate resources and make efficient use of existing
resources, including financial, scientific and technological means (HPC, 2001).
Thus, the focus of preventive measures is to give thrust to vulnerability reduction
and risk reduction. Proper preventive measures can reduce the need of the disaster
relief and response. Though disasters cannot be completely prevented, paying
98
heed to early warning systems and communication strategies can help in reducing Disaster Management
Cycle with Focus on
the impact of the disasters. The preventive measures cannot be implemented without
Preparedness,
the coordination of the community and the government. The following Table (adapted Prevention and
from Coppola, 2015) shows the difference between response and recovery based Mitigation
efforts and prevention and risk reduction based efforts.
Prevention and Risk-reduction based

Response and Recovery-based Efforts
Efforts
Primary focus on disaster events Focus on vulnerability and risk areas
Single, event based scenarios Dynamic, multiple risk issues and
development scenarios
Basic responsibility to respond to an event Fundamental need to assess, monitor and
update exposure to changing conditions
Often fixed, location-specific conditions Extended, changing, shared or regional, local
variations
Responsibility in single authority or agency Involves multiple authorities, interests, actors
Command and control, directed operations Situation-specific functions, free and open
association and participation
Established hierarchical relationships Shifting, fluid, and tangential relationships
Often focused on hardware and equipment Dependent on related practices, abilities, and
knowledge base
Dependent on specialised expertise Focused on aligning specialised expertise and
public views and priorities
Urgent, immediate, and short time frames in Moderate and long time-frames in outlook,
outlook, planning, attention and returns planning, values and returns
Rapidly changing, dynamic information Accumulated, historical, layered, updated or
usage, which is often conflicting or sensitive comparative use of information
in nature
Primary, authorised, or singular information Open or public information, multiple, diverse,
sources, need for definitive facts or changing sources, differing perspectives
and points of view
In-out or vertical flows of information Dispersed, lateral flows of information
Related to matters of public security, safety Matters of public interest, investment and
money
Source: Terry, 2001.

1) Discuss Disaster Management Cycle and its stages.
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99
Concepts and Institutional 2) Explain Disaster Prevention.
Framework
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3) Bring out the difference between response and recovery based efforts, as
well as prevention and risk reduction based efforts.
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6.5 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Disaster preparedness is defined as “actions taken in advance of a disaster to
ensure adequate response to its impacts, and the relief and recovery from its
consequences – is performed to eliminate the need for any last-minute actions”
(Coppola, 2015). United Nations’ International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR) has referred to preparedness as “the knowledge and capacities developed
by governments, professional response and recovery organisations, communities
and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts
of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions”. Disaster preparedness,
as per IFRC (2005), is a “continuous and integrated process involving a wide
range of activities and resources from multi-sectoral sources”. The United Nations
Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO, 1982) defines disaster preparedness as “measures
designed to organise and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief, rehabilitation
operations in case of disaster. Measures of preparedness include among others,
setting up of disaster relief machinery, formulation of emergency relief plans, training
of specific groups (and vulnerable communities) to undertake rescue and relief,
stock piling supplies and earmarking funds for relief operations”. Thus, preparedness
includes formulation of emergency plans, development of warning system, and
training of personnel to handle the emergency. It also includes planning of evacuation
measures and preparation for rescue measures. Preparedness helps in minimising
loss of life, disruption of critical services and damages on the occurrence of a
disaster (Kanal, 2013).
Disaster preparedness is not an easy task and is a complex process. No one
knows about the aftermath of the disasters. It needs prior planning, proper institutional
settings and coordination among various stakeholders. In this process of preparedness,
the role of community is very important. Preparedness has to be the core requirement
for communities, if they have to survive the aftermath of different catastrophes.
There is an urgent need to build the capacity and capability of the local communities
by empowering them with coping capacities and increasing their self-confidence
100
through recognition and increasing their knowledge, practices and values so that Disaster Management
this falls in line with the developmental activities. The role of community participation Cycle with Focus on
Preparedness,
in disaster preparedness is discussed at length in Unit 13. Prevention and
Mitigation
6.5.1 Key Components of Disaster Preparedness
Framework
Disaster preparedness framework has to encompass various measures. Following
are some of the key components of disaster preparedness:
 Strengthening of policy, technical and institutional capacities in regional, national
and local disaster management, including those related to technology, training,
as well as human and material resources.
 Promoting and supporting dialogue, exchange of information and coordination,
with the aim of fostering a holistic approach towards disaster risk reduction.
 Strengthening and developing coordinated regional approaches, to prepare
or review and periodically update disaster preparedness plans and policies
at all levels, with a particular focus on the most vulnerable areas and groups.
 Promoting the establishment of emergency funds, wherever needed, to support
preparedness measures.
 Developing specific mechanisms to engage the active participation and ownership
of relevant stakeholders including the communities, with the spirit of volunteerism.
6.5.2 Types of Preparedness

The preparedness activities can be divided into three types, namely 1) Target-
oriented Preparedness; 2) Task-oriented Preparedness; and 3) Disaster-oriented
Preparedness, which are discussed as follows:
6.5.2.1 Target-oriented Preparedness
Preparedness plans are target specific and for instance, the focus is laid on making
different types of planning for the vulnerable groups viz., women, children, elderly
and disabled. It also focuses on animals. Livestock would need a specific preparedness
plan. Apart from that there could be health preparedness plans, risk reduction
preparedness plans and awareness generation plans, some of which have been
discussed in the succeeding text.
 Livestock Preparedness Plan – this may include preparatory work on database
that provides information with regard to hazards, community profile, livestock
profile and animals at risk; Assessment of resources including veterinary personnel,
drugs and equipment, mobile veterinary units, veterinary hospitals; and General
awareness amongst the community, and volunteers about the livestock
management aspects including their recovery, rehabilitation, and control of
diseases.
 Composite, Long-term Disaster Health Preparedness Plan – a composite
plan for mitigation of medical and health related problems arising out of any
natural disaster should include community profile, Plan of Action, Resource
Planning, Training Plan, Allied Planning, Periodical Practice, Evaluation of
Plan and its consequent modification; collaboration and coordination with
allied agencies and neighbourhood areas.
101
Disaster Management:  Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) Plan – The preparatory
Concepts and Institutional work for CBDM plans to safeguard lives, livelihood and property and in this
Framework
context, involvement of community or people is integral to disaster preparedness.
It contains Risk Assessment Vulnerability Analysis; Resource Analysis and
Mobilisation; Warning System and its dissemination; Community Response
Mechanisms; Construction and Maintenance of Shelters; Mock Drills;
Strengthening of Community Self-help capacities; Formation of Disaster
Management committees and teams; Making of Seasonal Calendars; and
Creating Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk and Capacity Analysis, etc.
 Coordination Plan – It is pertinent that coordination between all the institutions/
agencies (Governmental and Non-Governmental) takes place systematically.
Even though, coordination has to be established between the central, state
and local levels, the majority of disaster information for the purpose of
coordination is processed at the state level, depending on the intensity and
scale of disaster event.
6.5.2.2 Task-oriented Preparedness
Task-oriented preparedness planning, focuses on carving out various tasks, which
include the following:
 Mapping
 Planning
 Forming Disaster Task Forces
 Training of members of Task Force and other Volunteers
 Creating Structures for Coordination
 Promoting Awareness Campaigns
 Operationalising Disaster Management
 Recruiting Personnel for Relief and Distribution Tasks
6.5.2.3 Disaster-oriented Preparedness
Sometimes the disaster preparedness is oriented towards the particular type of
disaster, for which the planning can be both structural and non-structural:
 Structural Preparedness Measures are proactive and reactive measures.
These are used to arrest the adverse impact of disasters. These measures
would vary from disaster to disaster.
 Non-structural Preparedness Measures include: Administrative and Regulatory
Legislation; Insurance Schemes; Information, Education and Training; Community
Participation, Community Action Groups; Responding to Warning Systems;
Institution Building; Provision of Incentives; and Creations of Public Awareness
(IGNOU-NDMA, 2012).
6.6 DISASTER MITIGATION

Disaster mitigation involves measures to reduce the effects of disaster causing
phenomena. It includes all actions to reduce the impact of a disaster that can be
taken prior to its occurrence including preparedness and long-term risk reduction
measures. According to Coppola (2015), “The components of disaster management
102 cycle, that is, preparedness, response and recovery are performed either in reaction
to hazards or in anticipation of their consequences and mitigation measures seek Disaster Management
to reduce the likelihood or consequences of hazard risk before a disaster ever Cycle with Focus on
Preparedness,
occurs”. The DM Act, 2005, defines Mitigation as “measures aimed at reducing Prevention and
the risk, impact, or effects of a disaster or threatening disaster situation”. Like Mitigation
preparedness and preventive measures, mitigation measures are also essential to
deal with disaster. Thus, a sustainable development model towards disaster
management has to focus on mitigation too.
6.6.1 Disaster Mitigation Approaches

The disaster mitigation can be divided into two approaches viz., Structural Approach
and Non-structural Approach .
6.6.1.1 Structural Approach
Structural approach is divided into engineered structures and non-engineered
structures. Engineered structure is about the structure that is constructed by architects
and engineers. This approach involves various activities like planning and designing
of bridges, dams, buildings, roads, etc. The building codes are available to construct
various structures in disaster prone areas. Though engineered structures are expensive
it helps in disaster resistance. On the other hand, non-engineered structure is
something which is constructed by local people with the available local knowledge
and skills. Mostly it is constructed by locally available masons, carpenters, etc.
The materials which are used for this are mostly from locally available raw material.
The cost of the construction is less expensive; however, it is not disaster resistant.
The structural approach is also called as a “man-controlling nature”.
6.6.1.2 Non-structural Approach
Non-structural approach of the disaster mitigation is human behaviour oriented,
which does not focus on the engineered structures. It is called as a “man adapts
nature”. The following are the key components of Non-structural approach of
mitigation, that is, Legislation, Insurance, Information, education and training,
Community participation, Community action groups, Responding to warning systems,
Institution building, Incentives and Public awareness.
1) Explain Disaster Preparedness and its key components.
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2) Discuss the various types of Disaster Preparedness.
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Concepts and Institutional .............................................................................................................
Framework
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3) Examine Disaster Mitigation Approaches.
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6.7 CONCLUSION
Day by day, disasters are leading to huge economic losses and developmental
setbacks to the country. Incorporating proper preventive, preparedness and mitigation
strategies in the development planning will reduce the impact of the disaster, discussed
in this Unit. Towards effective disaster management, it is pertinent that various
measures as pointed in disaster management cycle in all three phases of disaster
are incorporated at the international and national level to ensure effective disaster
management.
6.8 GLOSSARY
Disaster Management : The Disaster Management Act, 2005 was
Act, 2005 enacted from 23rd December 2005. This Act
provides for the effective management of
disasters and for matters connected there with
or incidental thereto.
National Policy on Disaster : National Policy on Disaster Management
Management, 2009 (NPDM) was approved by the then Union
Cabinet on 22nd October, 2009 with the vision
“To built a safe and disaster resilient India by
developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster
oriented and technology driven strategy through
a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and response.
6.9 REFERENCES
Coppola, D.A. (2015). Introduction to International Disaster Management.
Burlington, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Conceptual and Institutional framework of Disaster
Management. New Delhi.
Government of India. (2005). Disaster Management Act, 2005. New Delhi:
104 National Disaster Management Authority.
High Powered Committee (HPC). (2011). The Report of High Powered Committee Disaster Management
on Disaster Management. Government of India. New Delhi. Cycle with Focus on
Preparedness,
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2005). World Prevention and
disaster report, 2005. Retrieved from http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/ Mitigation
WDR/69001-WDR2005-english-LR.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Conceptual and Institutional framework of Disaster
Management. New Delhi.
Open University.
National Disaster Management Authority. (2009). National Policy on Disaster
Management, 2009. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs.
Sahni, P., Dhameja, A. & Medury, U. (Eds.). (2001). Disaster Mitigation:
Experiences and Reflections. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Terry, J. (2001). The evolution of disaster reduction as an international strategy:
Policy implications for the future. In Rosenthal, U., Boin, R.A., and Comfort,
L.K (eds). Managing crises: Threats, Dilemmas, Opportunities. Springfield:
Charles C.Thomas.
UNDRO. (1982). Natural Disasters and Vulnerability Analysis. Geneva: Office
of United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator.
UNISDR. (1994). Yokohoma strategy and plan of action for a safer world:
Guidelines for natural disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation. Retrieved
from http://www.unisdr.org/files/8241_doc6841contenido1.pdf
UNICEF. (2016). Preparedness for emergency response in UNICEF: Guidance
note. Retrieved from
https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/files/UNICEF_Preparedness_Guidance_
Note_29_Dec__2016_.pdf

EXERCISES
 Disaster Management Cycle integrates various isolated activities, attempts
and different actors.
 Pre-disaster, During-disaster and Post-disaster.
 Prevention activities aim at totally avoiding the adverse impact of hazards
and providing means to minimise environmental, technological and biological
disasters.
 Measures towards Disaster Prevention.
 Response and Recovery-based Efforts.
 Prevention and Risk-reduction based Efforts.
105
Disaster Management: Check Your Progress 2
Framework 1) Your answer should include the following points:
 Preparedness includes formulation of emergency plans, development of
warning system, and training of personnel to handle the emergency.
 Key Components.
 Target-oriented Preparedness.
 Task-oriented Preparedness.
 Structural Approach.
 Non-structural Approach.
106
UNIT 7 DISASTER RELIEF AND
RESPONSE*
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Disaster Relief Measures and Methodologies
7.3 Response Mechanism
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Glossary
7.6 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concepts of disaster relief and response;
 Examine disaster relief measures and methodologies;
 Assess response mechanism; and
 Understand the role of Government and Non-government bodies involved in
the process of disaster response and relief.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A disaster is an event that occurs, in most cases, suddenly and unexpectedly,
causing severe disturbance to people and objects of environment, resulting in loss
of life, property and health of the population. Such a situation causes disruption in
the normal pattern of life, generating misfortune, helplessness and suffering and
affecting the socio-economic structure of a region or country or continent to such
an extent that there is a need for assistance or immediate external intervention
from within the country or outside.
Disasters threaten sustainability of economy worldwide. In the past twenty years,
earthquakes, landslides, floods, tropical storms, tsunamis and other calamities
have killed around three million people, inflicted injury, disease, homelessness
and misery on about one billion others, and caused damage worth billions of
rupees. Developing countries, especially the most densely populated regions suffer
the brunt of natural disasters. Between 1990 and 2015, more than 97 per cent of
all natural disaster related deaths were in developing countries. The world’s worst
natural disasters have claimed many lives and have caused damage to property in
millions. Poverty and unsystematic development amplify the adverse effects of
natural disasters. Developing countries are particularly vulnerable because they
have limited capacity of preventing and absorbing these effects.
* Contributed by Dr. Kamla Bora, Assistant Professor, Govt. P.G. College, Rudrapur, Uttarakhand. 107
Disaster Management: Disasters destroy decades of human effort and investment, thereby forcing demand
Concepts and Institutional on society for reconstruction and rehabilitation. However, the impact of disasters
Framework
in terms of loss of life and property, and damage to the environment can be
minimised by appropriate mitigation and preparedness plans, commensurate with
level of resources and technologies available. India is one of the most disaster
prone countries in the world. A major disaster occurs in India almost in every 2-
3 years and 50 million people are affected annually from these disasters. On an
annual basis, around 1 million houses are damaged along with human, social,
economic and other losses.
In the aftermath of a disaster, the immediate need is that of relief to be provided
to the victims. This falls within broad parameters of response that gets into being
after the disaster has caused enormous devastation. The response is ensured so
that at the immediate instance some relief is made possible.
Relief work is about the bottom line of ensuring basic minimal necessities that
relief must secure. Basic relief attempts to secure survival by ensuring that people
have access to four things:
 Sufficient drinking water and sanitation
 Sufficient food
 Basic medical care; and
 Shelter from extreme weather conditions.
7.2 DISASTER RELIEF MEASURES AND

METHODOLOGIES
Disaster relief is a systematic effort carried out through a number of actions. These
are discussed here under.
Evacuation
In the event of the impending disaster the first step towards relief to be provided
in the area concerned is through evacuation. It is carried out for the purpose of
ensuring safety of people. Thus, it involves shifting of population from the risk
areas of the concerned disaster to safer place, which could be a cyclone shelter,
a concrete building, and higher altitude for a temporary shelter.
Evacuation is of different types namely:
 Preventive (done much before the disaster actually strikes);
 Protective (done as a precautionary measure to guard against spread of diseases
or an impending disaster);
 Rescue-oriented (focusing on rescue operation whereby in the aftermath of
disaster the inhabitants are to be moved to identified places in safe areas).
For evacuation to be effective, there is requirement of timely and accurate warning,
clearly identified escape routes, arrangement for transportation, cooperation of
the people of affected area and coordination amongst various stakeholders involved
in the process. Evacuation could be of great relevance, if carried out effectively.
It gets proved by the example of cyclone Phailin wherein large scale evacuation
108
was carried out leading to a minimum death toll, though the region suffered damage,
worth million of dollars and affected the livelihood of 13 million in October, 2013 Disaster Relief
(World Bank, 2013). and Response
Past experiences and lessons learnt from the past also play a substantive role in
making evacuation a success. It gets proved from the view expressed by an official
in Odisha, “zero causality became the war cry of the state government. We took
cyclone 1999 as a benchmark to develop policies to reduce risk, and the reference
to 1999 was used to persuade people to evacuate. We knew from 1999 that
one of the main reasons the cyclone killed so many people was that few people
evacuated. (Interview with high-level official in charge of district of Ganjam,
Bhubaneswar, November 2014)” (Walch, 2018). Evacuation process comprises
number of steps each leading to required action as shown in the Table 7.1 below:
Table 7.1: Steps in Evacuation Process
STEP ACTION
Determine the need Determine whether there is need for total or partial evacuation.
Identify a relocation Select an area that is free of hazards and easily accessible.
area
Communicate Communicate to everyone involved about the need to evacuate and
update them on the locations of shelters.
Pre-designate routes Designate routes from the area to be evacuated to be the area of
location. Consider alternatives.
Verify routes Make sure that the evacuation is proceeding smoothly, and that
periodically during evacuation, no bottlenecks are created along the evacuation
route.
Report the Be sure to inform governmental emergency management personnel
evacuation about the evacuation to avoid unnecessary duplication of efforts
and risks.
Source: IGNOU-NDMA, 2012.
Search and Rescue (SAR)

Search and Rescue (commonly known as SAR) is of utmost importance in ensuring
People’s safety. The process needs to be carried out after the disasters strike an
area. It is carried out by the locals, who are the first responders; NGOs; voluntary
organisations and the emergency agencies. Search and Rescue operations are
meant to save as many trapped people as possible. It aims at survival of the
maximum number of affected persons. It is normally and preferably carried out
with the help of people as they are familiar with the area concerned and also have
the assessment of the trapped victims. Primarily Search and Rescue operations
are undertaken by trained personnel who normally follow the following three key
principles:
 LOOK: See physically the incidents and make a thorough visual perception.
 LISTEN: Listen to all sources of information from the community and government
records etc. Assess the community data regarding people in danger.
 FEEL: Feel convinced regarding the facts, the gravity of the dangers involved
and one’s own capacity to respond (IGNOU-NDMA, 2012).
The Search and Rescue kits, ideally available in central location of vulnerable
areas, contain required tools. A typical SAR kit comprises the following. 109
Disaster Management:  Evacuation map of the building or area
Framework  Hammer
 Screw driver (6" flat)
 Axe
 24" Crow bar
 Spade
 Pickaxe
 50-foot rope
 Torch
 Spare battery cells
 Hard shoes or Gum Boots
 Helmet
 Hand gloves
 Dust Mask
There are number of techniques and ways of rescuing affected individuals and
carrying victims. These could be listed as:
i) One-Person Arm Carry
ii) One-Person Pack-Strap Carry
iii) Two-Person Lift
iv) Chair Carry
v) Blanket Carry
vi) Improvised Stretchers
vii) Drag
viii) Ropes, Knots and Techniques
ix) Double Sheet-Bend
x) Chair Knot
xi) Lashings (Tie something firmly to something else)
 Square Lashing
 Diagonal Lashing
 Figure of Eight Lashings
 Round Lashing
110
xii) Improvised Swimming and Floating Aids Disaster Relief
and Response
 Raft
 Breast-Line (Life-Lines)
 Rules of Breast-Line-Throwing
Shelter
Disasters like, Earthquake, Landslide, Cyclone, Flood cause destruction and serious
damage to buildings and infrastructure. Besides, in case of cyclones or floods,
people are asked to move out of the dwelling units to earmarked shelters.
Shelter is also one of the relief measures as it provides place for people in the
event of either impending disaster or in the post-disaster situation. Thus, it means
interim housing to meet basic immediate needs of disaster victims. The prime
purpose of a temporary or designated shelter is to safeguard peoples’ lives from
exposure and further suffering. Temporary shelters are either in the form of tents
or specifically assembled structures made of variety of material including wood,
plastic, tin, etc.
A 10 point guideline for temporary shelter provisions prepared in the aftermath of
Kashmir Earthquake of 2005 by Ian Davis is as follows (IGNOU, 2006).
1) Monitor what is going on
Use this disaster to inform the coordination agencies about what goes on in this
sector, at micro and macro levels, such as, who is deciding on shelter approaches;
where is the expertise; what the popular wisdom on shelter is; what are the dilemmas
and conflicts? etc.
2) Tents
The likelihood is that a wide variety of tents, with varied specifications will arrive,
some very appropriate, while others are hopelessly unsuited for the climate or
cultural conditions. Who adopts what specifications and, is there any quality control
or standardised specification? If families tear their allocated tent to use the canvas
in creative ways this can be highly effective, yet in some contexts, some ‘tidy
minded’ officials have been known to ban this adaptive process.
3) Standards
Minimum standards of shelter provision are given under the Sphere Project, and
are accepted around the world. These should be adhered to, and adapted where
there is a need for modifications. The basic principles of the standards should be
ensured in all temporary shelter programmes.
4) Location of Tents
Where possible, families should be allowed to take a tent and put it near their
house rather than on a centralised campsite. Reasons for this are obvious; it would
provide for better care of domestic animals in rural settings, protection of household
belongings that may remain within their ruined dwellings and maintenance or recovery
of livelihoods that may be linked to the home.
5) Shelter Materials
Probably, one of the best policies is to distribute shelter materials, such as blankets, 111
Disaster Management: roofing, sheeting, plastic sheeting, lengths of planed timber, building tools, wire,
Concepts and Institutional rope, nails, etc. Where possible, these can be sold where people have money to
Framework
avoid dependency, but where people do not have resources, they can be donated.
If the materials for roofing, sheeting, etc., can come with expertise and the support
of skilled volunteers to assist in building, this will enhance the process.
6) Shelter for Families with Damaged Dwellings
Aftershocks can bring down damaged, but standing houses. Therefore, such families
need to be advised to sleep outside their homes in tents or improvised shelters
even if they spend time in the day in their homes. The risks are very high when
they are lying flat, sleeping and a damaged structure collapses. Rapid damage
surveys need to check on this issue as a vital measure to avoid further losses of
lives from aftershocks.
7) Local Advice Centres
Repairs begin immediately, regardless of whether or not the government seeks to
stop the process until structural safety surveys have been undertaken. Small teams
can be assembled, comprising volunteer engineers/ architects/ builders who can
be assigned different areas to offer advice concerning shelters and repair and
rebuilding options.
8) Transition Housing
An effective strategy is to seek to help families to create a transitional dwelling
that will eventually develop into a permanent dwelling. This is a preferable approach
to providing expensive rehabs that will later be replaced by another permanent
home (In effect this a wasteful double reconstruction approach). The aim is to
use the sheltering process to accomplish three things: provide shelter, strengthen
local livelihoods and aid the psychosocial recovery process.
9) Debris
In many disaster situations there is often large-scale destruction of building debris
during the clearing and recovery process. Vital timber and masonry debris is destroyed
in the process. It is essential to collect useful building debris for recycling purposes.
10) Shelter Units
Each disaster will attract a community of intrepid inventors or commercial opportunists
who seek to convince officials to place big orders for their novel creations made
of cardboard, plastic, polyurethane, etc. Such designs are essentially innovative
answers seeking a problem. They often cost far more than tents and shelter materials;
they can be culturally and climatically inappropriate and can take ages to deliver.
There are better alternatives available as noted above.
It is not only human beings but also livestock which get affected by disasters. In
fact the causality among livestock is very high because at time of disaster, they
are left tide to their stakes leaving no means of escape. Thus, there is need for
provision of shelter for livestock as well with focuses on the following, availability
of fodder; maintenance of hygiene; and assistance of veterinary staff.
Distribution of Food, Water and Fodder
Number of agencies, Government and Non-government, do take steps for the
distribution of food, water, medicine and fodder, etc., to the victims after the
disaster. However, the community needs to have its own stock of the said items
112
for the purpose of its consumption in between the time of disaster occurrence and Disaster Relief
arrival of the relief distribution teams at the affected places. Community is also to and Response
be prepared for assisting the relief distribution teams as they are working in the
community interest. Nevertheless, the distribution teams should not take this act
as that of charity or obligation and should ensure that the consumables are provided
to as many as possible and in the shortest possible time.
Clearance of Debris
Debris of collapsed buildings, bridges and other structures, as well as uprooted
trees, hoardings, etc., are the biggest hindrance to search, rescue and relief operations,
as they lead to the disruption of communication service and transportation. As
such, debris clearance is the first step towards re-establishment of transport and
communication networks and setting up of a system to enable effective search,
rescue and relief efforts.
Debris clearance in a post-disaster scenario is a complex task, not only due to
high volumes and hampered accessibility, but because the nature of debris is also
unique. It may comprise rubble from damaged buildings, bridges and other structures,
uprooted trees, poles and hoardings, damaged vehicles, goods and even accumulated
solid waste, which may be of biodegradable or non-biodegradable nature.
During debris clearance operations, care has to be taken so as not to cause
further problems endangering lives or property. There is need to safeguard survivors
trapped underneath debris and attention is also required not to tamper with any
infrastructure and service networks in the process of debris clearance. Survivors
can be first searched. Local community can help in carrying out this operation.
Movement of Injured to Hospitals
The Local People, NGOs, elected members of the Gram Panchayat, local officials
need to help the rescue team to prioritise the victims who have sustained more
injuries for their transportation to the nearby hospitals. The serious cases must be
given precedence over the less serious ones and accordingly injured should be
moved to the hospitals for proper treatment.
Disposal of Dead Humans
Quick disposal of dead bodies is very important for containing the spread of
diseases due to their quick decay. Besides, decomposing human dead bodies on
the site with fast spreading stench, present a very unpleasant environment for the
rescue workers as well as surviving victims. This could have a telling effect on
their mental health.
However, human dead bodies need to be disposed off with great care because
sentimental values are attached to the dead and human dignity is to be respected
even after death. As such, the means, process and the manner of their disposal
are of great importance to their kith and kin. The first step in this regard has to be
the identification of the dead bodies. This is also required for compliance with
police formalities. Once the ethnic background of the victims has been identified,
then the bodies should be suitably disposed in accordance with their religious and
cultural practices.
Resources such as fuel need to be mobilised for cremation purposes. Whose
ethnic background prescribes burial have to be buried accordingly. If the families
of the dead are at hand and are willing to take charge of the bodies for individual 113
Disaster Management: disposal, this may be done. In case where there are no claimants or where bodies
Concepts and Institutional cannot be recognised, they should be collectively disposed through mass burial or
Framework
cremation. In certain cases, where formalities and legalities, such as post-mortem
medical reports and filling up of forms are required, assistance is needed to be
provided to the relatives of the dead for completion of these formalities.
Disposal of Dead Animals
In most natural disasters, particularly in rural areas, the number of animal deaths
are very high in residential areas, due to the fact that most domesticated animals
are kept tied up, and in event of a disaster while the people flee urgently, the
animals are left tied up; they have no chance of voluntary escape and thus, often
perish.
Disposal of dead animals is as important as that of humans because decaying
dead bodies can be a potential health and environment threat. Still, this aspect is
usually accorded lower priority, more so in case of stray animals. The rescuers
are not willing to handle animals’ carcasses. Yet, this must be done expeditiously
by local volunteers till the authorities take charge and get the carcasses disposed
off. Disposal is best done by burial, at some place outside the habitated area. Till
such times, nobody should be allowed to hold on to the dead bodies for extraction
of hides or bones or any other recoverable material, because the risk of disease
and infection is very high, and quickest disposal of the dead bodies is desirable.
Sympathetic Attitude towards Victims
When people suffer from disaster, they undergo certain psychological problems.
The psychological stress is seen in the form of:
i) Shock
ii) Anger
iii) Fear
iv) Helplessness
v) Anxiety
vi) Depression
vii) Sadness
There is a need for proper psychological support to the victims. Listening to distressed
persons and offering empathy and understanding enable them not to feel alone
and come to terms with the reality. However, it is required of the supporting
persons to be objective and non-judgemental and refrain from giving advice or
commenting on their emotions. None else than the local people are more suitable
for this task as they already know about the victim, the family, the socio-economic
conditions of the family, etc.
Assisting Rescue Teams
Once the disaster strikes and the news reach the Government and NGOs concerned,
these organisations gear up to rescue the victims. Large number of rescue teams
attempts to reach the disaster site. It becomes imperative for the community to
provide all kinds of physical assistance by way of information and help to the
rescue teams so that they can efficiently and effectively perform the tasks undertaken
by them.
114
Property Security Disaster Relief
and Response
In the event of disaster like cyclone and floods, people are supposed to move to
the safer places like cyclone shelters, concrete shelters, etc. It is being observed
that many people refuse to leave their dwelling units for fear of thefts and misplacement
of their belongings. The locals with the help of the elected members of the local
body, local officials, etc., must ensure safety of property of the people who have
moved to the safer structures. This will not only save the assets but will also help
in managing the migrants to the safer structures to keep cool and have balance of
mind as they will not be worried for their belongings and property.
Information Dissemination and Checking of Rumours
The area, which has been struck by the disaster, has people whose relatives may
be staying at far of places. Furthermore, there is a need for exact information to
be passed on to the block and district authorities about the severity of disaster,
likelihood of the damage, loss of human lives, loss of livestock, number of injured
human beings and livestock so that proper rescue operation could be planned
and carried out. Community could play a vital role in checking the spread of
rumours as this proves to be counterproductive and may stall the relief and response
measures initiated by the response teams.
Immediate Damage Assessment
Damage assessment is a pre-requisite of all disaster management practices. Rapid
damage assessment is required for emergency relief measures. This would lead to
the amount of medical relief and food stocks to reach the disaster area. Rapid
damage assessment needs to include area affected in Sq. Kms.; number of people
affected in the village, number of households partially and fully damaged, number
of injured persons and livestock, etc.
Filing of Claims
The process of filling the claims must start as early as possible. The local officials,
NGOs, community could assist the affected people to file the claims.
1) What do you understand by disaster relief and response?
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2) List out the major steps initiated under disaster relief.
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Concepts and Institutional .............................................................................................................
Framework
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7.3 RESPONSE MECHANISM

The National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) acts as the communication
and coordination hub during this phase and it maintains constant touch with early
warning agencies for updated inputs. It informs State Emergency Operations Centre
(SEOC) and District Emergency Operations Centre (DEOC) through all available
communication channels and mechanisms. The Disaster Management Division (DM
Division) of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) communicates and coordinates
with designated early warning agencies, various nodal Ministries, and State
Governments. It mobilises reinforcements from the National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF), Armed Forces and the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs)
and puts together transportation plans for moving resources. The National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) supports the overall coordination of response
as per needs of MHA. The NDMA provides general guidance, and takes decisions
for the deployment of the NDRF. The NDRF is deployed as required depending
on the request from State Government. They keep the force in operational readiness
at all times.
At the national level, the Central Government has assigned nodal responsibilities
to specific Ministries for coordinating disaster-specific responses. The National
Executive Committee (NEC) coordinates response in the event of any threatening
disaster situation or disaster. The State Government activates the Incident Response
Teams (IRTs) at State, District, or block level and ensures coordination with the
State Emergency Operation Centers (SEOC). The State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA) provides the technical support needed to strengthen the response
system. It is essential that the first responders and relief reach the affected areas
in the shortest possible time. Often, there are inordinate delays due to real constraints
imposed by the location, nature of disaster and, most regrettably, due to inadequate
preparedness. In many situations, even a delay of six to twelve hours proves to
be too late or unacceptable. To make matters worse, relief tends to arrive in a
highly fragmented or uncoordinated form with multiple organisations acting
independently of each other without a cohesive plan, without mechanisms to avoid
overlaps and without proper prioritisation of different aspects of relief such as
shelter, clothing, food, or medicine. From an operational perspective, the challenges
are similar across most hazards. The NDMA has formulated Incident Response
System (IRS) Guidelines for the effective, efficient, and comprehensive management
of disasters. The implementation of NDMA’s IRS Guidelines by the States will
help National Disaster Management Authority in standardisation of operations;
bring clarity to the roles of various departments and other agencies, which are
common to most disaster response situations. Disaster Ministries at the National
level are assigned with the role of coordinating response for different disasters.
The Table 7.2 below points out the designated ministries’ role.
116
Table 7.2: Central Ministries for Coordination of Response Disaster Relief
at National Level and Response
Disaster Nodal Ministry/ Dept./ Agency

1 Biological Disasters Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW)
2 Chemical Disasters and Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
Industrial Accidents (MoEFCC)
3 Civil Aviation Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA)
4 Cyclone, Tornado, and Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
Tsunami
5 Disasters in Mines Ministry of Coal; Ministry of Mines (MoC, MoM)
6 Drought, Hailstorm, Cold Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoAFW)
Wave and Frost, Pest
Attack
7 Earthquakes Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
8 Floods Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
9 Forest Fires Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC)
10 Landslides and Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
Avalanches
11 Nuclear and Radiological Dept. of Atomic Energy, Ministry of Home Affairs
Emergencies (DAE,MHA)
12 Oil Spills Ministry of Defence/Indian Coast Guard (MoD/ICG)
13 Rail Accidents Ministry of Railways (MoR)
14 Road Accidents Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH)
15 Urban Floods Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)
“The state and district administration identify sites for establishment of various
facilities as mentioned in the IRS guidelines such as Incident Command Post,
camp, base, staging area, camp, and helipad, for providing various services during
the response. The state and local administration must widely disseminate and publicise
information about these arrangements as mandated in the State Disaster Management
Plan (SDMP) and District Disaster Management Plan (DDMP). Since disaster
response operations are multifaceted, time sensitive, extremely fast-moving, and
mostly unpredictable, it requires rapid assessment, close coordination among several
departments, quick decision-making, fast deployment of human resources and
machinery as well as close monitoring. In order to prevent delays and to eliminate
ambiguities with regard to chain of command, the SDMP and DDMP must clearly
spell out the response organisation as per IRS. These plans must clearly identify
the personnel to be deputed for various responsibilities in the IRT at various levels
of administration along with proper responsibility and accountability framework.
Provision for implementation of unified command in case of involvement of multiple
agencies such as Army, NDRF, CAPF, and International Urban Teams Search
and Rescue must be spelt out in the SDMP. From time to time, the DM plan must
be tested and rehearsed by carrying out mock exercises” (Adopted from NDMP,
Government of India, 2016).
Catastrophic disasters like earthquakes, floods, cyclones and tsunami result in a
large number of casualties and inflict tremendous damage on property and
infrastructure. The Government of India has established a flexible response mechanism 117
Disaster Management: for a prompt and effective delivery of essential services as well as resources to
Concepts and Institutional assist a State Government or Union Territory severely hit by a disaster. Disaster
Framework
management is considered as the responsibility of the State Governments, and
hence the primary responsibility for undertaking rescue, relief and rehabilitation
measures during a disaster lies with the State Governments. The Central Government
supplements their efforts through logistic and financial support during severe disasters
as requested by the State Governments. Responding to such emergencies stretches
the resources of district and State administration to the utmost and they may
require and seek the assistance of Central Ministries/ Departments and agencies
like the NDRF, Armed Forces, CAPF, and Specialised Ministries/ Agencies.
At times, the impact of disasters occurring in one state may spread over to the
areas of other states. Similarly, preventive measures in respect of certain disasters,
such as floods, etc. may be required to be taken in one state, as the impact of
their occurrence may affect another. The administrative hierarchy of the Country
is organised in to National, State and District level administration. This presents
challenges in respect of disasters impacting more than one state. Management of
such situations calls for a coordinated approach, which can respond to a range of
issues quite different from those that normally present themselves – before, during
and after the event. The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) plays
a major role in handing such multi-state disasters. The NDMA will encourage
identification of such situations and promote the establishment of mechanisms for
coordinated strategies for dealing with them by the states and Central Ministries,
departments and other relevant agencies.
While there are disaster-specific aspects to the post-disaster response, the emergency
functions are broadly common to all disasters and there are specific ministries,
departments, or agencies that can provide that emergency response. Besides,
very often, there are multiple hazards and secondary disasters that follow a major
disaster. Hence, response intrinsically follows a multi-hazard approach. Therefore,
all the response activities have been summarised in a single matrix applicable to
all types of disasters. The response responsibility matrix specifies the major theme
of response. All agencies responsible for response should follow the NDMA’s
IRS guidelines, which will help in ensuring proper accountability and division of
responsibilities. Different ministries and departments have to provide specialised
emergency support to the response effort. Certain agencies of Central Government
will play a lead role, while others will be in a supporting role. The SDMA,
Commissioner of Relief (CoR), or the Dept. of Revenue is the nodal agency at
the state level for coordination of response. The DDMA is the nodal agency for
coordination of response at District level. Various central ministries, departments,
agencies, and state governments have to prepare their own hazard specific response
plans as per guidelines of the NDMA and in line with the NDMP. They need to
ensure preparedness for response at all times and must carry out regular mock
drills and conduct tests of readiness periodically, and the ministries/ departments
must report the status to the NDMA (Government of India, 2016). The major
tasks of response given in the responsibility matrix are:
1) Early Warning, Maps, Satellite inputs, Information Dissemination
2) Evacuation of People and Animals
3) Search and Rescue of People and Animals
4) Medical care
118
5) Drinking Water / Dewatering Pumps / Sanitation Facilities / Public Health Disaster Relief
and Response
6) Food and Essential Supplies
7) Communication
8) Housing and Temporary Shelters
9) Power
10) Fuel
11) Transportation
12) Relief Logistics and Supply Chain Management
13) Disposal of animal carcasses
14) Fodder for livestock in scarcity-hit areas
15) Rehabilitation and Ensuring Safety of Livestock and other Animals, Veterinary
Care
16) Data Collection and Management
17) Relief Employment
18) Media Relations
Planning and building capacity for responding to disasters has shown many positive
effects. This begins with ensuring strong and standardised data collection capabilities
at local and regional levels – in order to have access to up-to-date and accurate
information during emergencies, to deploy aid efforts and assess losses. In addition,
it is essential to assess risk levels and vulnerabilities of regions and populations
towards a disaster as well as its aftermath.
These activities require continued and formalised local and community participation,
and rely on non-government organisations and citizen groups to support government
and defense organisations.
Emergency planning and preparedness also involves community-level preparedness
– for which local, government, defence and private organisations must be provided
training and resources. This can range from general safety procedures, guidelines
for DOs and DON’Ts, chain of communication, guidelines on controlling emergency
scenes, and evacuation and response drills.
With the involvement of multiple groups and at multiple levels of authority and
expertise, it is also essential to establish a management mechanism to ensure all
efforts and make it sure that communications are streamlined, and disaster assessments
(in terms of damage occurred or medical assistance required) are accurate and
timely. In the absence of such a mechanism, an emergency site can be overcome
by chaos and confusion, further adding to risk and damage to life and property,
causing wastage of relief materials and resources, and causing delays in response
efforts.
It is thus, extremely critical to enable coordination among all parties involved at
various levels of disaster relief and assign clearly defined and documented roles
and responsibilities as well as reporting structures.
119
Concepts and Institutional Check Your Progress 2
Framework
1) Discuss the institutional structure for disaster response in India.
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2) What is the role of Emergency Operation Centre in disaster response?
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7.4 CONCLUSION
In the post-disaster phase, the foremost relief operations which are undertaken
are search and rescue. The untraced disaster victims are searched and rescued
with the help of local communities. In accordance with Disaster Management Act,
2005, NDRF has been setup by the Government of India to ensure specialised
response during disaster incidences. There is detailed discussion on various measures
and methods of relief and response in the Unit. The disaster response is the actual
implementation of the disaster plan. Disaster response is the organisation of activities
used to respond to the events in post-disaster situation. The response phase includes
the mobilisation of the necessary emergency services and first responders in the
disaster areas. The mechanism of response is the activation of different components
of response in accordance with the standardised emergency management procedures
and protocols.
7.5 GLOSSARY
Search and Rescue (SAR) : Search and Rescue or SAR, as it is called, is
a technical activity rendered by a group of
specially trained personnel, who rescue and
attend to the causalities under adverse
conditions, where life is under threat. Search
and Rescue is organised in close cooperation
with the community with a team orientation.
It is a procedure carried out immediately after
a disaster to look for survivors and dead ones.
120
Emergency Operations : EOC is an off-site facility, which will be Disaster Relief
Centre (EOC) functioning from the State/District head quarters, and Response
and which is actually an augmented control
room having communication facilities and space
to accommodate the various officers.
7.6 REFERENCES
Brenda, P. (2009). Disaster Recovery. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Government of India. (2012). National Disaster Management Guidelines. New
Delhi: National Disaster Management Authority.
IGNOU. (2006). Disaster Management. MPA-018. New Delhi: Faculty of Public
Administration.
IGNOU-NDMA. 2012. Responding to Disasters. New Delhi.
Jack, H. (2007). Disaster Response Planning and Preparedness. Retrieved from
htt p://www.nydis.org/nydis/downloads/manual/NYDIS_Disaster_SC-
MH_Manual_SectionI-Chapter1.pdf
Government of India. (2016). National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP).
New Delhi: National Disaster Management Authority.
Pandey, R.K. (n.d.). Guidelines and Operational Procedures for the Preparation
of District Disaster Management Action Plan (DDMAP). Uttarakhand: Disaster
Mitigation and Management Center.
Patwardhan, A. (2007). Disaster Management in India. IIT Bombay. 1-20.
Sinha P.C. (2006). Disaster Relief, Rehabilitation and Emergency Humanitarian
Assistance. New Delhi: SBS publication & distribution Pvt. Ltd.
Sinha, P.C. (2006). Disaster Vulnerabilities and Risk - Trends, Concepts,
Classification and Approaches. New Delhi: SBS publication & distribution Pvt.
Ltd.
State Disaster Management Plan, Uttarakhand. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://
smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/resources/complete_sdmap.pdf
Talwar A.K & Juneja S. (2009). Cyclone Disaster Management. New Delhi:
Commonwealth Publishers.
http://www.indiawris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Flood_Management#
Flood_Prone_Areas_in_India
Walch, C. 2018. Evacuation ahead of natural disasters: Evidence from cyclone
phailin in India and typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. Geography and Environment,
DOI: 5. 10.1002/geo2.51.
World Bank. (October 17, 2013). Cyclone Devastation Averted: India Weather
Phailin. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/10/17/india-
cyclone-phailin-destruction-preparation.
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Concepts and Institutional 7.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Framework EXERCISES
 Disaster relief is the financial aid or services made available to individuals
and communities that have experienced losses due to disasters such as
floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, drought, tornadoes, and sociological
terms as a major disruption of the social patterns of individuals and
groups.
 It is about the “bottom line” of ensuring basic minimal necessities to
keep people alive.
 Disaster response is the organised activities which are used to respond
to the post disaster.
 Search and Rescue.
 Evacuation.
 Distribution of Food and Water.
1) Your answer should include the following:
 National Disaster Response Force and State Disaster Response Force
 Armed Forces and Para Military Forces.
 Nodal Ministries/Departments.
 EOC is an off-site facility, which will be functioning from the State/District
head quarters, and which is actually an augmented control room having
communication facilities and space to accommodate the various officers.
122
UNIT 8 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT*
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Elements of Damage Assessment
8.3 Dimensions of Damage Assessment
8.4 Framework and Methods
8.4.1 Assessing Loss and Damage to Human Life
8.4.2 Assessing Damage to Housing
8.4.3 Assessing Damage to Community Infrastructure
8.4.4 Assessing Damage to Environment
8.4.5 Assessing Loss of Livelihood
8.4.6 Assessing Impact on Health
8.4.7 Assessing the Psycho-social Impact of Disaster
8.4.8 Assessing the Impact of Disasters on Women
8.5 Conclusion
8.6 Glossary
8.7 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand:
 Major elements of Damage Assessment;
 Various Dimensions of Damage Assessment; and
 Framework and methods of Damage Assessment.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Damage assessment is an important tool for retrospective and prospective analysis
of disasters to assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster. This forms the basis
for future disaster preparedness and preventive planning. It is essential in determining:
What happened? What the effects were? Which areas were hardest hit? What
situations must be given priority and what types of assistance are needed, for
example, Local, State, or Union? Emergency response could be more effective;
equipment and personnel could be better used; and help could be provided quicker,
if a thorough damage assessment is performed beforehand. The basic objectives
of damage assessment could be summarised as follows:
 To make a rapid assessment of areas affected to know the extent of impact
for purpose of immediate rescue and relief operations;
* Contributed by Dr. Kamla Bora, Assistant Professor, Govt. P.G. College, Rudrapur, Uttarakhand. 123
Disaster Management:  To prepare estimates for the amount of relief to be provided and the mode
Concepts and Institutional of relief, be it food, clothing, medicines, shelter or other essential commodities;
Framework
 To make a detailed assessment regarding requirements for long-term relief
and rehabilitation planning; and
 To identify focus areas for the purpose of ‘retrofitting’ actions in similar future
situations.
Damage assessment is, therefore, a prerequisite for effective disaster response
effort. For effective decisions, officials responsible for organising post-disaster
relief operations should be properly informed of the damage/possible damage
should the event repeat itself sometime in the future, so that they can know the
needs, current, as well as prospective, in precise terms. They must have appropriate
and timely information about: what happened, what needs to be done, and what
resources are available? Their decisions can save lives; minimise injury, damage
and loss; prevent any further escalation; prevent secondary hazards; and inform
people who need to know. Well-organised response will also help in building
confidence and enhancing the credibility of the administration. Relief operations
are essentially about the management of information and resources, which is based
on assessments and reports carried out from time to time. Information is needed
at all levels of administration, but the nature of the information required varies
from one level to another. In sum, disaster damage assessment is a vital tool to
assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster, both short-term and long-term, and
forms the basis for any disaster management and mitigation process and action
plan. In the phase of recovery, the first step is damage assessment.
Damage assessment is to make an initial and preliminary onsite evaluation of damage
or loss that has been caused by an accident or disaster. Through damage assessment
exercise an attempt is made to put on record the amount and degree of damage
and also to point out what can be replaced, restored or salvaged. Such an exercise
brings to fore the likely required time for repair, replacement and recovery. Thus,
damage assessment “is an integral part of facilitating effective and efficient response
by government agencies and other organizations” (ODPM).
8.2 ELEMENTS OF DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

The following are the very important elements of damage assessment:
1) Identification of type of information needed and sources of data collection.
2) Data collection through primary and secondary sources.
3) Analysis of data.
4) Data interpretation.
5) Report writing
6) Drawing conclusion
7) Making Forecasts
8) Recommendation and measures suggested for decision makers, planners,
implementers, community groups, NGOs, etc.
Definitely a detailed damage assessment needs to include much more, such as,
verification of number of losses of human life and injured persons, losses of cattle
lives, agricultural damage in hectares, building damage, losses of public works,
124
business, utilities, total financial loss, etc.
Basic data generated from the flow is bottom up: Damage
Assessment
 Impact, which a hazard has had on the affected area;
 Needs and priorities for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain
lives of survivors;
 Resources available for use;
 Possibilities for facilitating and expediting longer-term recovery and development;
 Directory information: Various line departments contact details;
 Habitation (Village/hamlet/ward) details;
 Village wise different types of disasters along with degree of risk (Vulnerability
details);
 Historical records of past events with damage details and details of relief
expenditure;
 Census data sets- Agriculture and population census, building and various
structure details.
8.3 DIMENSIONS OF DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Damage assessment is also a multi-disciplinary exercise involving officials from a
cross section of experts and administrators from revenue, health, engineering, public
works, social scientists, non-profit organisations, community, etc., to get a
comprehensive account of losses for adequate future mitigation planning. Some of
the data required are already available in the form of baseline data (maps, population
statistics, etc.). However, it must be supplemented by real time information regarding
the extent/nature of ongoing damage during a disaster event, from the damage site
(through information report from various sources) as pre-disaster estimates, however
accurate, may not provide sufficient information.
Information to be primarily compiled can be broadly segregated in the following
categories:
1) Nature of the disaster, that is, the date, time, exact location;
2) Details of the occurrence of the disaster;
3) Regular reports regarding progress of damage assessment work;
4) Expected date and time of restoration or completion of a particular activity
or mission.
Damage assessment is done through data collection and information assimilation
and dissemination. It is useful to distinguish between the terms “data” and
“information”, as data are simply units of information including perceptions, numbers,
observations, facts or figures. Data sometimes conflict with one another, for example,
when two individuals report widely differing perceptions of the same event. Information,
on the other hand, is “useful data”. Data could become information when it can
be translated into meaningful, relevant and understandable language, especially
particular people at a particular time and place, for a particular purpose (IGNOU-
NDMA, 2012).
125
Disaster Management: Data collection, which is an on-going activity, depends on:
Framework  Expertise and advice of survey specialists;
 Use of sample surveys;
 Cultural attitudes; and
 Personal preferences.
Concerned Department and Support Group
Administration and nodal department concerned are to collect all the available
disaster related information and compile it at the earliest, through the concerned
officials of the department. Support group coordination is a very important part
of damage assessment. They provide a forum with which those affected can share
their experiences. The group is both a source of information and a means of
communication. Support groups can exploit the intense media interest in disaster
by campaigning for public injuries by lobbying for better levels of compensation
and safety change. The concerned Minister/Secretary, Department of Disaster
Management and District Magistrate are only competent persons to interact with
press and electronic media. These persons should ensure that only factually correct
and confirmed information is shared with media. At the same time, no exaggerated
version of any event or any criticism or one’s personal opinion or views about the
occurrence of disaster at any point of time should be made public.
Damage assessment is required at two basic levels of intervention. Firstly, it is
required for emergency relief measures in which quick assessment of damage is
the basis for the amount of relief material and food stocks that reach the disaster
area. This type of an assessment is called Rapid Damage Assessment. The second
level would be a detailed technical analysis of damage for long-term restoration
and rehabilitation works. From a long-term perspective, damage assessment scrutinises
the mechanisms of failure that took place during the disaster. It is called Detailed
Damage Assessment. These studies are very useful for all prevention and mitigation
efforts for disasters in the future.
Rapid Damage Assessment
The official agency for reporting estimates of damage is usually the Revenue and
Relief Department of the State Government, as they are also the authority for
distributing relief to affected persons. As usual, there is a hierarchy of officials
who report from the lowest level of Villages/Panchayats through Blocks/Revenue
Circles, Tehsils/ Talukas, and Sub-divisions and finally to the districts and then
to the State headquarters. However, relief agencies including NGOs also have
their own damage assessment systems and teams to carry out the assessments.
The basic items covered in rapid assessment are:
 Name of the place
 The causative factors
 Date and time of disaster occurence
 Area affected
 Total number of villages or neighborhoods affected
126  Total population

Disaster Assessment Damage
Assessment
The estimate of a disaster’s effects can be characterised as a scenario of possible
losses and needs. Estimates can then be created that anticipate the resources that
are required to respond to the loss. The estimates include commodities of food,
medicines, manpower, and machinery and money requirements for getting relief
to the potential victims.
1) What do you mean by damage assessment?
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2) Discuss elements of damage assessment?
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8.4 FRAMEWORK AND METHODS

The framework for damage assessment can be broadly divided in two parts:
1) Initial Situation overview
2) Needs Analysis
The first part is meant to bring to attention the amount of damage done by the
disaster in the area concerned. Normally, it is a time bound activity and required
to be put forth in the first 8 hours of the happening of the event. The major focus
is on issues like casualties, displacement of the population and damage to lifelines
and critical facilities. It is mostly through the observations of the key organisations
and officials. “The ISO (Initial Situation Overview) often involves observation
from an aircraft, sometime satellite photographs, and various other reports. The
information from the ISO allows national/local officials to determine immediate
action necessary to respond to the effects of the hazard” (ODPM).
The second part tries to articulate level and type of assistance required for the
affected population. The damage assessment covers the nature and extent of a
disaster, priority need of the affected community, particularly the vulnerable people.
It must provide the extent and type of damage and identify secondary threats,
127
Disaster Management: resource availability and the capacity of local response. Finally, the assessment
Concepts and Institutional process should make actions, interventions and resources needed to formulate
Framework
long term rehabilitation or development strategies.
The post-disaster assessment completely highlights the damage and its impact on
various aspects of life. Damage assessment plan for various critical sectors are as
follows:
8.4.1 Assessing Loss and Damage to Human Life

The loss of human lives affects many other aspects for the lives of survivors which
are critical for a dignified living. The first information regarding this loss is to
determine the baseline data related to the number of families residing in the affected
area where the damage assessment is being undertaken.
For such assessment, it is useful to have data regarding-deaths, permanent disabilities,
major injuries, minor injuries and missing people. Data should be segregated on
the bases of gender, age or occupations, to develop deeper understanding. Details
of occupation also provide a hint of economic status of families and enable to
determine number of earning members and dependents within the family.
It is important to pay attention to certain special groups of people who tend to
get left out in the enumeration process. Migrant workers, tourists, and travelers
or unregistered informal sectors workers may be difficult to be estimated because
of the lack of such record. All this information helps in effective targeting of the
humanitarian response.
It is essential to have an assessment methodology that uses the community information
and is credible for the humanitarian response planners. Collecting information from
secondary sources is also important. Loss of life is estimated by community institutions,
media and the government and many a time they come up with different figures. It
is important that the damage assessment report mentions all the figures published
under different reports.
8.4.2 Assessing Damage to Housing

The catastrophic event can cause varying degrees of damage to houses depending
on various factors. The quality of construction, materials used, construction technology,
type of dwelling, location, etc., contribute to the vulnerability of built structures
and affect the extent of damage.
The geographic location of the settlement is the first information needed, including
information regarding proximity to natural features such as lakes, rivers or sea.
The assessment should further elaborate, in terms of urban or rural, size, typology
on the basis of design and structural system, types of ownership and functional
usage, etc.
First thing that must be done in the affected area is a transect walk. Transect
walk through the disaster struck village and its varied locations and habitations is
very useful for the purpose of reconnaissance and gives an overview of the extent
and type of damage. Following are parts of good assessment for housing damage:
i) Area transect;
ii) Habitat mapping (information such as house type, damage category, vulnerable
category);
128
iii) Photographic documentation; Damage
Assessment
iv) Household level survey.
8.4.3 Assessing Damage to Community Infrastructure

Infrastructure damage includes not only damage to basic services (like drinking
water, roads, electricity, etc.), but also to public buildings essential for providing
education, health care or those serving other social functions. For the assessment
of damage to infrastructure after a disaster, it is must for a good assessment to
have following components:
i) Infrastructure mapping: It gives an overview of the services and infrastructure
available in the area. These are shown on maps prepared by community
members. This helps in determining the geographic extent of damage and the
affected stakeholders;
ii) Area level survey: It is conducted for each public building, basic services
and community owned infrastructure to understand the extent of damage.
Steps needed for changes should also be included;
iii) Photographic documentation: The decision making regarding infrastructure
may take a long time and may be done at a distant site: photographic
documentation, therefore, helps in making the correct decision about repair
or replacement.
8.4.4 Assessing Damage to Environment

It is essential to understand and assess the impact of natural disasters on environment
as the state of environment has an important effect on the quality of life of the
people living. The loss of many environmental resources like soil, trees, etc., can
be assessed directly. However, some damages are indirect, particularly those to
the environmental services such as reduction of pollution, carbon sequestration,
provision of wild life habitat, etc.
In post-disaster situation, following changes need to be looked into as they may
affect the goods (food, fodder, water, timber and other non-timber products) and
services (oxygen emission, pollinators, etc.) provided by the ecosystem:
i) Unique/unusual land form changes;
ii) Changes in natural drainage;
iii) Soil degradation;
iv) Destruction of trees;
v) Water contamination;
vi) Loss of plants and animals or their natural habitat.
The methods used for environmental damage assessment are:
i) Resource mapping: It shows various elements of the ecosystem in which the
settlement exists like types of plantation, forest, natural water resources etc.
ii) Area transect
8.4.5 Assessing Loss of Livelihood

Disasters have significant impact on the socio-economic well being of the community.
129
Different occupations experience varying extents of vulnerability to different disasters.
Disaster Management: For example, farmers may be more affected in droughts, fisher-folk in tsunamis,
Concepts and Institutional industrial workforce and artisans in earthquake, etc.
Framework
Loss of economic assets, employment; reduction in income, critical consumption
of food and expenditure on education and health care need to be assessed to
understand the impact of the disasters. The assessment of economic loss of disaster
is important for future planning.
Economic losses can be divided into two categories:
i) Direct damages
ii) Indirect damages
Direct damage assessment includes losses in agriculture, fisheries, local trade and
production of goods. Indirect damage assessment includes losses in terms of likely
production, future employment, income etc due to direct damage caused by the
disaster.
8.4.6 Assessing Impact on Health

The impact assessment on health may be required as part of the overall assessment
to identify the possible fallouts of the disaster. Because of disaster’s negative
impacts on health, health risks, due to worsening living conditions, are aggravated
after disaster. Therefore, it is necessary to observe the victims, particularly the
families with infants, pregnant/lactating mothers, old aged, disabled, chronically
ill, HIV positive members, etc. Health hazards may arise due to site conditions
such as water stagnation, mosquito breeding, high population density, etc. The
assessment on water, lack of safe sanitation, light and ventilation in shelters, nutrition
and food is important. Another important aspect that needs assessment for humanitarian
response planners is the extent of the healthcare services required.
Surveillance reveals the type, magnitude, pattern and trends of health problems
through periodic and systematic collection of health related data. Mobility map
for health services are of great importance because they indicate the distance,
frequency of availability and the types of services available. This can also help in
identifying vector breeding sites and developing control mechanisms.
8.4.7 Assessing the Psycho-social Impact of Disasters

Disaster affects not only physical and material life of the community, but also
affects them psychologically. It is reflected in their emotional reactions and increase
in incidents like, anger, irritability, panic attacks, sleeplessness, withdrawal from
activities, increased anxiety, nightmares in children, etc. These are some of the
universal responses amongst people who experience events beyond their coping
capacities. The other important aspect relates to need for psycho-social care for
all disaster affected people. For understanding the psycho-social trauma that one
may be experiencing, observation and listening is the most essential methodology
to understand the type of trauma and its extent. Psychologically it is only through
informal community discussion, meeting and personal contact with the households
that one can observe these symptoms. Severe traumatic conditions can be identified
through the above processes and detailed case cards may have to be prepared.
A case card is like a case history and it is important to record the symptoms,
personal and family background associated with such reactions. This helps in engaging
psycho-social experts.
130
8.4.8 Assessing the Impact of Disasters on Women Damage
Assessment
A clear gender framework helps in capturing the important aspects of vulnerabilities
in the damage assessment. Therefore, assessment for women groups is of wider
significance because gender analysis is useful to understand activities and extent
of their role in decision making regarding various aspects that govern daily life
and may have been affected in the disaster. Thus, these are all concepts of vulnerability
reduction, social inclusion, community participation and gender perspective forming
the very important process of damage assessment.
1) Explain the framework of damage assessment.
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2) Write a note on Environment Damage Assessment.
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3) List out the impact of damage assessment in the area of health and women.
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8.5 CONCLUSION
Damage assessment is an important aspect in the field of disaster management. In
this Unit, we have covered various elements, assessments, frameworks and methods
of damage assessment. Increasing the efficiency, effectiveness of post-disaster
damage assessment will lead to effective rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery
and also bring backs the resilience of the society. Some of the major elements of
damage assessment are identification of types of information needed and sources
of data collection as level of primary and secondary sources, data analysis and
interpretation then report writing and forecasting, recommendation and measures
suggested for decision makers, planners and community group. 131
Concepts and Institutional 8.6 GLOSSARY
Framework
Rapid Damage Assessment : Rapid Damage Assessment (RDA)
(RDA) emphasizes on a rapid appraisal of the situation
and extent of damage to provide resources
for effective relief and resource. RDA is to
be conducted by the planning section of the
Incident Response Team (IRT), responsible
for response management. The planning section
of the IRT may require support of the local
community.
Detailed Damage : Detailed Damage Assessment is supposed to
Assessment (DDA) be done at the district level during the recovery
stage involving skilled personnel from various
line departments. The aim of this assessment
is to estimate the economical and financial
aspects of damage, the detailed building damage,
agricultural damage, and property damage. It
also aims at retrofitting or strengthening of
houses, roads, bridges, hospitals, school,
warehouses, railway tracks and other
infrastructure.
8.7 REFERENCES
Bhatt, M.R. and Pandya, M. & Murphy, C. (2005). Community damage assessment
and demand analysis. Retrieved from http://lib.riskreductionafrica.org/bitstream/
handle/123456789/241/community%20damage%20assessment%20and%
20demand%20analysis.pdf?sequence=1
Brenda, P. (2009). Disaster Recovery. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group.
Chaudhari, N. (2014). Disaster Governance in India Series-2. Mussoorie: Centre
for disaster Management, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration.
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Responding to Disasters. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi
National Open University.
Galande, V.M., Thakare, Ho. & Pande, A.M. (2010) Disaster Mitigation in
India Planning, Skills and Training Needs. In Salpekar, A., & Sharma, K. (Eds.).
Disaster Management and Development Interference. New Delhi.Jananada
Prakashan (P&D).
Salpekar, A. & Sharma, K. (2010). Disaster Management and Development
Interface. New Delhi : Jananada Prakashan.
Sinha, P.C. (2006). Disaster Vulnerabilities and Risk - Trends, Concepts,
Classification and Approaches. New Delhi: SBS publication & distribution Pvt.
Ltd.
State Disaster Management Plan. Uttarakhand. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://
smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/resources/complete_sdmap.pdf
Office of Disaster Preparedness and Management. Government of Trinidad and
Tobago (ODPM). Retrieve from http;//odpm.gov.tt
132
Damage
8.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Assessment
EXERCISES
 Damage assessment is an important process to assimilate the extent of
impact of a disaster both short term and long term and forms the basis
for any disaster management and mitigation process and action plan.
 Damage assessment is essential for effective rehabilitation and
reconstruction.
 Identification of type of information needed and sources of data collection;
data collection through primary and secondary sources; analysis of data.;
data interpretation; report writing; drawing conclusion; making Forecasts;
recommendation and measures suggested for decision makers, planners,
implementers, community groups, NGOs etc.
 The framework can be divided into two types, that is, Initial situation
overview and Needs analysis.
 Initial situation overview is carried out to obtain a broad picture of the
extent of damage caused by disaster.
 Needs analysis is tries to articulate level and type of assistance required
for the affected population.
 Unique/unusual land form changes; changes in natural drainage; soil
degradation; destruction of trees; water contamination and loss of plants
and animals or their natural habitat.
 Resource mapping and Area transect are the methods of environment
damage assessment.
 It is very necessary to observe the situation during disaster particularly
the families with infants, pregnant women, old aged, disabled, chronically
ill, HIV positive members etc. Health hazards may arise due to site
conditions such as water stagnation, mosquito breeding, high population
density etc.
 The assessment of water, lack of safe sanitation, light and ventilation in
shelters, nutrition and food is important. Other very important aspect
that needs assessment for humanitarian response planners is the extent
of the health care services required.
 Gender framework helps in capturing the important aspects of vulnerabilities
in the damage assessment. 133
UNIT 9 REHABILITATION,
RECONSTRUCTION AND
RECOVERY*
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Rehabilitation
9.2.1 Physical Rehabilitation
9.2.2 Social Rehabilitation
9.2.3 Economic Rehabilitation
9.2.4 Psychological Rehabilitation
9.3 Reconstruction
9.3.1 Development of Physical and Economic Infrastructure
9.3.2 Funding Arrangements for Reconstruction
9.4 Recovery
9.4.1 The Ground for Recovery Activity
9.4.2 Problems in Recovery Areas
9.5 Conclusion
9.6 Glossary
9.7 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the scope of rehabilitation;
 Explain the need of rehabilitation;
 Understand the scope of reconstruction;
 Explain the requirements of reconstruction and its significance; and
 Describe the relevance of recovery.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery are three essential facets in post-disaster
phase. These are in direct consonance with the nature of the disaster, location of
disaster, proportion of damage, direct and indirect losses, availability of human
resource with local capacities, available material resources along with institutional
capacities. For example, when an earthquake occurs, it leads to damage of
infrastructure and buildings, therefore, the planning for rehabilitation and reconstruction
* Contributed by Dr. Ranju Joshi Pandey, Academic Associate, Uttarakhand Open University,
134 Haldwani, Uttarakhand
should be related to buildings and infrastructure. In the previous Unit, we have Rehabilitation,
learnt about damage assessment and in this Unit, we will discuss rehabilitation, its Reconstruction and
Recovery
types; reconstruction, requirements of reconstruction; and relevance of recovery
as well as problems in recovery.
9.2 REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation means to take necessary actions after the disaster to resume the
basic services, help the victim, to compensate the physical damage done to the
surroundings and to start again economic actions to provide psychological support,
social security and comfort to the victim. It functions to capacitate the affected
people to restart regular functions of life. It may be considered as a dovetailing
between present time relief and long-term development. Thus, the main aim of
rehabilitation is to revive the victim to the normal life. Rehabilitation is classified
as:
 Physical Rehabilitation
 Social Rehabilitation
 Economic Rehabilitation
 Psychological Rehabilitation
9.2.1 Physical Rehabilitation

Physical rehabilitation is an important component of rehabilitation. In this step,
the focus is on the reconstruction of physical amenities such as houses, buildings,
railways, roads, water supply, communication network, electricity, etc. It also
includes strategies towards environment protection, employment generation, job
creation, watershed management, alternative cropping techniques, canal irrigation.
Rehabilitation of animal husbandry, agriculture, farm implements, flood plain zoning,
land-use planning, retrofitting of undamaged houses are some other related activities
of physical rehabilitation.
9.2.2 Social Rehabilitation

Social rehabilitation has its own significance. It aims at providing social support
to sufferers. It could be through:
 Establishing educational committees that provide regular counselling to sufferers.
 Finding persons who could conduct educational activities and provide books
and writing material to children.
 Running various programmes related to physical and mental health, stress
management, nutrition and hygiene etc.
 Providing day care and old age homes to the sufferers for a limited time
period.
 Setting up multi-purpose community centre and promote self help group.
 Finding native surroundings to sufferers like old age persons, women & children.
9.2.3 Economic Rehabilitation

It plays an important role to compensate the economic loss occurred due to the
disaster, it involves providing compensation to the victim based on: 135
Disaster Management:  Broad investigation of actual and future hazard and compulsion of troubled
Concepts and Institutional group; and
Framework
 Investigation of current livelihood planning and business.
9.2.4 Psychological Rehabilitation

One of the most important steps of rehabilitation is psychological rehabilitation. It
is a very sensitive issue. Shock of disaster is directly connected with victims’
psychology. The victims generally experience many types of physical and psychological
strains.
A disaster victim goes through specific types of emotional stages. Psychological
rehabilitation focuses on treating victims to cope up with the emotional imbalance.
The psychological rehabilitation helps the victims to lead a normal life. Counsellors
help the affected in leading a happy and healthy life.
9.3 RECONSTRUCTION
Reconstruction means to repair or to re-establish all services like buildings,
infrastructure, replacement of damaged structures, reintegration of economic sectors
(industries & agriculture), and the creation of cultural, social and environmental
settings. Reconstruction is a long-term development plan to mitigate or reduce
future disaster risk by incorporating appropriate measures. Damaged structure
may not be necessarily being restored to their previous form. It may include temporary
arrangements. Reconstruction aims to build the rehabilitated system to safer standards
so that the future risks could be reduced.
The reconstruction efforts aim at restoring the affected structures to a condition
equal to or better than what existed before the disaster. It also aims at constructing
permanent housing besides restoring the basic amenities.
Reconstruction should pay attention to certain specific activities for speedy recovery
in disaster hit areas. Every disaster results in a different type of damage, for example,
when an earthquake occurs, it damages the infrastructure and buildings of that
area, therefore, the planning for reconstruction should focus on mentioned thrust
areas.
The major steps of reconstruction are:
9.3.1 Development of Physical and Economic

Infrastructure
Infrastructure is classified as:
 Physical Infrastructure: Physical infrastructure includes roads, water, drainage,
electricity.
 Service Infrastructure: In service infrastructure, transportation, health and
education are included.
 Social Infrastructure: In social infrastructure, social sector services, primary
healthcare, old age homes and community centres are the main components.
 Environmental Infrastructure: In environmental infrastructure, creation of necessary
environmental conditions to reduce the risk of disaster is the thrust area.
When we talk about the physical infrastructure in relation to disaster, we refer to
136 the nature of houses. In case of earthquake, it needs to be ensured that the houses
are earthquake resistant. In the case of flood, it needs to be ensured that the Rehabilitation,
houses are constructed away from the flood prone area. In case of landslides, it Reconstruction and
Recovery
needs to be ensured that the houses are constructed away from the area prone to
landslides. Housing infrastructure needs to be planned according to the environmental
conditions of the region.
Example of post-earthquake rehabilitation in Gujarat is useful at this point. The
agenda in the reconstruction programme, propagated by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), has not been just to build houses, but also construct them
in a demonstrative manner to transfer the technologies to the villagers. These
houses have served as model houses, incorporating disaster resistant technologies.
The UNDP’s shelter programme aimed to:
 Build local capacities ( training of semi- skilled construction workers and
masons in hazard resistant construction)
 Support the environment ( use of alternative technologies)
 Involve local communities
 Help rebuild lost livelihoods
9.3.2 Funding Arrangements for Reconstruction

It is very important to have proper knowledge about the policies available for
providing funds for reconstruction in a disaster hit area. Central and state governments
have specific schemes/ strategies for providing funds for disaster management
activities like reconstruction and rehabilitation. Some of the funding arrangements
are as follows:
9.3.2.1 National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
The NDRF (earlier known by the nomenclature NCCF) is a Fund constituted
under Section 46 of Disaster Management Act, 2005. It covers calamities of
cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche,
cloud burst and pest attack. NDRF is operated by the Government of India (GoI)
for the purpose of providing immediate relief to people affected by the calamities
of severe nature, under non-plan expenditure. NDRF is classified in the Public
Account in Sub-section(b) Reserve Funds not bearing interest of the Government
of India under the National Disaster Response Fund major head 8235 – ‘General
and other Reserve Funds’ – 119. Funds are to be credited into NDRF in accordance
with the provisions of DM Act. Let us have a look at some of these provisions
(IGNOU-NDMA, 2012):
 Upon a request made by a state not having adequate balance in its State
Disaster Response Fund (SDRF), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) or Ministry
of Agriculture, as the case may be, will assess whether a case for additional
assistance from NDRF is made out under the guidelines and the approved
items and norms of assistance under NDRF/SDRF.
 MHA shall oversee the utilisation of releases from NDRF for the purposes
for which funds have been released and monitor compliance with guidelines
of NDRF.
 Upon the approval of High Level Committee (HLC), constituted with members
from Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Deputy Chairman Planning Commission, the assistance shall be released by
the Ministry of Finance from NDRF to states. 137
Disaster Management:  The actual expenditure out of NDRF should be booked under respective
Concepts and Institutional minor heads within major head.
Framework
 The Pay and Accounts Office, Ministry of Finance shall release payments to
the state governments. The detailed accounts of the Fund shall be maintained
by the Controller General of Accounts through the Chief Controller of Accounts,
Ministry of Finance.
 The State Executive Committee shall be responsible for ensuring that the
expenditure incurred out of funds received under NDRF is in accordance
with the items and norms of expenditure of NDRF/SDRF.
 The accounts of NDRF shall be maintained and audited by the Comptroller
and Auditor General (CAG) annually. Its report will be submitted to Ministry
of Finance and Ministry of Home Affairs.
9.3.2.2 State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF)
SDRF (which has replaced the earlier Calamity Relief Fund (CRF)) is a Fund
constituted under Section 48 (1a) of Disaster Management Act. The SDRF shall
be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the
victims of Disasters, as identified for NDRF grant. The SDRF is constituted in
Public Account under the Reserve Fund bearing Interest in the Major Head: 8121.
The provisions include (IGNOU-NDMA, 2012):
 Of the total contribution indicated by the Thirteenth Finance Commission,
Government of India will contribute 75 per cent for general category states
and 90 per cent for special category states, of the total yearly allocation in
the form of a non-plan grant. The balance 25 per cent in case of general
category states and 10 per cent in case of special category states will be
contributed by the state government concerned.
 The share of Government of India to SDRF shall be paid as Grant-in-aid
and accounted for in the Government of India accounts under the Major
Head “3601-Grants-in-aid to state governments – 01 Non-Plan Grants –
109 Grants towards contribution to SDRF”.
 The Annual Report shall, inter-alia, furnish details of expenditure incurred by
the state government on each of calamities, for each type of expenditure
allowed as per the items and norms of expenditure of SDRF/NDRF so fixed
by MHA with the concurrence of Ministry of Finance.
 The State’s SDRF account would distinctly show the receipt of assistance
from NDRF apart from the remaining four sources of receipts into the Fund,
namely (i) Centre’s share of SDRF, (ii) State’s share of Disaster Response
Fund, (iii) Returns on investments, and (iv) Redemption of investments.
 The State government will constitute a State Executive Committee (SEC)
according to DM Act and entrust it with responsibility to decide on all matters
connected with the financing of relief expenditure of immediate relief from
SDRF.
 The accounts of SDRF and investment shall be maintained by Accountant
General in charge of accounts of the State. CAG would cause audit of SDRF
annually.
 The share of the Central government in SDRF shall be remitted to State
138 governments in two instalments in each financial year. The State governments
shall furnish a certificate to MHA and Ministry of Finance indicating that the Rehabilitation,
amount received earlier has been credited to SDRF along with State’s share Reconstruction and
Recovery
of contribution, accompanied by a statement giving the up-to-date expenditure
and balance amount available in the SDRF.
9.3.2.3 National Disaster Mitigation Fund
As per Section 47 of the DM Act, 2005, Central Government may constitute a
National Disaster Mitigation Fund for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation.
This Section has not been notified by the Government so far. As mentioned earlier,
the FC-XIV restricted its recommendation to existing arrangements on the financing
of the already constituted funds (National Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster
Response Fund) only, as per its terms of reference. The FC-XIV did not make
any specific recommendation for a mitigation fund (Government of India, 2016).
9.3.2.4 Recommendations of the Fourteenth Finance Commission
In regard to grants for disaster management, Fourteenth Finance Commission (FC-
XIV) has adopted the procedure of the XIII FC and used past expenditures on
disaster relief to determine the State Disaster Response Fund corpus. While making
recommendations, XIV FC have taken note of the additional responsibility cast
on States and their district administrations under the Disaster Management Act.
XIV FC has also taken note of the location-specific natural disasters not mentioned
in the notified list, which are unique to some States (ibid).
9.3.2.5 District Level Funds
District Relief Fund at the district level is based on the principles of CRF so that
they are readily availability for immediate requirements. The District Level Relief
Committee under the chairmanship of the District Collector/ Magistrate would
evolve the guidelines and norms for expenditure to be made from the funds allotted
for rehabilitation at the district level. At least fifty percent of the contribution to
the funds could come from the public. DDRF is proposed to be created at the
District Level as mandated by Section 48 of the DM Act. The disaster response
funds at the district level would be used by the DDMA towards meeting expenses
for emergency response, relief, rehabilitation in accordance with the guidelines
and norms laid down by the Government of India and the State Government
(DDMP, 2012).
9.3.2.6 Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme
Another funding arrangement, called as Members of Parliament Local Area
Development Scheme (MPLADS), was started in December 1993. Under this
scheme, Members of Parliament (MPs) are allotted funds, annually, to pursue
developmental work in their constituencies. Each MP gives a choice of works, to
be undertaken in his/her constituency to the concerned District Heads, who get
them implemented by the established procedures laid down in the guidelines for
the improvement of their districts under MPLADS.
9.3.2.7 Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund
The Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund, created shortly after independence,
provides immediate relief to people in distress. The fund depends entirely on voluntary
donations received from the public. The fund renders assistance to individuals
facing disaster. Its resources are utilised for the provision of immediate relief to
the families of those killed in natural calamities like floods, cyclones and earthquake.
139
Disaster Management: 9.3.2.8 Insurance Schemes
Framework Insurance is an important risk transfer technique. Insurance is very helpful to counter
the losses caused by the disaster. The insurance cover, however, cannot be regarded
as a funding arrangement for disaster. We need an insurance system that common
people, especially the rural poor could afford. Some insurance schemes are:
 Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna – PMFBY provides a comprehensive
insurance cover against failure of the crop thus helping in stabilising the income
of the farmers. The scheme covers all Food & Oilseeds crops and Annual
Commercial/Horticultural Crops for which past yield data is available and
for which requisite number of Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs) are conducted
being under General Crop Estimation Survey (GCES)
(www.financialservices.gov.in).
 Restructured Weather-based Crop Insurance Scheme – RWBCIS aims
to mitigate the hardship of the insured farmers against the likelihood of financial
loss on account of anticipated crop loss resulting from adverse weather conditions
relating to rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity etc. WBCIS uses weather
parameters as “proxy for crop yields in compensating the cultivators for
deemed crop losses. Pay-out structures are developed to the extent of losses
deemed to have been suffered using the weather triggers
(www.financialservices.gov.in).
 Seed Crop Insurance – is to provide financial security & income stability
to the breeder/seed growers in the event of failure of seed crop. The salient
feature of the scheme is to cover the risk involved in seed production at field
stage, loss in expected raw seed yield, loss of seed crop after harvest so
that more number of the breeder /institutions /organisations /seed growers
would take up and come forward in seed production (RKMP, 2011).
 Kisan Credit Card – was introduced in 1998 for issue of KCC to farmers
so that farmers may use them to readily purchase agriculture inputs such as
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc. and draw cash for their production needs.
The KCC scheme has since been simplified and provides for issue of ATM
enabled RuPay Debit Card, inter alia, with facilities of one-time documentation,
built-in cost escalation in the limit, and any number of drawals within the
limit, etc (PIB, 2018).
1) Discuss the concept and types of Rehabilitation.
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140
Rehabilitation,
2) What do you mean by Reconstruction? Reconstruction and
Recovery
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3) Discuss the financial arrangements for Reconstruction.
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9.4 RECOVERY
Recovery is the process by which society and the nation are supported in turning
back to their appropriate level of working, ensuing disaster. The recovery process
is a time taking process which takes almost 5 to 10 years or even more. The
recovery process includes activities like re-establishing the necessary services,
reconstruction of repairable homes and also other buildings, accommodate alternate
housing, measures to facilitate the physical and psychological rehabilitation of persons
who have gone through the disaster and also long term measures of reconstruction,
including the restoration of buildings and infrastructure that have been devastated
by the disaster. Post-disaster analysis should also be involved as part of the recovery
process. The recovery process is, therefore, complex and extensive; it can lead
to a multiplicity of problems, some of which will necessitate changes to original
plans as recovery proceeds. Thus, decision makers should be prepared to take a
flexible attitude toward policy implementation to produce the best results. Also, it
is important to bear in mind that recovery from disaster offers opportunities for
improvement and development.
9.4.1 The Ground for Recovery Activity

The ground for earliest recovery activity depends on following pillars:
 Identification of various necessary aspects of the recovery mode;
 Defining an overall strategy for recovery, with suitable proposed and potential
national development;
 Decision of distinct recovery programmes within the overall strategy;
 Implementation of the individual programmes within the overall strategy; and
 Fulfilment of individual programmes and projects on a well supervised and
coordinated basis.
141
Disaster Management: 9.4.2 Problems in Recovery Areas
Framework Major problems in the area of recovery are necessary to be outlined. These are:
 Recovery programmes formulation has been always delayed because the
description and administration of recovery programmes have not been sufficiently
considered in overall counter-disaster planning;
 Severe and extensive damage may be so destructive that difficulties can take
considerable time to formulate and assess recovery programmes;
 Information for the formulation of recovery programme is inadequate. Resurveys
can be necessary in some cases in order to establish more accurately the
post-disaster effect;
 Recovery programme may impose additional load on government system and
even functioning output of government departments may slow down whereby
the whole recovery process becomes unsatisfactory;
 Resources from recovery programmes and fund may divert due to the occurrence
of another major disaster;
 Problems relating to ministerial responsibilities may arise because recovery
requirements overlap from one department to another;
 Formulation of recovery programmes may hinder due to inavailability of required
finance and restrictions;
 Sometimes political problems can arise when some areas are not receiving
the same priority of attention as in regard to other recovery programmes;
The above do not necessarily reflect all the problems which might affect recovery
programmes, but they illustrate the kind of difficulties with which disaster management
officials may have to deal. There is much felt need for the Government to initiate
steps towards long-term recovery. With the massive Kerala Floods, 2018, in view,
it has been stated that the “Government has to come forward and accept the
challenges and immediately initiate extraordinary efforts for quick recovery. People
are in distress and complete disarray. State should stand behind them and get
back to the business of innovative planning for faster recovery. Country has faced
such problems in the past too. It took time but they could recover well. Maharashtra
(1993), Andhra Pradesh (1997, 2001) Orissa (1999), Gujarat (2001), Tamil Nadu
(2005, 2015) , Andman & Nicobar (2004), Jammu & Kashmir (2005, 2015),
Bihar (2008) Utarrakhand (2015) and few more states have gone through the
process of long-term recovery earlier. Few states have taken partial recovery
with few sectors approach and some have gone for full recovery with all sectors
approach with significant recovery. Prioritising recovery need is the immediate
requirement for the state” (Kumar, 2018).
1) Define Recovery.
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142
............................................................................................................. Rehabilitation,
Reconstruction and
............................................................................................................. Recovery
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2) Write a note on problems in Recovery Areas.
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9.5 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, the issues of Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery have been
discussed. Various types of rehabilitation namely physical, social, economic and
psychological have been explained. Besides describing the concept of Reconstruction,
its major steps have been explained. Further detailed analysis on funding arrangements
for reconstruction has been made. Towards the end, the discussion is on the
problems in recovery areas.
9.6 GLOSSARY
Rehabilitation : To return to a good, healthy, or normal condition
after a disaster.
Reconstruction : Reconstruction is the process of rebuilding
something.
Recovery : To become successful or normal again after
being damaged or having problems.
NGO : A non-profit organisation or an NGO is an
organisation that operates independently of any
government, typically one whose purpose is
to address a social or political issue.
Economic infrastructure : Economic infrastructure promotes economic
activity, such as roads, highways, railroads,
airport s, sea ports, electricit y,
telecommunications, and water supply.
9.7 REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (1991). Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the
Pacific. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Aysan, Y. & Davis. (1993). Rehabilitation and Reconstruction. Module prepared
for Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). UNDP.
143
Disaster Management: Carter, N.W. (1991). Disaster Management: A Disaster Managers Hand Book.
Concepts and Institutional Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Framework
DDMP. (2012). District Disaster Management Plan of District Kinnaur, Himachal
Pradesh. Kinnnaur: District Disaster Management Authority.
IGNOU. (2006). Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery. New Delhi: Faculty
of Public Administration, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Training Manual on Conceptual and Institutional
Framework of Disaster Management. New Delhi.
Kumar, S. (Septermber 13, 2018). Kerala Deluge: Dilemma of Long-term Recovery.
Retrieved from http://indianobserverpost.com/News-Detail.aspx?Article=
118&WebUrl=Kerala-Deluge:-Dilemma-of-Long-term-Recovery
Public Information Bureau. (August 7, 2018). Issue of Kisan Credit Cards. Retrieved
from http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=181634
RKMP. (2011). Pilot Scheme on seed crop insurance. Retrieved from http://
www.rkmp.co.in/content/pilot-scheme-on-seed-crop-insurance
9.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
 Rehabilitation means to take necessary actions after the disaster to resume
the basic services, help the diseased, to compensate the physical damage
done to the surroundings and to start again economic actions to provide
psychological support, social security and comfort to the diseased.
 Physical rehabilitation; Social rehabilitation; Economic rehabilitation and
Psychological rehabilitation.
 Reconstruction means to repair or reestablishment of physical infrastructure,
service infrastructure and Environmental infrastructures.
 It aims to build the rehabilitated system to safer standard so that the
future risks would be reduced.
 The reconstruction efforts aim at restoring the affected structures to a
condition equal to or better than what existed before the disaster.
 National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
 State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF)
 National Disaster Mitigation Fund
144
 Recommendations of the Fourteenth Finance Commission Rehabilitation,
Reconstruction and
 District Level Funds Recovery
 Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme

 Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund
 Insurance Schemes.
 The recovery process includes activities like re-establishing the necessary
services, reconstruction of repairable homes and also other buildings,
accommodate alternate housing, measures to facilitate the physical and
psychological rehabilitation of persons who have gone through the disaster
and also long term measures of reconstruction, including the restoration
of buildings and infrastructure that have been devastated by the disaster.
 Major points discussed in the Sub-section 9.4.2.
145
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BLOCK 3
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DISASTERS AND DEVELOPMENT
138 Blank
UNIT 10 CLIMATE CHANGE*
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Understanding Weather and Climate
10.2.1 Weather
10.2.2 Climate
10.3 Understanding Climate Change

10.3.1 Climate Change
10.3.2 Climate Change Impact on the Globe
10.4 Climate Change Vulnerability

10.5 Climate Change Adaptation
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Glossary
10.8 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concepts of Weather and Climate;
 Explain Climate Change; and
 Describe Climate Change Adaptation.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Climate change is a major global environmental and developmental problem. Though
all the possible consequence of climate change are yet to be understood, it is
now established that adverse impacts are likely from an increased frequency of
extreme weather, floods and droughts, submergence of coastal areas due to sea
level rise and extreme climate variability. The poor, women, the aged and the
very young, especially in underdeveloped or developing area contexts, are relatively
more vulnerable due to their greater dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such
as agriculture, fisheries and forestry for their livelihoods or their limited adaptive
capacity. The poor status of infrastructure and essential services in most of the
poverty-affected areas also limits their ability to cope with adverse impacts of
climate change. According to the IPCC 5th Assessment Report (2014), human
influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes
in global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise
and in changes in some climate extremes.
* Contributed by Dr. Bhagwati Joshi, Assistant Professor, Govt. P.G. College, Rudrapur, Uttarakhand 149
Interrelationship Between The atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (co2),
Disasters and Development Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N20) have all increased since 1750 due to
human activity. The deep interconnection between the vulnerability of natural and
human systems to climate change calls for expeditious coping strategies and response
measures. Climate proofing of vulnerable sectors, programmers, natural systems
and interventions are increasingly becoming an integral part of the development/
environment lexicon and action worldwide (IPCC, 2015).
10.2 UNDERSTANDING WEATHER AND

CLIMATE
10.2.1 Weather
Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere and is a chaotic non-linear
dynamical system. Fundamentally, weather is caused by the sun, which heats the
air at the planet’s bulling equatorial regions more than at either pole. Combine the
heat of the sun rotation of a planet covered mostly in water, and the product is
what we call weather. Weather means the day-to-day change in the quality of
atmosphere near the surface of the earth. Because hotter air rise and cooler air
falls, the difference in temperature across the planet causes masses of air to begin
to move. It is felt that the movement to the air becomes even more dynamic
because of earth’s rotation, while the steady evaporation of surface water leads
to the formation of clouds and eventually precipitation.
10.2.2 Climate
The term ‘climate’ has a very wide variety of meanings. To many of us, ‘climate’
often first suggests temperature, although rainfall and humidity may also come to
mind. When we think of climatic change, it is often in the time frame of glacial
periods. More recently, however, there has been considerable public concern
over the possible shorter-term impact upon the climate of increasing atmospheric
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Climate includes the average temperature,
amount of precipitation, days of sunlight, and other variables that might be measured
at any given site. However, there are also changes within the earth’s environment
that can affect the climate.
Climate is determined by large scale pattern and force, beginning with the position
with the position of the earth 93 million miles from the sun close enough to receive
a life –sustaining amount of solar radiation. Since earth tilts on its axis, much of
the sun’s heat falls on the tropical areas around the equator. The resulting uneven
distribution of sun light –and of temperature in the atmosphere and throughout the
world’s oceans- establishes under lying sea current and wind patterns that, in
turn, influence climate.
10.3 UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE CHANGE

10.3.1 Climate Change
Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that persists for an
extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural
internal processes or external forcing such as modulations of the solar cycles,
volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of
the atmosphere or in land use. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
150 (UNFCCC) defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed
directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global Climate Change
atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods (IPCC, 2007).
Climate change refers to change conditions such as weather pattern of temperature
that can be observed for a long period of time. In the usage of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change refers to any change in climate
over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.
10.3.2 Climate Change Impact on the Globe

Over the last 50 years, human activities – particularly the burning of fossil fuels –
have released sufficient quantities of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
that are trapping additional heat in the lower atmosphere and affect the global
climate (UNDP, 2006; IPCC, 2013). In the last 130 years, the world has warmed
by approximately 0.85oC. Each of the last 3 decades has been successively warmer
than any preceding decade since 1850 (IPCC, 2014). Sea levels are rising, glaciers
are melting, precipitation patterns are changing, and extreme weather events are
becoming more intense and frequent. Human health has always been influenced
by climate and weather (IPCC, 2014; WHO, 2005 and 2014). Changes in climate
and climate variability, particularly changes in weather extremes, affect the environment
that provides us with clean air, food, water, shelter, and security. Climate change,
together with other natural and human-made health stressors, threatens human
health and well-being in numerous ways (Balbus et al., 2016). Some of these
health impacts are already being experienced in all parts of the world including
the Himalayan Mountains (WHO, 2005; ICIMOD, 2007). Given that the impacts
of climate change are projected to increase over the next century, certain existing
health threats will intensify and new health threats may emerge (IPCC, 2013 and
2014). These are the global major impacts on the earth planet.
10.3.2.1 Global Warming
About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth’s
surface, which increases its temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the
atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by greenhouse gases (GHGS), mostly
carbon dioxide is released by various human activates, it is rapidly increasing.
This is causing global warming is causing global warming (Cline, 2008).
A human activity during the last few decades of industrialisation and population
growth have polluted the atmosphere to the extent that is has begun to seriously
affect the climate. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 31%
since pre-industrial times, causing more heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere.
There is evidence to show that carbon dioxide levels are still increasing. Many
countries have signed a convention to reduce GHGS under the United Nations
framework convention on climate change (UNFCC). However, the current international
agreement is not still effective enough to prevent the significant changes in climate
and in sea levels (www.unfccc.int).
10.3.2.2 Acid Rain
On burning fossil fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas; chemicals, sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are produced. These chemicals react with water and other
chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harmful pollutants
like sulfates and nitrates. These acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmosphere,
and are carried by air currents, to finally return to the ground in the form of acid 151
Interrelationship Between rain, fog or snow. The corrosive nature of acid rain cause many forms of environmental
Disasters and Development damage. Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and gases, when washed
from the ground by rain, add to the acid in the rain to form an even more corrosive
solution. This is called acid depositions.
10.3.2.3 Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to 50
km above the surface of the earth. This action takes place naturally in the atmosphere,
but is very slow. Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong odor. It is a form
of oxygen that has three atoms in each molecule. It is considered pollution at
ground level and constitutes a health hazard by causing respiratory ailments like
asthma and bronchitis. It also causes harm to vegetation and lands to deteriorate
further. Ozone in the upper atmosphere, however, is vital to all forms of life as it
protects the earth from the sun’s harmful UV radiation. This ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s UV radiation, preventing it from reaching the
earth’s surface.
10.3.2.4 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust
Nuclear energy was researched and developed as an alternate source of clean
cheap energy compound to fossil fuels. Although this did happen, along with the
benefits of nuclear energy came its downfalls. In the short history of nuclear energy,
there have been a number of accidents that have surpassed any natural calamities
or other energy sources extractions in their impacts. A single nuclear accident
causes loss of life, long-term illness and destruction of property on a large scale
and for a long period of time. Radioactivity and its fallout lead to cancer, genetic
disorders and death in the affected area for decades after, thus affecting all forms
of life generations to come.
1) Discuss about Weather and Climate.
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2) What is Climate Change?
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152
Climate Change
3) Explain the impacts on Climate Change.
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10.4 CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY

Climate change is a major issue in the current perspective, and the impact of
climate is affecting both natural eco-system and society directly as well as indirectly.
Water being the most fundamental and critical natural resource is highly sensitive
to climate change. It has been observed that rapid changes in climatic phenomena
has modified global hydrological cycle; and has profound impact on the quantity
as well as on the quality of both surface and groundwater across the planet.
These changes are affecting the availability of water resources for drinking, food
production, manufacturing and sanitation; and increasing the vulnerability of large
population particularly in developing and low income countries to water, food,
and livelihood and health insecurity.
Vulnerability
IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (2007) has defined “vulnerability to climate change
broadly as the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability
encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility
to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt”. Thus, vulnerability in regard to
climate change refers to the inability to cope with changes in climate conditions.
As changes become more extreme, people might not have the capacity to adapt
to them. It is these people who are considered as vulnerable to climate change.
According to the IPCC’ Vulnerability is “the degree, to which a system is susceptible
to and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate
variability and extremes.... Vulnerability is a function of the character, Magnitude,
and rate of climate change and carination to which a system is exposed, the sensitivity
and adaptive capacity of that system” (IPCC, 2007). The climate change is not a
speculative concern, but is based on the works of hundreds of scientists under
the aegis of IPCC. The UNEP and the WMO established IPCC which was endorsed
by the United Nation General Assembly in 1988. Climate change is recognized
by IPCC as a significant man made global environmental challenge. International
efforts to address climate change began with the adoption of the united now the
IPCC has published fifth rounds of assessment reports and the sixth will be submitted
in 2019.
The National Context
Climate change is expected to manifest quite significantly in India. India is much
affected by climate change, not only because of high physical exposure to climate-
related disasters (65% of India is drought-prone, 12% food-prone and 8 % susceptible
to cyclones), but also because of the dependency of its economy and majority of
population on climate-sensitive sectors (for example, agriculture, forest, tourism,
animal husbandry and fisheries). India is one of the most vulnerable countries to
climate change ( Beernaert & Malone 2005). The Government of India is serious 153
Interrelationship Between on this issue as evident from the statement of the Ministry of Environment and
Disasters and Development Forests that no country in the world is as vulnerable, on so many dimensions to
climate as India. Whether it is our long coast line of 7000 km; our Himalayas
with their vast glaciers; our almost 70 million hectors of forest which incidentally
house almost all of our key minerals reserve; we are exposed to climate on multiple
fronts. Rigorous science based assessment are therefore critical in designing our
adaptation strategies (INCCA, 2012).
Climate Change Vulnerability: Hotspots
The identification of hotspots of climate change vulnerability depends upon exiting
knowledge on the subject, which is having growth in recent years (Anthony-Smith,
2009) According to the Asian Development Bank (2009), low-lying coastal area,
deltaic regions and semi-arid areas are the hotspots vulnerable to climate change.
Hotspots are defined as specific areas or regions that may be at relatively high
risk of adverse impact of one or more natural hazards as a result of climate change.
The west coast, the Ganga- Brahmaputra Delta, the delta of Mahanadi, Krishna
and Godavari in the east coast and arid area of Rajasthan are the hotspots. On
the other hand, INCCA (2012) considered only four regions namely, coastal areas,
Western Ghats, north-east and the Himalayas as hotspots of climate change vulnerability
based on biodiversity, and left the western dry land which is an important biophysical
entity of India. Foresight Group (2011) identified dry lands, mountainous region
and low elevation coastal zones as areas of hotspots. It is worthwhile to note that
the climate change models are still ratchet imperfect representations of reality,
and differ considerably in identifying the zone of vulnerability and hotspots (Ericksen
et al., 2011).
The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)
It stretches across states in the western and eastern Himalaya and provides critical
ecosystem services for communities in mountains and downstream planes. The
IHR covers vast areas, with about 17% of the region being under permanent
snow cover and glaciers and about 30-40 % under seasonal snow cover, forming
a unique water reservoir. This feeds important perennial rivers that provide water
for dirking, irrigation and hydropower. Every year about 1, 00,000 million m3 of
water flows from Himalayan rivers. The IHR is home to nearly 4 % of the country’s
population and provides directly or indirectly for livelihoods. The average land
holdings are very small and less than a hectare per family. Most agriculture is of
subsistence type and depends on suitable weather for good yields. Economically
vulnerable groups including the scheduled tribes and castes have high dependence
on the forest resources’ including collection of fodder, medicinal plants and firewood
these ecosystem services are highly sensitive and the regional economy vulnerable
(Government of Uttarakhand, 2012).
Himalaya constituting headwaters of major rivers of south Asia is highly vulnerable
to climate change (ICIMOD, 2007). Owing to constraints of terrain, subsistence
agriculture constitutes main source of food and livelihood even though the availability
of arable land is severely limited and agricultural productivity is low (Tiwari &
Joshi 2012). During recent past, a variety of changes have emerged in traditional
resource use structure mainly in response to population growth, improved access,
growing market economy, rapid urbanisation, growth of tourism and resultant
exploitation of natural resources in Himalaya. These changes have exerted sharply
accentuated pressures on primary ecosystem services through disrupting hydrological
154
regimes of headwaters, eroding biodiversity and undermining livelihood and food Climate Change
security both in mountains and adjoining lowlands. Moreover, climate change has
stressed traditional agricultural system through higher mean annual temperature,
fast melting of snow and glaciers, erratic rainfall and increased frequency and
severity of extreme weather events (ICIMOD, 2007). During recent years, Indian
monsoon has shown sweeping changes over the region resulting into decreased
annual rainfall and reduced number of rainy-days affecting adversely the availability
of and access to water resources (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2002). These changes
are exacerbating region’s limited capacity to cope with projected decrease in
availability of water for drinking and food production. Consequently, agricultural
productivity is declining thereby increasing vulnerability of local population to food
insecurity and a variety of health risks (IPCC, 2014). It is, therefore, highly imperative
to analyse micro-regional variability in precipitation pattern, and assess its impacts
on key sectors, such as agriculture, food and community health, and evolve an
effective adaptation framework to strengthen traditional adaptation mechanism and
coping strategies.
10.5 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Adaptation is defined by IPCC (2014) as “in human system, the process of adjustment
to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit
beneficial opportunities” In natural systems, it is the process of adjustment to
actual climate and its effects; human Intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected
climate”. In human system, adaptation seeks to moderate harm or exploit beneficial
opportunities. In natural systems, human intervention may facilitate adjustment to
expected climate and its effects. According to UNFCCC, adaptation is defined
as practical steps to protest countries and communities from the likely disruption
and damage that will result from effects of climate change.
Stages of Adaptation Process
The basics towards adaptation, as mentioned below, will remain same when adaptation
is planned at national, state, district, block or panchayat level.
 Identifying adaptation needs
 Identifying adaptation options
 Appraising adaptation options
 Planning and implementing
 Monitoring and evaluation
Adaptation to Climate Change in IHR
IHR is highly vulnerable to climate change and there is an urgent need to respond
to the current and future risks by enhancing the preparedness of the communities
and natural systems. Current scientific evidence suggests instability in the Himalayan
ecosystems result of climate change in composition and distribution of natural
resources such as water, Forest and agro bio diversity. Thus, adaptation is imperative
for responding to current and future climate change risks in IHR and enhancing
preparedness (Government of India, 2010). According to IPCC (2014), adaptation
needs arise when the anticipated risks or experienced impacts of climate change
require action to ensure safety of population and security of assets including ecosystem
and their services. 155
Interrelationship Between
Disasters and Development Check Your Progress 2
1) Write a note on climate change vulnerability.
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2) Describe Climate Change Adaptation.
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10.6 CONCLUSION
Global Warming is perhaps the biggest challenge that the humankind is facing
presently. Man has the onus of protecting not only himself but also other life
forms on this planet. Globally, all nations are working on their strategies to combat
climate change.
India has engaged actively in multilateral negotiations in the United Nations Framework
Convention on climate change (UNFCCC). India’s immense geographic diversity
adds to the complexity of developing and implementing sectors, locations and
populations, there can be no ‘one size-fits-all’ climate change strategy. Approaches
will need to be fit specific sub-national context and conditions. India’s National
Action Plan on Climate Change, 2008 (NAPCC), with its eight national missions,
is designed to achieve sustainable development as a co-benefit of addressing climate
change. These 8 missions are: National Solar Mission; National Mission for Enhanced
Energy Efficiency; National Mission on Sustainable Habitat; National Water Mission;
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; National Mission for
Green India; National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture; and National Mission
for Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
The climate change is the biggest environmental emergency that the earth faces
today. This inevitable disaster has a multitude of serious implications for both
environment and human society. In accordance with it, the Unit discusses various
aspects of climatic change.
156
Climate Change
10.7 GLOSSARY
Climate Change : Climate change refers to a change in the state
of the climate that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. Climate
change may be due to natural internal processes
or external forcing such as modulations of the
solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of
the atmosphere or in land use. UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate
which is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable
time periods.
Impacts : Effects on natural and human systems of extreme
weather and climate events and of climate
change. Impacts generally refer to effects on
lives, livelihoods, health, ecosystems, economies,
societies, cultures, services, and infrastructure
due to the interaction of climate changes or
hazardous climate events occurring within a
specific time period and the vulnerability of
an exposed society or system. Impacts are
also referred to as consequences and
outcomes. The impacts of climate change on
geophysical systems, including floods, droughts,
and sea-level rise, are a subset of impacts called
physical impacts.
Adaptation : The process of adjustment to actual or expected
climate and its effects. In human systems,
adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harm
or exploit beneficial opportunities. In some
natural systems, human intervention may facilitate
adjustment to expected climate and its effects.
Resilience : The capacity of social, economic, and
environmental systems to cope with a hazardous
event or trend or disturbance, responding or
reorganizing in ways that maintain their essential
function, identity, and structure, while also
maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning,
and transformation.
Transformation : A change in the fundamental attributes of natural
and human systems. Within this summary,
transformation could reflect strengthened,
altered, or aligned paradigms, goals, or values
towards promoting adaptation for sustainable
development, including poverty reduction. 157
Interrelationship Between
Disasters and Development 10.8 REFERENCES
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Foresight. (2011). Migration and Global Environment Change. London: Government
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Environmental Law Institute (ELI) (2003) cited as in, Oil,KP; Gupta, JD(2008)
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Transforming Crisis into Opportunity. Nainital.
Hougtion, J.T. (ed.). (1984). The Global Climate. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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ICIMOD. (2007). Melting Himalayas: Regional Challenges and Local Impacts of
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IPCC. (2007b). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC.
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IPCC. (2007c). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Retrieved
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IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Draft Summary for Policy Makers. Retrieved
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IPCC. (2015). Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report. Retreived from http:// Climate Change
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Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA). (2012). Climate Change
and India: A4 Assesment: A Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s. INCCA
Report No. 2. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and forests, Government of
India.
Tiwari, P. C. & Joshi, B. (2012). Environmental changes and sustainable development
of water resources in the Himalayan headwaters of India. International Journal
of Water Resource Management. 26 (4):883–907.
UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report: Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty
and the Global Water Crisis. New York: United Nations Development Programme.

EXERCISES
 Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere and is a chaotic
non-linear dynamical system.
 Humidity, atmospheric pressure, clouds and rain storm.
 Climate is determined by large scale pattern and force, beginning with
the position with the position of the earth 93 million miles from the sun
close enough to receive a life –sustaining amount of solar radiation
 Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere.
 Change conditions such as weather pattern of temperature that can be
observed for a long period of time.
 Global Warming
 Acid Rain
 Ozone Layer Depletion
 Nuclear accidents and nuclear holocaust
 Vulnerability in Indian Context.
 Climate Change Hotspots.
 The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects.
 Adaptation seeks to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities.
159
UNIT 11 DISASTERS AND DEVELOPMENT*
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Relationship between Disasters and Development
11.2.1 Development Programmes can Increase Vulnerability
11.2.2 Development Programmes can Decrease Vulnerability
11.2.3 Disasters as Opportunities for Development Initiatives
11.3 Development of Infrastructure

11.3.1 Different Types of Infrastructure
11.3.2 Development of Physical and Economic Infrastructure
11.3.3 Development of Envionmental Infrastructure
11.4 Creation of Long-Term Job Opportunities and Livelihood Options

11.5 Statutory Provisions for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction
11.6 Conclusion
11.7 Glossary
11.8 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the relationship between disasters and development;
 Examine the way disasters can impact development programmes and
development programmes can increase vulnerability; and
 Discuss the ways for designing development programmes for decreasing
vulnerability.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we shall attempt to understand the relationship between disasters and
development and shall also study about the primary remedial measures to be taken
immediately after the disaster occurs. Besides, the possibilities of long-term
development concerning the creation of job opportunities and livelihood options
will be discussed. While disasters result in considerable disruption of normal life,
enormous suffering, loss of lives and property, global efforts consider the recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction phase as an opportunity to build back better
integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures, and making communities
resilient to disasters (Government of India, 2016). There is a close link between
disasters and development as disasters create destruction obstructing development
initiatives; on the other hand, they give rise to development opportunities. Hence,
we can say that the development schemes can both increase and decrease vulnerability.
* Contributed by Dr. Ranju Joshi Pandey, Academic Associate, Uttarakhand Open University,
160 Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Disasters and
11.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISASTERS AND Development
DEVELOPMENT
There is a close relation between disasters and development. Initiatives of development
get destroyed by disasters and at the same time it produces opportunities for
development. Vulnerability may both be increased and decreased by strategies of
development. Traditional approach to disasters referred to the ‘natural disasters
as an act of God and beyond human control; causing death and damage to property
and revenue losses. In the past, most of the development plans were designed
without considering the impact of disasters and without taking community viewpoints
and plans into consideration. In the event of a disaster, the focus used to be on
emergency needs. In keeping with mainstreaming disaster risk reduction and sustainable
development, it is felt that a package of resilience-building plans would yield better
results and minimise, if not completely avoid, losses. (Hallegatte,S. et al. 2017).
Thus, the focus now is on reducing the impact of disasters in the wake of relationship
between disaster and development indicating following basic themes:
 Vulnerability may increase due to development initiatives;
 Development initiatives may decrease vulnerability; and
 For development initiatives, disasters is as an opportunity.
Thus, the policy makers cannot ignore the relationship between the disasters and
development. Projects are, thus, being designed incorporating the disaster recovery
programmes and long-term development needs in mind. Disasters can significantly
impede the effectiveness of development resource allocation.
11.2.1 Development Programmes can Increase

Vulnerability
Population without developmental initiatives is more exposed to natural hazards
and other calamities. At the same time, however, the development process, itself,
might increase vulnerability for the same disasters. There is a close link between
poverty, marginalisation, over-population and vulnerability. By and large, poverty
gives rise to vulnerability. Poverty stricken people are more likely to live in vulnerable
areas, such as, on slopes prone to landslides; in flood-prone areas to marginal
agricultural land. Poorer countries mostly are more likely to have a dangerous
building stock, often as a result of insufficient resources to enforce appropriate
building codes, structural design and quality control due to lack of education and
public awareness.
Lack of knowledge leads to lack of awareness and poor education with lack of
awareness results into absence of consciousness which often increases vulnerability-
people may be simply unaware of the options available to them for vulnerability
reduction due to lack of awareness and education programmes. Poverty stricken
people have fewer assets to invest in resources, which increases their vulnerability.
Poor people are less likely to be in a position to organise together to reduce
risks. Moreover, after a disaster, its aftermath gives rise to starvation and chronic
sickness leading to newer risks for the people.
Even though in larger terms, development will usually contribute to decrease
vulnerability to natural disasters, however, development activity within an area
might largely increase certain types of vulnerability as mentioned below:
161
Interrelationship Between  Urban development usually leads to an inflow of comparably low-income
Disasters and Development groups, with large- scale settlements on marginal land or in high density,
poor quality housing. Buildings could also be sited on earthquake faults, in
flash- flood zones, or on slopes at risk of landslides;
 Marine and coastal zone development leads to population consolidation, exposed
to potential high winds, storm-surge, landslide risks and flash-flood. Tourist
development can increase potential vulnerability substantially when low lying
beach areas are a mark for infrastructure and basic investments. Tsunami
and tropical storms quickly destroy these improvements also placing tourists
and staff at serious risk to injury and death;
 Transport and other construction activities without awareness about environment
often result in deforestation and increased risks of landslides;
 Water resource projects, such as dams and irrigation schemes, increase risk
of floods, slope instability or dam failure;
 Investment in poorly managed hazardous industries might result in concentration
of population around the high risk zone of plant, exposing the unaware population
to high hazardous chemicals or other industrial disasters;
 Livestock development projects result in extensive loss of the vegetation cover,
leading to desertification;
 Agricultural projects promoting cash crops might reduce production of essential
foods.
All the above mentioned examples clearly specify the linkages between development
and disasters. However, it should be made clear here that sustainable development
cannot be disastrous, only ill-conceived planning and mismanagement make
development process quite disastrous.
11.2.2 Development Programmes can Decrease

Vulnerability
Mitigation is extensively used as a measure to reduce the impact of any disaster.
Mitigation, on the bases of their approach to problem and methodology, may be
considered in two distinctive ways:
i) Structural mitigation measures are used to decrease the economic and social
impact of hazards and involve programmes of construction; particularly dams,
terracing, windbreaks and hazard resistant buildings.
ii) Non-structural mitigation is mostly concerned with policies and practices, as
well as land-use policies, zoning, crop diversification, building codes and
methods for prediction and warning. In a wider context, non-structural mitigation
may also include awareness, education, environmental understanding, community
organisation, and employment strategies.
It has been experienced that mitigation is best effective as a part of a long-run
development programme having hazard-reduction measures into regular investment
projects. The risk is evaluated analytically and notably within the scenario of planning
and investment programme reviews. The cost-effectiveness of specific emergency
preparedness measures and hazard reduction activities should be evaluated. There
are opportunities to make links between government and international organisations
162
concerned with relief, recovery and support opportunities for investment institutions Disasters and
to assist governments to gain access to new developments in hazard-reduction Development
technologies. In regular investment projects, attention is given to early warning
systems and alternative components of emergency preparedness through financial
or technical help.
These steps of development programmes to decrease vulnerability are integrated
into each level of programme and project development and review at regular
intervals. A structured review action would require that the remedial measures
taken to counter the loses occurred due to the recent disaster and the project
reports specifying the same should particularly be taken into consideration.
There are a wide range of choices for incorporating mitigation measures into regular
development programmes. The examples suggest various ways to secure population
and critical economic assets against hazards and also to take measures to reduce
the overall impact of disasters.
Strengthening of urban utility systems and industrial support infrastructure is an
objective of most of the development projects. This is achieved through a variety
of external inputs, including loans, technical assistance, and institution development
support. So called “lifeline systems”- water, electric power, transport links and
communications can be made more persuasive and more selectively resistant to
specific hazards.
Investment in transport and communications also improve a country’s ability to
respond to, and recover from, a major emergency. For example, improvements in
road capacity will usually make evacuation easier; Better communication would
lead to improved early warning and more effective preparedness and response
measures; Investments in airports and bridges can help speed up the delivery of
relief resources, etc..
11.2.3 Disasters as Opportunities for Development

Initiatives
Disasters can be a carrier of effective development programmes. The political
impact of damage and disruption can act as a real incentive for change. Disaster
inspired development initiatives are influenced in a number of ways, but the following
two aspects are especially important:
 Disasters can highlight particular areas of vulnerability, for example, areas
where huge losses of life have occurred, or where the economic damage is
disproportionate to the strength of the impact. The outcome of this is usually
to highlight the general level of underdevelopment; and
 For a few weeks or months, the political environment may favour a much
higher rate of economic and social change than before, in areas such as land
reform, housing improvements, new job training, and restructuring the economic
base.
The value of direct international assistance given after disasters may partially
compensate for economic losses, as the amounts are usually smaller in relation to
the total loss. The initial value of the aid rarely constitutes more than ten percent
of the overall losses, and is usually considerably less. In the following months and
years, there may be additional longer term development aid, which would otherwise
not have been made available.
163
Interrelationship Between The extent, to which development opportunities can be followed up after a disaster,
Disasters and Development is usually constrained or influenced by donor investment policy for emergency
loans. It is mandatory to review the current World Bank criteria for emergency
lending for post disaster investment. According to the World Bank:
1) The operation must be directed towards the restoration of the assets or
productivity in a long- term development perspective not temporary relief;
2) The prospective economic returns should be high;
3) The effects of the emergency should be significant;
4) The event triggering the emergency should have a low probability of happening
again soon;
5) The need for an urgent response should be evident;
6) Emergency lending is limited to cases where effective action can be felt in
two to three years;
7) There should be some prospect for future reduction in the hazards.
It is often felt that development opportunities are often missed or compromised
because of an excessive focus on relief assistance. Relief assistance may introduce
substantial flows of resources into small communities: resources which could be
purchased locally. The method of incorporating of these resources- often involving
free distribution through inappropriately chosen local structures- may discourage
independence and entrepreneurism. The scale and variety of external relief sources
in some disasters make this a difficult problem to contain and highlights the need
for governments and international agencies to continually emphasise the development
framework of the disaster response.
1) Discuss the relationship between disasters and development.
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................
2) ‘Development programmes can increase vulnerability’. Discuss.
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................
3) ‘Disasters are opportunities for development initiatives’. Comment.
.............................................................................................................
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164
Disasters and
11.3 DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE Development
Infrastructure means the basic structure or foundation. It means the structure for
communication and services within an institution. In the context of development,
infrastructure connotes buildings, means of transportation and communication as
well as other necessary basic utilities and facilities, for example, schools, hospitals,
etc.
11.3.1 Different Types of Infrastructure

Infrastructure can be classified as:
 Physical infrastructure – roads, water, drainage, electricity, etc.
 Service infrastructure – transportation, health, education, etc.
 Social infrastructure – social sector services, primary healthcare, old age
homes and community centers, etc.
 Environmental infrastructure – creation of necessary environmental conditions
to reduce the risk of disaster.
It becomes utmost important to understand the appropriate context of the developing
nations in any discussion on infrastructure. Limited resources in these nations often
imply that infrastructure is undeveloped or underdeveloped. Lack of basic amenities
like, water and electricity is a common problem in a developing country. Even in
the case of healthcare facilities; secondary level schools; and other services in the
social sector, the infrastructure parameters change according to socio-economic
conditions. At the time of disaster, these limited infrastructure facilities are damaged
and destroyed making it difficult for the administration to cater to the needs of the
people.
11.3.2 Development of Physical and Economic

Infrastructure
With reference to appropriate physical infrastructure particularly in relation to disasters,
the nature, type and quality of housing are of relevance. Housing infrastructure
needs to be planned for the particular environmental conditions of the area. There
may be an area that is flood-prone or a mountainous region prone to landslides
and so on. Housing has to be in accordance with the requirements of that area.
The peculiar requirements of the urban areas need to be kept in mind. Earthquake
safety measures in high-rise buildings in urban areas are a case in point.
The shelterless population, which is already vulnerable even in normal times, is
affected the most at the time of any disaster. Studies reveal that a homeless child
is twice as likely to have learning disabilities and six times more likely to have
stunted growth than a child in a stable environment. The example of post-earthquake
rehabilitation in Gujarat is worth emulating. The agenda in the reconstruction
programme, propagated by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
has not been just to build houses, but also to construct them in a manner so as to
impart technological skill to the villagers. These houses have served as model
houses, incorporating disaster resistant technologies (corner vertical bars, header
stones, reinforced cement concrete (RCC) bands at different sections of the structure,
etc.). This has created a multiplier effect in the surrounding areas.
165
Interrelationship Between 11.3.3 Development of Environmental Infrastructure
Disasters and Development
Any discussion on physical and economic infrastructural development is incomplete
without satisfactory emphasis on building environment support system. There is a
close link between environmental conservation and disaster mitigation. Inappropriately,
human induced activities act as catalysts, positive or negative, to the natural
environment. There are thousands of lakes, ponds, lagoons, estuaries, marshes,
backwaters and mangrove swamps that are the lifeline of a country’s wetlands,
fresh water needs and biodiversity. Absence of a National Wetlands Act in India
demands a proactive environmental infrastructure development. However, few success
stories may still be quoted.
In India, cases such as rebirth of Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh and greening of
Alwar District reveal that water harvesting wisdom needs to be appropriately
touched to build infrastructure, especially environmental infrastructure. An example
of Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) from the state of Minnesota, United
States of America, also specifies that agriculture is more than just source of food
and timber; it also provides various other environmental and social benefits. The
struggle necessitates changing the implication of the term ‘maximizing productivity’.
Some of the methods that help environmental and social benefits include increased
users to select production methods.
At their most basic level, the CSA farms provide a weekly delivery of organically
grown produce to users during the growing season. Those users, in turn, pay a
consent fee. However, having involvement with CSA operations forever means
sharing the benefits as well as the risks of farming. By linking together through
CSA operations, farmers and users alike can benefit from an agriculture that gives
lavish nutritious food while conserve the ecological and social base necessary for
the future generations.
Attempts to build sustainable environment infrastructure are being made by national
as well as international agencies all over the world. The aim is to decrease transmission
of greenhouse gases and maintain the global commons (atmosphere) for the long
run. A number of the major environmental agreements are listed below:
1) CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
This convention was signed in 1975. More than one hundred twenty five countries
are its members. CITES creates worldwide controls on the International trade of
unsafe species of animals and plants. Within the case of species unsafe with dying
out, CITES ban all commercial trade in wild specimens.
2) Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
Basel Convention on the Management of Trans- boundary Movements of Hazardous
Waste and their Disposal was approved in 1989. It came into force in May 1992.
This world environmental contract strictly manages the trans-boundary movement
of hazardous wastes and necessitates its members to ensure that such wastes are
managed and disposed off in an environmentally sound manner.
3) Convention on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by over one hundred fifty
governments at the Rio “Earth Summit” in 1992. It became the centerpiece of
international efforts to conserve the planet’s biological diversity, assuring the continuous
use of its components, and facilitating fair and honest sharing of the information
166 about the usage of genetic resources.
4) Convention on Climate Change Disasters and
Development
In June 1992, one hundred fifty States signed the U N Framework Convention
on Climate Change at the Rio “Earth Summit”. The Convention provides a “framework”
within which governments can work together to carry out new policies and programs.
5) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
The Document consists of the final authentic text of the Kyoto Protocol to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Global Climate Change. The Protocol
has come into force with an objective of protecting the environment of the world
from further deterioration. Around one hundred eighty countries have signed the
Kyoto Protocol.
6) Convention to Combat Desertification
The Convention to Combat Desertification helps a new path to controlling, dry
land ecosystems and therefore the flow of aid for development in drought affected
countries especially in Africa. Their Website contains Official Documents for the
International Negotiating Committee (INDC), as well as public information material.
7) Convention on the Law of the Sea
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea systematises the principles
by which nations use the oceans of the world. The links between the nations are
controlled by the independent counsel on Ocean Law, which is a broad collection
of documents regarding the Law, as well as links to the text of the Convention.
8) Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
The Montreal Protocol is that the primary international agreement for the management
of the production and consumption of Ozone depleting substances like choloro-
fluoro-carbons (CFCs), halons and methyl bromide, etc. As of November 2003,
one hundred eighty three governments have become parties to the Protocol, including
virtually all major industrialised countries and most developing countries.
Sustainable Community Development
Every physical space, which can be entitled as a community, needs to sustain
sufficient resources within it for fulfilling certain capacity. When we talk in context
of India, strengthening of anganwadis and balwadis, and other similar institutions
will go a long way in building sustainable communities. Rural and urban communities
in India should have community centers, female-children homes, old age homes
and daycare homes. These institutions fulfill the functions of taking care of needs
of special groups in the community such as the children, women, old and disabled.
The social chain build through the functioning of healthcare centers and community
centers are strong points for any society. In cases where these networks function
well, they justify their significance in post-disaster situations.
A sustainable society meets its present needs without sacrificing the requirement
of future generations. It is engaged in developing attitudes and actions that strengthen
its economic, environmental and social infrastructure. Sustainable community
development is easily achieved when it comes from within an existing community.
The benefits of this type of development include more livable communities, lower
costs of living and safer environment for future generations. Some of the outstanding
ways of developing a sustainable society are to: 167
Interrelationship Between 1) Create awareness and education on sustainability;
2) Conserve green space;
3) Conserve our water resources;
4) Support sustainable agriculture;
5) Recycle the building materials; and
6) Conserve energy and support renewable energy initiatives.
11.4 CREATION OF LONG-TERM JOB

OPPORTUNITIES AND LIVELIHOOD
OPTIONS
Whereas livelihood and the accessible means of employment opportunities are
significant issues even in normal times, but these turn into more compelling needs
after natural or man-made disasters. The meaning of livelihood is presence of
employment, work opportunities or occupation as a means of hold. This type of
support refers to physical sustenance of individuals’ families and households. The
livelihood approach is especially linked with the formation of sustainable environment.
In its importance on multi-sectoral coordination, the livelihood approach advocates
an increase in economic opportunities of work without degrading the natural
environment.
The changing nature of economies and the new trends in globalisation present
some distinctive features in the case of livelihood opportunities in the developing
countries. Some of the contributing factors like irregular process of industrialisation,
non-availability of fertile land for cultivation and process of environmental degradation
create a complex scenario with regard to the linkages between rural and urban
economies, as well as amongst the available livelihoods.
11.4.1 International Approaches to Livelihood

The operationalisation of sustainable livelihood is broadly exhibited in two ways.
1) As an analytical tool, applying a sustainable livelihood lens as a part of policy
formulation and/or as programme planning process. This ensures that efforts,
say to reduce poverty or promote environmental conservation, recognise the
linkages between development and environment; and the effect of such linkages
on the livelihood of the poor.
2) The manner in which the approach of sustainable livelihood is used for the
design and implementation of sustainable livelihood programmes. In this situation,
sustainable livelihood initiatives aim to strengthen one or more aspects of a
household’s livelihood through distinct programme interventions (for example,
provision of micro-finance), but does so in a consistent manner within an
overall sustainable livelihood framework. As an essence, a sustainable livelihood
programme acts merely as a demonstration of the approach. It is imperative
to understand that this approach is adopted, modified and tailored to the
individual country’s context.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been at the forefront
of employing the sustainable livelihood approach. Different government ministries
168 have come together to discuss the pros and cons of using a sustainable livelihood
lens for poverty reduction. Substantive interactions mean actions at the local levels Disasters and
(for example, district, community) and better coordination and implementation. Development
Moreover, by using a sustainable livelihood approach, UNDP has managed to
bring together a diverse set of actors (for example, government, civil society,
donors and community-based organisations) that have traditionally operated in
isolation from each other. Many other premier agencies are also striving to have a
well-rounded approach to development.
11.5 STATUTORY PROVISIONS FOR

MAINSTREAMING DISASTER RISK
REDUCTION
The following are the statutory provisions incorporated in the Disaster Management
Act, 2005, for mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction or DRR:
 Section 6 (i) provides that the NDMA may take such other measures for the
prevention of disaster, or the mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building
for dealing with the threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider
necessary;
 Section 18 (2) (g) provides that the SDMA may review the development
plans of the different departments of the State and ensure that prevention
and mitigation measures are integrated therein;
 Section 22 (2)(b) provides that the SEC may examine the vulnerability of
different parts of the State to different forms of disasters and specify measures
to be taken for their prevention or mitigation;
 Section 23 (4) (b) provides that the State Plan shall include measures to be
adopted for prevention and mitigation of disasters;
 Section 23 (4) (c) provides that the State Plan shall include the manner in
which the mitigation measures shall be integrated with the development plans
and projects;
 Section 23 (4) (d) provides that the State Plan shall include, capacity-building
and preparedness measures to be taken;
 Section 30 (2) (iv) provides that the District Authority may ensure that the
guidelines for prevention of disasters, mitigation of its effects, preparedness
and response measures as laid down by the National Authority and the State
Authority are followed by all departments of the Government at the district
level and the local authorities in the district;
 Section 30 (2) (xiii) provides that the District Authority may facilitate community
training and awareness programmes for prevention of disaster or mitigation
with the support of local authorities, governmental and non-governmental
organisations;
 Section 30 (xiv) provides that the District Authority may set up, maintain,
review and upgrade the mechanism for early warnings and dissemination of
proper information to public;
 Section 31 (3) (b) provides that the District Plan shall include the measures
to be taken, for prevention and mitigation of disaster, by the Departments of
the Government at the district level and local authorities in the district; 169
Interrelationship Between  Section 32 (a) provides that every office at the district level shall prepare a
Disasters and Development Plan setting out:
– provisions for prevention and mitigation measures as provided for in the
District Plan and as is assigned to the department or relevant agency;
– provisions for taking measures relating to capacity-building and preparedness
as laid down in the District Plan;
– the response plans and procedures, in the event of, any threatening
disaster situation or disaster;
 Section 35(2) (b) provides that the central government may ensure the integration
of measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation by Ministries or Departments
of the Government of India into their development plans and projects;
 Section 36 (b) provides that every Ministry/ Department of Government of
India shall integrate into its development plans and projects, the measures
for prevention or mitigation of disasters in accordance with the guidelines
laid down by the National Authority;
 Section 37 (1) (a) mandates all the Ministries and Departments of Government
of India to prepare a disaster management plan inter alia specifying:
– the measures to be taken by it for prevention and mitigation of disasters
in accordance with the National Plan;
– the specifications regarding integration of mitigation measures in its
development plans in accordance with the guidelines of the National
Authority and the National Executive Committee;
 Section 38 (2) (e) provides that the State Government may ensure integration
of measures for prevention of disaster or mitigation by the departments of
the Government of the State in their development plans and projects;
 Section 38 (2) (f) provides that the State Government may integrate in the
State development plan, measures to reduce or mitigate the vulnerability of
different parts of the State to different disasters;
 Section 39 provides that the departments of State Government shall integrate
into its development plans and projects, the measures for prevention of disaster
and mitigation;
 Section 40 (1) (a) (ii) mandates all department of the State to prepare a
disaster management plan that shall integrate strategies for the prevention of
disaster or the mitigation of its effects or both with the development plans
and programmes by the department
1) Discuss the different types of infrastructure?
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170
Disasters and
............................................................................................................. Development
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2) List out the major International Level Agreements on Environment.
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3) Explain sustainable community development.
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11.6 CONCLUSION
The effective planning and incorporation of basic remedial measures is an important
part of disaster management. In this Unit, we have discussed all the basic concepts
concerning all important physical, monetary and environmental aspects relating to
the minimisation of the occurrence of disaster. This Unit also clearly shows the
relationship between disasters and development. Disasters can hold up development
by loss of resources; shifting of resources to emergency response; depressing the
investment climate; affecting the non-formal sector, etc. Development can increase
vulnerability through dense urban settlement; development of hazardous sites;
environmental degradation; technological failures or accidents; imbalance of pre-
existing natural or social systems, etc. Development programmes can reduce
vulnerability through, strengthening of urban utility systems, hazard resistant building
techniques, institution building and capacitating of local authorities, agriculture and
forestry programmes, etc. Disasters can provide development opportunities by
creating a social and political atmosphere of acceptance to change, highlighting
the general level of underdevelopment that causes the disaster, focusing international
attention and aid on the disaster area.
11.7 GLOSSARY
Disaster : Sudden event that causes a lot of damage.
Development : The act or process of creating something over
a period of time.
Infrastructure : The basic physical and organisational structures
and facilities needed for the operation of a
society or enterprise. 171
Interrelationship Between Vulnerability : Susceptibility to physical attack.
Recovery : Process of returning to a normal state after a
period of difficulty.
Livelihood : Securing the necessities of life.
Support : Approval and encouragement given to someone
or something.
11.8 REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (1991). Disaster Mitigation in Asia and the
Pacific. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Aysan, Y. & Davis. (1993). Rehabilitation and Reconstruction. Module prepared
for Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), UNDP.
Carter, N.W. (1991). Disaster Management: A Disaster Managers Hand Book.
Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Bangalore, M. & Rozenberg, J. (2017).
Unbreakable: Building the Resilience of the Poor in the Face of Natural
Disasters. Climate Change and Development Series. Washington, DC: World
Bank.
IGNOU. (2006). Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery. New Delhi: Faculty
of Public Administration, Indira Gandhi National Open University.

EXERCISES
 Vulnerability may increase through development programmes.
 Development programmes can decrease vulnerability.
 For development initiatives disaster is as an opportunity.
 Large- scale settlements on marginal land or in high density, poor quality
housing.
 Tourist development can increase potential vulnerability substantially when
low lying beach areas are marked for infrastructure and basic investments.
 Water resource management projects, as well as dams and irrigation
schemes, increase risk for the masses.
172
 Investment in poorly controlled hazardous industries. Disasters and
Development
 Livestock development projects and agricultural projects promoting cash
crops might reduce production of essential foods.
 Disaster can be a vehicle for effective development programs.
 International aid and development programs.
 World Bank criteria for post disaster investment.
 Physical infrastructure
 Social infrastructure
 Economic infrastructure
 Environmental infrastructure.
 CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
 Basel Convention on Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
 Convention on Biological Diversity
 Convention on Climate Change
 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
 Convention to Combat Desertification
 Convention on the Law of the Sea
 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
 A sustainable society meets its present needs without sacrificing the
requirement of future generations. It is engaged in developing attitudes
and actions that strengthen its economic, environmental and social
infrastructure.
 Criteria for developing a sustainable society.
173
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BLOCK 4
DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
166 Blank
176
UNIT 12 RELEVANCE OF INDIGENOUS
KNOWLEDGE*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Understanding Traditional Knowledge
12.3 Indigenous Knowledge and Disaster Risk Reduction
12.4 Indigenous Knowledge and Early Warning System
12.5 Indigenous Knowledge and Coping Strategies
12.5.1 Cyclones and Floods
12.5.2 Droughts
12.6 Conclusion
12.7 Glossary
12.8 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concept of traditional knowledge;
 Relate indigenous knowledge with Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR); and
 Understand the coping strategies during cyclones.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent times, there has been constant occurrence of natural disasters around
the globe, mainly due to ill-conceived development efforts and unprecedented
climate change. For instance, disasters such as unforeseen floods, heavy rain and
drought are the results of climate change. Such climatic variations, not only lead
to natural catastrophe, but also cause a huge impact on the lives of the local
community. Though the occurrence of such disasters is sometime unavoidable,
the repercussions of such disasters can be avoided when participation of community
members is given due recognition in disaster reduction activities. Further,
accomplishment of targeted goals and sustainability of risk reduction interventions
also depend upon the involvement of local populace, their knowledge, culture
and traditional practices. Thus, increasing the adaptive capacity of the communities
helps in bringing back the resilience and also in reducing the levels of vulnerability.
The adaptive capacity could be increased by laying emphasis on the traditional
knowledge of the local communities. In this Unit, the discussion is on the concept
of traditional knowledge and the interrelationship between traditional knowledge
and disaster risk reduction. It also documents some of the existing traditional
Disaster Management: practices that were adopted in dealing with disaster situations like, cyclones and
Cross-cutting Issues droughts.
12.2 UNDERSTANDING TRADITIONAL

KNOWLEDGE
Traditional Knowledge is “the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within
and developed around the specific conditions of women and men, indigenous to a
particular geographic area” (Grenier, 1998). The world ‘traditional knowledge’ is
derived on the belief that the local communities have knowledge about the history
of their locality based on the past experiences. Berkes (2007) defines traditional
knowledge as “a body of cumulative knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by
adoptive process, and handed down through generations by cultural transmission
about the relationship of living being (including humans) with one another and the
environment”. The traditional knowledge can be also called as ‘Indigenous Knowledge’
or ‘Local Knowledge’. UNESCO (2002) describes traditional knowledge as a
“cumulative body of knowledge, know-how, practices and representation, maintained
and developed by peoples with extended histories of interaction with the natural
environment, while indigenous as attached to place and indigenous people”.
As per the World Bank Report (2005), “Indigenous knowledge also referred to
as traditional or local knowledge refers to the large body of knowledge and skill
that has been developed outside the formal education system. Indigenous knowledge
is embedded in culture and is unique to a given location or society. Indigenous
knowledge is an important part of the lives of the poor. It is the basis for decision
making of communities in food security, human and animal health, education and
natural resource management”. Flavier also states that the “traditional knowledge
is the information base for a society, which facilitates communication and decision-
making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic and are continually influenced
by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact with external systems”.
Based on the above definitions on indigenous knowledge, it can be concluded
that indigenous knowledge is not only about the past experiences of the community,
but also helps a community to make a decision on what to do and what not to
do. According to IIRR, indigenous knowledge is “the knowledge that people in a
given community has developed over time, and continues to develop. It is based
on experience, often tested over centuries of use, adapted to local culture and
environment, dynamic and changing”.
Rajib Shaw (2010) characterised indigenous knowledge as: “Locally bound, indigenous
to a specific area and communities; culture and context specific; non-formal knowledge;
orally transmitted, and generally not documented; Dynamic and based on innovation
adaptation, and experimentation; and closely related to survival and subsistence
for many people worldwide”.
12.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND DISASTER

RISK REDUCTION
This section discusses how the traditional knowledge helps to reduce the disaster
risk. It is always obvious that the local people know their land and environment
thoroughly well. They have a unique ability, through traditional wisdom, to get
and store the information on natural disasters that their land is exposed to. Hence,
focus should be laid on the local people, to make their situation better. The Sendai
178
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015-2030 stated that to achieve Relevance of
the disaster risk reduction at the global and regional level it “requires a multi- Indigeneous
Knowledge
hazard approach and inclusive risk-informed decision-making based on the open
exchange and dissemination of disaggregated data, including by sex, age and disability,
as well as on easily accessible, up-to-date, comprehensible, science-based, non-
sensitive risk information, complemented by traditional knowledge.”
Combining the traditional knowledge with scientific expertise is more relevant in
the current context. Knowing and documenting the traditional knowledge is not
effective unless it is included in the disaster risk reduction activities. It is the entry
point of people’s participation at the grassroot levels. The SFDRR report suggests
that to understand the disaster risk at national and local level, it is important to
“ensure the use of traditional, indigenous and local knowledge and practices, as
appropriate, to complement scientific knowledge in disaster risk assessment and
the development and implementation of policies, strategies, plans and programmes
of specific sectors, with a cross-sectoral approach, which should be tailored to
localities and to the context.”
To this effect, Pan American Health Organisation (2015) suggested the following
points to be included in the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) planning:
 Securing the input of indigenous peoples and their cultural and environmental
knowledge in the development and implementation of government disaster
risk reduction plans;
 Integrating an indigenous perspective into government disaster plans that reflects
how climate change is contributing to increased disaster risk;
 Considering how infrastructure development and climate change impact the
disaster vulnerability of indigenous people;
 Collaborating indigenous people in the design and implementation of early
warning systems in order to ensure their linguistic and cultural relevance;
 Encouraging indigenous groups to develop, with the participation of entire
community, their own community-level preparedness and risk reduction plans
and strategies that include actionable contingency plans to protect lives, livelihoods
and critical infrastructure.
Types of Indigenous Knowledge
The indigenous knowledge can be divided into three types, that is, Technological
Knowledge, Economic Knowledge and Environmental Knowledge.
1) Technological Knowledge
The indigenous people use their technical knowledge, gained over the years to
address some of the concerns related to disaster risk reduction. For instance, the
traditional practices of the community are still in existence; with respect to construction
of house and infrastructure in the flood inundate areas, coastal regions and the
mountain regions. For example, during the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991, though
the damage was visible, most of the traditional structured houses still could survive
even after the disaster. Similarly, Kashmir region is also known for its earthquake
resistant construction practices, that is, Taq System and Dhajji Dewari System.
These types of houses could survive during 2005 Kashmir Earthquakes. Incorporating
such local technical knowledge and encouraging participation of community members
in the disaster preparedness improves the sustainability.
179
Disaster Management: 2) Economic Knowledge
Cross-cutting Issues
The other type of indigenous knowledge is the economic knowledge used by the
community at times of crisis. People come up with economic ideas to address the
issues on a temporary basis. For instance, the construction of temporary/permanent
shelter by the community with the locally available resources, in both ‘during and
post-disaster’ phases is an apt example. Thus, low cost strategy is planned using
local resources by the community. Similarly, the community also adapt themselves
to alternative livelihood to overcome the crisis situation.
3) Environmental Knowledge
Environmental knowledge is something which is sensed by the community, even
based on the minor or minute inference which they get from the environment or
surrounding. For example, it is the knowledge which is based upon the experiences
during cyclones or floods. On the basis of the colour of the water or clouds,
people used to predict and warn the community members. It used to help the
community members to take preparedness measure like storing food, firewood,
saving drinking water and fodder for cattle.
1) Define Traditional Knowledge.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................
2) Bring out the relationship between indigenous knowledge and Disaster Risk
Reduction.
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3) Discuss the types of Indigenous Knowledge.
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12.4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND EARLY

WARNING SYSTEM
To reduce risk and prepare for effective response, early warning system plays a
major role in DRR. In olden times, people used to sense the cyclones through
certain indicators. Precautionary measures were taken by the community based
180 on the indications they receive from the nature through their traditional knowledge.
However, in recent times we tend to ignore native intelligence. Mostly, the indigenous Relevance of
early warning indicators prove to be true and paying heed to such warnings could Indigeneous
Knowledge
save the community from great disasters. The following table indicates the indigenous
early warning indicators of cyclones.
Indigenous early warning indicators of cyclone
Weather Patterns Sky turns gloomy and overcast#
Black rolls of cloud and change in colour of cloud – indication
for flood $
Weather unusually hot and humid/hot spells after rain#
Strong wind blows from the south/south-east #
East wind blows in full noon – indication of cyclone
If clouds move north wards, it is indication of flood $
Wind changing from east to south & gets cooler– indication of
the change of direction of cyclone
Sea/River Big waves/dark rolls of water
Patterns ‘Goroom goroom’ noise in the river
Smokey or cloudy shapes in the sea
Pond and river water becomes hot*
Animal Cattle become restless and stop eating grass***#
Behaviour Cattle/dogs wail continuously/at night***#
Barking of dogs in day time – indication of cyclone $
Dogs scratch the ground continuously $
Ants climb trees with eggs on their backs#
Bees move around in clusters
Kurpals (type of gull) fly high and cry
Flocking of large number of birds from north to south –
indication of cyclone
Birds fly without destination
Increased number of flies and mosquitoes#
Insects attack cattle**
Fish jump in the rivers and ponds
Crows/cockerels call/fly at night
Frogs call constantly
Foxes bark during the day
Crabs come into the house and courtyard****
Other Bending trees
Water hyacinth in the canal
Leaves of the mandar and cotton tree turn upside down
New leaves of trees fall to the ground
Muddy smell on the wind*
Particular kind of fish catch by fishermen – indication of
cyclone $
* - up to one day before; ** - 1-2 days before; # - most commonly mentioned across
all four chars; *** - 3-7 days before; **** - 10-12 days before. Source: Adopted
from Howel, 2003.
181
Cross-cutting Issues 12.5 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND COPING
STRATEGIES
12.5.1 Cyclones and Floods
Traditional knowledge of the community has always been the guiding force for the
community members to develop their own coping mechanism for different disasters
faced by them. For instance, people living in cyclone prone areas, areas of frequent
earthquakes, landslides, etc., are used to such events as it happens on a regular
basis. Based on the inference drawn from the nature, they resort to coping strategies.
For example, people living in coastal areas are aware of the time of rising tides
and hence avoid fishing in that season or go to high mounts in that time. Though
useful and very intelligent strategies are evolved by the community members, there
is hardly any documentation on the community’s traditional knowledge, wisdom,
and coping mechanism strategies. It is important to document such strategies,
supplement the same with scientific facts and thus pass it on to larger community
for adherence. Such documentation of the traditional knowledge and coping strategies
of indigenous community can be beneficial, as it can help in minimising the loss of
life or property, when a disaster strikes.
Some of the coping strategies that are adopted to deal with cyclones have been
discussed here:
 People wrap all available seeds, rice and paddy and bury it under ground
when they move for safer places.
 Some families wrap all their important papers, documents and other valuables
and bury it under ground before leaving their houses.
 Houses are constructed on higher plinth whereby the water cannot enter the
house.
 If the clouds move towards north, there is an indication that there will be
floods in three or four days.
 Some people while looking at the colour of the clouds and their formation
can predict about floods.
 People grow banana trees around the houses as the banana stems are used
for floating. Something similar to a boat is made out of banana stems and is
also used as barge.
 Banana leaves are used as fodder during cyclones and floods.
 People identify nearby villages and inform them before hand for their temporary
migration and shelter in those villages in case of floods.
 People store foodstuff, dry food, coconut, pumpkins, etc. to be used immediately
after the disaster.
 Beating of drums for dissemination of warning.
 Continuous blowing of wind from east indicates that the cyclone is approaching,
more so if within two hours the wind starts becoming hot; indication is that
the intensity of cyclone will be more.
 If the wind changes its direction from east to south and gets cooler, it indicates
that the cyclone has changed its direction.
182
 Barking of village dogs without any provocation during the daytime is indicative Relevance of
of an unusual event like cyclone approaching in the immediate future. Indigeneous
Knowledge
 The dogs start scratching the ground.
 Fishermen get substantive catch of a particular fish prior to the cyclone which
normally they are unable to get.
 The fishermen nets catch particular small plankton which they never get otherwise.
This also indicates that a cyclone is approaching.
 A strange and rather thundering sound from sea for two-three days indicate
that a cyclone is about to strike.
 If the clouds move fast from north to south, then there is a likelihood of
cyclone.
 Birds in large quantity flock together and fly from north to south, give the
indication to the community about an approaching cyclone.
 People don’t plant big trees near their house so that these may not fall on
them when the cyclone approaches.
12.5.2 Droughts
Droughts are not flood, earthquake, landslide and tsunami like disasters. But they
create pressure on the society in the name of malnutrition, food shortages and ill-
health. The reason behind drought is low rainfall and high soil moisture stress.
Sometimes prolonged droughts will lead to famines and the situation gets worsened
further. The recent intervention by government agencies in the maintenance and
up gradation of water harvesting structures e.g. ponds, taankas, naadis and khadeens
have also led to other avoidable complications. In this context, it is important to
resort to indigenous measures taken by the community for managing situations
like drought. Some of the indigenous measures adopted for dealing with drought
have been discussed as below:
 The nomadic Maldharis of Gujarat construct ‘Virdas’, which serve as a
means for water harvesting. They also dig shallow wells in low depressions,
which are called ‘Jheels’ to collect water.
 The ‘Kundis’ of Rajasthan are unique structures that look like huge concrete
sauces on the landscape. They are used for collecting rainwater to meet the
needs of the local people and animals.
 The ‘Kuis’ were found in Bikaner and Jaisalmer. These were kuchcha structures
dug near tanks to collect seepage and were usually covered with planks of
wood.
 Rajasthan also had ‘Rapats’ and ‘Tobas’ which were effective water harvesting
techniques.
 The Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh has been dependent on diversion channels
called ‘Khuls’ for irrigation for a long time. They have carried water from
glaciers to village.
 The ‘Khasis’ used to practice a ‘Bamboo Drip’ irrigation system. Maharashtra
had a ‘Phad’ system and Bihar had ‘Ahar’ and ‘Pynes’.
 ‘Palliyals’ or stream diversions were common in Kerala.
183
Cross-cutting Issues Check Your Progress 2
1) Bring out the indigenous early warning indicators during cyclones.
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2) Discuss the indigenous coping strategies.
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12.6 CONCLUSION
Indigenous knowledge or the traditional knowledge of a community is laden with
rich values and information on a potential disaster which is about to happen. Indigenous
knowledge, as discussed in this Unit, is the ability of the community to sense
possible disasters for which the inference is drawn from nature through various
indications, which is passed on to generations through experiences. Attention to
the voices and experiences of indigenous community is very important, if we are
to safeguard the people from disasters. Indigenous knowledge not only gives indications
of early warnings about a disaster, but is also helpful to know the coping strategies
adopted to deal with disaster situation. Accordingly, in this Unit, examples related
to cyclones and droughts have been discussed.
12.7 GLOSSARY
Taq System : “In the Taq system, large pieces of wood or
timber are used as horizontal runners embedded
into the masonry walls. These runners are located
at floor level and at the top of windows. These
runners tie together all of the elements of the
building or house and keep the entire structure
in concert, thus preventing spreading and
cracking of masonry. The runners are joined
together with small pieces of timber, giving the
shape of a ladder laid over a wall covering
two exterior faces of the wall” (UNECSO,
2002).
184
Dhajji-Dewari System : “In the Dhajji-Dewari system, timber frames Relevance of
for confining masonry in small parcels are used. Indigeneous
Knowledge
The timber frames, not only have vertical
elements, but also have cross members, which
divides the masonry infill into various small
panels. The most important characteristic of
this type of construction is the use of lean mud
mortar. A common practice in the region is to
use the Dhajji-Dewari system in the upper story
walls, especially for the gable portion of the
wall” (UNECSO, 2002).
12.8 REFERENCES
Agrawal, A. (1995). Dismantling the divide between Indigenous Knowledge and
Scientific Knowledge. Development Change. 26: 413-439.
Berkes, F. (2007). Understanding Uncertainty and Reducing Vulnerability: Lessons
from Resilience Thinking. Natural Hazards. 41: 283-295.
Flavier, JM. et al. (1995). The Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous
Knowledge in Asia. In Warren DM, Slikkerveer LJ and Brokensha D, (eds).
The Cultural Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge Systems.
London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Fletcher, SM., Thiessen, J, Gero, A., Rumsey, M., Kuruppu. & Willets, J. (2013).
Traditional Coping Strategies and Disaster Response: Examples from the South
Pacific Region. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. Retrieved from
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jeph/2013/264503/
Grenier L, 1998. Working With Indigenous Knowledge, A Guide for Researchers.
IDRC: Ottawa.
Howell, P. (2003). Indigenous Early Warning Indicators of Cyclones: Potential
Application of Coastal Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://www.preventionweb.net/
files/1529_workingpaper6.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA (2012). Training Manual on Disaster Preparedness and
Mitigation. New Delhi.
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR). (1996). Recording and using
Indigenous Knowledge: A Manual. Silang: Cavitc.
International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2008). Indigenous Knowledge
for Disaster Risk Reduction: Good Practices and Lessons learned from
experiences in the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangkok.
Jha, V. & Jha, A. (2011). Traditional Knowledge on Disaster Management: A
Preliminary Study of the Lepcha Community of Sikkim, India. Indian Journal of
Traditional Knowledge. 10(1): 173-182.
Kelman, I., Mercer, J., & Gaillard, J. C. (2012). Indigenous knowledge and disaster
risk reduction. Geography. 97(1): 12–21.
Misra, K. (2017). Indigenous Knowledge and Coping Mechanism Practices
for Disaster Management Practices for Disaster Management in Rajasthan
– Case Study. Unpublished thesis. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open University. 185
Disaster Management: Mercer, J., Kelman, I., Taranis, L., & Suchet, S. (2010). Framework for integrating
Cross-cutting Issues Indigenous and Scientific knowledge for disaster risk reduction. Disasters. 34(1):
214–239.
Pan American Health Orgnaisation, www. www.paho.org.
Rahman, A., Sakurai, A. & Munadi, K. (2016). Indigenous knowledge management
to enhance community resilience to tsunami risk: Lessons learned from Smong
traditions in Simeulue Island, Indonesia. Earth and Environmental Sciences,
56.
Rumbach, A. & Foley, D. (2014). Indigenous Institutions and their Role in Disaster
Risk Reduction and Resilience Evidence from the 2009 Tsunami in American Samoa.
Ecology and Society. 19(1):19.
Shaw, R. & Krishnamurthy, R.R. (2009). Disaster Management: Global Challenges
and Local Solutions. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Shaw, R. 2008. Indigenous Knowledge Disaster Risk Reduction: Policy Note.
Kyoto: Kyoto University.
The World Bank. (2005). Working Paper on Making five years of the World
Bank Indigenous Knowledge program. Washington.
UNESCO. 2002. Best Practice of Indigenous Knowledge. Paris: UNESCO.
United Nations. 2015. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015-
2030. Geneva: UNISDR.

EXERCISES
 Traditional knowledge is not only about the past experiences of the
community, but also helps a community to make a decision on what to
do and what not to do.
 It is a locally bound, indigenous to a specific area and communities;
culture and context specific; non-formal knowledge; orally transmitted,
and generally not documented; Dynamic and based on innovation adaptation,
and experimentation; and closely related to survival and subsistence for
many people worldwide.
 Integrating the traditional knowledge with scientific expertise is more
relevant in the modern times. Knowing and documenting the traditional
knowledge is not effective unless it is included in the disaster risk reduction
activities.
 SFDRR Framework.
 Technical Knowledge
186
 Environmental Knowledge Relevance of
Indigeneous
 Economic Knowledge Knowledge

 Weather patterns
 Sea/River patterns
 Animal behaviour and others
 Science time immemorial, traditional knowledge of the community has
been guiding the community members to develop their own coping
mechanism for the different disasters faced.
 Documentation of the traditional knowledge and coping strategies of
indigenous community can be beneficial to the people, as it can help in
minimising the loss of life or property, when a disaster strikes.
 Adopted coping strategies.
187
UNIT 13 COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER
MANAGEMENT*
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM): Key Aspects
13.2.1 Community and Community Based Organisations
13.2.2 Definitions of CBDM
13.2.3 Principles of CBDM
13.2.4 Difference between Traditional and CBDM Approach
13.3 Community Based Risk Assessment

13.3.1 Hazard Assessment
13.3.2 Vulnerability Assessment
13.3.3 Capacity Assessment
13.3.4 Tools for Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment
13.4 Community Based Disaster Management: Institutional Framework

13.5 Community Based Disaster Management Plan
13.6 Conclusion
13.7 Glossary
13.8 References
13.0 OBJECTIVES
 Explain the concept of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM);
 Discuss the issues related to Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment;
 Differentiate between the traditional approach and the CBDM approach;
 Describe the institutional framework of CBDM; and
 Discuss CBDM plans that are to be addressed in the pre, during and post
disaster phases.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is the bottom-up approach in
dealing with a disaster situation. In the initial years, top down approach was resorted
to, in dealing with a disaster situation, which mostly attempted ‘command’ and
‘control’ measures and neglected the participation of affected population both in
policy making and implementation. Such approach made the disaster response
188 IGNOU, New Delhi.
and rehabilitation measures ineffective and unsustainable. However, in the last Community Based
few decades, there has been the adoption of bottom-up approach, where a person Disaster Management
at the ground level, that is, the community is regarded as the key player. Any
effort that involves the community can help in achieving sustainability, particularly
in disaster risk reduction activities. The concept of Community Based Disaster
Management (CBDM) brings together the community and involves them in the
various phases of disaster risk reduction activities, viz., prevention, preparedness,
mitigation, response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. It creates opportunities
for the community to appraise local conditions and situation through their past
experiences. In this approach, local communities are part of making plans, arriving
at decisions and implementing the same. It can thus be stated that the sustainability
of any risk reduction programme completely depends upon the community involvement
and their active participation.
In this Unit, you will be introduced to the concept of Community Based Disaster
Management (CBDM) and community based risk assessment (CBRA), which
covers aspects such as hazard, vulnerability, risk and capacity assessment. It also
highlights the principles of CBDM and enumerates the differences between the
traditional approach and the CBDM approach. The Unit also covers the institutional
framework related to CBDM besides emphasising on the planning measures that
are to be considered in the pre, during and post-disaster phase.
13.2 COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER

MANAGEMENT (CBDM): KEY ASPECTS
13.2.1 Community and Community Based Organisations
As per Cambridge dictionary, a community is “the people living in one particular
area or people who are considered as a unit because of their common interests,
social groups or nationality”. They are the group of individuals and households
residing in a similar location. In the context of disaster risk reduction (DRR),
community is a set of people who are exposed to the same hazard. Communities
can identify their own vulnerability and they also make best decisions for their
well-being. However, as observed by the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), “in every community, knowledge, professional
abilities, and experience fashioned from adversity can be found, but seldom are
these resources called upon or fully utilised”. Thus, community has a major role
to play in managing the disasters and its role in disaster management becomes
pertinent because of the following reasons:
 The community comprising the people at the local level are the direct sufferers
of a disaster, irrespective of the fact that whether a disaster is severe or
mild; when a disaster strikes, they are the main stakeholders and they have
more to lose in the aftermath of a disaster;
 Community members are the first set of people to become vulnerable;
 The community has a lot to lose if they do not address their own vulnerability;
At the same time, they gain the most by reducing the impact of disasters on
their community.
In handling disasters, the community is thus put at the forefront, which has led to
the emergence of community based disaster management. Community can handle
a disaster situation in a better way, if they are organised as a group and they have 189
Disaster Management: various advantages, when their efforts are mobilised together. Organised effort of
Cross-cutting Issues a community is more beneficial because of various reasons, which include:
 Immense volunteering capacity of a community;
 Innate ability of the community to understand local needs;
 Increased awareness on the most vulnerable sections of their community;
 Built-in credibility with the local members;
 Access to remote social groups that generally do not have interaction with
government officials;
 Power of persuasion and community influence; and
 Ability to make decision outside the government processes.
As a result of all these reasons, community based organisations are effective instruments
to handle disaster situation. To put it in simple terms, Community Based Organisations
(CBOs) are organisations that are created by the people within the local community
which operates, monitors, and controls their own activities. These organisations
work without the interference of the government and private institutions. It includes
community members, elected Panchayati Raj representatives, village administrative/
development officer, women and youth collectives, Gram Sewak, Anganwadi
workers and self-help group members. As discussed earlier, they have tremendous
potential, not only in handling a disaster situation, but also in making disaster risk
assessment, which is discussed later in this Unit.
13.2.2 Definitions of CBDM

Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (2004) defines Community Based Disaster
Management (CBDM), as an approach that “seeks to actively engage at-risk
communities in the identification, analysis, implementation, monitoring and evacuation
of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities”.
In the Indian context, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) (2014)
states “where communities are equipped and prepared, disasters clearly have much
lesser impact, especially in terms of the loss of lives”. Further it regards CBDM
as an approach to “build the capacity of communities to assess their vulnerability
to both human induced and natural hazards and develop strategies and resources
necessary to prevent and/or mitigate the impact of identified hazards as well as
respond, rehabilitate, and reconstruct following its onset”. The International Institute
for Disaster Risk Management (IIDRM) views CBDM as “an approach that involves
direct participation of the people most likely to be exposed to hazards, in planning,
decision-making, and operational activities at all levels of disaster management
responsibility”.
The above definitions highlight the importance of communities in planning and
implementation of disaster risk management. Apparently the definitions also clarify
that it is important to enhance community capabilities, which will help in reducing
the vulnerabilities at grass root level. The knowledge, skills and attitude towards
a disaster situation at the local level will help the communities during disasters and
also increase the preparedness level.
13.2.3 Principles of CBDM

The following are the basic principles of CBDM:
190  Active participation: Active participation of the community is very important
for reducing disaster risk. When disaster risk reduction measures are community- Community Based
centric, the local champions take ownership in planning, implementation and Disaster Management
management of disaster reduction activities.
 Use of local resources and capacities: Interventions begin from locally available
and accessible resources, capacities and networks/partnerships. Utilisation
of all these aspects at the local level is an important principle to deal with a
disaster.
 Own choice and decision: Community should consider their choices and
decisions while engaging in disaster risk reduction.
 Capacitating community: DRR programmes should be community specific
and focus on increasing the capacity of the local level people.
 Attention to vulnerable groups: Special focus should be given to vulnerable
groups, so that their wellness and needs are taken care of in the pre, during
and post-disaster phases.
13.2.4 Difference between Traditional and CBDM

Approach
With the introduction of CBDM practices, disaster management activities have
become effective, as the attention is towards people and addressing their vulnerabilities.
The traditional approach was mostly insensitive to local needs and it did not help
much in reducing disaster impacts. The following are the major differences between
traditional and CBDM approach.
S.No Traditional Approach CBDM Approach

1 It’s a victim or receiver It is an active participatory approach
oriented approach
2. People are considered as People are active participants in rebuilding their lives
helpless victims and livelihoods.
3. People are recipient and People’s capacities are built and developed through
totally dependent on external their active participation. It maintains the
aid sustainability of the development programmes.
4. Need and damage assessment Need and damage assessment done with community
done by external participation. It provides the realistic picture of the
people/experts assessment.
5. It focuses on technical It focuses on assisting communities to address their
solution and material aid vulnerabilities so that the short-term aid get replaced
by long-term development.
6. Focus on individual Focuses on strengthening community and their
household structure. It enhances the sustainability of the DRR
measures and also integrates the society and its
resources
7. Disaster management is Disaster management is considered as community
considered as a relief awareness and sensitisation, community participation
provided to the community and mainstreaming DRR into socio-economic,
political and development initiatives.
Source: ADPC, 2014.
191
Cross-cutting Issues 13.3 COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK
ASSESSMENT (CBDRA)
Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment (CBDRA) is a systematic way to
identify and assess the hazard, vulnerability and capacity at the local level. According
to ADPC, “community risk assessment is a participatory process of determining
the nature, scope and magnitude of negative effects (due to hazards), which can
be anticipated during a specified period and be reduced by employing local capacities”.
The nature of a disaster is unique and distinct and each disaster makes different
impact on the society. For instance, earthquakes damage lives, houses and critical
infrastructure; whereas cyclone affects houses, livelihood and other related matters.
Hence, assessment of the hazard, risk, vulnerability and capacity (HRVC) of the
village with the help of community will increase the coping capacity of the local
people and also augment the local resources. In the following section, we will
discuss about the key issues of community based disaster risk assessment.
13.3.1 Hazard Assessment

Hazard assessment makes an evaluation of the nature of the hazard at the community
level. This analysis is done by the community members to identify potential risks
and hazards in their villages and identify the appropriate measures to bring resilience
to the society. In general, this kind of assessment tries to find answers to the
following:
 What is the nature and intensity of hazards present in a specific area?
 What are the elements at risk?
 What can be the possible extent of loss caused by these hazards?
 What is the duration of these hazards and how can they interact with each
other to pose compound threat?
The major tools of the hazard assessment are village hazard maps, historical profile
of the place and the seasonal calendar. In this exercise, the communities assess
the existing hazards, its nature and frequency in their area and identify the most
vulnerable place or group in that village.
13.3.2 Vulnerability Assessment

Most of the hazards turn disastrous because of the vulnerability of the community
and the unpreparedness of the community. Vulnerability assessment measures the
extent to which people are or infrastructure is likely to get affected from hazards.
In other words, it is “the analysis of the vulnerability of various sectors that are
exposed to the natural hazards identified in the hazard analysis exercises. The
sectors include social, livelihood, economic, physical assets, agriculture, political
and administration” (DMTP, 1994). It is a process to determine what elements
are at risk and analyse the factors behind why these elements are at risk? This
assessment is not at all possible without the active participation of the people
because they are the ones, who know their field very well. The following are the
two stage consequence of vulnerability assessment to hazards (IGNOU, MPA
007):
1) Making inventory of what element is at risk:
192 Once the hazard is identified in the particular village it is necessary to find out the
possibility of damage that can be caused by the hazard. The data on the following Community Based
elements are required during the vulnerability assessment. Disaster Management
 Population: Age, gender and health

 Livelihoods: Types and locations
 Local economy
 Agriculture and fishery
 Buildings and infrastructure
 Cultural assets (Library, museums and heritage buildings)
 Local institutions.
2) Assessing the vulnerability of elements at risk:
Once the required information has been collected, it is necessary to identify how
the elements will be affected by hazards to make accurate assessments of the
risk. The analysis of the socio-vulnerability factors will provide the coping mechanism
to the community members.
13.3.3 Capacity Assessment

As per UNISDR, “Capacity is the combination of all the strengths and resources
available within a community, society or organisation that can reduce the level of
risk or the effects of a disaster”. ADPC states that “Capacity assessment is the
process to determine what people do in times of crisis to reduce the damaging
effects of the hazard, and to secure the sustainability of their livelihood by: understanding
people’s previous experiences with hazards that enables them to develop coping
strategies; analysing which resources are available and used by the community to
reduce risk; and assessing who has access to these resources and who control
them”. The Capacity can be classified into the following categories: economic
capacity, physical capacity, social capacity and natural and climatic resources.
13.3.4 Tools for Community Based Disaster Risk

Assessment
Participatory Risk Assessment tools are used to collect information from the community
about the existing risk status of the village. For such an assessment, it is not
necessary to have a particular, technical expertise, but what is needed is only the
local knowledge of the community. This approach helps to conduct the base line
survey of the village, which would help in resolving the conflict resolution through
more interaction. The following are the Participatory Risk Assessment (PRA) Tools:
 Historical profiling
 Risk mapping
 Seasonal calendar
 Transect walk
 Institutional analysis
 Gender mapping
 Livelihood and existing coping strategies
 Disaster ranking
193
Cross-cutting Issues Check Your Progress 1
1) Define Community and Community Based Organisations.
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2) List the major principles of Community Based Disaster Management.
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3) Discuss Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment.
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4) Bring out the difference between Traditional and CBDM Approaches.
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MANAGEMENT: INSTITUTIONAL
FRAMEWORK
Community involvement in disaster management has been stressed both by the
Disaster Management Act and the National Disaster Management Authority, which
state that only when community initiatives are integrated with the local institutions,
state policies and practices, the CBDM measures can be effectively implemented.
The NDMA in 2014 came up with the CBDM guidelines discussing the CBDM
institutional framework. It observes that the institutional framework of CBDM
should be grounded on the principles of participation, social inclusion, equity and
decentralised governance. In general, CBDM institutional framework is important
for various reasons:
194
 Firstly, the CBDM institutional framework helps in having clarity on the nature Community Based
and forms of institutions that exist at the ground level; Disaster Management
 Secondly, it creates linkage between community and government institutions,

which helps in better coordination and action;
 Thirdly, the framework would help the government and civil society to facilitate
the formation and functioning of community organisations; and
 Finally, the framework serves as a mechanism to monitor and evaluate the
functioning of community based institutions and processes.
The NDMA’s CBDM guidelines also enumerated the principles of community
based disaster management institutional framework, which are as follows:
 The CBDM institutional framework must consider the local communities as
active actors, rather than passive victims;
 Community should be considered the centre of all disaster management activities,
right from planning, disaster response, disaster mitigation, etc.;
 CBDM institutional framework should be sensitive to the needs of different
communities viz., people belonging to different social groups, disabled, women,
elderly and other marginalised, etc., as they are at greater risk;
 The CBDM institutional framework should analyse the local risk patterns
and trends, as disaster is not an isolated event, but stems from the concerns
related to development, environment management and human behaviour;
 The CBDM institutional framework has to work in coordination with external
supportive and facilitative institutions without losing its autonomy and thus
shall function on the spirit of voluntarism and collaboration.
Source: NDMA, 2014.
195
Disaster Management: The CBDM institutional framework emphasises decentralised planning and management
Cross-cutting Issues at the district, sub-district and village level and insists that there should be both
horizontal and vertical links at all levels. Thus, disaster risk reduction strategies
and issues could be mainstreamed in the development planning process, if there
are proper linkages with all institutions at all levels, as depicted in the diagram,
both at the rural and urban level.

MANAGEMENT PLAN
It is important to plan well ahead for managing disasters, as it is helpful to prevent
major losses in terms of life, livelihood, property, etc. Further, CBDM plans are
also helpful as it contains details on the vulnerabilities, potential hazards that can
hit a place, mechanism that are in place to deal with a disaster immediately. The
following section discusses about the community based disaster management plan,
which can be made in various phases of a disaster, viz., pre, during and post-
disaster.
CBDM Plan in Pre-disaster Phase
The planning process in the pre-disaster phase can cover the following:
 Community orientation: The plan can have measures towards community
orientation, wherein the community can be briefed on the nature and effect
of a disaster and their vulnerabilities;
 Stock-taking of resources: Stock-taking of the resources within their village
or locality is important in the pre-disaster phase. Such stock-taking of the
condition of schools, health centres, cyclone shelters, communication facilities,
conditions of roads and infrastructure, etc., can help the community to take
quick decisions when a disaster actually strikes;
 Risk and vulnerability assessment: Assessing the risks and vulnerabilities
of the community is another important aspect of planning in the pre-disaster
phase. It is important to take stock of the elements at risk, viz., area, physical
structures, economic assets, etc. and people at risk, viz., children, women,
disabled, elderly, etc., so that preparedness measures are appropriately planned;
 Formulation of preparedness plan: Formulating preparedness plan at the
community level is very crucial in the pre-disaster phase. This takes into
cognisance the community needs; clarifies measures to be taken by the community
before, during and after the disaster strikes; gives idea of resources available
at various places; specifies the roles and responsibilities of concerned officials,
departments, Panchayati Raj Institutions, NGOs, CBOs, etc. A properly
prepared plan facilitates the community to effectively execute the plan.
During Disaster
Following measures are to be taken into consideration, while planning for this
phase of disaster management:
 Organising search, rescue and evacuation activities: This includes identifying
the disaster victims, bringing them to safer places, providing first-aid, distributing
relief, adhering to evacuation plan, etc.
196  Providing shelter to people and livestock: While the place of shelter for
people and livestock is pre-planned, plan should be made for other arrangements Community Based
to be taken care of in the shelter, which include water supply, sanitation, Disaster Management
kitchens, fodder for animals, medical services, first-aid, etc.
 Debris clearance and dead body identification: Clearing of debris from
collapsed buildings, bridges, trees, other structures, etc., and disposing of
dead humans and livestock is a major concern in the ‘ during disaster phase’,
which has be to planned appropriately, if the spread of disease and further
health and environmental impact is to be contained.
 Damage assessment: Assessing damages immediately on the occurrence of
disaster facilitates quick emergency relief. This is to be done with reference
to the number of households, population, livestock, area affected, etc.
Post-disaster Phase
The CBDM plan in the post-disaster phase covers the following:
 Detailed damage assessment: Undertaking a detailed damage assessment
is very important in the post disaster phase, as this is helpful to know the
magnitude of loss both in terms of lives and other damages like infrastructure,
damage to crops and the estimated value.
 Preparation of rehabilitation plan: Drawing up a comprehensive economic
rehabilitation plan is necessary, which can include measures for restoration
of agricultural activity through necessary inputs, rehabilitation of artisans, marginal,
small scale and business people, those pursuing other occupations, replacement
of cattle, agricultural and other equipment, boats, fishing nets etc.
 Social rehabilitation: The post-disaster plan should ensure social rehabilitation
through strengthening of existing health centres, schools, anganwadis, community
centres, vocational training centres, psychological counselling to the affected
to enable them get back to their normal routine.
 Monitoring of CBDM: It is important to build an appropriate monitoring
and evaluation mechanism in community-based disaster management programme.
This is needed to facilitate proper utilisation and implementation of resources.
1) Discuss the Institutional Framework of CBDM.
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2) Write a short note on the Post-Disaster Phase of CBDM.
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197
Cross-cutting Issues .............................................................................................................
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13.6 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have covered an important topic, that is, community based disaster
management. As discussed earlier, the role of the community is very vital especially
in dealing with a disaster situation, as the community members are the first set of
people, who would get affected when a disaster strikes and who is immediately
available for help and whose help matters a lot in preventing huge loss of life and
property. Understanding the importance of the critical role of the community, both
at the national and international forum, CBDM has been highlighted as crucial
measure to bring resilience in a community. The Unit also introduced the principles
of CBDM, apart from highlighting the difference between the traditional and CBDM
approach, where there was the shift from the top-down to the bottom up approach.
Institutional framework and planning for CBDM was also covered in this Unit,
which discussed the importance of integrating different stakeholders at the local
level and the need to consider various disaster related aspects in the pre, during
and post-disaster phase.
13.7 GLOSSARY
Disaster Risk : The UN defines it as “the conceptual framework
of elements considered with the possibilities
to minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks
throughout a society, to avoid (prevention),
or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the
adverse impact of hazards, within the broad
context of sustainable development.
Participatory Rural : PRA originally stood for Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) Appraisal, but its applications are in many other
contexts besides rural and good practice is
far more than just appraisal. It enables others
to do their own appraisal, analysis, planning
and action, to own the outcome and to share
the knowledge. The target group could be local;
rural or urban concerning people, women, men
or old, or members of an organisation or group.
13.8 REFERENCES
Arnstein. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute
of Planner. 35(4): 216–224.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC). (2014). Hand Book on Community
Based Disaster Risk Management. Bangkok, Thailand.
DMTP. (2004). Vulnerability and Risk Assessment. Retrieved from https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/209803485_Vulnerability_and_Risk_Assessment
198
IGNOU. (2006). Disaster Management, MPA-018. New Delhi: Faculty of Public Community Based
Administration, Indira Gandhi National Open University. Disaster Management
IGNOU. (2006). Disaster Preparedness, MPA-004. New Delhi: Faculty of Public

Administration, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
IGNOU. (2006). Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery, MPA-007. New
Delhi: Faculty of Public Administration, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
IGNOU. (2012). Training Manual on Conceptual and Institutional Framework
of Disaster Management. New Delhi.
Kafle & Murshed. (2006). Community-Based Disaster Risk Management for
Local Authorities: Participant’s Workbook. Thailand: Asian Disaster Preparedness
Center.
Maskrey, Andrew. (1989). Disaster Mitigation: A Community-based Approach.
Oxford: Oxfam.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). (2014). National Disaster
Management Guidelines on Community Based Disaster Management. New
Delhi.
Patterson, O., Weil, F. & Patel, K. (2010). The Role of Community in Disaster
Response: Conceptual Models. Population Research and Policy Review. 29:
127-141.
Shaw, R. (2014). Kobe earthquake: Turning point of community based risk reduction
in Japan. In R. Shaw (Ed.), Community Practices for Disaster Risk Reduction
in Japan. Tokyo: Springer.
Shaw, R. 2012. Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction. West Yarhshire:
Emerald Publishing.
United Nation International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). (2009).
Local governments and disaster risk reduction: Good practices and lessons
learned. Geneva: United Nations.

EXERCISES
 Community comprises of the people at the local level and they are the
first set of people to become vulnerable;
 The community comprising of the people at the local level are the direct
sufferers of a disaster, irrespective of the fact that whether a disaster is
severe or mild. When a disaster strikes, they are the main stakeholders
and they have more to lose in the aftermath of a disaster.
 Community Based Organisations are organisations that are created by
the people within the local community which operates, monitors and
controls their own activities. 199
Disaster Management:  These organisations works without the interference of the government
Cross-cutting Issues and private institutions. It includes community members, elected
Panchayati Raj Representatives, village administrative/development officer,
women and youth collectives, gram sewak, anganwadi workers and
self help group members.
 Active participation
 Use of local resources and capacities
 Own choice and decision
 Capacitating community
 Attention to vulnerable groups
 Community Based Risk Assessment (CBRA) helps to collect the base
line survey of the village, which would help in resolving the conflict resolution
through more interaction.
 Participatory Risk Assessment Tools: Historical Profiling ; Risk Mapping;
Seasonal Calendar; Transect Walk; Institutional Analysis; Gender Mapping;
Livelihood and existing coping strategies; and Disaster Ranking .
4) Your Answer should include the following points:
 Traditional approach was mostly insensitive to local needs and it did
not help much in reducing disaster impacts.
 CBDM approach focuses on assisting communities to address their
vulnerabilities. So that the short term aid replaced by long term development.
 CBDM institutional framework helps in having clarity on the nature and
forms of institutions that exist at the ground level.
 Linkage of community with government institutions, which helps in better
coordination and action.
 It would help the government and civil society to facilitate the formation
and functioning of community organisations; and
 It serves as a mechanism to monitor and evaluate the functioning of
community based institutions and processes.
 NDMA’s CBDM framework.
 Detailed Damage Assessment
 Preparing Rehabilitation Plan
 Social rehabilitation
 Monitoring of CBDM.
200
UNIT 14 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES*
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Evolving Disaster Managemet Strategies: Identifying the Problems
14.3 Scholarly Perspectives on Disaster Management Strategies
14.4 International and National Strategies for Disaster Management
14.4.1 Disaster Management Strategies: International Measures
14.4.1.1 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
14.4.1.2 Yokohama Strategy for Disaster Reduction
14.4.1.3 Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction
14.4.1.4 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
14.4.2 Disaster Management Strategies: Indian Context
14.5 Conclusion
14.6 Glossary
14.7 References
14.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the problems involved in management of a disaster situation;
 Understand the scholarly perspectives of the disaster management strategies;
and
 Explain the disaster management strategies adopted at the international and
National levels.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the previous Units, disasters have been of wider repercussions
on the society leading to huge losses and damages and this scenario is a global
phenomenon. Across the borders, the disaster impact has been increasing day-
by-day. Extreme weather conditions, population growth, unplanned urbanisation,
demographic changes and increasing pressure on natural resources are the major
factors for the disaster losses. As reported by the Centre for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), the disaster losses in India has been enormous
in the last 20 years, which is around 20 billion US dollars (CRED & UNISDR,
2018). In such a scenario, where the disasters are making huge setback on
development, it is important to reflect on whether disasters can be avoided or
Disaster Management: not? With the adoption of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
Cross-cutting Issues
(IDNDR) convention since the 1990s, the way disaster has been looked at has
changed worldwide. The relief-oriented approach changed into risk-reduction
approach. With the change in approach, the focus was more towards adopting
strategies that can help in disaster reduction. Thus, disaster management strategies
focused on various components like improving the capacities of community, adopting
prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures, etc.
While the previous Units acquainted you with the basic concepts and components
of disaster management, this Unit introduces you to some of the international strategies
and frameworks related to disaster management. Some of the key disaster management
strategies discussed in this Unit include Yokohoma strategy, IDNDR framework
and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. It also discusses
the scholarly views on disaster management strategies besides elaborating the strategies
for disaster management adopted in India.
14.2 EVOLVING DISASTER MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES: IDENTIFYING THE
PROBLEMS
Before the disaster management strategies could be evolved, it is important to
reflect on the problems that the strategies are trying to address. Thus, clarity is
needed on the kind of challenges or problems that has to be addressed, as the
disaster management measures cannot remain too confused, because it involves
large number of lives and huge amount of property. Some of the challenges that
are to be focused upon include the following:
 Gaps in Policies and Practice: Though disaster management strategies and
measures are formulated by emergency managers or government, there exists
a huge gap between the policy formulated and policy implemented. Hence, it
is important to address policy failures. Guidelines should be formulated in a
more realistic and responsible manner. Further, gaps that exist in implementation
due to administrative failure should also be rectified, which would otherwise
lead to negative effects in the mitigation of disasters. In addition, McConnell
and Drennan (2006) identify the following tensions between the ideals and
practices of disaster management:
o High potential impact of crisis vs. the low priority of emergency management;
o Need for planning and order vs. the chaotic uncertainty and the inherent
disorder of crisis events;
o Need for an integrated approach vs. the reality of institutional fragmentation;
and
o Need for active planning and genuine readiness vs. symbolic readiness.
 Corrupt Practices: One of the major problems faced in disaster management
is the high level of corruption involved in the phase of relief and recovery,
which needs to be addressed, while planning the strategies. As highlighted by
Grist (2007), there is certain element in the community which always attempts
to profit from the misfortune of others or the outpouring of assistance from
relief organisations. Hence, the strategies for disaster management should
202
also ensure that such corrupt practices are prevented.
 Lack of Situational Awareness and Analysis: Another major problem faced Disaster
is the lack of situational awareness and analysis. Without having proper Management
Strategies
understanding of the implications of a particular disaster situation, different
approaches are followed which lead to delay in the process of disaster resilience.
Hence, the disaster strategies should be based on a thorough knowledge of
disaster situation and suggest relevant measures for different disasters.
 Centralised Approach: One of the crucial problems is that the emergency
management measures have become more response-oriented and less
collaborative, besides being more centralised. Centralised decision processes
cause delays in approving and dispatching disaster assistance and greatly
complicate communication between and among various stakeholders in disaster
management. This creates serious communication problems between and among
local, state, and federal officials, apart from creating communication gap among
the emergency responders (Waugh 2006). The disaster strategy, thus, has to
adopt flexible measures in terms of having decentralised measures, wherever
possible, apart from ensuring coordination among various levels.
 Lack of Coordination: Even if collaborative arrangements are established,
there remains lack of coordination among the players and various governmental,
non-governmental and local agencies. All these players become much rigid in
their own perspective. Thus, the strategies adopted by them become piece-
meal measures, rather than following an integrated approach. Grist (2007)
suggests that the elected representatives of the community should be encouraged
to assume the role of integrators and preservers of the vision of the common
good.
All such problems referred to above are only the tip of the ice berg. Such understanding
of the problems involved in disaster management helps in evolving effective strategies
and arriving at a comprehensive mechanism for dealing with it.
14.3 SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVES ON

DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
In dealing with a disaster situation, different strategies are suggested by different
scholars and at different forums at the international level. A comprehensive definition
of disaster management has been given by the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR, 2009), by referring to disaster risk management
as a “systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational
skills, and capacities to implement policies, strategies, and coping capacities of
the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related
environmental and technological disasters”. However, a comprehensive strategy
at the global level may not be an umbrella framework suitable for all regions. The
local knowledge and indigenous thoughts should be pooled in, to design a region
specific disaster management strategy.
Canton’s strategy in dealing with emergencies is the response methodology and
presence of principal agent. Canton’s formulation of crisis hierarchy model suggests
usage of Multi-Agency Coordination System as a response methodology and State
and local governments as Principal Agents (Canton, 2007).
According to Kapucu and Van Mart (2006), ‘innovative problem solving, horizontal
adaptation, collaboration, relationships based on trust, better public sector leadership,
decentralised decision making and intensive human interaction are critical for the 203
Disaster Management: success of disaster responses’. To this effect, it is of greater help to refer to the
Cross-cutting Issues general strategies identified by Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering
Research (MCEER). It comprises four such general strategies that can be applied
in handling any kind of disaster. These are (Kapucu, 2005):
i) Robustness – ability to withstand the forces generated by a hazard agent
without loss or significant deterioration of function;
ii) Resourcefulness – capacity to apply material, information, and human resources
to remedy disruptions when they occur;
iii) Redundancy – the extent to which elements, systems, or other units of analysis
exist that are capable of satisfying the performance requirements of a social
unit in the event of loss or disruption that threaten functionality; and
iv) Rapidity – the ability to contain losses and restore system or other units in a
timely manner.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA, 2003) of the United States
has also identified few strategies in managing emergencies that include, concentrating
on the core set of functions to be performed at the time of disasters; besides,
other aspects in general to be taken care of. The set of core functions that is to
be provided by emergency management personnel at the time of disasters includes
the following:
 Direction and control;
 Communications;
 Warning;
 Emergency public information;
 Evacuation or in-place sheltering;
 Mass care;
 Health and medical; and
 Resource management.
Apart from this, FEMA has also provided a set of aspects that are required to be
followed by emergency managers. These are: Hazard identification and risk assessment;
Hazard mitigation; Resource management; Planning; Direction and control;
Communication and warning; Operations and procedures; Logistics and facilities;
Training; Exercises, evaluations, and corrective actions; Public education and
information; and Finance and administration.
Kris Teutsch (2010) highlights the need for looking into the following capabilities
and benefits, in planning disaster strategies:
 Optimised Situational Awareness: Real time communication, data management
and data transmission helps in presenting a full picture of the disaster situation;
 Interoperable, Collaborative Environment: Information flow across all levels
and all types of boundaries can help the responders to save more lives and
deal with disasters in a better manner;
 Support for Mobile and Web-based Access: In a digital world, which is
204
driven by technology, all components and people are connected in fixed and Disaster
field location though different digital devices. Hence, mobile and web-based Management
Strategies
access in handling disaster situation can help in handling disaster situation.
For instance, during the Kerala floods of 2018, through the mobile and web-
based access and portals, support was offered both in terms of mobilising
fund for relief and also in identifying the victims who are in need of relief
measures.
Thus, though the strategies to deal with disasters can have a comprehensive outlook,
it should also have flexibility to make necessary changes based on the local context
and challenges faced.
1) Highlight the problems involved in disaster management.
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2) Discuss the scholarly perspectives on disaster management strategies.
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14.4 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL

STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
14.4.1 Disaster Management Strategies: International
Measures
At the international level, various strategies and guidelines were given to deal with
disaster situations. Some of the key strategies right from the IDNDR of the 1990s
to the recently initiated Sendai framework have been discussed here.
14.4.1.1 International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
To prevent the adverse effects and impacts of natural disasters, 1990s was declared
as the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’, by the United Nations
General Assembly on December 11, 1987. The United Nations adopted a resolution
on 22nd day of December 1989 that stated “to reduce through concerted international 205
Disaster Management: action, the loss of life and disruption caused by natural disasters”. Thus, the United
Cross-cutting Issues Nations set up a decade’s goal with focus on improving the capacity of the developing
countries to mitigate the effects of natural disasters. The resolution also sought
the developing nations to design guidelines and strategies for applying existing
scientific and technical knowledge (United Nations, 1989).
Some of the key strategies that were suggested by the IDNDR for the participating
nations and member countries included the following:
 Planning and implementation of disaster management measures at the national
level;
 Integration of disaster prevention policies with the development programmes;
 Laying emphasis on community preparedness by way of education and training
on the significance of preparedness, prevention, relief and recovery;
 Emphasising the developing nations to pay substantial attention to the social
and economic infrastructure and concentrate on providing human shelters
and proper health care facilities to mitigate the vulnerabilities at the time of
disasters (Ibid.).
14.4.1.2 Yokohama Strategy for Disaster Reduction
In order to undertake a mid-term review of the resolution of International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), a World Conference on Natural Disaster
Reduction was held in May 1994, at Yokohama, Japan. In this conference, the
Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World was adopted. In general,
this Strategy played a significant role in motivating the developing countries in
changing its relief oriented approach to the one based on mitigation and prevention.
Each member country in the Conference agreed to work towards protecting its
people, infrastructure, and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters.
The member countries thus agreed to adhere to the principles or strategies enumerated
by the conference, which included the following (UNISDR, 1994):
 come to an agreement that, Risk assessment is the major step for adoption
of successful disaster reduction policies and measures and disaster prevention
and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need for disaster
relief;
 consider disaster preparedness and prevention as an integral aspect in planning
the development policies at the international, national, regional, bilateral and
multilateral levels;
 consider development and strengthening of capacity to prevent, reduce and
mitigate disasters as a top priority;
 consider early warning of impending disasters and the dissemination of information
using telecommunication and other broadcasting services as a key factor for
successful disaster prevention and preparedness;
 promote participation at all levels, from the local, regional, national and
international for the preventive measures and reduce vulnerability by the
application of proper designs and planning by focusing on target groups by
way of education and training;
 provide free access to necessary technology to prevent and mitigate disasters
206
and promote the acceptance of international community to use it in a timely Disaster
manner as an integral part of technical cooperation; Management
Strategies
 consider environmental protection in consistent with poverty alleviation as an
important component in preventing and mitigating natural disasters.
Thus, through risk reduction strategies, the varying impact of disasters can be
considerably reduced, if not eliminated. Though these were emphasised upon by
the Yokohama Strategy, yet these could not be taken up as sufficient to cope up
with the multiplying challenges of disasters. An analysis of the Yokohama Strategy
reveals gaps and challenges in the domains of governance, risk identification,
assessment and monitoring, knowledge management, reduction of risk factors and
preparedness for effective response and recovery (UNISDR, 2005).
14.4.1.3 Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction
The gaps identified in the Yokohama Strategy were addressed in the World Conference
on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan in 2005 (it is popularly referred
to as Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction). It was held on the hypothesis
that a more comprehensive approach is needed for proper management of disasters.
The Hyogo Framework of Action and Hyogo Declaration set out a result-oriented
plan of action or strategy for the next decade from 2005-2015, which included
the following:
 Effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development
policies, planning and programming at all levels with emphasis on disaster
prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction;
 Strengthening of institutions, and capacities at all levels, especially at the
community level;
 In the context of increasing global interdependence, concerted international
cooperation and an enabling international environment are required to stimulate
and contribute to developing the knowledge, capacities and motivation needed
for disaster risk reduction at all levels;
 A gender perspective should be integrated into all disaster risk management
policies, plans and decision-making processes, including those related to risk
assessment, early warning, information management, and education and training;
 Disaster-prone developing countries, especially least developed countries and
small island developing States, should be given particular attention in view of
their higher vulnerability and risk levels, which often greatly exceed their capacity
to respond to and recover from disasters;
 There is also a need for proactive measures, bearing in mind that the phases
of relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction following a disaster are windows
of opportunity for the rebuilding of livelihoods and for the planning and
reconstruction of physical and socio-economic structures, in a way that will
build community resilience and reduce vulnerability to future disaster risks;
 An integrated, multi-hazard approach to disaster risk reduction should be
factored into policies, planning and programming related to sustainable
development, relief, rehabilitation, and recovery activities in post-disaster and
post-conflict situations in disaster-prone countries (UNISDR, 2005).
207
Disaster Management: Though the Hyogo Framework provided new measures to deal with disaster
Cross-cutting Issues management, it lacked innovation in it. It seemed to be an old wine in a new
bottle. Repeatedly the issues of prevention, preparedness, mitigation and recovery,
occupy the central theme in all the three frameworks, viz., IDNDR, Yokohama
Strategy and the Hyogo Framework. Nevertheless, the three frameworks are landmark
initiatives at the international level, reinforcing the developing countries for favourable
response, towards a disaster free world.
14.4.1.4 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
During the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction
held in Sendai, Japan, in June 2015, the “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction” was adopted. It was the first major agreement of the post-2015
development agenda, with four priorities of action and seven targets.
The four priorities for action under the Sendai Framework include:
Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk – Disaster risk management should be
based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability,
capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment.
Such knowledge can be used for risk assessment, prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and response.
Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk
– Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is very important
for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation. It
fosters collaboration and partnership.
Priority 3: Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction for resilience – Public and
private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and
non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and
cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as
the environment.
Priority 4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to
“Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction – The
growth of disaster risk means there is a need to strengthen disaster preparedness
for response, take action in anticipation of events, and ensure capacities are in
place for effective response and recovery at all levels. The recovery, rehabilitation
and reconstruction phase is a critical opportunity to build back better, including
through integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures (UNISDR,
2015).
The strategy adopted by the Sendai Framework is to focus on the seven “global
targets”, which include:
1) Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the
average per 100,000 global mortality rate in the decade 2020–2030 compared
to the period 2005– 2015;
2) Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming
to lower the average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020–2030
compared to the period 2005–2015;
3) Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic
product (GDP) by 2030;
208
4) Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption Disaster
of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through Management
Strategies
developing their resilience by 2030;
5) Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster
risk reduction strategies by 2020;
6) Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through
adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for
implementation of the present Framework by 2030;
7) Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning
system and disaster risk information and assessments to people by 2030
(ibid).
However, in spite of all such strategies, frameworks and their guidance, managing
a disaster does not appear to be an easy task, because of multiple issues and
complexities involved in it. Most of the time, the mismanagement of disaster is
mainly due to the poor handling of disaster events by the disaster managers or the
government or sometimes the victims themselves, who pay least attention to the
warnings issued.
14.4.2 Disaster Management Strategies: Indian Context

Evolving disaster management strategies in the Indian context has been in practice
since age old times, as disasters have been a regular phenomenon (For more
details on Disaster Management in India, refer Unit-5). In earlier times, adoption
of systematic strategy to deal with disasters, has been found in Arthashashtra
written by Kautilya in the period of 321 to 296 BC. This treatise on Statecraft is
a book of rules, which could be enforced by law by the king and along with other
rules, rules for dealing with disaster situation have been specified.
In contemporary times, the strategy adopted by India to deal with disaster was
mostly reactive rather than being proactive. In recent times, with repeated emphasis
by International forums, the strategy of India has changed. Thus, there has been
a widespread awareness about the impact of disasters and India has started taking
proactive measures to mitigate disasters. The Declaration of International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction in 1989, made the country to realise the importance
of disaster management. However, the efforts of India towards disaster management
were proceeding at a slow pace. With the Yokohama Strategy of 1994, the disaster
management efforts picked up momentum and after the Hyogo framework of 2005,
India has engaged in full-fledged measures to mitigate disaster.
Apart from such international efforts, the disasters that happened continuously at
the national level since 1993; the Latur Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994),
the Orissa Super Cyclone (1999), Bhuj Earthquake (2001), Indian Ocean Tsunami
(2004), Kosi Floods (2008), Uttrakhand Floods (2013), Cyclones and Floods in
Chennai and Kerala (2018) etc., were responsible for the quick reaction of India.
The High Powered Committee on Disaster Management was constituted in August
1999, under the chairmanship of Shri J.C.Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India. This was a first attempt in India towards framing a systematic,
comprehensive and holistic approach towards disasters. After that India had enacted
the Disaster Management Act in 2005 and also established the National Disaster
Management Authority in the same year, that is, 2005. In addition, the Disaster
Management Policy was formulated in 2009. It was followed by the formulation 209
Disaster Management: of the National Disaster Management Plan in 2016. The State Governments are
Cross-cutting Issues also in the process of setting up State and District Disaster Management Authorities.
The provisions of the Act relevant to the States/UTs have been brought into force
with effect from 1st August 2007. Almost all States are reported to have constituted
the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) (Kanal, 2013).
The National Disaster Management Plan 2016 has been created based on the
goals and priorities set out by the Sendai framework. The vision of the document
is to “Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction,
and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets – economic,
physical, social, cultural, and environmental – by maximising the ability to
cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities”
(Government of India, 2016).
Thus, in the Indian context, it can be stated that the strategy adopted mostly aims
at setting the institutional structure and enumerating the provisions for dealing with
disaster situation. However, in terms of implementation, India still needs to adopt
firm strategies. However, it cannot be denied that the institutional structure of the
disaster management in India has been strengthened. Further, the focus also has
shifted to risk reduction and capacity enhancement.
1) Discuss various features of Yokohama Strategy and Hyogo Framework.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) List out the priorities and global targets of Sendai framework.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
14.5 CONCLUSION
On the whole, the attempt has been made in this Unit to sensitise you about the
disaster management strategies. It summarised the challenges that are to be identified
and acted upon even before framing the strategies. In addition, the Unit also brought
forth the scholarly views on disaster management strategies as put forward by
different scholars and also international forums. Various disaster management strategies,
both at the international level and in the Indian context, have also been highlighted,
whereby it can be observed that there has been shift in focus from managing
disasters to dealing with disaster risks. Thus, the shift from reactive to proactive
approach that was seen in various forums such as UNISDR, Yokohama strategy,
Hyogo and Sendai Framework, etc., was discussed, besides referring to the strategies
210 adopted in India.
Disaster
14.6 GLOSSARY Management
Strategies
Principal-Agent : The principal–agent problem, in political science
and economics, occurs when one person or
entity is able to make decisions and/or take
actions on behalf of, or that impact, another
person or entity: the “principal” (Wikipedia).
FEMA : It is called as a Federal Emergency Management
Agency in USA. FEMA (Federal Emergency
Management Agency) mission is to support
the citizens and first responders to promote
that as a nation we work together to build,
sustain, and improve our capability to prepare
for, protect against, respond to, recover from,
and mitigate all hazards (www.fema.gov).
14.7 REFERENCES
Canton, L.G. (2007). Emergency management: concepts and strategies for effective
Programs. New Jersey, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
CRED & UNISDR. (2018). Economic losses, Poverty & Disasters. Retrieved
from https://www.unisdr.org/2016/iddr/CRED_Economic%20Losses_10oct_final.pdf
FEMA. (2003). IS 230 - Principles of Emergency Management. Retrieved from
http://www.training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/is230lst.asp
Grist, R. E. (2007). The Changing paradigm of emergency management: Improving
professional development for the emergency manager - Doctoral Thesis. Retrieved
from http://www.training.fema.gov/emiweb/edu/docs/Grist%20-
%20DISSERTATION%20-%20Changing%20Pradigm%20of%20EM.pdf
Open University.
Kapucu, N., & VanWart, M. (2006). The evolving role of the public sector in
managing catastrophic disasters: Lessons learned. Administration and Society.
38 (3):79-308.
Kris Teutsch UN. (1989). 85th Plenary Meeting. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/
documents/ga/res/44/a44r236.htm
McConnell, A., & Drennan, L. (2006). Mission impossible? Planning and preparing
for crisis. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. 14 (2): 59-70.
Teutsch, K. (2010). Effective Disaster Management Strategies in the 21st Century
Retrieved from http://www.govtech.com/em/disaster/Effective-Disaster-Management-
Strategies.html
UNISDR. (1994). Yokohoma strategy and plan of action for a safer world: Guidelines
for natural disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation. Retrieved from http:/
/www.unisdr.org/files/8241_doc6841contenido1.pdf
UNISDR. (2005). Hyogo framework for action 2005-2015: Building the resilience
of nations and communities to disasters. Retrieved from http://www.unisdr.org/
files/1037_hyogoframeworkforactionenglish.pdf 211
Disaster Management: UNISDR. (2009). Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. Retrieved
Cross-cutting Issues from www.preventionweb.net /english/hyogo/gar/report/
index.php?id=9413&pid:34&pif:3
UNISDR. (2009). UNISDR terminology for disaster risk reduction. Retrieved
from http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/7817
UNISDR. (2015). Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
Retrieved from https://www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf
Waugh, W. L. (2006). The Political costs of failure in the response to hurricanes
Katrina and Rita. Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science. 60(4):
10-25.

EXERCISES
 Gaps in Policies and Practice
 Corrupt Practices
 Lack of Situational Awareness and Analysis
 Centralised Approach
 Lack of Coordination
 Multi-agency coordinating system
 Four general strategies
 FEMA four core functions.
 Yokohama Strategy for Disaster Reduction
 Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction
 Understanding disaster risk
 Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk
 Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience
 Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build
Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction
 Seven Global Targets
212
UNIT 15 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CASE
STUDIES*
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Odisha Super Cyclone, 1999
15.3 Bhuj Earthquake, 2001
15.4 The Indian Ocean Tsunami (Tamil Nadu), 2004
15.5 Uttarakhand Floods, 2013
15.6 Cyclone Phailin, 2013
15.7 Conclusion
15.8 Glossary
15.9 References
15.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss a few case studies related to disaster management in the Indian context;
 Understand the impact of Odisha Super Cyclone and the establishment of
OSDMA thereafter;
 Explain the impact of Bhuj Earthquake;
 Discuss the impact of Indian Ocean Tsunami and the resultant measures in
terms of enactment of disaster related legislation and policy; and
 Examine the situation of Uttarakhand Floods and Cyclone Phailin.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Lura Tcuk, the World Bank Vice-President for Sustainable Development, pointed
out that “with significantly increased levels of population, urbanisation and built
infrastructure, our cities and communities are more exposed to disaster risk. Looking
at past disasters helps us to plan for a more resilient future”. Thus, as rightly
pointed out by William Faulker, “the past is never dead. It’s not even the past”.
Always the past disasters teach us on how to act and react to a disaster situation
and in this context, case studies on past disasters serve as an important instrument
to understand a disaster and also examine the measures taken in to deal with it
and later reflect on the usefulness of such measures. Case studies of past disasters,
thus, help us to learn from the past experiences and help us plan for a disaster
resilient future (GFDRR, 2018).

Disaster Management: India has faced about 300 disasters which have claimed about 76,031 lives (Raj,
Cross-cutting Issues 2017) in the last 17 years. Due to the geographical location of the country, India
constantly gets hit by various disasters and it is a regular phenomenon. There was
no proper institutional mechanism and policies for handling disasters. It was only
after the Orissa cyclone in 1999 (since the name of Orissa has been changed to
‘Odisha’ in 2011, hereafter ‘Orissa’ is termed as ‘Odisha’), Gujarat earthquake
in 2001 and Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, etc., significant measures in terms of
policies and institution mechanisms were created in India for handling disasters.
In this Unit, you are given insights on some of the landmark disaster events that
had shaken India in the last two decades, which later helped India in framing
useful legislation, policy, institutions and frameworks for disaster management.
15.2 ODISHA SUPER CYCLONE, 1999

Odisha is one of the most disaster prone states in India and disasters such as
cyclones and floods are constant phenomena in this state. Odisha is divided into
30 districts, 314 blocks, 6799 Gram Panchayats and 50,972 revenue villages
(http://odisha.gov.in/content/dist). It has 1,55,707 square kilometres total area.
About 87 per cent of the people live in rural areas and they depend on agriculture
for their livelihood. On 29th October, 1999, a severe cyclone struck the coastal
districts of Odisha. The life span of the cyclone was around six days. It had a
wind speed of 300km/hour, with the tidal waves reaching a height of 7-10 metres
which came into inlands 0-15kms and there was incessant rain for 48 hours. It
affected about 97 blocks, 12 districts, causing devastation in about 1,200 kilometres.
The super cyclone severely affected life and property. About 14,000 villages/
wards and 16, 50,086 households were severely affected. More than 15 million
people (about one third of state’s population) got affected and it took a toll of
9,885 human lives and more than 0.4 million livestock and let another 7,507
persons injured. As per the estimate made by state government, about 7,000
lives were lost due to tidal surge; about 2,000 lives due to cyclonic flood and the
rest falling objects and or being blown away due to high speed winds. Out of the
human lives lost, 8,119 were from Jagatsinghpur district alone. A total of 3.7
million children were affected and 1,500 were orphaned (UNDMT, 1999).
The immediate response of the Odisha Government to the super cyclone was the
provision of relief to the affected and prevention of epidemic in the affected area.
The government began the urgent task of clearing the roads of debris so that the
army, state government and NGOs could deliver relief material by trucks to thousands
of affected villages. With corpses and animal carcasses laying all around and water
sources being contaminated, the threat of diarrhea, dysentery and malarial fever
was quite strong. Several NGOs and the army were engaged in the task of disposing
the corpses and animal carcasses. They were also involved in the distribution of
relief materials that included food, fresh drinking water and water purifying tablets,
clothes and blankets, polythene rolls, medicine and first aid kits. The army also
assisted in setting up community kitchens and rural hospitals, where medical personnel
were brought in from national and international NGOs.
While there were measures taken immediately in the aftermath of the cyclone,
there were also some long-term measures taken by the state. On one side, rehabilitation
measures were taken to make the community return back to normalcy and on the
other side, stringent measures were taken by the Odisha government by way of
setting up the institutional structures so that future catastrophes can be handled in
214
an effective manner. One such measure was the constitution of the state disaster Disaster
management authority. Management:
Case Studies
Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA)
The Government of Odisha constituted the Orissa State Disaster Mitigation Authority
under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. OSDMA was a Government owned
autonomous body established in 1999, to have a systematic and planned approach
to disaster management in the state with the objective of making the people of the
state more disaster resilient. OSDMA was the first state level disaster management
authority that was established in India. Chief Secretary is the chairman of the
OSDMA. Later in 2000, the name of the authority was changed from Orissa
State Disaster Mitigation Authority to Orissa State Disaster Management Authority.
The major task of OSDMA is to concentrate on disaster preparedness, management
and social issues related to disaster management such as capacity building, awareness
raising and public education, apart from promoting inter-organisational coordination.
During normal time, 90% of its activities go for preparedness and 10% of its
activities go for reconstruction. But if any disaster occurs, 90% of its activities go
for reconstruction. OSDMA, thus, coordinates various activities of disaster mitigation
in the state including capacity building of the community and disaster managers
and strengthening of infrastructure, improvement in communication system, etc.
15.3 BHUJ EARTHQUAKE, 2001

Gujarat is the one of the highly industrialised states in India. As per 2011 census,
Gujarat has been divided into 33 districts and the actual population of the state is
60,383,628. Due to its geographic profile, the state is more vulnerable to all
kinds of major disasters and it falls under Zone V. Gujarat witnessed a powerful
earthquke with a magnitude of 6.9 on Ritcher Scale at Bhuj (Kutch Region) at
8.46 a.m. on 26th January, 2001. This earthquake was the most devastating in the
past 50 years. Its impact was huge in terms of loss of lives and properties. Out
of 33 districts, 21 districts got affected by this earthquake and around 16.04
million people suffered terrible loss. It made a large scale devastation in 18
towns, 182 talukas and 7,904 villages in the State. About 20,086 persons were
killed and more than 20,717 were seriously injured. Majority people were killed
due to the collapse of the buildings. Around 3, 70,000 houses were completely
destroyed and over 1.2 million houses suffered extensive damage.
The earhtquake spread upto 300km from the epicentre. Kutch district was one
of the worst affected districts. The sadest part was around 450 villages were
totally devasted and destroyed. Eventually it affected the districts of Rajkot,
Jamnagar, Surendranagar, Patan and Ahmedabad. Ganhidham, Morvi, Rajkot and
Jamnagar witnessed a major devastation due to its major structures, infrastructures
and industrial facilities. Not only industries, but majority of the public buildings
also collapsed during the earthquake. These included hospitals, monuments and
museums. Bridges, roads and railways also faced minor damages and structural
changes. Due to the severity of the earthquake, the entire network of the
telecommunications was affected. Power and water supply services also got severely
affected.
After the disaster, immediately the Union Cabinet as well as the National Crisis
Management Committee (NCMC) under the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary
held urgent meetings on 26th January itself for relief measures. An Empowered 215
Disaster Management: Group of Ministers (EGoM), under the chairmanship of the Home Minister, was
Cross-cutting Issues set up and the EGoM along with NCMC started monitoring the situation round-
the-clock.
Immediately the restoration of communication services was undertaken on a war-
footing and satellite phones, hotlines, HAM radios and mobile phones were pressed
into service. The Government of India also provided immediate assistance from
the NCCF (National Calamity Contingency Fund) and the PM’s Relief Fund.
The state government started the rescue and relief operations with the help of
armed and Para-military forces. Apart from rescue measures, the state also focused
on providing immediate relief to the survivors. Teams of officials were sent to the
severely affected areas for a quick assessment of the requirements and for coordinating
arrangements for ensuring food, shelter and health related supplies. The presence
of some well-organised NGOs, which began operating community kitchens, was
of considerable assistance. Apart from the central government and the NGOs,
the state also received support from the corporate organisations and the international
community (Sharma, 2001).
In the aftermath of the severe earthquake, on 8th February, 2001, the state had
established the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority under the Societies
Registration Act and the Bombay Public Trust Act. The initial mandate of this
institution was to implement and coordinate the recovery, rehabilitation and
reconstruction activities in the earthquake affected areas. It also acted as a nodal
agency for pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation activities. At the national
level, Gujarat was the first state to formulate the state level disaster management
policy in September 2002.
1) Write a note on Odisha Super Cyclone and highlight the role of OSDMA.
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) Discuss the immediate relief measures after Bhuj Earthquake.
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216
Disaster
15.4 THE INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI (TAMIL Management:
NADU), 2004 Case Studies
On 26th December, 2004, India experienced the devastating effects of tsunami,

caused by a series of earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal, which originated from the
West Coast of Northern Sumatra in Indonesia. The magnitude and intensity of the
huge and strongest marine earthquake was 9.0 on the Richter scale. First it was
recorded around 6.29 AM IST in Indonesia and after three hours it attacked the
west of Pulo Kunji Great Nicobar, India (7.3 on Richter scale). The earthquake
set off giant tsunami tidal waves of 3 to 10 meters high that penetrated inland up
to 3 kms (ADB, UN and WB, 2005). The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 had
caused devastating damages to the lives and property of many countries and it
caused irreparable damages to the Indian coast as well. More than 20 countries
experienced major causalities and damages and a total of about 2.2 million people
got affected.
The Indian Ocean Tsunami had affected nearly 2,260 kilometres of the coastal
areas, of India, which covered States namely Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
and the Union Territories of Puducherry, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
As per the Government of India Report, 12,405 people lost their lives; 6,913
people were injured and 6,47,59 people were displaced from their dwellings.
About 100,000 houses were estimated to be damaged or destroyed. Approximately
2,000 kilometers of the Indian coastline was submerged up to a distance of two
kilometers.
The Indian Ocean Tsunami had caused huge devastating impact on the 13 coastal
districts of Tamil Nadu viz. Chennai, Tiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore,
Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, Thoothukudi,
Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. Three districts viz. Nagapattinam, Kanyakumari and
Cuddalore were the worst affected of all districts, with a death toll of 6,065, 828
and 617 respectively (State Planning Commission, 2005). However, the response
to the tsunami was swift and comprehensive and it included a combined effort of
government bodies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and local community.
After the tsunami had struck, it was the local community members who came for
immediate rescue, even before the government, NGOs and other players could
provide response. Only in the subsequent phase of Tsunami, the Government and
NGOs had rendered support. The Government provided relief material and
coordinated the relief and rehabilitation programmes. The voluntary organisations
and other NGOs were involved in the intervention programmes initiated, in the
mitigation, response and recovery activities. In addition to this, even the global
communities responded quickly to the tsunami by way of mobilising the resources,
required in the disaster response efforts.
The relief measures were undertaken immediately which included search, rescue
and evacuation; first aid; shelter; resumption of critical infrastructure; restoring
transportation routes; communication lines and electricity; ensuring food and clean
water distribution.
After the disaster, the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, was nominated
as the nodal agency at the national level for undertaking and co-ordinating relief
measures in the affected states and the union territories. It was followed by the
establishment of the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) in 2005
under the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary. The relief efforts were reviewed
by the Cabinet Committee of Ministers under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister 217
Disaster Management: together with secretaries of the relevant ministries/departments and chiefs of the
Cross-cutting Issues armed forces. From the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF), equivalent
of US$112 million was allocated to the disaster affected states and union territories.
The Planning Commission played an important role in the phases of recovery and
rehabilitation and the State Governments took the responsibility for implementation
of recovery programmes (UN Country Team, 2005).
The Government of Tamil Nadu announced a relief amount of Rs. 4,000/- to
each tsunami-affected household, followed by monthly allowance of Rs. 1,000/-
per household for three months. Besides, as per the provisions of Government
Order, each household was provided 60 kgs of rice, edible oil, 3 litres of kerosene,
spices, etc., worth Rs. 2,000/- per household, in addition to germicidal spray
three times a day. A relief assistance of Rs.1,00,000/- was provided for every
death caused by the tsunami by the Central Government and Rs. 1,00,000/- by
the State Government.
The collapsed structures everywhere had created hindrances in the search, rescue
and relief operations. The Public Works Department with the help of local people
removed the debris of collapsed buildings, roads, bridges and other structures, as
well as uprooted trees, hoardings, etc. The resource persons from Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University visited the agricultural lands and cleared the sea water and
started the land reclamation process.
Damage assessment is a pre-requisite for all disaster management practices. Rapid
damage assessment is required for emergency relief measures. For this purpose,
the NGOs initiated Village Information Centres (VICs) in order to make an assessment
of the damages. VICs coordinated with the government officials and community
members and collected the information like severity of disaster, likelihood of the
damages, loss of life and property damages and it passed on the information to
the block and district authorities and people also approached the VICs to register
their complaints or grievances.
The NGOs started the community kitchen in the shelter area. Some of the International
Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) started the mineral water plant for
the victims to distribute drinking water. The sanitation was very poor and people
resorted to open defecation. Later, the NGOs, with the support of UNICEF,
installed Eco sanitation toilets.
Coordination was the vital and immediate component needed in the response
phase. A number of agencies at the local, regional, national and international level
mushroomed up in the villages to provide various services to the victims. However,
coordination and cooperation of various agencies became a challenging task in
the initial phase. Later, the district administration had established coordination
centre among the various stakeholders.
After witnessing the impact of tsunami in 2004, the Disaster Management Act
was enacted in 2005 and later the National Disaster Management Policy also
was formulated in 2009 (Kanal, 2013).
15.5 UTTARAKHAND FLOODS, 2013

The state of Uttarakhand and the adjoining areas received heavy rainfall during
14th to 17th June, 2013, which was about 375 percent more than the benchmark
rainfall in a normal monsoon. Out of 13 districts, 5 districts namely Bageshwar,
218 Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Rudraprayag and Uttarkashi were affected badly due to
flash floods. The major reason for the flash flood was extreme rainfall, melting of Disaster
Chorabari Glacier and eruption of the Mandakini River. As per the Indian Management:
Case Studies
Meteorological Department (IMD), the rainfall in the State between 15 June and
18 June, 2013, was measured at 385.1 mm, against the normal rainfall of 71.3
mm, which was in excess by 440 per cent. As per state government, a total of
169 people died and 4021 people were reported missing (presumed to be dead)
(NIDM, 2014).
The heavy rains, flash floods and massive landslides on 16 June, 2013, due to
over flow of Gandhi sarovar (also known as Chourabari lake) just above Kedarnath
temple caused washing away of area around Kedarnath temple, pilgrims shelters
there and enroute, foot tracks and entire villages and settlements of Gaurikund
and Ram Bada; the transition points to Kedarnath. The market of small town of
Sonprayag also suffered heavy damage and loss of lives. Pilgrimage centres in the
regions of Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath, the holy Hindu Chardham
(four sites), Hemkund Sahib a pilgrimage centre for the Sikh community and its
roadhead transit point at the Govindghat gurudwara are visited by thousands of
devotees during May to October every year. Hence, it was the peak time of
pilgrimage, when disaster had struck. Over 125,000 people were stuck up in
various regions because of damaged or blocked roads. National Highway 58, an
important artery connecting the region, was washed away near Joshimath and
many other places. For more than three days, stranded pilgrims and tourists were
without rations or survived on little food. The roads were seriously damaged at
more than 450 places, resulting in huge traffic jams. The floods caused washing
away of many cars and other vehicles. On June 18, more than 12,000 pilgrims
were stranded at Badrinath, the popular pilgrimage centre located on the banks
of the river Alaknanda. Rescuers at Haridwar on the river Ganga recovered bodies
of 40 victims washed down by the flooded rivers as of June 21, 2013. Bodies of
people washed away in Uttarakhand were found at distant places like Bijnor,
Allahabad and Bulandshahr in Uttar Pradesh. Search for bodies of those who
lost their lives during the extreme natural fury of June in Kedar valley continued
for several months. Even as late as September 2013, about 166 bodies were
found in highly decomposed state during fourth round of search operation. In a
massive evacuation-cum-rescue operation, the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP),
Air Force, Army, NDRF, and state administration evacuated more than 125,000
people from the flood ravaged area. The ITBP was the first to respond and to
launch rescue and relief operation immediately after the disaster. About 1600 ITBP
personnel were involved in rescue and relief operations in Uttarakhand (Eapen,
2016).
The following are the “major lessons learnt from this disaster:
 The need to have strict implementation of the Flood Plain Zoning Act which
can regulate the constructions within the flood plain of a river.
 For clearance of all hydro-power and other mega projects in ecologically
sensitive regions like Uttarakhand, the Disaster Impact Assessment (DIA)
should also be made compulsory besides Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA).
 Landslide risk zonation mapping be completed on priority. Development and
enforcement of guidelines, regulations and codes for landslides is critical.
 Effective stabilisation of slopes in shear and weak zones be undertaken using
scientific techniques available at national/international levels.
219
Disaster Management:  Blasting for developmental activities be avoided as it may destabilise the
Cross-cutting Issues weak rocks in mountainous regions.
 The existing emergency communication system be reviewed regularly to ensure
last mile connectivity during disasters.
 Investments in infrastructure development related to weather, glacial lakes,
river flow monitoring, etc. are fundamental for improving the accuracy of
risk mapping, thereby allowing more lead-time for warnings provided by IMD,
CWC, GSI, NRSC, etc.
 Tourism related development should not be allowed along the river banks.
 An effective pilgrim control and regulatory body should be constituted for
control and management of pilgrims/tourists” (NIDM, 2014).
15.6 CYCLONE PHAILIN, 2013

As we already discussed in section 15.2, Odisha suffers frequent cyclones and
floods. The Cyclone Phailin had crossed the coastline of Barhampur, Odisha, on
12th October, 2013. Due to the cyclone, the state faced continuous rainfall. Though
the cyclone caused extensive damage on the infrastructure, fewer casualties were
reported. As per Government of Odisha, the cyclone had affected the lives of 13
million people; 2,56,633 houses got damaged and extensively the crops also got
severly affected. Surprisingly 45 people got killed. Here the significant factor is
that compared to earlier cyclones, the loss of lives was very small.
During the period of cyclone, resources were deployed from Odisha Rapid Action
Force (ODRAF), Andhra Pradesh State Disaster Response Force (APSDRF),
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Indian Army, Indian Air Force, Fire
Services and DG of Police for search and rescue operations. Mock drills were
also conducted at the cyclone shelters to prepare the community in facing the
situation. The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) were also requested to make necessary arrangements for
deployment of the NDRF and IAF helicopters on short notice. The Government
of Odisha was, thus, proactive and well prepared. The OSDMA had done a
wide range of preparatory activities to face the furious cyclone with a zero casualty
approach. Even the community members were equally prepared to face the disaster.
Before the landfall of the cyclone, one million people were evacuated in 36 hours.
It was one of the largest evacuation operations in the history of disaster management
in India. It was possible because of the Odisha Disaster Rapid Action Force
(ODRAF), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Central Reserve Police
Force (CRPF), Odisha State Armed Police (OSAP) and the Indian Air Force
(IAF). Proper coordination and the effective response action plan had reduced
the human causalities (NIDM, 2014). Thus, cyclone Phailin was handled in an
effective manner by almost all the stakeholders, including the community members,
which contributed a great deal in reducing the vulnerability of people.
ii) Check your answers with that given at the end of the Unit.
1) Discuss the post-disaster institutional measures after Indian Ocean Tsunami.
220 .............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. Disaster
Management:
............................................................................................................. Case Studies
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) Highlight the major lessons learnt from Uttarakhand floods and Cyclone
Phailin.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
15.7 CONCLUSION
The Unit has discussed the case studies of some of the major disasters that made
huge impacts in different parts of the country. There has been substantial loss of
life and property in the last two decades. These disasters were also responsible
for the creation of Disaster Management Act, National Disaster management Policy,
institutional structure and framework, both at the national and state level. The
case study of disasters such as Odisha Super Cyclone, 1999; Bhuj Earthquake,
2001; Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004; Uttrakhand Floods, 2013; Cyclone Phailin,
2013; etc. have thus been briefly discussed in this Unit, to provide you a picture
of how the disasters were handled in the during-disaster and post-disaster phases.
15.8 GLOSSARY
Richer Scale : The Richter magnitude scale was developed
in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California
Institute of Technology as a mathematical device
to compare the size of earthquakes. The
magnitude of an earthquake is determined from
the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded
by seismographs. Adjustments are included in
the magnitude formula to compensate for the
variation in the distance between the various
seismographs and the epicentre of the
earthquakes (https://pubs.usgs.gov).
Glacier : A slowly moving mass or river of ice formed
by the accumulation and compaction of snow
on mountains or near the poles (https://
en.oxforddictionaries.com).
15.9 REFERENCES
ADB, WB and UN. (2005). India, Post tsunami recovery program, Preliminary
damages and needs assessment. Retrieved from http://www.tnrd.gov.in/
externallyaidedprojects/Tsunami_rehabilation/india-assessment-full-report[1].pdf 221
Disaster Management: Eapen, A. (2016). Role of Indo-Tibetan Border Police in disaster response in
Cross-cutting Issues hill area border villages: An analytical study. Unpublished Thesis. New Delhi:
IGNOU.
GFDRR. (2018). After Shocks. Washington, D.C: The World Bank Group.
Open University.
NIDM. (2014). India Disaster Report, 2013. New Delhi: Ministry of Home
Affairs.
Raj, S. (2017). DATA STORY: Over 75,000 deaths, Rs 4 lakh crore lost — the
cost of natural disasters in India since 2000. Retrieved from https://
www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/data-story-over-75000-deaths-rs-4-lakh-crore-
lost-the-cost-of-natural-disasters-in-india-since-2000-2456611.html
Sharma, V.K. (2001). Gujarat earthquake – some emerging issues. Disaster
Prevention and Mangement.10 (5): 349-355.
UN Country Team for India. (2005). Recovery framework in support of Government
of India for post-tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction programme. Retrieved
from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/documents/projects/IND/00037989/
UNCT%20recovery%20frame%20work.pdf
UN Disaster Management Team (UNDMT). (1999). Orissa Super Cyclone Situation
Report. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/india/orissa-super-cyclone-situation-
report-1

EXERCISES
 Effects of Odisha super cyclone
 Odisha State Disaster Management Authority
 National Crisis Management Committee
 Empowered Group of Ministers
 Various immediate relief measures
 National Crisis Management Committee
 Cabinet Committee of Ministers
 State Government Measures
222  NGOs and INGOs initiatives

2) Your answer should include the following points: Disaster
Management:
 Flood Plain Zoning Act Case Studies
 Landslide risk zonation mapping

 Emergency communication system
 OSDMA measures
223
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bhattacharya, T. (2017). Disaster Science and Management. McGraw Hill Education:
New Delhi.
Coppola, D. (2015). Introduction to International Disaster Management. Oxford,

UK: Butter Worth-Heinemann.
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Conceptual and Institutional Framework of Disaster

Management. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open University. Retrieved from
https://ndma.gov.in/images/cbt/booklets/Booklet1.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation. New Delhi: Indira

Gandhi National Open University. Retrieved from https://ndma.gov.in/images/cbt/
booklets/Booklet2.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Responding to Disasters. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National

Open University. Retrieved from https://ndma.gov.in/images/cbt/booklets/Booklet3.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Disaster Recovery and the Road Ahead. New Delhi: Indira
Gandhi National Open University. Retrieved from https://ndma.gov.in/images/cbt/
booklets/Booklet4.pdf
IGNOU-NDMA. (2012). Handbook for Effective Disaster Management at Micro

Level. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open University. Retrieved from https://
ndma.gov.in/images/cbt/booklets/Handbook.pdf
Kapur, A. (2008). On Disasters in India. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
Kapur, A. (2010). Vulnerable India: A Geographical Study of Disasters. New

Delhi: Sage Publications.
Karan, P.P. & Subbiah, S.P. (2011). The Indian Ocean Tsunami: The Global
Response to a Natural Disaster. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
Pal, I. & Shaw, R. (2017). Disaster risk governance in India and cross cutting
issues. Springer Publisher.
Pal, I. & Ghosh, T. (2018). Natural Hazards Management in Asia. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Pandey, M. (2014). Disaster Management. Wiley Publishers.
Sahni, P. & Ariyabandu, M.M. (2004). Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia. New
Delhi: PHI Learning.
Sahni, P., Dhameja, A. & Medury, U. (Eds.). (2001). Disaster Mitigation: Experiences
and Reflections. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Shaw, R. & Krishnamurthy, R.R. (2009). Disaster Management: Global Challenges

and Local Solutions. University Press and CRC Press.
Shaw, R. (2012). Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction. Emerald Publisher,

UK.
Shaw, R. (2015). Recovery from the Indian Ocean Tsunami: 10 years Journey.
224 Springer Publisher.
Shaw, R., Pulhin. J. & Pereira, J. (2010). Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Suggested Readings
Risk Reduction: Asian Perspective. Emerald Publisher, UK.
Singh, A., Punia, M., Haran, N.P. & Singh, T.B. (2018). Development and Disaster
Management: A Study of the Northeastern States of India. New Delhi: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Singh, R.B. (2006). Natural Hazards and Management: Vulnerability and Mitigation.
New Delhi: Rawat Publication.
Subramanian, R. (2018). Disaster Management. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
Sulphey, M.M. (2016). Disaster Management. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
225

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School of Social Sciences

BLOCK 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTS AND

BLOCK 3 INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISASTERS AND

BLOCK 4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Human vulnerability to disasters is an age-old phenomenon. Besides nature’s wrath,

Disaster management education seeks to provide understanding of different types of

The Course on Disaster Management at Under-graduate level is to orient the learners

Unit 1 Meaning and Classification of Disasters

Unit 2 Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability

Unit 3 Natural and Man-made Disasters

Disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk, which is a

Unit 4 Disaster Profile of India

Block 2 Disaster Management: Concepts and Institutional Framework

Unit 5 Disaster Management: Act, Policy and Institutional Framework

Unit 6 Disaster Management Cycle with Focus on Preparedness, Prevention

The focus in disaster management is more towards disaster prevention, preparedness

Unit 7 Disaster Relief and Response

Unit 8 Damage Assessment

Damage assessment is an important tool for retrospective and prospective analysis of

Unit 9 Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Recovery

In the post-disaster phase, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery are important

Block 3 Interrelationship between Disasters and Development

Unit 10 Climate Change

In the contemporary context, climate change is a major environmental and developmental

Unit 11 Disasters and Development

Block 4 Disaster Management: Cross-cutting Issues

Unit 12 Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge

Unit 13 Community Based Disaster Management

Unit 14 Disaster Management Strategies

Globally, the occurrence of disasters is increasing due to extreme weather conditions,

1.2 MEANING OF DISASTER

16 Source: IGNOU, 2012.

1.4 NATURAL DISASTERS

1.6 OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

Alexander, D. (2002). Principles of Emergency Planning and Management.

Allen, K. (2003). Vulnerability Reduction and the Community Based Approach.

Anderson-Berry, L. J. (2000). Cyclone Rosita,Post-Disaster Report. Cairns:Centre

Bankoff,G., Frerks, G., & Hilhorst, D. (Eds.). (2003). Mapping Vulnerability:

Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). (2011). Annual

Government of India. (2016). National Disaster Management Plan. New Delhi:

Check Your Progress 1

2.4 Understanding Vulnerability

2.5 Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

* Contributed by Dr. Poonam Rautela, Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani

2.2 UNDERSTANDING HAZARDS

2.3 UNDERSTANDING RISKS

2.3.1 Risk Assessment and Evaluation

2.3.2 Risk Perception

2.3.3 Risk Identification

2.4 UNDERSTANDING VULNERABILITY

2.4.1 Vulnerability Identification

2.4.2 Types of Vulnerability

2.6 VULNERABILITY FACTORS

Source: ADRC, 2017.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

* Contributed by Dr. Poonam Rautela, Associate Professor, M B Govt. PG College, Haldwani

3.2.1 Geophysical Disasters

3.2.2 Hydrological Disasters