02 Whole
02 Whole
02 Whole
Rebecca Leith
2009
II
ABSTRACT
The following exploratory research was conducted to begin to build conceptual clarity for
multiple theories explaining this complex phenomenon, each with their own definition.
Q Methodology was used to bring a subjective viewpoint towards the research. This
subjective approach allowed the opinions of the target population to determine the type of
Results indicate that participants view motivation as an internal and emotional process.
The findings propose that motivation is an internal process fueled by emotions that
energize the body towards action at a conscious level. The thought processes of an
individual ignite a purpose which initiates a drive towards a change of state. Positive
reinforcement of this action will perpetuate future action. Negative reinforcement of this
These findings are discussed and future recommendations are suggested. A replication of
Ill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest thanks and appreciation to my partner, Ben. For your
My thanks to my friends and family, for your incredible support and belief in my
potential. The numerous phone calls and texts offering support and advice were always
throughout this process was so valuable. Your advice was always greatly appreciated.
Lastly, I would like to express my thanks to the participants of this research. Your time
and effort made this research possible. I hope that this research will be beneficial to you
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Chapter Page
I. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction........ ......... .......... ............... ........................... 1
Theories of Motivation ........... ... ... ................... ...... .. ............ 3
Modern Theories of Motivation............................................. 12
Determinants of Motivation... ... ...... .. .......................... . 21
Influence on Individual Motivation.................... . .... ... .. ... 22
Motivation in Psychotherapy.............................. .................... 28
Conceptual Confusion of Motivation in Psychotherapy................... 31
Building Conceptual Clarity of Motivation...... ........ .......... 33
Summary......................................................................... 36
Purpose of the Research. ... .................................. .. ............... 37
Hypothesis................... .... ....... ...................... ... ....... .. .... ... 38
2. METHODOLOGY
Participants.......................................... ............................. 44
Participant Group A . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . . .. 44
Participant Group B...... .............. ................................ 44
3. RESULTS
Results from Group A.................................................. 50
Results from Group B......................................... ... ...... 60
4. DISCUSSION
Discussion of Findings........................................................... 70
Limitations......................................................................... 78
Future Research Areas . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 79
Conclusion.......................................................................... 80
V
APPENDIXES
Appendix
LIST OF TABLES
VI
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Motivation is a term that presents itself in many different aspects of human behaviour.
Weight loss, sports, education and psychology all include motivation as a useful construct
Dornyei and Otto ( 1998) comment on the amount of research that is being conducted on
what is motivation? Trad itionally the emphasis has been placed on identifying those
universal definition within the psychotherapy fields, has been overlooked (Pintrich,
2000).
There are many theorists who deter from understandin g motivation. Instead they opt to
tailor the meaning to their specific research. Veith ( 1997) confirms this notion.
motivation and use their own definition which ' fits' their current research. The lack of
clarity on what is motivation is evident in a number of ways. For example when a new
theory or model is designed the meaning of motivation that is proposed is specific to that
motivation is specific to each therapist. Therapists have their individual beliefs on what
practical progress. Within the psychological field there is greater conceptual confusion
motivation within the psychotherapy field will remove the ambiguity and in turn assist in
Lammers & van der Staak, 2004). A complete analysis of this construct and its
Alexander, 2000).
Firstly, this research will discuss the number of motivational theories that are commonly
history of motivation and the three main theories of motivation. For example,
2
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
th
At the beginning of the 20 century, motivation was included under the spectrum of
psychology. At this time theories of human behaviour were based upon ideals of
theorist proposed his theory of motivation . Based on ancient philosophy, he proposed that
motivation is 'will ' based. Descartes believed individual 'wi ll ' was the instigator for
action. It was the 'will' of an individual which told the organism whether to act and what
This theory does not account for the differences in variance of an individual 's
seems to be as complex as motivation. For example, what is will? How do we asses it?
Does it change over time? This 'will based ' theory of motivation has its own lack of
conceptual clarity. Willpower is proposed as the singular force behind an individual 's
explanation of motivation that he believed could account for the innate motivational
force.
3
Darwin's theory proposed that a ' force' comes from within an individual. This ' force',
which was once referred to as ' will ', came to be known as instinct ((Elliot & Dweck,
2005). Darwin emphasized the importance of instincts. His emphasis was placed upon
the instincts an organism receives. Darwin believed instincts were physical reactions
It was at this point in history that motivational researchers moved away from
philosophical ideas to explain motivation phenomena. Directing their focus towards the
natural sciences. This movement saw the birth of one of the longest debates in
motivational history. The pleasure vs. pain debate (Elliot, 2008). Dating back to the
writings of Democritus, Plato and Socrates. Democritus recorded that the best guide to
predict human action , is to determine whether the human is in pursuit of pleasure, and or
The psychological field has adopted and defined these ancient writings further. Beginning
with William Wundt in the I gth century. Wundt emphasized the importance of
understanding the pleasure and pain elements which energize the body towards
2001).
4
William James expanded on Wundts theory further, borrowing heavily from Darwin's
biological theory of motivation as his foundation . James proposed that pleasure and pain
responses are 'springs of action' (Reeves, 2005). James believed all that was needed to
This biological instinct theory remained favorable for some time. It began to loose its
appeal, when researchers begin to debate how many instincts one might possess (Madsen,
1974). The biological instinct theory provided strength in favor of biological factors
predisposing motivation. However this theory is a circular theory. Therefore it does not
clarify what motivation is. For example, if an individual has the instinct to fight, it
detection of aggressive behaviour would occur. Not a clear picture of motivation at all.
James moved away from the theories of instinct, instead favoring pleasure and pain as
predictors to change in behaviour. James proposed the new idea of approach avoidance
motivation theory (Elliot, 2008; Elliot & Dweck, 2005). This theory incorporates the best
of the biological approach, with clear clarification of the new constructs incorporated in
this theory. For example, approach motivation has been defined as the energization of
5
This well defined theory lacks the notarization that other theories maintain. Based on
behaviourism concepts. This theory places its emphasis on the energizing of the body.
What this theory lacks in strength within the psychological community, it makes up for in
clarity of motivation and its processes. In summary, the early biological theories of
approach to motivation (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). The regularity and purposive
The regulatory approach to motivation is the birth place for many common theories and
interpretations of motivation. This approach places focus on the body's response to such
states as hunger, thirst and pain. The body is believed to work towards maintaining a state
of homeostasis. A deficiency is registered within the nerves centers, the body will then
seek to alleviate the distress/discomfort and restore homeostasis to the body (Beck,
2004).
The regulatory approach to motivation founded its roots in biological theories (Beck,
2004). Such as Darwin's theory of evolution and Maslows needs based hierarchy.
Watson's behaviourism arose under the regulatory approach as an answer to the research
6
Watson's belief was extreme for the time period. Watson believed that mental processes
were not a factor of behaviour (Martin & Pear 2003). Therefore there was no need for
understanding purpose or intent. Watson ' s theory left no room for discussion of
placed on stimuli and stimulus responses. Therefore concluding that all behaviour is
Woodworth later proposed that organisms needed energy or drive to activate an otherwise
motionless organism (In Ellis & Newton, 2000). Simply studying the cause after the fact
was not sufficient to determine why we do what we do. Therefore, the regulatory
action which quenches the internal unbalance and restores homeostasis. The internal need
The purposive approach to motivation maintains that individuals actively engage in goal
directed behaviour. This approach places focus on the future and the long term rewards.
For example, an organism makes choices about which courses of action will be most
beneficial to them. Organisms will choose between multiple possibilities and determine
The regularity and purposive approaches each have their place in explaining motivation.
Each approach offers insight into what is igniting the process of motivation to occur.
7
However, they are complimentary approaches. What one lacks in theoretical perspectives
the other proposes and vise versa. In order to understand the processes of motivation, an
examination of the major theories is important. Following on from the purposive and
and the next three main theories of motivation . These theories will now be explained
Freud broke away from James and his ideas towards his own theories of human
motivation. Freud favored the regulatory approach . His theory was based on the notion
that the purpose of motivational behaviour was to provide the action that satisfies a need
(Reeves, 2009). Behaviour was therefore energized to serve bodily needs. When a
discomfort or unbalance was detected within the body, the body would seek out a
resolution. The seeking of a resolution is the drive behind Freud's theory of motivation
Freud's theory of motivation was similar to James's at first. However, Freud developed
explanation for motivation. Freud believed that every action has a reaction. Freud
hypothesized that at its core motivation is based on instinctual sources such as sex and
aggression (Arkes & Garske, 1977). Freud's theory of motivation was now based on
physical energy.
8
Freud believed that people are closed energy systems each with the same amount of
energy. Energy bui Ids up in the ' id ', when the energy develops a need arises and the body
Freud ' s theory of motivation is insufficient like the other earl y theories of motivation.
These early theories did not view concepts such as social interactions, genetic
a change in behaviour caused as a reaction from environmental events and stimuli. The
stimuli can be either external or internal (Martin & Pear, 2003). For example, an external
stimulus may be a paycheck for a job completed. An internal stimulus may be the aching
of a sore hand. The rate, at which the behavioural responses to a stimulus will occur, is a
Behaviourists believe it is important to take into consideration what occurs after stimulus
9
From a behaviourists view motivation is defined by the rate, frequency, form or
likelihood of behaviour occurring (Schunk et al., 2008; Martin & Pear, 2003). The
the stimulus presented. Thus, the behavioural approach to motivation is heavily used.
However, this theory does not allow for any consideration of internal processes, including
included in their theories (Martin & Pear, 2003; Baum, 2005). Concepts such as
introspection , values, goals and social expectations are not included. Behaviourist
behaviours can be broken into a series of simple behaviours for explanation. The
behaviourist approach is concise and clear but it is al so limited, because it does not
The cognitive approach to psychology and motivation was born out of contest to the
strong behaviourism movement. Bandura ( 1997) proposed that most motivation is based
motivate themselves and direct their behaviour through the exercise of forethought. This
approach places a large focus on introspection (Jung, 1978). Introspection means the
ability of an individual to reflect and describe their own mental processes (Colman,
2003).
10
The cognitive theorists stress the role of mental processes in processing of information.
For example, the beliefs, emotions and meanings one attaches to their experiences are
vital for understanding the reoccurring behav iour (Jung, 1973; Willingham, 200 I).
The cognitive approach faces criticism because internal processes are not observable and
immeasurable. This is a problem the cognitive theori sts face in implementation, because
Cognitive theorists rely on the client having awareness and insight into their motivational
processes and hoping that the client is able to explain both successfully (Ellis & Newton ,
2000). There are a number of modern theories that are assoc iated w ith the cognitive
theory of motivation and are explained in the section of modern moti vational theories.
Modern theories of motivation have arisen to try to remed y the inadequacies of the
historical theories of motivation. Some modern theorists have worked towards trying to
reduce the complex phenomena of motivation into a simple explanation of action. This
has created further speculation and debate within the psychological fields, of the
definition of motivation (Drieschner, Lammers, van der Staak, 2004). Modern theories of
motivation place additional focus on beliefs, values and goals of an individual than their
predecessors. These theories have arisen from the basic psychological schools of thought.
Modern theories of motivation and their implications for motivation as a construct are
further explained.
11
MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Modern day theories of motivation have moved away from singular schools of thought
incorporating an eclectic approach (Madsen, I 974). Theories from other social science
fields such as education, sociology, and philosophy are considered to influence modern
Attribution Theory:
Attribution theory was designed to illustrate how people perceive motivation and
emotion, unlike other theories which tend to try and explain these constructs. For this
reason, Weiner's ( 1972) attribution theory has been a major theory used in explaining
motivation for the previous three decades. Attribution theory is concerned with the
process by which an individual interprets their outcomes, rather than the actual outcome
"How people seek and find causes for their behaviour, and feelings, and interpret
For example, if a person finds themselves aroused it may be because there is a snake in
their sight and the arousal is fear. This causes or motivates them to move away. The
interpretation of the arousal and the feeling one attributes to it, is necessary for
12
Attribution theory is found more in educational motivation research, than psychotherapy
research. This is a useful theory for psychotherapy. In that it explains clearly what
motivation is, due to its capability to place a focus on the client's belief about their ability
success or failure are combined with feelings of self efficacy. These feelings will assist in
helping the individual to predict future failures or successes (Weiner, 1972). For
example, clients who credit their success to internal personal capabilities will succeed
and continue to believe they can succeed. Those who attribute their failures to external
inadequate resources will fail and continue to fail. Individuals who attribute their success
to internal capabilities are sometimes referred to as ' having a drive to succeed'. This
internal ' drive' is the main component another modern theory, drive theory.
Drive Theory:
Drive theory focuses on the contribution of internal factors to behaviour. The ' drive' is
believed to be internal energy. Internal energy which seeks to elevate discomfort and
maintain homeostasis of the body (Elliot & Dweck, 2000). For example, when an
organism experiences a response from ' inside' that there is deprivation i.e. thirst. A drive
is ignited to elevate the need and return the body to homeostasis (Schunk et al., 2008).
towards reduction of the discomfort. This theory was tested in laboratories with small
animals and works to explain simple motivation behaviours (Schunk et al., 2008). Drive
theory is an extended version of the Darwin and Descartes theories. The internal drive of
13
However, drive theory fails to explain the complex processes that are incorporated into
influences on an individual's motivation (Weiner, 1972). Drive theory does explain the
internal action towards a drive, but does not account for the fee lings and responses an
individual attaches to their experiences. This was remedied by Atkinson ' s theory which
incorporates the relationship between personality and situational factors as the main
This motivational theory was born out of the needs based theories of Maslow and
Murray . Murray' s research highlighted the difference in individuals needs (Hyland 1988).
For example, individuals who were highly aroused to achieve, would have their
achievement need aroused more often. Atkinson took this further and hypothesized that
there are only two needs that perpetuate behaviour. The need for success and the need to
avoid failure.
action is also a function of incentive and motive. The relationship between the two is
inversely related. The equation [P + I =l] has become the core component to this theory.
Where P is the expectancy and I is the incentive (Hyland, 1988). For example, clients will
find a greater incentive value (and be further motivated) in achieving something they
14
Compared to achieving something a client finds easy and therefore a high probability of
success. This theory has been subjected to empirical research and has been found a
theory because it does not encompass all aspects of motivation within the
psychotherapeutic field i.e. external determinants. For example, the client who is refened
to therapy by the court will not necessarily look towards completing the harder tasks for a
greater sense of achievement. They will be focused on completing the basic requirements
of their court order to avoid further punishment. This theory is limited further, because it
does not discuss future aspirations of the individual. These aspirations are viewed as the
goals that drive the motivation of an individual. Ford ( l 992) believed that goals and goal
Goal setting theory is the most self explanatory theory of motivation. It is a durative of
the purposive approach of motivation. This theory proposes that people will set
themselves goals or be set goals by others. The type of goal set is relative to the person.
The amount of effort and direction towards the goal is proportionate to the type of goal
and the type of individual (Bandura, 1997). These goals direct behaviour towards a
towards a goal that has arisen through cognitive processes of the individual. Individuals
work to attain a desired end state through purposive direction of their cognitive, physical
and emotional behaviours. Ford (1992) defined this process as goal directed behaviour.
15
Goal setting theory accounts for the difference in individual motivation, through the
individualization of goals. Therefore, each client will have a different reason or goal for
seeking therapy. Even those with the same goals will have a different hierarchy of goals.
Therefore the amount of effort directed towards each goal wi ll account for the level of
Bandura & Locke (2003) warn of the influence of self efficacy on moti vation and goal
setting theory. Self efficacy is one of the most important influences that affect personal
beliefs. For example, negative self efficacy will lead to negative beliefs about ones self.
Such beliefs have the ability to affect the amount of personal effort an individual would
exert towards completion of the goal. Self-efficacy will be explained further in self
efficacy theory.
Albert Bandura work on motivation and self-efficacy, has led to the development of his
efficacy and personal agenda, as they are viewed by the individual. Bandura (1997,
"An individual 's perceived confidence in their ability to direct, order and action a
16
This multi-dimensional theory incorporates a focus on personal strengths, situations, and
level of task difficulty, as perceived by the individual; whilst focusing upon the
achievement of success. Eccles & Wigfield (2002) propose that individuals have varying
levels of self-efficacy. For example, some individuals may have a stronger sense of self-
efficacy than others. Certain situations and experiences denote the strength of self-
efficacy in individuals. Efficacy beliefs can predict the behavioural functioning occurring
between individuals and the resulting change in functioni ng within individuals over time
(Bandura & Locke, 2003). The variation of task related behaviours to individual self-
efficacy is most used within psychological assessments. However, this theory does not
account for external processes that will determine the outcome of therapy (Bandura,
1997). External processes of motivation such as social and cultural experiences are
motivation.
Expectancy-value Theory:
A durative of Atkinson ' s theory. This modem theory of motivation differs from
Atkinson 's inversely related theory, due to its inclusion of social and cultural
determinants of motivation. The modern theory proposes that the individual experiences
and values attached to the potential outcome, will affect the task choices, performance
and determination of the client (Eccles, Adler, Futterman, Goff & Kaczala, 1983). Under
this theory expectancies and values have a positive relationship with each other (Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002). This is where this theory differs from Atkinson's theory because he
17
The opportunity cost for choices made is a key component of expectancy-value theory.
choosing one choice over another. Through choosing one option all other choices will be
eliminated. An individual's perceptions of their confidence, abilities and goals are all
outcome and value achieved from the outcome of a client. These determinants are also
manipulated by the client's belief of what other peoples opinions may be of themselves.
Past experiences such as social behaviour, cultural traditions and historical events are
This theory is heavily tested within psychology (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Eccles et al.,
1983). Expectancy-value theory also implies that there is a logical decision making
process that is occurring before, during and after the motivational process. Though not all
decisions made by the client within the psychotherapy process will be logical and
rational. Some decisions that direct behaviour may be made based on the emotive state of
the individual. Emotions can be irrational and fluctuate (Reeves, 2005). Therefore
emotions are the major component of motivation. Flow theory of motivation includes the
emotions and emotional state of an individual as the dictating factor for behaviour.
18
Flow Theory:
This theory defines motivation as the subjective experience that occurs when people are
engaged in an action. Flow theory places an emphasis on the internal experience of the
individual as the motivating cause for future motivation. For example, a painter engaged
holistic experience of total immersion in an activity. Focus on limited sti mulus, feelings
of self control over ones actions and environment, and limited feelings of self
(1988) is only possible when an individual feels that the opportunity for action will match
their ability to perform. Flow theory reinforces behaviours which will perpetuate success
and future development. In order for flow to occur, new and challenging tasks must be
engaged.
This theory faces much criticism because it is not highly tested (Bandura, 1997). This
theory does not place importance on the reasons why people do what they do. However,
it does incorporate the subjective approach , which some believe is the only way to
19
Control Theory:
Control theory is a vast contrast to flow theory. Control theory proposes motivated
behaviour is dictated not by the individual , but by the external feedback received. Control
theory has been included as a psychological theory of motivation for almost three
decades. The main component of this theory is the negative feed back loop. A feed back
loop is a construct that is used in many behavioural theories of motivation. The negative
feedback loop is a process of feedback which shapes behav iour depending on the level of
input vs. the level of output. Coleman (2003) explains this phenomenon occurs when an
Control theory is a complex theory which views individuals as machines without any
consciousness. The machine-like beings are locked into performing according to the
feedback given, which in tum drives them to perform. Hyland (1988) proposes that we all
have a behaviour sen sing process and an error corrector [inside us]. This internal system
adjustments to restore incongruity (Bandura, 1997; Hyland 1988). The idea of feedback is
an important construct for motivation. Yet this mechanistic approach lacks inclusion of
many key determinates such as goals, social and cultural experiences and biological
processes which other theories view as important for motivation. Therefore it is not a
20
fn summary, there is a vast amount of motivational theories which have devoted
followings within the psychological field s (Dornyei & Otto, 1998). These theories
occupy the bulk of the motivational literature. The vast majority of these motivational
theories tend to place a focus on why people chose to do a particular course of action.
Each of the above theories proposes different views of motivation . However, in order to
individual need to be examined. These are the determ inants that impact motivation.
Determinants of Motivation
motivation as part of the total construct (Dornyei & Otto, 1998). For example, theorists
have tried to identify and use a small number of determinants to explain a significant
individual ' s motivation (Prochaska, 1984; Prochaska & Norcross, 2007). A theory that
21
To study motivation effectively an examination of the determinants that affect motivation
with a client must be included. An individual 's level of arousal, strength and direction of
behaviour are important determinants of behaviour. Arkes and Garske (2007) have
discussed that although all are related and influenced by each other arousal, strength and
Motivation and learning are commonly found linked in the literature (Schunk et al.,
(Martin & Pear, 2003), they are quite different experiences for the individual. Learning
has been defined as the events in an organism's life experience that influence present
evolve accordingly. Motivation differs from learning because it is an exploration into the
influences on current behaviour that will sway the actions of an individual , towards a
Determinants of motivation are those innate traits an individual has that are developed
over time through experience, such as personality (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Influences of
motivation as those constructs that will manipulate an individual's future behaviour such
22
Influences on individual motivation
Evaluating motivation in a client is a complex task. There are a number of influences that
may impact an individual ' s motivation. These concepts also need to be considered when
defining the construct of motivation. Influences such as emotions, needs, cognitions and
Each is explained further under the umbrella of internal and external motivation.
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in this research (Beck, 2004). For examp le, cl ients may
exhibit extrinsic behaviour such as, acti vely compl etin g their homework assignments
from therapy. Or their motivation may be strictl y innate and perceived on an internal
Miller and Rollnick (2002) propose that motivation is not only internal and external but
interpersonal as well. Internal theorists place an importance on the emotional drives that
impact motivation (Deci & Ryan , 2008). Figure I. Demonstrates the differences between
internal influences such as need, cognition and emotion, compared to external influences
23
Motivation
Internal Externa l
Motivation Motivation
Environmental Interactions
An individuals needs, cognitions and emotions all influence motivation on some level.
individual may have an innate desire to change. However, to fully understand their
motivation to change, one must consider the predisposing factors besides emotion that
have impacted the individual. The predisposing factor may be a traumatic event that has
The definition of needs, emotions and cognitions and their differences are explained to
highlight this further. Needs are an internal biological bases for motivation (Coleman ,
2003). Hunger and thirst are two biological needs that would initiate an action from an
individual. Cognitions are distinguished as the mental processes, beliefs and expectations
24
Emotions are short lived, subjective, expressive, and functional individual phenomena
(Reeves, 2005). Emotions allow individuals to showcase what they feel. Nelissen and
Zeelenberg (2007) discuss the idea of "feel ing-is-for-doing". This perspective proposes
that different emotions present as a functional device, used to perpetuate behaviour that is
goal directed. For example, feelings will manifest as an emotion which will in turn
Research debate continues over the involvement of the relationship between motivation,
emotion and personality. Zedick (2007) denies the relationship, maintaining that the three
than a possible influence. Whil st emotions are often linked to personality, emotions are a
fluid manifestation of arousal and reaction to life encounters. Emotions are important
Emotions could be perceived as the influencing factor behind the behaviour. For
example, feeling fearful will be the necessary stimulus to propel an individual towards
action. Emotions play a vital role in motivating a client towards therapeutic change
emotions such as anger, guilt or anxiety manifest themselves in a somatic form causing
physical discomfort (Prochaska & Norcross, 2007). This physical discomfort can be an
25
In summary, the needs, cognitions and emotions of an individual build a strong
foundation for intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivatio n develops w ithin a client due to an
Motivation is also subjective to external stimuli referred to as extrinsic mot ivation (Plant
& Ryan 1985). External events are perceived as the enviro nmental experiences that have
(Reeves, 2005). External events may affect individual motivation in a positive o r negative
way. For example, a client who is ordered to go to therapy by the court is negatively
motivated, because it is mandatory. His motivation lies in not being puni shed, so he
attends therapy. However, the client who is paid to attend therapy by a family member
has no motivation to seek help. Instead they draw their motivation from the external
defining motivation.
Other prominent influences on an individual's motivation are their desires and their
aversions (Elliot, 2005). For the purpose of this research, desire is defined as a preference
response (Coleman, 2003). Ultimately these concepts influence a clients "hope of success
26
These influences are assessed in many different current forms of motivational analysis.
In summary, the influencing factors on motivation are specific to the individual. Each
social and cultural experience, combined with innate characteristics will be specific to the
individual. These concepts affect and direct the motivation of a client. The difference in
client' s motivational behaviour and why people change, are important concepts to
motivational pattern, or lack of, can impact the success of therapy. Motivation in
27
MOTIVATION IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
Throughout psychotherapeutic treatment both clinicians and their clients nav igate a
process towards meeting an end goal (Lambert, 2004). Moti vation is a commonly
Prochaska & Norcross, 2007; Enright, 1975; Swanson & Woolson 1973). Interaction and
communication between therapist and client may contribute towards the development of
In research and common clinical debate, many failures within psychotherapy are
attributed to low motivation from the client (Drieschner et al. , 2004). Many clients
engaging in the therapeutic process will express varying responses towards committing to
therapy. Some may have spouse or family pushing a client towards beginning treatment,
A range of behaviours will be exhibited from the client, in response to engaging in the
treatment process. The client's initial attitude is irrelevant. It is not good practice for a
clinician to assume that because a client exhibits unmotivated behaviour, they are not
motivated (Arkowitz, Westra, Miller & Rollnick, 2008). Motivation can and does change
28
However, clients involved in psychotherapy do not just receive treatment. They are
the treatment is a vital factor for the therapist to consider. The level of engagement a
client can exhibit will assist in predicting the possible outcome of treatment. The
their client, will dictate the type of intervention given. For some therapists this includes
identifying their client's individual motivational pattern (Rosenbaum & Horowitz, 1983).
Swanson and Woolson (1973) believe that the role of the therapist is to understand the
client's individual motivational pattern. This is generally based on the client's primary
physical and social needs including the goals the client develops as a response to their
disengagement, can prevent clients from seizing the opportunities therapeutic practice
can lead to a client seeking alternative and possibly negative ways of meeting their
Though being able to identify how motivational problems develop and how they are
defined within a client and therefore corrected, is important for psychotherapy treatment
(Klinger & Miles Cox, 2004). Therapeutic intervention for a client can be tailored to the
therapeutic relationship and the perceived stage of change the client currently obtains.
29
If there is a difference in opinion of what motivation is between client and therapist,
Psychotherapy is a process that evolves, just as the clients engaged in the process change.
New theories are developed to combat the Iimitations of previo us theories. These new
theories provide the foundation for new forms of psychotherapy (Prochaska & Di
Clemente, 1982). Thus contributing to the vast number of therapies being proposed .
Currently there are over two hundred types of therapies available fo r therapists to select
as intervention. The vast array of therapies, coupled w ith the number of definitions and
assessments of motivation, contributing further to the current confus ion that surrounds
models in the literature (Rosenbaum & Horowitz, 1983; Prochaska & Norcross, 200 I).
The lack of a universal definition of motivation hinders the therapist' s ability to identify
important factor in therapy, though a client' s motivation may not be the primary focus of
the clinician (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). The complications of motivational conceptual
confusion and its impact on psychotherapy will be discussed in the following section.
30
CONCEPTUAL CONFUSION OF MOTIVATION IN
PSYCHOTHERAPY
example different researchers are assigning different definitions to the common term.
(Champion , 2006).
The conceptual confusion surrounding motivation seems to arise from the vast number of
influences that are deemed relevant and incorporated into the definition of the construct
the construct. These influences on motivation are important because they assist in
However, just because an influence is considered relevant for motivation, it does not
mean this particular influence represents motivation in its entirety. For example, when
discussing treatment motivation, it is imperative that the influences that cause 'motivation
31
Motivational influences such as discomfort, desires, internal expectancies and problem
recognition, may work towards activating a client towards the therapeutic process.
However, through separating motivation from its determ inants and the resulting action,
researchers would actively reduce the confusion of an individual trying to understand the
' motivation to engage in the psychotherapeutic process', ' motivation for change' and
' motivation to end therapy'. Each of these different categories of motivation includes an
action or movement from an individual. The most cited type of motivation related to
This type of motivation is clear enough providing the client is working to change well
defined behaviours such as smoking or over eating. Conceptual confusion arises when the
or anxiety (Brogan, Prochaska, & Prochaska, 1999). In cases of anxiety the client is
often motivated to change the symptoms of the anxiety, i.e. panic attacks, sweating palms
etc. Rather than being motivated to change the behaviour that causes the panic attacks
and anxiety. For the purpose of this research, 'motivation to change' will be the type of
motivation referred to, whilst beginning to build conceptual clarity and define this
clouded construct.
32
Building Conceptual Clarity of Motivation
Society is made up of groups and communities who are distinguishable through their
shared purposes, cultures, codes of behaviour and languages. The language, definitions
and meanings attached to specific words are what define a community. The field of
psychotherapeutic fields each have their own forms of language and processes. These are
constructs and concepts can replace entire complex explanations (Murphy & Alexander,
2000). Researchers for a specific community demonstrate a specific way of speaking and
writing throughout their theories and explanations of the community phenomenon. When
a community fails to clearly define the basic terms and constructs of its rubric, confusion
Many theorists whilst constructing their individual theory of motivation look to define
motivation as the primary task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Their definition is often
applicable to their own particular theory (Champion , 2006). This creates a community of
theorists who disagree on the definition of motivation. Further enhancing the conceptual
confusion that already exists. Traced across many different scientific and academic fields,
confusion.
33
Pintrich ( 1994) has made comments on "the blurry but powerful constructs that dominate
the literature on motivation". Pintrich and other researchers (Murphy & Alexander, 2000;
Wittgenstien, 1953, 1968) have called for greater conceptual clarity around this currently
ambiguous construct.
The ambiguity surrounding motivation has lead to the construction of a range of differing
theories and definitions of the construct of motivation . Rosenbaum & Horowitz ( 1983)
conducted a review of motivational definitions. They found 125 terms that they
determinants of treatment motivation. Keijsers et al., ( 1999) reported that over the past
three decades different models, instruments and theories have produced up to 36 different
types of definitions, criteria and determinants that make up the current literature on
motivation in psychotherapy.
Motivation is a complex state which covers a wide range of phenomena. Ranging from
the primitive drives alluded to by Darwin, to the behaviourist theories of Watson. One of
the most comprehensive definitions of motivation was offered by Littman in 1958. Over
34
"motivation refers lo process or conditions which may be physiological or psychological, innute
or acquired, internal or external to the organism which determine and describe how, or in
retrospect of what, behaviour is initiated, maintained, guided, selected or terminated; ii also
refers to the end state which such behaviour frequently achieves or is designed to achieve whether
they are continuous of the organism or environment; it also refers to the behaviour engaged in, or
aspects ofthat behaviour, in respect of its organi=ation, occurrence, continuation. reorgani=ation,
or termination with regards to past, present or future organic or environmental conditions;
f urther, it refers to the fact the individual will learn or remember qfforget certain material, as
well as the rate or manner in which these process occur and the ease or difficulty with which they
are altered, as well as to some ofthe process or which conditions u·hich are responsible for
this behaviour; similarly it determines how and what perceptual andjudgmenta/ activities and
outcomes will occur, as well as some ofthe conditions and determinations ofsuch activities and
outcomes; similarly it also refers to the fact ofand the determinants of the occurrences andfate of
effective process; finally, it describes and accounts for the various individual differences which
appear in respect ofthe various behaviours, process, conditions, and outcomes referred to above.
Motivation refers to anyone or more of the above behaviours, conditions, process, or outcomes in
any combinations."
(In Arkes & Garske, 1977)
This definition is as complex and broad, as it is long. Littman argues that in order to
define motivation one must consider all aspects of ones interactions, environments and
individual, in the same way, at possibly the same time, are vital factors to consider when
behaviours ... If we take this pragmatic approach, 'motivation ' can be defined as
the probability that a person will enter into, continue, and adhere to a specific
35
Miller and Rollnick' s frequently citied definition is usefu l in the clinical and
observable behaviour. Observable behav iour is easily monitored and assessed within
motivation. However, this is a circular definiti on. Pintrich (2000) is one of the researchers
who have warned against using a c ircular definition of motivation. For example, it
definition fails to comment on the internal e.g. cognitive abi Iities, external e.g.
environmental and situational factors e.g. finance and time fl exibility, wh ich may impact
motivation.
In summary, there is a wide interest in the motivational fi eld. As the field of motivatio n
grows new research ideas will be presented incorporate new ideals and writings about
motivation into new theories. New researchers and writers of motivational literature will
not be conversant in the terminology surrounding motivation. In turn they will add their
The history of science maintains that it is possible to define a pivotal concept through one
comprehensive viewpoint (Arkes & Garske, 1977). A definition that encompasses the
literature, discourse and theories that are pertinent to motivation, would build confidence
understanding why clients change and what are the predisposing factors leading to
36
Purpose of the Research
motivation. This will allow the researcher to build a fo und ation of understanding
2. To gain an understanding into how New Zealand therapists view and define
motivation . This will include how they use and observe motivation within their
practice, whilst attempting to gain insight into how each clinician incorporates
future research.
37
Hypothesis
As the field of motivation has expanded the theories that define the concept have
38
CHAPTER II
METHOD
Research Design
needed that gives participants the opportunity to discuss their various perspectives on the
topic. The perspectives of the participants will generate a range of data. The resulting
data will allow an opportunity to analysis the date and clarify the debate over motivation.
Q Methodology was chosen for this research due to its ability to study areas of
subjectivity and subjective opinions (Flathman, 1999). This method is commonly used in
the political science fields. Yet it is becoming more predominantly used in psychological
research fields (Stephenson, 1996). QMethod research has the capacity to be able to
reflect the viewpoints and opinions of a specified population; though sampling a small
portion of the target population (van Exel & de Graaf, 2005) For example, other
enables the opinions of the participant to dictate the answer they give. This is
demonstrated in the way the participant (dis)agrees with the statements presented.
39
Many research designs that use questionnaires often give a number of pre-selected
answers that the participant must choose. This limits the potential for a true opinion to be
reflected. As the participant must choose an answer that they think most represents their
opinion.
1935, in his letter to Nature. Stephenson worked as ass istant to Charles Spearman, the
creator of factor analysis. Stephenson was believed to be Spearman 's "most creative
sought to provide an intensive analysis of a small group of partic ipants (Flathman, 1999).
Stephenson ' s method demonstrated a way to revel the subjecti vity involved in any
Q Method has not been without controversy. It was ignored by most academic
practice at the time (Brown, 2008). Yet QMethod is facing a revival within the
psychological research field , because its ability to examine the life experiences and
methodologies (Brown, 1996). QMethod has the capacity to combine the best qualities of
40
[n his first letter to Nature Stephenson explains the concept of QMethod.
whom has been measured in (m) tests. The intercorrelations for these (m)
different tests [i.e. essays, traits, general discourse etc} each ofwhich is scaled
by different individuals. The intercorrelations are then factor analyzed the same
Q Method is a reliable and valid method that enables the researcher to collect data from
Explaining Q Method
The process of completing a Q Method research includes five steps. Each step was
possible statements and beliefs the participants have which they use to express
41
In order to have adequate representation of statements for the Q set, interviews,
topic.
A set of statements are drawn from the concourse which will be presented to the
The statements are printed onto individual cards and assigned random
The focus of Q methodology is to gather quality rather than quantity. The P set is
not a random sample. It is a group of selected participants who are chosen for
their relevance and experience to the topic under discussion. P sets can have just
one participant; two to four are optimum but never more than six participants
(Brown, 1980).
42
4. Q sorting
The collection of statements [Q set], are presented to the participant with a score
sheet, in the form of a pack of cards. Each card contains an individual statement
and a number. The participant is asked to sort through the cards and place each
card into one of three piles, agree, disagree and neutral. The total number in
each pile is recorded onto the score sheet. The participant sorts through the
cards again and places them along the (dis)agree continuum , according to the
The score sheet generally has a quasi normal distribution. However due to the
controversy of the topic the kurtosis of the distribution can be altered. For
example, a steeper distribution allows more room for ambiguity. Topics that are
expected to garner stronger opinions are flatter to allow the participant more room
for strong (dis)agreement with the statements (van Exel & de Graaf, 2005).
The data is first calculated into a correlation matrix, to establish the level of
analysis is completed on the correlation matrix. The factor analysis will assist in
those people with the same opinions on the topic will share the same factor.
Factor rotation will follow. This allows the researcher to 'mix up' the opinions
43
METHODOLOGY
Participants
There where two data collection components to this research; therefore there are two
groups of participants.
Participant Group A:
Group A consisted of (N=22) therapists from the Tauranga region. This sample group
Participant demographic information was not deemed high importance to this study. The
Participants for group A included males (N=6) ranging in age from forty to fifty plus.
Their experience ranged [in their field] from ten years to over twenty five years.
Females were the bulk of the sample (N=l6) ranging in age from twenty eight to forty
years old. Females had the broader experience range, with some only having two years
Participants Group B
The second group of participants (P set) was not a random sample. This sample consisted
of clinical psychologists (N=6) chosen from the Rotorua region. Participants for group B
44
All participants had clinical psychologist registration and ranged in experience of five to
ten years for the females and ten to fifteen years for males. Age range for the female and
Participants for both sample groups were only accepted to participate after informed
consent had been given [see appendix three]. R eceiving informed consent from each
45
Procedures
Over fifty therapists from the Tauranga region were contacted either via phone or email.
Each was given a small explanation of the research including its objectives and asked if
they would like to participate as a participant [in group a]. Those who demonstrated an
interest were then sent/emailed an information sheet [see appendix one] and an informed
consent form [see appendix three]. Prospecti ve partic ipants were asked to respond to the
researcher with a time and location of their choice to carry out the semi-structured
Individual thirty minute interviews were conducted at the designated time and location.
Participants were given the opportunity to talk freely about their opinions and beliefs
collected from the interviews were taken in note form by the researcher.
Interviews with Participants from Group A continued to be carried out until saturation of
eighteen. However the researcher continued with the interview process to maintain the
saturation effect was present. Twenty two interviews were completed in total.
46
This would aid in the construction of a foundation, of how motivation is viewed within
psychotherapy were of most interest. These were teased out from the vast amounts of
literature on motivation. The information was grouped into categories [see results section
a]. The common themes from the participant discussion s were pulled out. These themes
were coupled with the psychological themes from the literature review to form the Q set.
The Q set contained statements (N=50) pertaining to motivation. The Q set was
forwarded to the researcher' s supervisor and another colleague for review. This was done
present. The chosen statements were then printed individually onto white cards and
randomly numbered ready for presentation to the second sample group [P set].
The P set participants were recruited through a snowball effect. The first participant was
a clinical psychologist known to the researcher. Upon completion of their own Q sort, the
participant contacted several of his colleagues. Each potential participant was informed of
the research objectives and sent an information sheet [see appendix two]. Clinicians who
Clinicians who were registered and practicing in an occupation which included daily use
of motivational tools met the criteria to participant. These clinicians were invited to
participant and individual interview times and locations to meet were organized.
47
Each participant agreed to complete the Q sort in their respective office. Each participant
was given the Q-sort cards and an instruction sheet [see appendix five]. Participants were
asked to sort the cards into three piles, agree, neutral and disagree. The amount of cards
in each pile was tallied. The total number of cards in each pile was recorded in the
The participants were then asked to rank the cards according to what they most agreed
with to least agreed with, in accordance to the quasi-normal di stribution pattern of the
score sheet. The distribution pattern of statements for scoring in this research adhered to
the normal range of distribution for Q methodology. This is relatively fl at with a range of
-5 to +5 (Brown , 1993).
This type of distribution was chosen because the participants had relativity strong and
educated opinions about motivation. This type of pattern allowed their strong opinions to
Number of statements:
2 3 4 5 7 8 7 5 4 3 2
Respondent Ranking:
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +I +2 +3 +4 +5
Finished distribution:
-5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 +I +2 +3 +4 +5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +I +2 +3 +4 +5
-4 -3 -2 -I 0 +I +2 +3 +4
-3 -2 -1 0 +I +2 +3
-2 -1 0 +I +2
-I 0 +I
-1 0 +I
0
48
Upon completion of the distribution pattern the number written on each statement card
was recorded in the corresponding distribution box on the score sheet. The participants
were asked why they placed those particular cards at each extreme end of the distribution .
There responses were recorded. A discussion between the researcher and the participant
was conducted to asses: I) their views on the statements and 2) whether they thought
there was anything they would add , to further enhance the meaning of motivation as a
construct.
The recorded data collected from the individua l Q sorts were then subjected to data
analysis. The data analysis for this project used the software package PQMethod 2. 11.
The PQMethod 2.11 is a statistical analysis programme designed to meet the needs of
analysis for Q Methodology. An overview of Q method and its processes has been
written by Stephen Brown ( l 980 & 1993). This was used to assist in the analysis and
49
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
Participant Group A
The review of both popular and academic literature on motivation including motivation
The results from group A interviews produced a collection of opinions in motivation and
demonstrates the participant number and their opinions surrounding motivation. The
corresponding statement number in the Q set is in the right hand column. The statement
numbers which were negatively associated to the motivational themes are noted in
parenthesis.
50
Table Two: Group A participants interview results.
Interview
Results Participant Group A
i
Participant
No: Motivational Themes Statement No:
34,20
Client attendance in therapy = motivation
1 Motivation is an unconscious process 1, 10
Motivation is a conscious process 2 ,10
Motivation is engagement in the therapeutic
Process 18
Internal processes affect external output 44, 38, 26, 3, 4 ,
Motivation is thoughts and feelings = action 5, 33 , 42, 10, 40,
Attendance in therapy, demonstrates motivation 34,20
People not motivated by rational reasons 12, (16)
Motivational choices are based on needs 19, 37
Client pathology is determinant of client motivation 49, 38
51
Motivation in clients is detected
In verbal language (23), 27
Client pathology can affect motivation 38
Clients are motivated when they have insight 25, 27 42, (45)
into their problems
Motivation is the want to do, the will to
change and the ability to do so 17, 41
Mental barriers are determinants of motivation 33, 40, 49
Motivation is a having a rationale and purpose 16, 32, 12
Motivation is goal orientated 7, (9)
Pleasure and pain are drivers towards change 15, 19, 47
Motivated clients have the drive towards
Something different 3, 4, 19, 27
Past experiences will affect future behaviour 31 , 26, 46
Motivation is the want, will desire and
Ability to act 17, 41
52
6 Cont. External factors affect motivation 1, 19, 26, (28), 38
Internal factors affect motivation 2, 19,27, 38,43, 44
Clients pathology determinant of motivation 23, 38,44
Motivation is the confidence and self esteem
to change & move toward difference 25, 37
Motivation is the changing of states 8, 29, 37, 38
53
1Q Motivation is having a passion for life 25, (9), 35,
Motivation is being engaged with ones
Environment 25, (9)
Motivation is affected by spiritual and physical
health 19, 38
Motivation is future orientated 31
Motivation is goal orientated 7
Motivation is an energization
and action towards a change 26,29 , 48, 50
Motivation is affected by past experiences 26, 38,46
Introspection is a determinant of motivation 25, 27
Motivation changes due to external pressures 23, 26, (28)
Motivation changes throughout therapeutic
processes 8, 13, (45)
Internal expressions affect external motivated
behaviour 27,44, 47
54
Motivated clients exhibit this in their actions
and behaviours i.e. Repeat apt 20, 34
Can establish motivational levels with client
through discussion 23
Motivation is an action source 30, 36, (9)
Motivation is some form of movement 6?, (9), 29
Motivation is goal orientated 7, (9)
Motivation is working towards change 29, 32
Motivation is the need to explore difference
and the want to maintain it 37, 42
Motivation does change throughout therapy 8, 13, 45
Personal & spiritual health are determinants
for motivation 19, 38, 49
The focus of the therapist is to develop
motivation in the client 14, (45)
Client psychopathology affects motivation 38, 49
External influences most damaging to
clients motivation to change 26
55
.11 Motivation is goal directed 7, (9)
Motivation is future orientated 31, (9)
Motivation is having a belief that change is
possible
Clients dreams, emotions and insights effect
motivational levels 35, 38 , 43
Therapist interaction does not influence
clients motivation
(14), (45)
Past history and experiences will effect
future motivation 26 , 31 , 38,46?
Physical & spiritual health play vital role in
motivation of client 17, 38,49
A client who have no idea of the future has
little or no motivation ( 16), (25), (27)
Client psychopathology will affect motivation 49, 38
56
16 Motivation is a conscious recognition of a
problem or discomfort
and movement to relieve it 1, 12, 16, 33 , 40, 42,
motivated clients will have introspection 25
Motivation is client and situation specific {9}, (23)
Motivation is the ability change to met needs (9) , 19, 37
Motivation is the energy to do something 6, (9),
Motivation is the wish/drive to do something 3, 4, (9), 39
Motivation is the recognition of reaction from
the body that action is needed 12, 16, 19, 25, 32, 33
Motivation is needed at onset of therapy but
most needed to maintain new
behaviour 18, 20, 45
The therapeutic alliance builds strength in the
client, which perpetuates motivation (45)
Motivation will change throughout therapy 8, 13
Motivation is an example of fight or flight
processes 15, 19, 36,47
Building motivation in clients for therapy
can raise ethical implications (14), (45),
Motivation is goal focused and progress RF (9), 21 , 46
57
~ Cultural difference can be a factor in client
motivation (23), (28), 38
Family background and experience can alter
clients motivational levels (23), 26, 31, 47, 46,
Cultural traditions can affect client motivation
i.e. males cannot seem weak (23), (28), 47
External factors key in understanding clients
therapy levels 4, (23) , 26, (28),
Motivation is an action process 15, 30, 36
Motivation is not a verbal process, actions
louder than words 11, 30, 34
Motivation is an action and reaction process 15, 30, 36
cultural clients may have different perceptions
of motivation and motivational
factors 22, (23),
58
Motivation is conscious engagement 1, 32,36
Motivation changes in clients depending on
their life phases 8, 13, 26
Societal norms are a constraint on motivation 28
motivation is the energy or 'force' the gives an
individual insight towards difference 6, 25, 42
Motivation is the action and energization
towards something different 6, 30, 36, 44 , 48, 50,
Motivation comes from Latin word meaning to
move 29,
Motivation in an deep feeling/cognition from
within . 5, 10, 33, 40
Emotion , will , mind and body all components
of motivation 5, 10, 33, 38, 42, 49
Clients identify on an unconscious level
That conscious engagement is
necessary to alleviate discomfort 1, 2, 10, 27, 33, 42
The mind, body, sprit and emotions play a vital
role in motivation in therapy 10, 33, 38, 40, 43,49
Predominate categories from the literature review were collaborated with the results from
the group A interviews. Resulting in a set of 50 statements [see appendix seven]. This set
59
Results/or Participants of Group B
The results from the individual Q sorts are displayed in Table 3. The numbers in the
distribution are those numbers on the cards which correspond with the statement number.
Participant o: 2:
9 18 25 45 I 36 42 15 37 8 49
4 28 14 20 10 34 40 26 Il 13 38
32 27 12 6 5 33 19 22 41
23 35 50 31 2 24 39
29 44 30 21 17
16 46 7
43 47 3
48
Participant No: 3:
47 9 28 2 7 45 35 16 42 13 33
23 4 48 25 6 I 39 38 41 32 18
19 49 44 14 50 8 40 3 27
15 12 46 5 36 34 37
24 30 21 26 29
20 43 22
17 10 ll
31
60
Participant No: 4:
15 2 5 23 11 35 34 40 33 32 41
47 3 43 25 29 49 31 18 36 46 13
4 6 50 9 16 8 39 10 21
14 27 45 20 17 7 42
22 37 38 24 l
48 28 19
12 44 30
26
Participant No: 5:
28 36 22 35 11 45 20 31 49 13 8
9 23 24 27 6 15 48 33 50 39 41
30 I 7 2 14 38 5 3 17
12 18 34 40 44 46 29
25 10 47 21 37
16 43 32
26 42 4
19
Participant No: 6:
9 45 29 28 35 31 50 20 8 13
14 23 2 5 I 26 34 41 49 18 48
4 22 11 43 15 38 39 46 33
17 24 6 25 37 LO 21
44 19 16 27 42
40 36 32
30 12 7
47
Participant number one ' most' agreed with statements number eight and thirteen .
Statement number thirteen (clients motivation can change throughout the therapeutic
process) and statement number eight (motivation is an ongoing changing process), both
correspond with each other. Participant number one believed these were the most
important statements because "motivation is a dynamic state, which changes over time.
61
Participant one disagreed most with statement number nine (clients are motivated by a
single determinant). This statement is the opposite of statements number eight and
thirteen. Therefore it is understandable that this statement would not have meaning to the
client) was selected as most disagreeable also. There reason for this was because they
Statement number nine showed up consistently for all participants as a 'most disagree'.
Participant number four was the only one who differed . They ranked this statement at a -1
on the scale. Participant four believed this statement to be a more neutral statement. Thus
motivation.
Statement number forty one (motivation is the willingness to engage in a process that will
lead to change) also made a notable presence across the Q sorts. It was commonly placed
in the high agreement categories. All participants agreed that a willingness to engage in a
Factor Analysis:
Factor analysis for a Q sort differs from traditional quantitative methods of analysis. For
analysis, the factors are groupings of statements, which the participants view as
important.
62
The levels of (dis)agreement between the overall participant's opinions are demonstrated
Table four.
Correlation Matrix of all Q Sorts:
Participant No:
2 3 4 5 6
100 46 61 31 46 37
2 46 100 20 24 49 37
3 61 20 100 46 31 46
4 31 24 46 100 16 44
5 46 49 31 16 100 43
6 37 37 46 44 43 100
Participants one and three have a high similarity in there scoring, indicating a general
sense of agreement between the two. Participants number two and five also have a
notable similarity between their opinions on motivation. Participants two and three have
an extremely low correlation of similarity between them. This trend is repeated with
participants two and four. The strong sense of disagreement is especially notable between
Participant four demonstrated a strong disagreement with all other participants' opinions;
expect for number three and four. Participant six has a borderline sense of agreement
63
This matrix correlation demonstrates an overall lack of agreement between participants.
The un-rotated factor matrix produced up to six factors. A principal component factor
analysis was completed on each of the six factors. Eigenvalues steadily declined with
each added factor (see table jive). Therefore it was decided to complete further analysis
on factors one, two and three. Factors four, five and six were dropped at this point due to
their lack of significance. The removal of the final three factors does not in any way
Eigenvalues:
2.3543 0.4592 0.1946 0.33 10 0.1789 0. 125 8
% exp!. Variance:
39 8 3 6 3 2
The un-rotated factor matrix shows high correlations with all participants upon factor
one. The correlations scores between participant and factors steadily decrease with each
added factor. Most participants demonstrate an agreement with the statements grouped
together in factor one. Factor two and three do not demonstrate any real notable
correlations with the participants. Participant four demonstrated a consistently low sense
64
Table Six: Un-Rotated Factor Matrix
Factors: 1 2 3
Participant: 1 0.7344 -0.1081 0.0154
2 0.5551 -0.3528 0.2059
3 0.6666 0.2041 0.0558
4 0.4994 0.4024 0.3580
5 0.5912 -0.3065 0.1398
6 0.6809 0.1599 0.0334
Rotation across factors was completed to arrive at a final set of factors. Rotation for the
purpose of this study was kept objective. Factors were rotated according to the ·varimax·
principle. The factors were rotated approximately to the angle of -40. Rotation did not
affect the results of the indi vidual Q-sort, nor the relationship between Q-sorts.
Rotation across factors enabled a different perspective in the way the results are viewed.
The resulting factors represent a collection of the individual viewpoints exhibited by the
participants. Statements that were highly correlated and shared agreements of importance
that particular factor. Table seven demonstrates the distinguishing statements for each
factor.
65
Table Seven: Distinguishing statements f or each factor [P<.05; (*) indicates sign{ficance at P<.01}
Distinguishing Statements for Factor One: Ft F2 F3
Statement No RANK Score RANK Score RANK Score
5 Motivation is an emotion and feeling 4 1.49 -I -0.18 I 0.51
4 Motivation is a drive/force outside client 4 1.45* -4 - 1.40 0 -0.16
15 Fear is a strong moti vator .. . 3 1.23* -4 - 1.44 0 -0.07
47 Moti vation is maintained/aroused by fear 3 I .23* -5 -l.92 0 -0.07
14 Therapists primary focus is on
client motivation 2 0.88* -2 -0.68 -1 -0.39
43 Motivation is an emotional reaction
of the body towards a difference 2 0.77 -I -0.44 0 -0.08
2 Clients moti vation is at an
unconscious level 0.72* -3 -I.I -2 -0.60
41 Motivation is the willingness to engage
In a process leading to change 0.45* 5 2.10 5 1.95
6 Moti vati on is the process of
energy exchange 0.42 -2 -0.80 -2 -0.55
13 Clients motivation can change
Throughout therapeutic process 0 0.05* 5 2.21 4 1.81
33 Moti vation affects clients
thought process 0 -0.1 6* 4 1.89 3 1.01
46 Moti vation is maintained aroused by RF -1 -0.37 2 0.61 2 0.90
32 A moti vated client will have a purpose -I -0.67* 4 1.67 I 0.48
21 Motivation for clients is reward dri ven -2 -0.72* 2 0.72 I 0.53
23 Different cultures do not exhibit
moti vation differently to others -2 -0 .79 -5 -2.00 -4 -1 .78
42 Moti vation is the cognitive acceptance
of the need to action change -2 -0.80 3 1.15 I 0 .19
10 Motivati on is a thought process -1 -1.14 0.1 3 0 -0.1 8
18 ln order for client to engage in therapy,
they must be motivated -3 -1.30 4 1.22 -1 -0.46
36 Motivation is an action source -5 -2.1 3 0 0.15 -4 -1.29
The distingui shing statements for factor one propose that constructs such as emotion,
feelings and fear, are important concepts to consider whilst defining motivation. Factor
one further proposes that motivation is an unconscious process that needs to be a primary
Distinguishing statements for this factor place a focus on the internal process of an
66
However, the second distinguishing statement sits out of place with this factor. The
client. The fits with other statements further down the factors ranks which are more
compatible with this statement. For example, the statements which incorporate theories of
motivation of an individual.
Table Ei hi:
Distinguishing Statements for Factor Two: FI F2 F3
The distingu ishing statements for factor two maintain motivation to be a process that
67
Fear and reinforcement present themselves as significant statements for this factor.
external drives leading to action. The mind, body, spirit and feelings of the individual
perpetuate an energization towards change. This factor differs from the first due to its
focus on external drivers. Fear and re inforcement are major components of motivation [in
this factor] , reacting in a thought process that leads to energization, purpose and
Table Nine:
Distinguishing Statements for Factor Three: FI F2 F3
Statement No RANK Score RA K Score RANK Score
4 Motivation is a drive/ force operating
outside the client 4 1.45 -4 -1.40 0 -1.1 6*
47 Motivation is maintained/aroused
by fear 3 1.23 -5 -1.92 0 -0.07*
3 Fear is a strong motivator for
psychotherapy 3 1.23 -4 -1.44 0 -0.07*
33 Motivation affects clients thought
Process 0 -1 .16 4 1.89 3 I.OJ *
32 A moti vated client will have purpose -I -0.67 4 1.67 0.48*
42 Moti vation is the cognitive acceptance
of the need to action change -2 -0.80 3 1.15 0 .19
Factor three has the least amount of statements in this factor. This factor highlights the
motivation. Thought processes, purpose and cognitive acceptance are of high importance.
However, as was seen in factor one and factor two, external drive/force, fear and
reinforcement still are a major presence and are considered the significant statements for
this factor.
68
There are a number of statements which are deemed non-significant according to this
factor analysis. These statements did not share in any form of agreement (of importance)
by the participants according to the groupings of the first three factors. These statements
do not distinguish between any pair of factors. All statements were viewed as non-
significant [at P>.OIJ and those flagged with an (*) are also non-significant (at p> .05].
69
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
This exploratory research was designed to address the ambiguity surrounding motivation
and to build conceptual clarity. In addition, this research aimed to build a definition of
motivation that wou ld be relevant for use amongst psychologists and psychotherapists.
who use it frequentl y in psychological practice that included clinicians, counselors and
psychotherapists.
For the purpose of this discussion, the main findings of this research will be discussed.
implications. The limitations of this research will be discussed and will be followed by
This exploratory research demonstrates the number of theories of motivation that have
been proposed by theori sts in an attempt to clarify motivation as a construct. Given the
definitions that have arisen trying to combat this conceptual confusion. This research
provides evidence that there is a conceptual confusion debate. In that, the theories
proposed have not yielded conclusive results that would aid in clear understanding of
70
These findings are further supported by Rosenbaum and Horowitz ( 1983), whom
maintain that the new research, theories and definitions of motivation only contribute to
this confusion. This confusion not only affects motivation for psychotherapy, but
motivation in general.
Hypothesis one posed the question: Will the opinions of Clinic ian and Therapist on
motivation as construct in psychotherapy, differ? The data collected from the interviews
favor that therapists definitions do differ. In that, there is a large discrepancy in opinions
provided further support that there is large array of opinions between therapists in the
Although there were notable individual disagreements between therapists, there was an
which will change throughout therapy. This finding is supported by Prochaska and
Prochaska (1982), Appelbaum (1972) and Drieschner et al., (2004). This finding
71
This will begin to elevate confusion and perpetuate a definition that is relevant and useful
to the target field (Pintrich, 2000). This research finding supports the use of ' motivation
to change' as the sub-con struct, to explain the type of motivation being referred too
(Swanson & Woolson, 1973; Wallach, 1963; Rosenbaum & Horowitz, 1983), whilst
The results from the participants of group 8 provided further support towards the general
disagreement that occurs between therapists on motivation. There was some sense of
agreement between participants one and three. However, there was more notable
this lack of agreement between participants. Each participant had a varied opinion on
what motivation is and what determinants should be incorporated when defining the
construct.
Therefore what is motivation? Hypothesis two posed the question, that to define
clinicians. The result from the Q sort proposed three clear factors. These factors are
psychotherapy.
72
Factor one proposes motivation as a feeling and is emotion based. Motivation according
of the body, purpose and thought, are also significant concepts for this factor. Motivated
clients will be ' willing' to engage in the process of therapy. This will be demonstrated in
their thought process leading to the energization of the body towards change.
Motivation as an internal process aligns itself with the regulatory approach to motivation.
Under this approach the body is believed to work towards maintaining a state of
homeostasis. A deficit or discomfort is registered within the nerves centers and expressed
as a feeling or emotion. The body will then seek to alleviate the distress/discomfort and
restore homeostasis (Beck, 2004). Internal feelings such as emotion and fear produce an
energization within the body that produces thoughts towards change. This is factor one.
The cl inicians of participant group B (P set) have favorable correlations with this factor.
This demonstrates their agreement towards thi s factor. Participants one, three and six
found this factor most favorable. Participants two and five demonstrated notable
similarities in agreement of over fifty percent. Participant four as discussed in the results
section found this factor the most favorable. However, participant four was the lowest in
73
The second factor proposes that motivation is an external process. Motivation presents as
an action that occurs on a conscious level in response to external stimuli. This factor is
conducive towards William James theory of moti vat ion. This theory of motivation
proposes that action is a reaction to the mani festation of pleasure and pain responses.
Referred to as ' springs of action' (Reeves, 2005). Activation of an individual 's instinct is
behaviour and pain a strong inhibitor of behaviour. Thi s is a circular theory and therefore
Approach and avoidance motivation theory is the modern view of James 's theory (Elliot,
2008 ; Elliot & Dweck, 2005). As has been explai ned above, approach motivation is
(Lewin, l 935). This theory places its emphasis on the energization of the body.
Incorporating the individual's ability to engage towards a task. This view of motivation
able to explain why clients may engage or avoid certain aspects of psychotherapy. Thus,
it provides therapists with a way of understanding how their clients are motivated. If they
are motivated by external circumstances, then the type of intervention can be tailored to
74
Fear and reinforcement were also considered as distinguishing concepts for this factor.
This finding gives further support towards the behavioural perspective being the most
recognized and used theory of motivation, withi n psychotherapy. The behavioural theory
environmental events and stimuli. The stimul i can be either external or internal.
occurring (Schunk et al., 2008; Martin & Pear, 2003). This approach to motivation is
applicable for use in psychotherapy because behav iour can be measured. Therefore the
accordingly. Participants agreed with thi s factor, maintaining this was a favorable way of
The third factor proposes motivation as a cognitive process. Thought processes and
cognitive acceptance are of high importance to this factor. Although thi s factor
demonstrated the least amount of agreement from participants. It was still a notable
The cognitive theory maintains individuals motivate themselves and direct their
behaviour through the exercise of forethought. Introspection is the foundation for this
approach (Jung, 1978). The significance of this theory is represented by the results
demonstrated in this factor. Fear and reinforcement were also considered distinguishing
statements for this factor. Maintaining the notion that motivation is viewed strongly as a
behavioural response.
75
The findings for this research support a multifaceted approach to motivation. The
behaviourist approach towards motivation was present in each of the defining statements
for each factor. Approach and avoidance theory, and cognitive theory were also viewed
This finding is complimentary to Hyland 's research. Hyland (1988) proposed that there
are four major components that make up the majority of theories on motivation. These
components were grouped together according to their emp irical research base and basic
theoretical approaches. These four approaches incorporate action and approach, goal
behaviour. The factors perpetuated by thi s research support Hyland in his theory in all
areas except for goal setting. The resulting factors do not pl ace an importance on goal
setting as a determinant for motivation. Participants of this study differed from Hyland
slightl y.
The findings indicate that the participants view motivation as an internal process. The
Emotional processes and the feelings clients attribute to them, provide the self
76
Motivation is an internal process fu eled by emotions that energize action of the
body at a conscious level. The thought processes of an ind ividual ignite a purpose
action will perpetuate future action. Negative reinforcement of thi s action w ill
In summary, these findings demonstrate that there is vast conceptual confusion sounding
psychology and psychotherapy will begin a movement towards the development of new
comprehensive theories, which will provide the foundation for new treatments and
treatment measures. These new treatments and measures will be based on clear concise
definitions that will promote greater communication between patient and clinician. This
will in turn help patients to understand their motivational pattern as they engage in
treatment process, when their emotions are valued and their actions are favorably
reinforced. Interventions which perpetuate unfavorable feelings and responses from the
client will decrease the motivation and in turn a limit a potentially favorable therapeutic
outcome.
77
This proposed definition will also be usefu l for the current literature on motivation. This
exploratory research will provide the foundation for fu ture research which aims to
remove the ambiguity surrounding motivation. This research will hopefully be the
beginning of a literature debate focusing on what motivation is, and how it affect clients
engaged in psychotherapy.
Limitations
These findings have implications for generalizing the results to a larger population.
Motivational opinions are subjective beliefs, many of which are individually based and
not transferable to another (Swanson & Woolson , 1978). Future research would be
beneficial with a larger sample of literature and participants, to provide further evidence
Several non distinguishable statements are presented in table eight. These statements
were non distinguishable towards any factor. Although these statements did not associate
with any factor, they are noted to be important whilst defining motivation due to their
significant values. The inclusion of a fourth factor may have given further evidence
towards these statements having a greater impact towards motivation. The lack of a forth
The use of Q Methodology was chosen for this research due to it ability to examine the
research.
78
Though this methodology has been used for decades, the use of Q Method in this research
A replication of the above research would be beneficial. This would provide further
motivation is and how does one define it. Any replication of this research should
incorporate a larger sample size to give strength to the generalization of findings across
the population of clinicians. This research is valuable, but can not be generalized to an
There is a need for further research to focus on the possibility of compiling several
motivational theories would support the view proposed by this research that motivation is
multifaceted. This universal theory would offer further cohesion in research and
understanding between clinicians and the general public would also be beneficial. This
would be important research to the field of psychotherapy because it would reduce the
79
This would aid in clarifying the communication between the therapist and client on
' motivation to change' . Clear communication would enable the client to understand what
differences. Including focusing on the possibility that males may view motivation
Conclusion
individual is prompted towards a change in their current state. The ambiguity surrounding
motivation has lead to the construction of a range of differing theories and definitions of
the construct. Motivational measures have been constructed on different definitions and
theories of motivation. This lack of conceptual clarity perpetuates measures that are low
in validity and cross val idity (Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Different measures will asses
Whilst there is a vast amount of research on motivation which may seem conclusive.
Researchers must consider that analysis of one type of motivational phenomena will
Motivation is not a unitary construct. All motivational determinants have the same impact
and enter into the same laws for each individual (Littman, 1958).
80
The history of psychological and motivational research has demonstrated that motivation
This type of research has not previously been carried out in thi s format. Although
researchers have commented on the need for conceptual clarity (Murphy & Alexander,
2000; Pintrich 2000; Rosenbaum & Horowitz, 1983 ; Drieschner, et al., 2004), research of
therapist's opinion on the construct has not been completed. A number of suggestions
have been given for possible future research. The future recommendation of replication
81
REFERENCES
Gilford Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). The exercise of control. USA: W.H. Freeman & Co.
Bandura, A., & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited.
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Brogan, M. M., Prochaska, J. 0., & Prochaska, J.M. (1999). Predicting
91-138.
www.facstaff.uww.edu/cottlec/QArchive/Bps.htm .
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Colman, A. M. (2003). Oxford dictionary ofpsychology. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological
Dennis, K . E., & Goldberg, A. P. ( 1986). Weight control self-efficacy types and
transitions affect weight loss in obese woman. Addictive Behaviours, 21, I 03-116.
Drieschner, K H., Lammers, S. MM., & van der Staak, C. P. F. (2004). Treatment
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values and goals. Annual
84
Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (2005). Handbook of motivation and competence.
Ellis, R. D., & Newton, N. (2000). The caldron of consciousness: motivation, affect
and self organization ( 16th ed .). Amsterdam Netherlands: John Benja min
Publishing Co.
344-347.
85
Keijsers, G. P. J., Schaap, C. P. D.R., Hoogduin, C. A. L., Hoogsteyns, B., & de
Concepts, approaches and assessment. England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Lambert, M. J. (Ed .). (2004). Bergin and Garfield 's handbook of behavioural change
th
(5 ed .). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Littman, R. A. (1958). Motives, history and causes. Jn Arkes, H. R., & Garske, J.P.
Printing Company.
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2003). Behaviour modification; what is it and how to do it
86
Miller, W.R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing (2 nd ed.). New
Plant, R. W. & Ryan, R. ( 1985). Intrinsic motivation and the effects of self-
87
Prochaska, J. 0., & Di Clemente, C. 0. (1982). Transtheoretical therapy: Toward a
th
PQMethod 2.11. (2002). PQ Method. Retrieved 20 June 2008, from:
\\ \\ \\ .pqmcthod.htm.
PQMethod 2.11 Manual. (2002). Q Method Manual. Retrieved 20th June 2008,
20(3), 346-354.
88
Schunk, D., Pintrich, P., & Meece, J. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory,
Prentice Hall.
89
Weiner, B. ( 1972). Theories of motivation: From mechanism to cognition. Chicago:
Willingham, D. B., (200 I). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River,
Zelick, P.R. (Ed.). (2007) Issues in the psychology of motivation. New York: Nova
90
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
My name is Rebecca Leith and I am currently enrolled in the Masters Degree at Massey University. The
following research is being completed as part of the requirements of the thesis component of the degree.
As a working therapist in New Zealand your input and opinions are valued and l would like to take this
opportunity to invite you to participate in this research.
Moti vation and moti vational assessment too ls are widely used in areas such as weight loss, education,
counseling and psychotherapy. However each theo ry and assessment tools used in these disciplines are
generated from different perspectives of motivation as a construct leading to conceptual confusion. This is
espec ially so within the psychotherapy community. Whilst many models, assessment tool s and theori es
have been developed, how therapi sts view moti vation as a construct has been overlooked. My research
focus is to gain insight into how motivation is understood by therapists and therefore how it should be
de fined as a construct for psychotherapy. The opinions of therapists will be compared against motivatio na l
theori es from the literature, providing us with insight into how motivati on is understood by therapists and
therefore how it should be defined as a construct for psychotherapy.
I am looking for therapi sts to take part in a 30-40 minute interv iew. Questi ons will focus on parti cipants'
o pinions o f motivation within the psychotherapy field. Participants will be asked a series of open questions
and asked to reply according to their opinions of motivati on. Questions such as: What is your
understanding of motivation as it is used in psychotherapy? Can you give me an example?
o identi fy data is being soug ht for thi s research. If you are interested in being a participant, the researcher
will arrange a suitable time w ith you to complete the interview.
Please note that you are under no obligation to accept thi s invitation. lf you decide to participate, you have
the right to:
• decline to answer any particular question;
• withdraw fro m the study (specify timeframe);
• ask any questions about the study at any time during participatio n;
• provide information on the understanding that your name will not be used
• be given access to a summary of the project findings when it is concluded.
For further information please feel free to contact either myself or my s upervisor on
Thanking you in advance for your time and consideration of participation in this research. If you would like
to receive results of the completed study, please indicate on the spaces provided on yo ur questionnaire.
Rebecca Leith
This project has been reviewed and approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee:
Northern, Application MUHECN 08/056. If you have any concerns about the conduct of this research,
please contact Dr Denise Wilson, Chair, Massey University Human Ethics Committee: Northern, telepho ne
09 414 0800 x9070, email hurnanethicsnorth amassc-...ac.n1.
91
APPENDIXB
1NFORMATI0N SHEET FOR PARTIC1PANT GROUP B
My name is Rebecca Leith and [ am currently enrolled in the Masters Degree at Massey University. The
following research is being completed as part of the requirements of the thesis component of the degree.
As a working therapist in New Zealand your input and opinions are valued and I would like to take this
opportunity to invite you to participate in this research .
Motivation and motivational assessment tools are widely used in areas such as weight loss, education,
counseling and psychotherapy. However each theory and assessment tools used in these disciplines are
generated from different perspectives of motivation as a construct leading to conceptual confusion. This is
especially so within the psychotherapy community. Whilst many models, assessment tools and theories
have been developed, how therapists view motivation as a construct has been overlooked. My research
focus is to gain insight into how motivation is understood by therapists and therefore how it should be
defined as a construct for psychotherapy. The opinions of therapists will be compared against motivational
theories from the literature, providing us with insight into how motivation is understood by therapists and
therefore how it should be defined as a construct for psychotherapy.
I am looking for therapists to take part in a 45 minute Q Sort. The participants of the Q sort will be given a
series of 50 statements [printed on randomly numbered cards] about motivation in psychotherapy.
Therapists will be asked to rank-order the statements/cards from most agree to disagree and record their
choices on a provided score sheet. I am interested in your opinion [as a therapist] of motivation and your
experience with the process and tools associated with motivation in daily practice
No identify data is being sought for this research. If you are interested in being a participant, the researcher
will arrange a suitable time with you to complete the Q sort procedure.
Please note that you are under no obligation to accept this invitation. If you decide to participate, yo u have
the right to:
• decline to answer any particular question ;
• withdraw from the study (specify timeframe);
• ask any questions about the study at any time during participation;
• provide information on the understanding that your name will not be used
• be given access to a summary of the project findings when it is concluded.
For further information please feel free to contact either myself or my supervisor on
Thanking you in advance for your time and consideration of participation in this research. If you would like
to receive results of the completed study, please indicate on the spaces provided on your questionnaire.
Rebecca Leith
This project has been reviewed and approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee:
Northern, Application MUHECN 08/056. If you have any concerns about the conduct of this research,
please contact Dr Denise Wilson, Chair, Massey University Human Ethics Committee: Northern, telephone
09 414 0800 x9070, email [email protected]
92
APPENDIXC
I have read the Information Sheet and have had the details of the study explained to me. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction , and I understand that I may ask further
I agree to participate in this study under the conditions set out in the Information Sheet.
Signature: Date:
93
APPENDIXD
2. How many years have you been involved with clients/patient therapy?
4. How would you define motivation as it is used in your day to day interaction with
your clients? Can you give me an example?
7. How would you identify motivation within your clients? Can you give me an
example
8. Do you believe motivation within a person is something that can change? Can you
explain?
Any further comments you would like to add that you may think is important for me
to consider whilst researching motivation within psychotherapy.
Would you like to receive further information about this research (including the final
results) email address: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
94
APPENDIXE
PARTICIPANT NUMBER: - - - - - - - -
These instructions will guide you through the Q scoring process step by step. Please read
each step to the end before you start carrying it out.
I. Ensure you have the score sheet and a full set of cards before you commence. Lay
down the score sheet in front of you. All 50 cards in the deck contain a statement
about motivation. Could you please rank-order these statements from your own
point of view. My question to you is "To what extent do you agree with the
following statements". The numbers on the cards have been assigned to the cards
randomly and are only relevant for the administration of your response.
3. Read the 50 statements carefully and split them up into three piles: a pile for
statements you tend to disagree with, a pile for cards you tend to agree with and a
pile for cards you neither agree nor disagree with, or that are not relevant or
applicable to you. Please use the three boxes "A GREE', "NEUTRAL OR NOT
RELEVANT" and DISAGREE" at the bottom right of the score sheet. Just to be
clear I am interested in your point of view. Therefore, there are not right or wrong
answers. When you have finished laying down the cards in the three boxes on the
score sheet, count the number of cards in each pile and write down this number in
the corresponding box. Please check whether the numbers entered in the three
boxes add up to 50.
4. Take the cards from the " AGREE" pile and read them again. Select the two
statements you most agree with for motivation and place them in the two boxes on
the right of the score sheet, below the "9" . Next, from the remaining cards in the
deck, select the three statements you most agree and place them in the three boxes
below the "8". Follow this procedure for the cards from the "AGREE" pile.
95
5. Now take the cards from the "DI SAGREE" pi le and read them again. Just like
before select the two statements you most di sagree w ith for motivation and place
them in the last two boxes on the left of the score sheet, below the "I " . Follow
this procedure for all the cards from the "DI SAGREE" pile.
6. Finally, take the remaining cards and read them again. Arrange the cards in the
remaining open boxes of the score sheet.
7. When you have placed all the cards on the score sheet, please go over your
distribution once more and shift cards if you want to .
8. Please explain why you agree most with the two statements you have place below
the "+5 ".
CARDNO:
CARDNO:
9. Please explain why you disagree most with the two statements you have placed
below "-5" .
CARDNO:
CARDNO:
IO. When you are finished, please write down the number of the cards in the boxes
you placed them on .
Thank you for your time and participation on my research. If you would like to receive
further information about this research or my final results, please leave your email
address below. Email: - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- --
96
WHAT JS MOTIVATION? B UILDING CONCEPTUA L CLARITY
APPENDIX F
Score Sheet for Q Sort
RESPONDANT NUMBER:- -
MOST MOST
DISAGREE AGREE
[ -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 +I +2 +3 +4 +5
DDDDDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDDD
DDDDDDD Disagree
DDDDD Count:
ODD Agree
Count: - - -
D Relevant
APPENDJXG
Statements for the Q Set
I. Motivation for a client manifests at a conscious level.
2. Motivation for a client manifests at an unconscious level.
3. Motivation is a drive within the client.
4. Motivation is a drive/force operating outside the client.
5. Motivation is an emotion and a feeling.
6. Motivation is a process of energy exchange.
7. Motivation is goal orientated.
8. Motivation is an ongoing changing process .
9. Clients are motivated by a single determinant.
10. Motivation is a thought process.
11. Motivation is a change of behaviour towards a new behaviour.
12. Clients are motivated towards psychotherapy by rational reasons.
13. Client' s motivation can change throughout the therapeutic process.
14. The level of motivation a client demonstrates is the primary focu s of the therapist.
15. Fear is a strong motivator for psychotherapy.
16. A motivated client has both rationale and purpose for change.
17. Motivation is the want, will, desire to change something and the ability to carry it
out.
18. In order for a client to engage in the therapeutic process they must be motivated .
19. Motivation to change is driven by basic biological needs i.e. hunger, thirst, shelter.
20. Commitment and willingness to follow through, best defines moti vation.
21. Motivation for clients is reward driven.
22. Defining motivation as it is viewed in psychotherapy is critical for effective therapy.
23. Different cultures do not exhibit motivation differently to each other.
24. Motivation is a learned behaviour.
25 . A motivated client will have a strong sense of self awareness.
26. Trauma and crisis play a large role in motivation of clients.
27. A motivated client has insight into their reason(s) for seeking a difference in their
life.
28. Client motivation in not constrained by societal norms.
29. Motivation is a movement from one existence to another.
30. Motivation is a process of action from an organism.
31. A client' s motivation is attributed to past successes or failures.
32. A motivated client will have a purpose.
33. Motivation affects a client's thought process.
34. Motivation is identifiable in client' s behaviour, i.e. turning up for therapy, booking
their next appointment.
35. A motivated client will be passionate about their life.
36. Motivation is an action.
37. Motivation is the need to explore change and difference in one's life.
38. Motivation is a series of influences affecting ones current state perpetuating an
individual towards a different state of being.
39. Motivation is having the desire to move towards something different.
97
40. Motivation is the thought process that occurs before change in an individual's current
state.
41. Motivation is the willingness to engage in a process that will lead to change.
42. Motivation is the cognitive acceptance of the need to action change.
43. Motivation is an emotional reaction of the body towards a different state of being
44. The body reacts through internal signals, towards/away from something, this is
motivation.
45. Motivation is not needed throughout the therapeutic process to maintain change.
46. Motivation is maintained/aroused by reinforcement.
47. Motivation is maintained/aroused by fear.
48. Motivation is an energizing of the body caused by discomfort.
49. The mind, body, sprit and feelings of an individual all impact motivation of a client.
50. Motivation is an energy that ignites a feeling to move toward something different.
98