Biochem Lec Midterm Transes
Biochem Lec Midterm Transes
Biochem Lec Midterm Transes
The
sugar unit in the backbone of RNA is ribose;
it is deoxyribose in DNA.
The base Thymine found in DNA is
NUCLEIC ACID
replaced by Uracil in RNA
RNA is a single-stranded molecule; DNA is
BRIEF HISTORY double-stranded (double helix).
RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA
- the fact that they were found in cell nuclei molecules, ranging from 75 nucleotides to a
and are acidic accounts for the term nucleic few thousand nucleotides.
acids
Nucleotides: Structural
Swiss physiologist Friedrich Miescher
-
discovered nucleic acids in 1869 while Building Blocks for
studying the nuclei of white blood cells Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acid: unbranched polymer;
Cells have ability to produce exact replicas
Monomers = nucleotide
of themselves
Nucleotide - three subunit molecule;
Cells contain all instructions needed for
pentose sugar bonded to both phosphate
making a complete organism
group and a nitrogen-containing
Nucleic acids are biopolymers essential to
heterocyclic base
all forms of life
Nucleoside - molecule without phosphate
group
Types of Nucleic Acids
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA): Primary
function is the storage and transfer of genetic
information
Information used to control many cell
functions
DNA passed from existing to new cells
during cell division
Pentose (Sugar)
Structural difference occurs at carbon
2’ (deoxy - without oxygen)
Deoxyribose in DNA & Ribose in RNA
Phosphate Group
Under cellular pH conditions, the phosphoric acid
loses two of its hydrogen atoms to give a hydrogen
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA): Primary function
phosphate ion HPO42-
is the synthesis of proteins
NUCLEOTIDE FORMATION
NUCLEOSIDE FORMATION
Nucleotide Formation
Nucleoside Formation Primary Nucleic Acid Structure - sequence
Base attached to C-1 of sugar in β- in which nucleotides are linked together in
configuration, N-9 in purine while N-1 for nucleic acid
pyrimidine connected through β-N- Nucleic acid backbone - alternating sugar-
glycosidic linkage phosphate chain
Condensation reaction occurs as water
molecule is formed upon bonding of base
and sugar
Nomenclature:
For pyrimidine bases – suffix -idine is used
(cytidine, thymidine, uridine)
the ribosome that corresponds to each three-
nucleotide codon of rRNA. The amino acids then
can be joined together and processed to make
polypeptides and proteins.
Codon- a sequence of three adjacent
nucleotides, which encode for a specific
amino acid during protein synthesis or
translation
Primary Nucleic
Acid Structure
Base Pairing
Types of RNA No room for two large purine (overlap), and
RNA is the nucleic acid that makes proteins two pyrimidine too far apart to hydrogen
from the code provided by DNA through the bond
processes of transcription and translation. Complementary Base Pairing - A with T,
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless- C with G, complementary bases that can
biology/chapter/nucleic-acids/ hydrogen bond, hence amount of A =T, and
mRNA or Messenger RNA amount of C=G
mRNA transcribes the genetic code from Complementary DNA strand - strands
DNA into a form that can be read and used to with each base located opposite to
make proteins. mRNA carries genetic information complementary base
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell. Base sequence of DNA segment written 5’
rRNA or Ribosomal RNA to 3’
rRNA is located in the cytoplasm of a cell, where
ribosomes are found. rRNA directs the translation Hydrogen Bonding Interaction
of mRNA into proteins.
Stabilizes helix structure, although weak
tRNA or Transfer RNA
force number of base pairs result to
Like rRNA, tRNA is located in the cellular
significant strength
cytoplasm and is involved in protein synthesis.
Transfer RNA brings or transfers amino acids to
Base Stacking Interactions
Bases positioned parallel with planes of
their rings
Stacking interactions as purines and
pyrimidines are hydrophobic
DNA Molecule not neutral, with cellular pH
phosphate groups are charged
Strands held by noncovalent interaction;
Hydrogen bond not by covalent bond
DNA Replication
In DNA replication, the two strands of the
DNA double helix are regarded as a pair of
templates or patterns.
During replication, the strands separate.
Each can then act as a template for the
synthesis of a new, complementary strand.
The result is two daughter DNA molecules
DNA Double Helix with base sequences identical to those of the
Strands connected by Hydrogen bonds
parent double helix.
between bases
Bases extend inward
Strands antiparallel
Enzyme DNA helicase cause DNA double
helix unwinds and the hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases are broken
producing two strands
Replication fork - point at which the DNA
double helix is unwinding, which is
constantly changing (moving)
DNA polymerase can operate on forming
DNA daughter strand only in the 5’-to-3’
direction, only one strand grows
continuously
leading strand - strand that grows
continuously
lagging strand - strand that is synthesized
in small segments
DNA Replication
Chromosomes
Replicated DNA interact with proteins
called histones to provide stable
arrangement for long DNA molecules
Chromosomes are histone-DNA complexes;
an individual DNA molecule bound to a
group of proteins; occur in homologous
pairs;
15% by mass DNA & 85% proteins
Cells from different organisms have diff.
No. of chromosomes
Ribonucleic Acids
of ribonucleotides, one by one, to the
growing hnRNA molecule
2. Transcription ends when the RNA
polymerase enzyme encounters a sequence
of bases that is “read” as a stop signal.
newly formed hnRNA molecule and the
RNA polymerase enzyme are released,
DNA then rewinds to re-form the original
double helix.
Post-Transcription Processing: Formation of
mRNA
hnRNA precursor for mRNA; certain
portions are deleted, retained and spliced
Gene is segmented and not all bases
convey genetic information, with
alternating exon and intron segments
Exon gene segment that codes for genetic
Cellular locations and processes in which types of
information
RNA molecules are involved
Intron do not code genetic information
and interrupts genetic message
Transcription: RNA Synthesis Edited RNA produced is mRNA that
Process by which DNA directs the synthesis serve as blueprint for protein assembly
of hnRNA/mRNA Splicing process of removing introns from
molecules that carry the coded information hnRNA molecule and joining together the
needed for protein synthesis remaining exons together to form an
mRNA molecule
nucleotide sequence of the appropriate Splicing involves snRNA molecules, RNA
portion of the immensely long DNA type found complexed in proteins with
molecule in a chromosome is first copied particles called snRNPs
into RNA Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle -
complex formed from snRNA molecule
and several protein molecules
Two step process; hnRNA is initially Spliceosome - large assembly of snRNA
produced and edited to yield desired mRNA molecules & proteins involved in
molecule conversion of hnRNA to mRNA
molecules
Gene - segment of a DNA strand that
contains the base sequence
for the production of a specific
hnRNA/mRNA molecule
Genome - all of the genetic material (the
total DNA) contained in the chromosomes
of an organism.
Transcription: RNA Synthesis
Activation of tRNA
An amino acid interacts with ATP to
become highly energized.
It then forms a covalent bond with the 3' end
of a tRNA molecule through ester linkage -
activated tRNA
Termination
Initiation
mRNA attaches to small ribosomal unit w/ The polypeptide chain continues to lengthen
initiating codon (AUG) occupying the P site through translocation until a stop codon
(Peptidyl site) (UAG, UGA UAA) appears on the mRNA.
Activated tRNA with anticodon to AUG The new protein is cleaved from the last
attaches & interacts w/ large ribosomal unit tRNA through hydrolysis
to form initiation complex
Post-Translation processing
BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE
Esterification
In the esterification reaction a single
molecule of glycerol reacts with three fatty acid
molecules each of three hydroxyl groups present is
esterified to produce a triacylglycerol.
Reverse of the esterification reaction
Requires the presence of an acid or a base
Under acidic and basic conditions, the
hydrolysis products are glycerol and fatty
acids.
SAPONIFICATION
B. Sphingophospholipid
Contains one fatty acid and a
phosphate group esterified to
sphingosine and an alcohol bonded to
the phosphate
Sphingophospholipid
• The polar head group of a glycerophospholipid is It is a lipid that contains a fatty acid and a
soluble in water. The nonpolar tail chains are carbohydrate component attached to a
sphingosine molecule. molecule, cholesterol is also a pre-cursor for
other steroid-based lipids including bile acids,
steroid hormones, and vitamin D.
It is most abundant steroid in the body; 25%
by mass of cell membranes
Although cholesterol comes from dietary
intake, most of it is synthesized by our body in
liver and a little in intestine (0.80 - 1 kg per
day)
Since cholesterol is insoluble in water, it is
carried by lipoproteins
o LDL – carries cholesterol from liver to
various tissues, if this exceeds,
cholesterol in the blood increases and
atherosclerosis occur
One group is called cerebroside where the o HDL – carries excess cholesterol from
sugar moiety is either glucose tissues to liver
(glucocerebroside) or galactose
(galactocerebroside)
Bile
Bile is a fluid that contains emulsifying agents
that is secreted by the liver, stored in the
gallbladder, and released in the small intestine
during digestion.
It contains the bile acids, bile pigments,
cholesterol and bile salts.
The bile acids increases the solubility of
cholesterol in the bile fluid
The imbalance between cholesterol level and
Emulsification Lipids: Bile Acids bile acid levels can increase precipitation of
Emulsification - is the process of dispersing cholesterol that forms the gallstones which
two or more immiscible liquids together to may also lead to Jaundice – a condition that
occurs due to high level of bilirubin, a bile blood clotting and constriction of blood
pigment vessels. It also encourages platelet
aggregation
1. Leukotriene – produced by leukocytes and
its derivatives
regulate immune responses by
Messenger Lipids: STEROID triggering contractions in the smooth
muscles lining the bronchioles,
HORMONES causing inflammation during asthma
Hormone – a biochemical structure produced by and allergic rhinitis
ductless gland that serves as means of
communication
Sex hormones - controls reproduction and
secondary sex characteristics.
LEUKOTRIENE
Messenger Lipids:
EICOSANOID
Eicosanoid – an oxygenated C20 fatty acid
derived from arachidonic acid produced by all Apple skin is rich in C -C hydrocarbon
27 29
cells except red blood cells
1. Prostaglandin - group of lipids made at sites chain
of tissue damage or infection that are involved
in dealing with injury and illness.
They control processes such as
inflammation, blood flow, the
formation of blood clots and the
induction of labor
0. Thromboxane
substance made by platelets that causes Carnauba Wax (C ) from Brazilian palm
30
tree
Beeswax
FA – C 16
ROH - C 30