BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE

 The
sugar unit in the backbone of RNA is ribose;
it is deoxyribose in DNA.
 The base Thymine found in DNA is
NUCLEIC ACID 
replaced by Uracil in RNA
RNA is a single-stranded molecule; DNA is
BRIEF HISTORY double-stranded (double helix).
 RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA
- the fact that they were found in cell nuclei molecules, ranging from 75 nucleotides to a
and are acidic accounts for the term nucleic few thousand nucleotides.
acids
Nucleotides: Structural
Swiss  physiologist Friedrich Miescher 
-
discovered nucleic acids in 1869  while Building Blocks for
studying the nuclei of white blood cells Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acid:  unbranched polymer;
 Cells have ability to produce exact replicas
Monomers =  nucleotide
of themselves
 Nucleotide -  three subunit molecule; 
 Cells contain all instructions needed for
pentose sugar  bonded to both phosphate
making a complete organism
group and a nitrogen-containing
 Nucleic acids are biopolymers essential to
heterocyclic base 
all forms of life
 Nucleoside - molecule without phosphate
group
Types of Nucleic Acids
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA): Primary
function is the storage and transfer of genetic
information
 Information used to control many cell
functions
 DNA passed from existing to new cells
during cell division

Pentose (Sugar) 
  Structural difference occurs at carbon
2’ (deoxy - without oxygen) 
Deoxyribose in DNA & Ribose in RNA

Phosphate Group
Under cellular pH conditions, the phosphoric acid
loses two of its hydrogen atoms to give a hydrogen
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA): Primary function
phosphate ion HPO42-
is the synthesis of proteins

 RNA Occurs in all parts of the cell

 Proteins carry out essential cellular

functions
  For purine bases – suffix -osine is used
(adenosine, guanosine)
 Prefix “-deoxy” is used to indicate
deoxyribose present (e.g: deoxythymidine)

NUCLEOTIDE FORMATION

Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Bases

Nucleotide Formation
 Contain basic amino functional groups
 phosphate group is attached to the sugar at
(proton acceptors)
the C-5’ position through a
 Pyrimidine = monocyclic base, 6 membered
ring phosphate-ester linkage  
 Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U)
 Purine = bicyclic base w/ fused 5 & 6  Condensation reaction occurs, overall two
membered rings water molecules are produced in combing
 Adenine (A), Guanine (G)  bonding base, sugar and phosphate
 
Nomenclature:
 Nucleotides are named by appending the
term 5' -monophosphate to the name of the
nucleoside from which they are derived. 
Nucleotide Formation

Primary Nucleic Acid Structure

NUCLEOSIDE FORMATION

Nucleotide Formation
Nucleoside Formation  Primary Nucleic Acid Structure - sequence
 Base attached to C-1 of sugar in β- in which nucleotides are linked together in
configuration, N-9 in purine while N-1 for nucleic acid
pyrimidine connected through β-N-  Nucleic acid backbone - alternating sugar-
glycosidic linkage phosphate chain
 Condensation reaction occurs as water
molecule is formed upon bonding of base 
and sugar
Nomenclature:
 For pyrimidine bases – suffix -idine is used
(cytidine, thymidine, uridine)
 the ribosome that corresponds to each three-
nucleotide codon of rRNA. The amino acids then
can be joined together and processed to make
polypeptides and proteins. 
 Codon- a sequence of three adjacent
nucleotides, which encode for a specific
amino acid during protein synthesis or
translation 

The DNA Double Helix

CHARGAFF'S RULE
 The concentration of ADENINE and
THYMINE are identical as are the
amounts of CYTOSINE and
GUANINE.
 A = T and C = G
 The DNA of different species differs in its
proportions ADENINE and GUANINE. 
onterminal phosphate group of the sugar–  The base-pairing pattern ( A to T, G to C ) is
phosphate backbone is bonded to two sugar the same in all molecules of DNA
molecules through a 3’,5’-phosphodiester  The information encoded by that sequence is
linkage the basis of traits that define species and
 Directionality; 5’ end: free phosphate group, distinguish individuals.
3’ end free hydroxyl group   VARIATIONS IN ITS NUCLEOTIDE
 Nonterminal phosphate group has -1 charge; SEQUENCE ARE THE FOUNDATIONS
hence give acidic properties  OF LIFE'S DIVERSITY

Primary Nucleic
Acid Structure

Base Pairing
Types of RNA  No room for two large purine (overlap), and
 RNA is the nucleic acid that makes proteins two pyrimidine too far apart to hydrogen
from the code provided by DNA through the bond
processes of transcription and translation.  Complementary Base Pairing - A with T,
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless- C with G, complementary bases that can
biology/chapter/nucleic-acids/ hydrogen bond, hence amount of A =T, and
 mRNA or Messenger RNA  amount of C=G
mRNA transcribes the genetic code from  Complementary DNA strand - strands
DNA into a form that can be read and used to with each base located opposite to
make proteins. mRNA carries genetic information complementary base
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell.   Base sequence of DNA segment written 5’
 rRNA or Ribosomal RNA  to 3’
rRNA is located in the cytoplasm of a cell, where
ribosomes are found. rRNA directs the translation Hydrogen Bonding Interaction
of mRNA into proteins. 
 Stabilizes helix structure, although weak
 tRNA or Transfer RNA 
force number of base pairs result to
Like rRNA, tRNA is located in the cellular
significant strength
cytoplasm and is involved in protein synthesis.
Transfer RNA brings or transfers amino acids to
Base Stacking Interactions
 Bases positioned parallel with planes of
their rings 
 Stacking interactions as purines and
pyrimidines are hydrophobic
 DNA Molecule not neutral, with cellular pH
phosphate groups are charged
 Strands held by noncovalent interaction;
  Hydrogen bond not by covalent bond

DNA Replication
 In DNA replication, the two strands of the
DNA double helix are regarded as a pair of
templates or patterns. 
 During replication, the strands separate.
Each can then act as a template for the
synthesis of a new, complementary strand. 
 The result is two daughter DNA molecules
DNA Double Helix  with base sequences identical to those of the
 Strands connected by Hydrogen bonds
parent double helix. 
between bases
 Bases extend inward
 Strands antiparallel


Enzyme DNA helicase cause DNA double
helix unwinds and the hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases are broken
producing two strands
 Replication fork - point at which the DNA
double helix is unwinding, which is
 constantly changing (moving) 
 DNA polymerase can operate on forming
DNA daughter strand only in the 5’-to-3’
direction, only one strand grows
continuously
 leading strand - strand that grows
continuously 
 lagging strand - strand that is synthesized
in small segments

DNA Replication
Chromosomes
 Replicated DNA interact with proteins
called histones to provide stable
arrangement for long DNA molecules 
 Chromosomes are histone-DNA complexes; 
 an individual DNA molecule bound to a
group of proteins;  occur in homologous
pairs; 
 15% by mass DNA & 85% proteins
 Cells from different organisms have diff.
No. of chromosomes 

 as the DNA unwinds, other strand must be

formed in short segments, called Okazaki
fragments. 
 This mechanism depends on DNA primase,
which synthesize short RNA primers on the
lagging strand  
 Nicks -  breaks or gaps in this daughter Overview of Protein Synthesis
strand.
 DNA ligase join together segments of
Okazaki fragments and complete formation
of this strand

Ribonucleic Acids
 of ribonucleotides, one by one, to the
growing hnRNA molecule  
2. Transcription ends when the RNA
polymerase enzyme encounters a sequence
of bases that is “read” as a stop signal. 
 newly formed hnRNA molecule and the
RNA polymerase enzyme are released,
 DNA then rewinds to re-form the original
double helix.  
Post-Transcription Processing: Formation of
mRNA 
 hnRNA precursor for mRNA; certain
portions are deleted, retained and spliced 
 Gene is segmented and not all bases
convey genetic information, with
alternating exon and intron segments
 Exon gene segment that codes for genetic
Cellular locations and processes in which types of
information 
RNA molecules are involved
 Intron do not code genetic information
and interrupts genetic message 
Transcription: RNA Synthesis  Edited RNA produced is mRNA that
 Process by which DNA directs the synthesis serve as blueprint for protein assembly
of hnRNA/mRNA  Splicing process of removing introns from
molecules that carry the coded information hnRNA molecule and joining together the
needed for protein synthesis   remaining exons together to form an
mRNA molecule 

 nucleotide sequence of the appropriate Splicing involves snRNA molecules, RNA
portion of the immensely long DNA type found complexed in proteins with
molecule in a chromosome is first copied particles called snRNPs
into RNA    Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle -
complex formed from snRNA molecule
and several protein molecules 
 Two step process; hnRNA is initially  Spliceosome - large assembly of snRNA
produced and edited to yield desired mRNA molecules & proteins involved in
molecule  conversion of hnRNA to mRNA
  molecules 
 Gene - segment of a DNA strand that
contains the base sequence
for the production of a specific
hnRNA/mRNA molecule  
 
 Genome - all of the genetic material (the
total DNA) contained in the chromosomes
of an organism.  
Transcription: RNA Synthesis

Steps in the Transcription Process  

1. RNA polymerase unwinds a portion of
DNA helix exposing some bases (gene) 
2. Free ribonucleotides, one nucleotide at a
time, align along one of the exposed
strands of DNA bases, the template strand,
forming new base pairs.
 U(racil) rather than T(hymine) aligns with A
in the base-pairing process.
  Only about 10 base pairs of the DNA
template strand are exposed at a time.
1. RNA polymerase is involved in the linkage
 0. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to
the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads the
unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA
molecule, using complementary base pairs. There is
a brief time during this process when the newly
formed RNA is bound to the unwound DNA.
During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA
binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA.

0. Termination is the ending of transcription,

and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop
(termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA
strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.

The Genetic Code

 assignment of the 64 mRNA codons to
specific amino acids (or stop signals)
 set of rules by which information encoded in
genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences)
is translated into proteins (amino acid
sequences) by living cells.
 Codon - triplet code since it involves 3 bases
per coding
 Genetic code is highly degenerate: Codons
that specify the same amino acid are called
synonyms 
 Genetic code is almost universal: same
codon specifies the same amino acid
whether the cell is a bacterial cell, a plant
cell, or a human cell
1. Initiation - RNA polymerase binds to a  The existence of ‘stop’ or termination
region of a gene called the promoter. This codons (UAG, UAA and UGA) suggests the
signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme existence of ‘start’ codons.
can ‘‘read’’ the bases in one of the DNA  Amino acid methionine (AUG) functions as
strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a initiation codon.
strand of mRNA with a complementary
sequence of bases.

2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to

the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads
the unwound DNA strand and builds the
mRNA molecule, using complementary
base pairs. There is a brief time during this
process when the newly formed RNA is
bound to the unwound DNA. During this
process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to
an uracil (U) in the RNA.

3. Termination is the ending of transcription,

and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a
stop (termination) sequence in the gene. The Anticodons and tRNA Molecules 
mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches  amino acids used in protein synthesis do not
from DNA. directly interact with the codons of an
mRNA molecule. 
0. Initiation - RNA polymerase binds to a  Instead, tRNA molecules function as
region of a gene called the promoter. This signals intermediaries that deliver amino acids to
the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can ‘‘read’’ the the mRNA. 
bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is  At least one type of tRNA molecule exists
now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a for each of the 20 amino acids found in
complementary sequence of bases. proteins
 Translation: Protein Synthesis
 Translation - process by which mRNA
codons are deciphered and a particular
protein molecule is synthesized.
Two Important Features of tRNA
1. 3' end is where an amino acid is covalently  Substances needed: mRNA
bonded to the tRNA molecules, tRNA molecules, amino
 Each of the different tRNA molecules is acids, ribosomes & several enzymes 
specifically recognized by an aminoacyl  Ribosome - rRNA–protein complex that
tRNA synthetase enzyme. serves as the site for the translation phase of
protein synthesis.  
1. loop opposite to the open end is the site for a  Contain 4 rRNA molecules and
sequence of three bases called an anticodon about 80 proteins packed into a large
and small protein sub unit each w/
 ANTICODON – a three-nucleotide 65% rRNA and 35% protein by mass
sequence on a tRNA molecule that is
complementary to a codon on an mRNA
molecule.
 CODON-ANTICODON interaction is anti-
parallel 
 Ribosome 
 smaller subunit has affinity for
mRNA; the larger has an attraction
for tRNA
 Has two sites to bind tRNA
 P-site binds to the growing
peptide
 A-site binds the aminoacyl
tRNA

Activation of tRNA
 An amino acid interacts with ATP to
become highly energized.
 It then forms a covalent bond with the 3' end
of a tRNA molecule through ester linkage -
activated tRNA

 
 Termination
Initiation
 mRNA attaches to small ribosomal unit w/  The polypeptide chain continues to lengthen
initiating codon (AUG) occupying the P site through translocation until a stop codon
(Peptidyl site) (UAG, UGA UAA) appears on the mRNA.
 Activated tRNA with anticodon to AUG  The new protein is cleaved from the last
attaches & interacts w/ large ribosomal unit tRNA through hydrolysis
to form initiation complex
Post-Translation processing 

Elongation  Cleavage of Met (initiation codon) usually

occurs S-S bonds between Cys units can
also form

BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE

Translocation - ribosome moves down three base

position (one codon) in mRNA 
so new codon occupies ribosomal A site
LIPIDS
 The word lipid is derived from a Greek
word “lipos” which means FAT.
 These are heterogenous group of
compounds; unlike proteins, nucleic acids,
polysaccharides, lipids are not polymers
rather they are small molecules and don’t
have common structural feature. 
Peptidyl transferase - links P site AA to A site AA  They organic compounds found in living
to form peptide organisms that are insoluble (or only
sparingly soluble) in water but soluble in
nonpolar organic solvents.
 Make up 18-25% of body mass in lean
adults
TYPES OF LIPIDS
1. Simple lipids. These consist of long chain
fatty acids which may be either free or
combined with an alcohol by an ester linkage.
They include the triglycerides
(triacylglycerols) and the waxes.
2. Compound lipids which contain additional
 groupings such as phosphoric acid, sugars, nonpolar tail. It is an important building
nitrogenous bases or proteins. Included in this block on almost all lipids (not all).
group are the phospholipids, glycolipids and  Fatty acids are amphipathic compounds
lipoproteins. because the carboxyl group is hydrophilic,
3. Derived lipids (Steroids & Terpenes). and the hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic.
Although they do not often contain fatty acids  The carboxyl group can ionize under the
the steroids are frequently classed as lipids on proper conditions.
account of their occurrence in natural fats and  A fatty acid that occurs in a living system
their solubility characteristics. They include normally contains an even number of carbon
cholesterol and the sex and adrenocortical atoms, and the hydrocarbon chain is usually
hormones. unbranched.
Classification according to
Biological Functions Types of Fatty Acid
1. Saturated Fatty Acid - is a fatty acid with a
carbon chain in which all carbon–carbon
1. Energy-storage lipids – triacylglycerol bonds are single bonds. 
 those containing hydrocarbon side 2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid - is a fatty acid
chains serve as energy stores with a carbon chain has at least one carbon–
2. Membrane lipids – phospholipid, carbon double bond
sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterol 1. Monounsaturated Fatty Acid - 
 Structural components of cell contains one carbon–carbon double
membranes that serves as protective bond
barrier 2. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid - 
contains two or more carbon–carbon
 Protective functions in bacteria, plants, double bonds
insects, & vertebrates, serving as a part 3. Omega-3 Fatty Acid - its endmost
of the outer coating between the body double bond is three carbon atoms
of the organism and the environment. away from its methyl end
3. Emulsification lipids – bile acids 4. Omega-6 Fatty Acid - its endmost
4. Messenger lipids – steroid hormones and double bond is six carbon atoms
eicosanoids away from its methyl end.
 Many intra- and intercellular signaling
events involve lipid molecules

5. Protective coating - waxes

Classification according to Saponification

Reaction
1. Saponifiable – these substances can be
hydrolyzed into smaller molecules
1. Triacylglycerols 
2. Phospholipids 
3. Sphigoglycolipids
4. Biological Waxes
2. Non-saponifiable – these substances can’t be
hydrolyzed
1. Cholesterol
2. Steroid hormones
3. Bile acids
4. Eicosanoid

Fatty Acids Omega-3

 A fatty acid has a carboxyl group at the
polar end and a hydrocarbon chain at the Omega-6
Essential and Non-essential Fatty
Acids
1. Essential Fatty acids - Fatty acids that can be
synthesized in the body

2. Non-essential Fatty acids - Fatty acids that must

be obtained from the diet; these are precursors of
eicosanoids

1. Omega-6 fatty acid

2. Omega-3 fatty acid Triacylglycerols (triglycerides)

 Lipid that contains a glycerol molecule and
three fatty acids bonded together by ester
bond
 They function within the body as energy-
storage materials. 
 Triacylglycerols are concentrated primarily in
special cells (adipocytes) that are nearly filled
with the material.
 Adipose tissue containing these cells is found
in various parts of the body: under the skin, in
the abdominal cavity, in the mammary glands,
and around various organs. Functions as
insulator and shock absorber.
 The fat content of normal humans allows them
to survive starvation for 2 or 3 months

Cis and Trans Fatty Acids

Esterification
In the esterification reaction a single
molecule of glycerol reacts with three fatty acid
molecules each of three hydroxyl groups present is
esterified to produce a triacylglycerol.
  Reverse of the esterification reaction
 Requires the presence of an acid or a base
 Under acidic and basic conditions, the
hydrolysis products are glycerol and fatty
acids.

 Complete hydrolysis - all three fatty acids

are removed
Types of Triacylglycerols  Partial Hydrolysis - one or more FA
• Simple triacylglycerol is a triester formed from residues remain attached to glycerol
the esterification of glycerol with three identical
fatty acid molecules.

• Mixed triacylglycerol is a triester formed from the

esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of
fatty acid molecule.

SAPONIFICATION

A reaction carried out in an alkaline (basic)

solution. Its products are glycerol and fatty acid
salts.

Fats and Oils

FAT is a triacylglycerol mixture that is a solid or
semi-liquid at room temperature (25-degree HYDROGENATION
Celsius). Generally, fats are obtained from animal
sources. It involves hydrogen addition across carbon -
carbon multiple bonds, which increases the
Fats are composed of triacylglycerols in which degree of saturation as some double bonds are
saturated fatty acids predominate, although some converted to single bonds. 
unsaturated fatty acids are present.

OIL is a triacylglycerol  mixture that is a liquid at

room temperature (25 degrees Celsius). Generally,
oils are obtained from plant sources.

Oils contain triacylglycerols with larger amounts of

mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids than those in
fats.
OXIDATION

 The carbon - carbon double bonds present in

the fatty acid residues of a triacylglycerol
are subject to oxidation with molecular
oxygen (from air) as the oxidizing agent.
 Such oxidation breaks the carbon - carbon
bonds, producing both aldehyde and
carboxylic acid products.

Chemical Reactions of Triacylglycerols

HYDROLYSIS
Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
TYPES substance.
0. Phosphoacylglycerol
(Glycerophospholipid, Phosphoglyceride) • This structural feature is very important in the
 Contains two fatty acids and a formation of the cell membrane
phosphate group esterified to glycerol
and an alcohol bonded to the
phosphate

B. Sphingophospholipid
 Contains one fatty acid and a
phosphate group esterified to
sphingosine and an alcohol bonded to
the phosphate

Sphingophospholipid

• Sphingosine is an 18-carbon monounsaturated

aminodialcohol

• The amino group of the sphingosine backbone in

sphingophospholipid is linked to a fatty acid by an
amide bond. In addition, the hydroxyl group of
sphingosine is esterified to phosphoryl choline.
 When the alcohol that is attached to the
phosphate group is choline, then the
sphingolipid is termed as sphingomyelins
 Same with phosphoglycerides, the two long
Glycerophospholipid hydrocarbon chains are the two nonpolar tails
 The common amino alcohol groups of and the phosphate group with alcohol is the
phosphoglycerides are the amino acid serine, polar head.
ethanolamine, choline, glycerol, and the
inositol.

 When these alcohols are bonded to the

phosphatidyl (or phosphatidate; without the
amino alcohols) there names become
phosphatidylcholine (lecithin),
phosphatidylethanolamine, and
phosphatidylserine (both are also known as
cephalins).
Membrane Lipids:
Sphingoglycolipids
 Second of the three major types of membrane
lipids.

• The polar head group of a glycerophospholipid is  It is a lipid that contains a fatty acid and a
soluble in water. The nonpolar tail chains are carbohydrate component attached to a
 sphingosine molecule. molecule, cholesterol is also a pre-cursor for
other steroid-based lipids including bile acids,
steroid hormones, and vitamin D.
 It is most abundant steroid in the body; 25%
by mass of cell membranes
 Although cholesterol comes from dietary
intake, most of it is synthesized by our body in
liver and a little in intestine (0.80 - 1 kg per
day)
 Since cholesterol is insoluble in water, it is
carried by lipoproteins
o LDL – carries cholesterol from liver to
various tissues, if this exceeds,
cholesterol in the blood increases and
atherosclerosis occur
 One group is called cerebroside where the o HDL – carries excess cholesterol from
sugar moiety is either glucose tissues to liver
(glucocerebroside) or galactose
(galactocerebroside)

 They are found in nerve (myelin sheath) and

brain cell’s cell membrane (7% of dry mass in
brain)

 Another group is called ganglioside, glycolipid

with a complex carbohydrate moiety that
contains more than three sugars

 Glycolipids are often found as markers on cell

membranes and play a large role in tissue and
organ specificity. Gangliosides are also
present in large quantities in nerve tissues
Lipid bilayer asymmetry
 The arrangement of different membrane
molecules

Membrane Lipids: Cholesterol

 The third of the three major types of
membrane lipids.
 Cholesterol’s structure differs markedly from
that of other membrane lipids in that (1) there
are no fatty acid residues present and (2) no
glycerol nor sphingosine is present as the
platform molecule.
 Part of steroid family - a lipid whose structure
is a fused-ring system that involves three 6-
membered rings and one 5-membered ring
Cell Membrane
 is a lipid-based structure that separates a cell’s
aqueous-based interior from the aqueous
environment surrounding the cell. 
 lipid bilayer is a two-layer-thick structure of
phospholipids and glycolipids in which the
nonpolar tails of the lipids are in the middle of
the structure and the polar heads are on the
 Aside from an important part of membrane outside surfaces of the structure.
 form a semi-stable mixture by an emulsifier or
emulsifying agent

 Bile acids (supplied by bile) in the body serves

as emulsifiers between fat globules and the
water environment of the digestive tract to
facilitate absorption

Functions of Cell Membrane

 Protection - serve as boundaries and
containers of all cells and of the organelles
within eukaryotic cells
 Transportation -  membranes are
semipermeable barriers to the flow of
substances into and out of cells and organelles;
it involve the lipid bilayer as well as the
membrane proteins Bile Acids structure
 Catalysis - enzymes can be bound — in some Types
cases very tightly— to membranes, and the
 Simple bile acid – free bile acid (not the actual
enzymatic reaction takes place on the
emulsifiers)
membrane
o They are tri- or dihydroxy cholesterol
 Signal receptors -  proteins bind specific
derivatives.
biologically important substances that trigger
o The carbon 17 side chain of cholesterol
biochemical responses in the cell
has been oxidized to 
Transport across Cell Membranes a carboxylic acid
 Passive transport is the transport process in  Complex
which a substance moves across a cell o The oxidized acid side chain is bonded
membrane by diffusion from a region of to an amino acid (either glycine or
higher concentration to a region of lower taurine) through an amide linkage.
concentration without the expenditure of
any cellular energy. 
 Facilitated transport is the transport process
in which a substance moves across a cell
membrane, with the aid of membrane
proteins, from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration without the expenditure of
cellular energy
 Active transport is the transport process in
which a substance moves across a cell
membrane, with the aid of membrane
proteins, against a concentration gradient
with the expenditure of cellular energy.

Bile
 Bile is a fluid that contains emulsifying agents
that is secreted by the liver, stored in the
gallbladder, and released in the small intestine
during digestion.
  It contains the bile acids, bile pigments,
cholesterol and bile salts.
 The bile acids increases the solubility of
cholesterol in the bile fluid
 The imbalance between cholesterol level and
Emulsification Lipids: Bile Acids bile acid levels can increase precipitation of
 Emulsification - is the process of dispersing cholesterol that forms the gallstones which
two or more immiscible liquids together to may also lead to Jaundice – a condition that
 occurs due to high level of bilirubin, a bile blood clotting and constriction of blood
pigment vessels. It also encourages platelet
aggregation
1. Leukotriene – produced by leukocytes and
its derivatives
 regulate immune responses by
Messenger Lipids: STEROID triggering contractions in the smooth
muscles lining the bronchioles,
HORMONES causing inflammation during asthma
Hormone – a biochemical structure produced by and allergic rhinitis
ductless gland that serves as means of
communication
Sex hormones - controls reproduction and
secondary sex characteristics.

1. Estrogens- the female sex hormones.

2. Androgens- the male sex hormones.
3. Progestins- the pregnancy hormones.
THROMBOXANE

LEUKOTRIENE

Protective Coating Lipids:

Biological Waxes
Adrenocorticoid hormones - it regulates numerous  A monoester lipid that contains one fatty
biochemical processes in the body. acid (C14 to C36) esterified to an alcohol (C16
to C30)
1. Mineralocorticoids - controls the balance of
Na+ and K+ ions in cells and body fluids.
2.  Glucocorticoids - controls glucose metabolism
and counteract inflammation.

 Due to this very long chain of hydrophobic

hydrocarbon, waxes are highly insoluble in
water that serves its function as water-
repellent

Messenger Lipids:
EICOSANOID
Eicosanoid – an oxygenated C20 fatty acid
derived from arachidonic acid produced by all Apple skin is rich in C -C hydrocarbon
27 29
cells except     red blood cells
1. Prostaglandin - group of lipids made at sites chain
of tissue damage or infection that are involved
in dealing with injury and illness.
 They control processes such as
inflammation, blood flow, the
formation of blood clots and the
induction of labor
0. Thromboxane
 substance made by platelets that causes Carnauba Wax (C ) from Brazilian palm
30
tree

Hydrocarbon chain at 

C in spinach and C in cabbage
31 29

Beeswax
FA – C 16

ROH - C   30