COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

MA1000
Mathematical Foundations

LECTURE NOTES
(Including Tutorial Exercises)

Mathematics Discipline, James Cook University.

Contents
1 Algebra & Analytic Geometry 1
1.1 Numbers, powers, exponentials, logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Number Sets and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Index Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Surds (or Radicals) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.1 Expanding and Factorising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.2 Factors of a Quadratic Polynomial: ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 over R . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.3 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.4 Manipulating Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.5 The Long Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.6 Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.7 The Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.8 Solution of Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.9 Introduction to Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.2.10 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2.11 Modulus or Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.2.12 Variation (Proportionality) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.2.13 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.2.14 The Binomial Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.3 Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.3.1 The Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.3.2 Conic Sections: (The Circle, Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Parabola.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.3.3 The Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.3.4 Tangents to Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.3.5 Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.3.6 Hyperbolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.3.7 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2 Functions and their Graphs 74

2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2 Function Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.2.1 Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4 Sign of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5 Cubics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.6.1 Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.6.2 Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.7 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.1 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.2 Graphs of rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.3 Translations of rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.7.4 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.7.5 Graphs of rational functions with an exact square in the denominator . . . . . . . . . 102
2.8 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.9 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.9.1 Existence of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.9.2 One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.9.3 Horizontal Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.9.4 Restricting Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.10 The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.10.1 Variations on basic Exponential and Logarithm Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

2
3 Trigonometry 116
3.1 Measuring angles: Radians and Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2 Trigonometry from right-angled triangles: ratios from an angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.3 Trigonometry from a circle: coordinates on the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.3.1 Two different representations of the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.3.2 Trigonometric identities from the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.4 Quadrants and the CAST Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.4.1 Values of sine and cosine at the quadrant boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.4.2 Periodic property of the trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.4.3 Symmetry of the unit circle - relating angles to the first quadrant . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.5 Common Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.6 Complementary Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7 Addition Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.8 Double Angle Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9 Trigonometric Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.9.1 Graphs of sine and cosine with different Amplitude and Angular Frequency . . . . . . 133
3.9.2 Horizontal Translations of the graphs of sine and cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.9.3 Vertical Translations of graphs of sine and cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.9.4 The Tangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.10 Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.10.1 Equations involving the sine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.10.2 Equations involving the cosine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.10.3 Equations involving the tangent function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.10.4 Restricted Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.11 Limits involving trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4 Differential Calculus 147

4.1 The Gradient of a Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2 Rules for Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.5 Derivative of a Product of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.6 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.7 Derivative of a Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8 Derivatives of Exponential Functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.9 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.10 Derivatives of Reciprocal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.11 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.12 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.13 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.14 Using the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.15 Turning Points, Critical Points, Stationary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.15.1 First Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.15.2 Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.15.3 Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.16 Maxima/Minima Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

5 Integral Calculus 171

5.1 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2 Rules for Integrating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.5 Properties of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1 Algebra & Analytic Geometry
1.1 Numbers, powers, exponentials, logarithms
1.1.1 Number Sets and Notation
There are many different types of numbers that make up the set of real numbers. Some of
these are as follows;

Natural Numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .};

positive whole numbers
Cardinal Numbers, = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .};
Integers, Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, . . .};
positive and negative whole numbers including 0.
(Note that if we divide one whole number by
another, the result may not be a whole number)
na o
Rationals, Q= , where a, b are integers and b 6= 0 ;
b
Irrationals — any number that cannot be expressed as a fraction.
That is, a non-terminating,
√ non-repeating decimal.
Examples are 2 , π, e. Note that π 6= 22
7
!!
The Reals, R, include all of the above numbers.

Set Notation
A lot of mathematics is built using the notion of the set. The extent to which you study
mathematics will determine where and how much of this you will see this. In MA1000 you
need to be familiar with the concept of and notation used for the element and the subset, as
described below.

x ∈ A means “x is an element of the set A”.

A ⊂ B means “set A is contained in set B” or “A is a subset of B”.

These two statements can be represented using a Venn diagram:

B
A
•x

A ⊆ B means “set A is contained in or equal to set B”.

1
EXERCISE 0:

1. Are integers also rational numbers? Explain.

2. The natural numbers, N are a subset of the integers, Z. That is N ⊂ Z. Write down
as many relationships of this type as you can between the natural numbers, N, the
integers Z, the rationals Q and the real numbers R.
3. Is there a symbol for the set of irrational numbers? (You might like to do a bit of an
internet search.)
4. Can a real number belong to both the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers? Explain.
5. What is the significance of the different sets of numbers introduced in this section?
Try to think of of a reason (and/or do some research) as to why this distinction is
important . Don’t be too concerned if you don’t get much on your first attempt - this
is quite a deep question. Add to your answer as things come to mind through the
semester.

2
1.1.2 Index Laws
Although calculations of any difficulty can be performed with calculators, it remains im-
portant to have a clear understanding of the underlying algebraic rules. Here we introduce
some basic terminology and notation that are important to algebra and examine the ways
of working that the notation introduces to mathematics.
We often have a number multiplied by itself several times. Rather than write the number
over and over, we use a shorthand notation.

Definition 1. an = a
| × a × a{z× · · · × a}
n factors

Here a is a any real number, called the base, and the number n, which has to be an integer
for this definition to make sense, is called the index (exponent). The expression an is read
as the “nth power of a”.

Examples : (−5)(−5)(−5)(−5) = (−5)4

       3
1 1 1 1
× × =
2 2 2 2

Positive Indices
We now state the index laws for positive integer exponents. Note that we restrict ourselves
to positive integer exponents because that is how the concept of an exponent was motivated
above, as a shorthand for multiplication of a number by itself. At this stage that is what we
are restricted to. For example it doesn’t really make sense to say that a2.5 is a shorthand
for a product involving two and a half factors. Later we will look at ways of relaxing the
requirement for positive integer exponents, that is we will look to generalise the definition
of an index, ultimately so that the exponent can be any real number.

Index Laws for positive indices.

Let m, n ∈ N and a, b ∈ R.

IL1. am × an = am+n
am
IL2. = am−n
an

m
n
IL3. am = an = anm
IL4. (ab)n = an bn
 a  n an
IL5. = n
b b

Example 1: a3 × a5 = a3+5 = a8 (applying IL1)

This can be shown using the definition of an exponent from above:

LHS = a3 × a5 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a × a) = a8 = RHS
3 factors + 5 factors

3
 a5
Example 2: = a5−3 = a2 (applying IL2)
a3

This can be shown using the definition of an exponent and cancelling common factors:

a5 /a × /a × /a × a × a
LHS = 3
= = a2 = RHS
a /a × /a × /a

3
Example 3: (a5 ) = a5×3 = a15 (applying IL3)

This can be shown by using the definition of an exponent on the power 3 and then using
IL1:
3
LHS = (a5 ) = (a5 )(a5 )(a5 ) = a5+5+5 = a15 = RHS

Zero and Negative Indices

We now extend the definition of an to allow for zero and negative indices. That is we allow
n, m ∈ Z. In each case we make a deduction about the properties that zero and negative
indicies must have in order for our working to be consistent with the earlier index laws and
the properties of our number system.
Firstly we determine how to interpret an index of zero.

Start with IL1. am × an = am+n

Let m = 0, a0 × an = an
an
so a0 = n = 1, provided a 6= 0.
a

IL6. a0 = 1, (a 6= 0)

Examples : 50 = 1
(2x)0 = 1
(ax + b)0 = 1
(a2 b0 c)2 = a4 b0 c2 = a4 (1)c2 = a4 c2

We can now determine how to interpret a negative index.

am
Start with IL2. n
= am−n , a 6= 0
a
a0 1
Let m = 0, and using IL6 on the numerator n
= n = a0−n = a−n
a a

1
IL7. = a−n , (a 6= 0)
an

1
Similarly: = an
a−n

4
Examples: Express the following with positive indices.
 
−2 1 1 1
(a) 4 = 2 = = 4
4 (22 )2 2
 −3
1
−3
(b) = 2−1 = 23
2
3−2 × 63 3−2 × (3 × 2)3
(c) = = 3−2 × 33 × 23 × 36 × 21 = 24 × 37
9−3 × 2−1 (32 )−3 × 2−1

Be sure to identify each index law used in these examples. Record that information next
to each of them. Also look to see if these examples could be done in a different way. For
example, when using more than one index law, could they be used in a different order.

EXERCISE 1: In these exercises explain your working and reference the index laws. Indicate
where each has been used. Look for multiple ways of doing these problems, and try to
determine if one way is superior over the others.
1. Simplify, expressing with positive indices:
3−2 x−1
−1 2x−2 − 2y −2
(a) −3 −2 (d) 50 x2 y −1 (g)
3 x 2
(xy)−3
a2 b3 c−4 (2x−2 y 3 ) x−2 − y −2
(b) 4 −1 −5 (e) (h) −1
ab c 8x−4 y x − y −1
n n+1  2 −3  −5
2 4 3a 4 ax−2 + a−2 x
(c) (f) (i)
8n−2 4b −1 a a−1 + x−1
2. Evaluate:
2−1 4−3 63 (−3)4 (−3)−3
(a) (b)
33 2−3 (−3)−2
3. Show that:
2n+1 4n 252n 51−n
(a) = 16 (b) =5
8n−1 (53 )n
x−2 + x−3 − 2x−1
4. Simplify:
2x−1 + x−2

5
Using Index Laws to Solve Equations
The index laws form part of the fundamental algebraic processes which are often required
to solve equations. Some of the techniques for solving equations using the index laws are
demonstrated in the following examples.

Example 4: Find x, given 5x = 125.

5x = 125
∴ 5x = 53 =⇒ x = 3.

We can interpret this example as asking us to determine what 125 is as a power of 5. So you
need to know 125 = 53 . Without that you cannot proceed.
The example also uses the property of our number system that if two numbers are equal and
written as powers with the same base, then the exponents have to be equal.

Example 5: Find x, given x−3 = 8.

x−3 =8
1
Using IL7 = 8 = 23
x3
 3
1
Using IL5 = 23
x
1 1
∴ = 2 =⇒ x =
x 2

The path to the solution relies on knowing that 23 = 8. After application of IL7 and IL5
the problem can be stated as: What number do I have to raise to the power 3 to get 8?
The approach here uses a different property of our number system to that in the previous
example. In this example we use that fact that if two numbers are equal and written to the
same power (in this case 3) then their bases are either identical or differ only in sign. If the
powers are equal and odd then the bases have to be the same.
The next example gives a case when the bases may differ in sign.

Example 6: Find x, given x−2 = 81.

x−2 = 81
1
Using IL7 = 81 = 92
x2
 2
1
Using IL5 = 92
x
1 1
∴ = ±9 =⇒ x = ±
x 9

In this case we needed to know that 92 = 81. After the application of the index laws we had
a statement that the square of x1 was equal to the square of 9. So the two numbers must be
equal or differ only in sign.

6
Another strategy is to rearrange the equation until the LHS and RHS have a single power
with the same base.
2x+4
Example 7: Given = 1, find x.
42x−1
2x+4
=1
42x−1
∴ 2x+4 = 42x−1

2x−1
∴ 2x+4 = 22 = 24x−2

Equating indices, we get

x + 4 = 4x − 2
∴ 6 = 3x
∴ x = 2.

A general assumption is that the equation is true for all values of x. This allows us to equate
powers and coefficientxs. The next example uses IL1, IL3 and IL7.

3
n−6
Example 8: If 3xn 3x = ax2 , then find the constants n and a.

33 x3n 3n−6 xn−6 = ax2

∴ 3n−3 x4n−6 = ax2
∴ we must have 3n−3 = a and x4n−6 = x2
∴ 4n − 6 = 2
∴ 4n = 8
∴ n=2
1
If n = 2, then 32−3 = 3−1 = a ∴ a=
3

EXERCISE 2: Be sure to explain each step of working.

1. Solve for x:  
x−1 2x+1 1 x x 1
(a) 3 = 27 (c) 3 = (e) (2 − 1) 3 − =0
x−3 9 9
2 (d) (5x − 25) (3x − 27) = 0
(b) 1−x = 1 (f) (3x )2 + 6 (3x ) − 27 = 0
4
(g) 22x − 5 (2x ) + 4 = 0
2. Solve for x: 5 (1 − 2x)4 = 80
2
3. Show that the following can be written as a quadratic equation: 2x − 1 =
2x
Show that this quadratic has only one real solution at x = 1.
2
(43n ) 2
4. Find all the values of n such that: 32
= 2n
2
3
5. If 3m = 2 and 4n = 27, use index laws to show that the product: m × n = .
2

7
Rational Indices
The index laws can be seen to generalise to hold for rational indices (a ∈ Q) provided a√
>0
q q
through the following reasoning. We know the solution of x = a is written as x = a .
This is the q th root of a. That is
√
q
q
a = a.
√q √q
Now suppose we can write a as a power of a. Then a = ap . Using IL3 and the property
that two equal numbers of the same base have the same exponent:

q
ap = apq = a = a1
∴ pq = 1
1
∴ p=
q
√q
∴ we can write a1/q = a .

√
q
IL8. a1/q = a, (q 6= 0)

√
q
p
p
q
Using IL3, note that if q 6= 0 then ap/q = (a1/q )p = (ap )1/q can also be written as a , or as( (ap ) ).

√
Examples : a1/2 = a
√3
a1/3 = a
√5
a1/5 = a
√3
 √ 2
3
a2/3 = a = 2 a
√ 3
2
Thus 82/3 = 8 = (2)2 = 4.

1 1
Furthermore, we can define a−p/q = , which is consistent with a−n = , from before.
ap/q an
We can generalise - the index laws presented above hold for all real indices, ar , r ∈ R
provided a > 0.

Fill in the detail for each of the following examples by explaining each step.
 −1/2
9
Examples: Simplify 1) 322/5 , 2) 125−2/3 , and 3) .
49

1) 322/5 = (25 )2/5 = 25×(2/5) = 22 = 4

1 1 1 1
2) 125−2/3 = 2/3
= 3 2/3 = 2 =
125 (5 ) 5 25
 −1/2  1/2
9 49 7
3) = =
49 9 3

8
EXERCISE 3: As always, explain every step of your working in each of questions 1 to 6.

1. Simplify, expressing with positive indices:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 3−1 a− 2 9 2 a− 3 2 2 × 3 2 × 4 2 × 12 4
(a) 2 4
3 6 (c) 1 ÷ 1 (e) 3
− 25 4− 2 b 2b− 4 34
(b) 243 1 5 1
3 3 × 3 6 × 3− 6
(d)
30 × 3
 1 1
 1 1

2. (a) Find the product of the following two factors: 6 − 5 2 2 6 +5
2 2

(b) Factorise: x − 5
a2 b
3. If a = 23 , b = 2−3 , c = 62 , and d = 3−1 find the value of: 1 .
c2 d
  12   14
1 1
4. Without using a calculator, show that: =
2 4
2
5. Find x given: 32−0.4x = 64 3
6. Show that ! 21 ! 21
1 1
 3 5
1
2 − 21 c 2 ac 2
a × ab
2 × ÷ = ab
b−6 a6 b−1

7. Research question. Find out how real indicies are catered for in the index laws.
That is, what is the justification that the use of the index laws can be generalised in
this way?

9
1.1.3 Surds (or Radicals)
√
A frequently occurring term is x1/2 = x,√or the “square√root of x”. It is the positive
√number
that when squared is equal to x. Thus ( x)2 = x and x ≥ 0. The detail about x being
non-negative is important. If the root is an irrational quantity (i.e. does not belong to the
set of rational numbers, Q) it is called a surd.
√
√ 1/2
√ a+ b
Some examples are; 2 (= 2 ) , x−1 , √
a− b

Properties of surds:
p p √
P1. a b = ab
√ r
p p a a
P2. a÷ b= √ =
b b
√ √ √
P3. a c ± b c = (a ± b) c
√ √
P4. a2 = |a|. The usual convention is that a
means the positive square root of a.

p p √
Note: a + b ≡ (a + b) — This means that the addition under the sign must
√ be
performed before taking the square root. More generally all operations under a sign
must be performed before taking the root.

Examples:
√ √
(a) 16 + 9 = 25 = 5
√ √ √ √ √
(b) 22 + 62 = 4 + 36 = 40 = 4 × 10 = 2 10.
√ √ √ √
(c) using P1: 2 7 × 3 2 = (2 × 3) 7 × 2 = 6 14
r
√ √ 6 √
(d) using P2: 6÷ 3= = 2
3
r
√ √ 2 5
2 5÷3 3=
3 3

Simplest Form
√
When 2 2
√ operating with surd expressions, the surds should first be simplified.√e.g. a b cd =
|ab|
√ cd. Thus in example b above the convention is to express the surd as 2 10 rather than
40.
Addition and Subtraction
In order to add or subtract surds, first express the surds in simplest form. Then only similar
surds can be added or subtracted.

10
 √ √ √
Example 1: Simplify 6 7 − 28 + 3 63.
√ √ √ √ √ √
6 7 − 28 + 3 63 = 6 7 − 7 × 4 + 3 9 × 7
√ √ √
= 6 7 − 2 7 + 3(3 7)
√ √ √
=6 7−2 7+9 7 — similar surds
√
= 13 7

√ √ √
Example 2: Simplify 5 + 2 3 − 5 5.
√ √ √ √ √ √
5+2 3−5 5=2 3+| 5− {z 5}
5
similar surds
√ √
=2 3−4 5 no further simplification possible
(no similar surds present)

√ √ √
Example 3: Simplify 3 125 − 20 + 27.
√ √ √ √ √ √
3 125 − 20 + 27 = 3 25 × 5 − 4 × 5 + 9 × 3
√ √ √
= 3(5 5) − 2 5 + 3 3
√ √ √
= 15
| 5 −
{z 2 5
} +3 3
similar surds
√ √
= 13 5 + 3 3

EXERCISE 4: Be sure to explain each step of working. In particular which of the properties
of surds have you used to answer each question?

1. Simplify,
√ expressing
√ in simplest form:
√ √ √ √ √
3
(a) 3 81 (b) 5 + 20 (c) 2 20 − 125 − 45
2. Expand√and√simplify
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
(a) 2( 3 − 2) (b) ( 3 − 2)2 (c) ( 3 − 2)( 3 + 2)
3. Without using a calculator, show whether each of the following is true or false:
√ √ √ √ √ q √
(a) Half of 12 is 6. (b) The square root of 5 + 2 6 is 3 + 2. (c) 4 12 = 8
√ √ √
4. Write the following in ascending order of magnitude: 4 5, 2 21, 9, 3 10.
5. Solve for x
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
(a) 32 + 50 − 8 = x 2 (b) 52 + 117 = 5 x
6. Find x and y if
√ √ √ √ √
(a) (2 6 − 3 2)2 = x + y 3 (c) x + y + x − y = 2 + 6
√ √ √ √
(b) x + y − 3 = 4 + 5 (d) 2x − y + 4x − y = x − 2y + 3 + x + 5
Be explicit about any assumptions you make in your working.
7. Justify each of the properties P1 to P3 for surds by reference to the index laws or other
properties of the real numbers.
p
8. Explain why (−10)2 = 10 and not −10.

11
Rationalising the denominator
It is standard practice to write numbers such as √1 , √2 , etc. in a form which contains only
5 3
rational numbers in the denominator. i.e.,
√ √ !
1 1 5 5
√ =√ ×√ since √ = 1
5 5 5 5
√
5
=
5
This process is called “rationalising the denominator ”.
√ √ √
1 1 7 7 7
Examples : √ = √ ×√ = =
2 7 2 7 7 2×7 14
√ √ √ √ √
5 2 5 2 3 5 6 5 6
√ = √ ×√ = =
2 3 2 3 3 2×3 6

Conjugate Pairs
Recall that
p thep difference
p of two squares can be written as a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b). The
p
product ( a + b )( a − bp ) = a − bp
is again the very familiar “difference ofptwo squares”;
p
a
p and pb being the squares of a and b respectively. The two expressions a − b and
a + b are called conjugate surds; each being the conjugate of the other (note the change
in sign). Together they form a “conjugate pair”. The usefulness √ of conjugate
√ √pairs√lies in
the fact that their
√ product
√ √ does not
√ contain any surds. e.g., 2 − 3 and 2 + 3 are
conjugates and ( 2 − 3 )( 2 + 3 ) = 2 − 3 = −1.
We use this property to rationalise the denominator of expressions like
√ √
3 3 2 7+ 5
√ √ = √ √ × √ √
2 7− 5 2 7− 5 2 7+ 5
√ √
6 7+3 5
= 2
2√ × 7 −√5
6 7+3 5
= .
23

12
EXERCISE 5:

1. Rationalise the denominator:

√ √
3 5 3 3 6
(a) √ (b) √ (c) √ √ (d) √ √
2 5 7 3− 2 2 2+ 3
√ √
2 7+ 5 1
2. If x = √ √ , find the value of x +
2 7− 5 x
√
3. Find the reciprocal of 2 + 3 and rationalise.
1
4. Rationalise the denominator: √ √ .
1+ 2+ 3
√ √ √ √
Try doing this in two ways, firstly using (i) 1 + 2− 3 and then (ii) 1 − 2+ 3.
Show your working. Justify each step.
√ √ √ √
Be careful multiplying the products of the form (1 + 2+ 3)(1 + 2− 3). How
can you ensure you get all terms in the product?
Which approach ((i) or (ii)) is faster? Why? Would this behaviour (for rationalising
denominators of three terms), with one approach being quicker than another always
be observed? Discuss in one or two sentences.

5. Note that the concept of a surd generalises beyond square roots. Anything that is
expressed as an nth -root of a number
√ √is a surd (assuming it √can’t be simplified to a
rational). Express the product 3 2 × 2 3 as a single surd i.e. x N . That is determine
both x and N that satisfies the equation:
√3
√2
√
x
2× 3= N

6. Expand q  q 
√ √ √ √
3 2+ 3 3 2− 3

7. Show without using a calculator that

q q
√ √
3+2 2− 3−2 2=2
√ √
8. Generalising the special case in the previous question. Can you write a + b− a − b
as the square root of a difference?

13
1.1.4 Logarithms
The logarithm of a number is simply the index when the number is expressed as a power of
some other number. Thus we rewrite statements such as 23 = 8, using logarithms. In this
case we write 3 = log2 8,

i.e., 23 = 8 ⇐⇒ 3 = log2 8
equivalent
expression

Also 32 = 9 ⇐⇒ 2 = log3 9
104 = 10, 000 ⇐⇒ 4 = log10 10, 000
16 = 4 ⇐⇒ = log16 4

The expression loga n is read as “logarithm of n to the base a.”

In general, if a ∈ R+ (positive real) and x ∈ R, then the statements ax = n and loga n = x
are equivalent.

ax = n ⇐⇒ x = loga n

Notes
1. In order to compute a logarithm a base must be chosen. Thus writing log 8 on its own
is a meaningless statement. If we want to be absolutely clear what is meant then a
base needs to be quoted.

2. While the above statement is true, convention dictates that in some disciplines the base
need not be quoted. In these cases the base is usually either 10 or Euler’s number, e.

3. We can evaluate (without a calculator) expressions such as

(i) log2 16 (ii) log5 125

Put n = log2 16 Put n = log5 125
Then 2n = 16 = 24 Then 5n = 125 = 53
∴ n = 4. ∴ n = 3.

These are the exception, rather than the rule.

4. We can get a feel for the logarithm operation and the quantities it will produce by
considering the equivalent statement using an index:

log2 8 = x means 8 = 2x , so x = 3
but log2 9 = x means 9 = 2x , so x = 3.169925 . . . is irrational
and log2 10 = x means 10 = 2x , so x = 3.321928 . . . is irrational

The logarithm operation only produces an integer when the number whose logarithm
is being calculated is an integer power of the base. This is unlikely most of the time,
as the preceding calculations of log2 8, log2 9 and log2 10 would suggest.
To get more familiar with the output of a logarithm, we further explore the case of a
logarithms to the base 8. This base is chosen for no particular reason.

14
 log8 8 = x means 8 = 8x , so x = 1
log8 64 = x means 64 = 8x , so x = 2
log8 10 = x means 10 = 8x , so x must be between 1 and 2
log8 65 = x means 65 = 8x , so x must be between 2 and 3 and closer to 2
log8 1 = x means 1 = 8x , so x = 0
1 1
log8 = x means = 8x , so x = −1
8 8
1 1
log8 = x means = 8x , so x = must be between −1 and 0
2 2

We can now generalise to make statements about log8 a where a is any number:

log8 a > 1 when a > 8

0 < log8 a < 1 when 1 < a < 8
log8 a < 0 when 0 < a < 1

Can you generalise further? In particular, how do these statements change as the base
of the logarithm changes?

Note that you should have some intuition as to the size of the numbers produced by
the logarithm operation at least for smaller numbers with smaller bases. For example
you should be able to state that log10 50 lies between 1 and 2.

From the index laws given earlier, we can now deduce the laws of logarithms.

a0 = 1 ⇐⇒ 0 = loga 1 (LL1)
a1 = a ⇐⇒ 1 = loga a (LL2)
LL1 clearly comes from IL6. LL2 comes from the definition for an that was introduced at
the beginning of the section on index laws.

Let m = ax and n = ay
Then loga m = x and loga n = y by definition of the logarithm.

From IL1 (product of exponentials with same base), we have

m × n = ax × ay = ax+y
⇐⇒ loga (mn) = x + y = loga m + loga n.
i.e. loga (mn) = loga m + loga n (LL3)
From IL2 (quotient involving exponentials with same base), we have
m ax
= y = ax−y
n  a
m
⇐⇒ loga = x − y = loga m − loga n.
n
 
m
i.e. loga = loga m − loga n (LL4)
n

15
If m = 1, then LL4 gives
 
1
loga = loga 1 − loga n
n
= 0 − loga n.
 
1
i.e. loga = − loga n (LL5)
n
Note that this can also be derived from IL7.

Using IL3 (exponential to a power), we have

p
x
mp = ax = ap = apx
⇐⇒ loga (mp ) = px = p loga m.
i.e. loga (mp ) = p loga m (LL6)

Finally, if ax = m then x = loga m.

Also starting with ax = m we can take log to base b of both sides.

This gives logb (ax ) = logb m
and using LL6 x logb a = logb m
logb m
∴ x= .
logb a

This gives us the “change of base law” for logarithms,

logb m
i.e. loga m = (LL7)
logb a

The following are routine application of logarithm laws:

1. loga 5 + loga 3 = loga (5 × 3) using (LL3)

= loga 15


2. loga 25 − loga 5 = loga 255
using (LL4)
= loga 5
3. loga 81 = loga 34 = 4 loga 3 using (LL6)
log10 560
4. log5 560 = using (LL7)
log10 5
≃ 3.932 (using calculator)

More difficult worked examples:

16


Example 1: Simplify 3 log10 2 + log10 18 − 2 log10 65 .



3 log10 2 + log10 18 − 2 log10 56 = log10 23 + log10 18 + 2 log10 65
(LL6) (LL5)


= log10 23 + log10 18 + log10 25
36
(LL6)


= log10 8 × 18 × 2536
using (LL3)
2
= log10 100 = log10 10 = 2 log10 10 = 2.
(LL6) (LL2)

Example 2: For what value of x is log2 (x + 1) − log2 (x − 1) = 3?

 
x+1
We have log2 =3 using (LL4)
x−1
x+1
∴ = 23 = 8 by definition
x−1
∴ x + 1 = 8x − 8
9 = 7x
9
∴ x= .
7

EXERCISE 6: You must be able to identify which logarithm laws have been used and your
reasoning for each step of your working. Do this for at least three or four of these questions.

1. Simplify:
(a) log2 32 (d) (log2 16) (log2 4) (g) 32 log3 5
 −18
(b) log3 81−1 (e) 3 log5 2 − 2 log5 4 1
(h) log2
(c) log2 16 − log2 8 (f) log10 4 + 2 log10 5 2
2. Solve for x:
(a) 5 log32 x = −3 (d) log2 x + log2 (x + 2) = 3
 
(b) log10 10x = 5 1
(e) log2 =2
x


(c) log10 2 + 5 log10 x − log10 5 − log10 x3 = log10 40.

17
 √
Example 3: If x = A2 b3 c = A2 b3/2 c, express loga x in terms of loga A, loga b, and loga c.

Take loga of both sides

loga x = loga (A2 b3/2 c)

= loga A2 + loga b3/2 + loga c using (LL3)
= 2 loga A + 32 loga b + loga c. using (LL6)

In the next example try not to be too concerned about the chemistry context. If you follow
the notation you will see that this is a very simple application of the logarithm laws.

Example 4: Consider the reaction for the dissociation of the water molecule

H2 O ⇋ H+ + OH−

Notation: chemists use[H+ ] to represent the concentration of H+

Notation: chemists use[OH− ] to represent the concentration of OH−
In chemistry, the pH and pOH are defined as

pH = − log10 [H+ ] and pOH = − log10 [OH− ].

It is a known fact of chemistry that the product of the concentrations is [H+ ][OH− ] = 10−14 .
Question. How are the pH and pOH related?

Using [H+ ][OH− ] = 10−14 , take log10 of both sides, to give

log10 [H+ ][OH− ] = log10 10−14
log10 [H+ ] + log10 [OH− ] = −14 log10 10
(LL3) (LL6)
log10 [H+ ] + log10 [OH− ] = −14
(LL2)
− log10 [H+ ] − log10 [OH− ] = 14
i.e. pH + pOH = 14. (using definitions)

18
The next example also comes from a chemistry context. The notation follows from the
previous example.

Example 5: Consider the reaction

HA ⇋ H+ + A−

[H+ ][A− ]
The acidity constant is Ka = . If HA is the only acid present then [A− ] = [H+ ] and
[HA]
+ 2
[H ]
Ka = .
[HA]

Question: If the pKa is defined as − log10 Ka and pHA is − log10 [HA], find an expression for
the pH.

Take log10 of both sides of the expression for Ka :

[H+ ]2
log10 Ka = log10
[HA]
= log10 [H+ ]2 − log10 [HA] using (LL4)
= 2 log10 [H+ ] − log10 [HA]. using (LL6)
∴ log10 Ka + log10 [HA] = 2 log10 [H+ ].
∴ −pKa − pHA = −2pH.
∴ pH = 12 (pHA + pKa ).

Any positive number can be used as a base for logarithms. Of all the possibilities, the
number e (where e ≃ 2.71828 · · · ) is a special choice. (We will see the reason for this later).
The function loge x is called the natural logarithm of x. It is given the particular notation

loge x = ln x = log x.

Note that, in mathematics, if the base of a logarithm is not given it is assumed to be e. The
bases of other log functions bases must be given explicitly. e.g., log2 x, log10 x, etc.
On most calculators, the natural log function is denoted by ln x. e is commonly known as
Euler’s number (pronounced like “oiler”) and is irrational.
Often we need to be able to transform formulae and move between index and logarithmic
representations. We often do this by taking the logarithm of both sides of an equation or
taking an exponential of both sides of an equation as suggested by the following observations:

We know that ax = y ⇐⇒ x = loga y. It follows that

aloga y = y and loga ax = x

In particular, if a = e, we have ex = y ⇐⇒ x = ln y and

eln y = y and ln ex = x

19
Example 6: If y = K × 10x , express x in terms of the other symbols.
y
We have = 10x
K

Take log10 of both sides, giving

 
y
log10 = log10 10x
K
= x log10 10 using (LL6)
=x using (LL2)
 
y
∴ x = log10 = log10 y − log10 K. using (LL4)
K

Example 7: The charge q on a capacitor is given by q = q0 (1 − e−at ), where q0 is the final

charge, a is a constant, and t is time. Solve for t.
q
= 1 − e−at
q0
q
∴ e−at = 1 −
q0

Take the natural logarithm (loge = ln) of both sides


−at q
ln e = ln 1 −
q0
 
q
∴ −at ln e = ln 1 −
q0
 
q
∴ −at = ln 1 −
q
 0 
1 q
∴ t = − ln 1 − .
a q0

Example 8: An equation relating the distance s through which a falling object moves and
its velocity is ln s + ln 2g = 2 ln v, where g is acceleration due to gravity. Solve for s.

ln s + ln(2g) = 2 ln v
 
2 v2
∴ ln s = ln v − ln(2g) = ln
2g

Take the exponential of both sides (since eln y = y)

2 /(2g))
eln s = eln(v
v2
∴ s=
2g

20
Example 9: Given the equation ln Q = Q0 t + ln kv, solve for v.

ln Q − Q0 t = ln kv

Take the exponential of both sides

e(ln Q−Q0 t) = eln kv

∴ eln Q × e−Q0 t = eln kv
∴ Qe−Q0 t = kv
Q
∴ v = e−Q0 t .
k

Example 10: A satellite loses 0.1% of its remaining power each week. An equation relating
the power P , the initial power P0 , and the time t in weeks is ln P = P0 + t ln 0.999. Solve
for P .

ln P = P0 + ln(0.999)t

Take the exponential of both sides

t
eln P = eP0 +ln(0.999)
t
= eP0 × eln(0.999)
∴ P = eP0 (0.999)t .

EXERCISE 7: Be sure to indicate your reasoning for each step of your working, referring
to index laws or log laws as appropriate.

1. Solve for x: 3 ln 2x = 2
 
1
2. Simplify: loge
e
 
x2
3. If loge x = 0.6 and loge y = 0.2, evaluate loge √ .
y

4. If y = ae4t , express t in terms of a and y.

5. If ln A = bt + ln P , express P in terms of the other symbols.

6. The law governing radioactive decay is p = p0 e−kt , where p is the intensity at time t
p0
and p0 is the initial intensity. Show that if p = when t = h then the time taken for
2
the initial radioactivity to decay 99% is 2h log2 10.

21
1.2 Algebra
1.2.1 Expanding and Factorising
The following results should be familiar to you. They follow from repeated use of the
Distributive Law: a(b + c) = ab + ac.
Two factors
Binomial (Quadratic) Expansions:

(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd

)
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Perfect Squares of a sum and difference
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 Difference of Two Squares

Basic Factorising: The above results can be used to factorise expressions such as;

a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

Noting that we are working left to right in these identities.

Also note that a2 + b2 has no REAL FACTORS.
Many algebraic expressions can be factorised:
Examples:

1. The first is a straightforward application of the square of a sum identity:

x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2

2. This one is a bit trickier. There are two lots of factoring in this one example. First
use a = x2 and b = y 2 in the square of a difference identity. After the first equals sign
the quantity in brackets is a difference of squares, so it is further factorised.

2
x4 − 2x2 y 2 + y 4 = x2 − y 2 = [(x + y)(x − y)]2 = (x + y)2 (x − y)2 .

3. This example shows how we may apply the factoring of a difference of squares in the
circumstance where the quantities a and b are seen to be expressions involving another
variable.

(5x − 2)2 − (2x − 3)2 (difference of two squares)

Let a = 5x − 2 and b = 2x − 3, so that
(5x − 2)2 − (2x − 3)2 = a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
= [(5x − 2) − (2x − 3)][(5x − 2) + (2x − 3)]
= (3x + 1)(7x − 5).

22
 4. This example is similar to the previous - it shows an expression that is quadratic in a
linear expression. The x − 5 is the linear expression. This is replaced by the variable
a. The quadratic (in a) is then factorised. Finally the variable a is replaced by x − 5
again.

(x − 5)2 + 10(x − 5) + 24
Let a = x − 5, then a2 =(x − 5)2 and
(x − 5)2 + 10(x − 5) + 24 = a2 + 10a + 24 = (a + 6)(a + 4)
= (x − 5 + 6)(x − 5 + 4) = (x + 1)(x − 1).

5. This example shows the application of two of the identities – factoring the square of a
difference and then the difference of squares. What is a and what is b in the difference
of squares?

p2 − 2pq + q 2 −r2 = (p − q)2 − r2 (difference of two squares)

| {z }
perfect square = [(p − q) + r][(p − q) − r]
= (p − q + r)(p − q − r).

EXERCISE 8: Expand the following. Identify the cases that are examples of a perfect
square or a difference of two squares:
1. 3a2 (2a + 7) 5. (3x + 10y)(3x − 10y) 9. (3 − 2x)(5 − x)
 2
2. (4x − 5y)(2x + 3y) 6. (3x + 10y)(3x + 10y) 3
10. − 2x
3. (x − 2)(x + 4) 7. (2x − 3)2 x
4. (7x − 2)(7x + 2) 8. (2x2 − 3)(x2 + 5)

23
1.2.2 Factors of a Quadratic Polynomial: ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 over R
Recall that a linear polynomial is of the form ax + b, and a quadratic polynomial is of the
form ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0. The quadratic polynomial x2 − x − 6 = (x + 2)(x − 3) has two
linear factors which can be identified by looking for factors of −6 that sum to −1 that are
also integers. However the quadratic polynomial x2 − 4x + 1 cannot be factorised in this
way. More precisely, this quadratic has no factors over the field of Rationals, Q; but it may
have factors over the field of real numbers, R. This means the numbers inside the brackets
can’t be rational numbers, but may be irrational - involving square roots.
A general quadratic, ax2 + bx + c (a 6= 0), can be expressed as the “difference of two
squares” and then factorised, provided b2 − 4ac > 0 . The quantity b2 − 4ac is called the
discriminant and is denoted by the Greek letter delta, ∆. The value and sign of the
discriminant can tell us how many factors the quadratic will have:

• ∆ > 0 =⇒ two different factors

• ∆ = 0 =⇒ one repeated factor

• ∆ < 0 =⇒ no factors
√ √
Note: If ∆ = b2 − 4ac is an integer, the quadratic has 2 linear factors involving rational
numbers (integers or fractions), but not irrational numbers.
Example: Factorise: x2 − 2x − 24 (a = 1, b = −2, c = −24) ∴ ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 100
√ √
∆= 100 = 10 ∴ x2 − 2x − 24 has 2 linear factors involving rational numbers.
We can assume the two linear factors will be of the form: (x + A)(x + B).
To find A and B, we consider two numbers that multiply to give −24 and add to give −2
i.e. −6 × 4 = −24 and −6 + 4 = −2. We may use the following array to assist:

× = −24 −6 × 4 = −24
⇒ −6 4
+ = −2 + = −2

Therefore: x2 − 2x − 24 = (x − 6)(x + 4)
Example: Factorise: 3x2 − 2x + 5 (a = 3, b = −2, c = 5)
∆ = b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4 × 3 × 5 = −56 < 0 ∴ 3x2 − 2x + 5 cannot be factorised over R.
The existence of real factors can be determined by expressing the quadratic in the “com-
pleting the square form”. If we can express the polynomial in the form of a “difference of
perfect squares”, it can be factored using the identity a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b).

24
Examples: Find linear factors over R for the following quadratics.

1. x2 − 4x + 1 = (x2 − 4x + 4) − 4 + 1 = (x − 2)2 − 3
√
= (x − 2)2 − ( 3 )2
√ √
= (x − 2 + 3 )(x − 2 − 3 ).
 
2. 2x2 + 5x − 1 = 2 x2 + 25 x − 12

25 1 
= 2 x2 + 52 x + 25 16
− 16 − 2
↓ տ ↑
1 5



2 2
−→ 25 16
square

2 
= 2 x + 45 − 16 33
√
√

= 2 x + 45 + 433 x + 54 − 433 .
using a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

The procedure used here is called “completing the square”.

To factorise a general quadratic ax2 + bx + c (a 6= 0) by completing the square, follow the
steps outlined below

Step 1: Factor out a

 
2 b 2 c
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
a a

Step 2: Add and subtract the square of half the coefficient of x

  
b
2 b2 b2 c
=a x + x+ 2 − 2 +
a 4a 4a a
↓ տ ↑
   2 
1 b b
−→
2 a square 4a2

Step 3: Rewrite in the “difference of two squares form”

" 2 #
b2 − 4ac
b
=a x+
−
2a4a2
" 2  √ 2 2 #
b b − 4ac
=a x+ −
2a 2a

Step 4: To factorise the quadratic, apply the knowledge that a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

 √  √ 
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
=a x+ + x+ − .
2a 2a 2a 2a

25
Can we factorise the quadratic 3x2 − 2x + 5?
 
3x2 − 2x + 5 = 3 x2 − 23 x + 35


= 3 x2 − 32 x + 19 − 19 + 35

2 
= 3 x − 31 + 14 9

This is in the form of a2 + b2 and cannot be expressed in the form a2 − b2 , so we cannot

proceed any further, since a2 + b2 has no real factors.
More than two factors
Moving onto expressions with more than two factors (expansion of cubic polynomials).
Expand the product (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 2).

(x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 2) = (x + 2)(x2 − 5x + 6)

= x(x2 − 5x + 6) + 2(x2 − 5x + 6)
= x3 − 5x2 + 6x + 2x2 − 10x + 12
= x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12.

By repeated use of the distributive law we can expand;


(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)   Useful
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
 Identities
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 

Examples:

(x + 2)3 = (x)3 + 3(x)2 2 + 3x(2)2 + (2)3

= x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8.
(2p − 3)3 = (2p)3 + 3(2p)2 (−3) + 3(2p)(−3)2 + (−3)3
= 8p3 − 36p2 + 54p − 27.

Futher Useful Identities: Cubic Factors.

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) the difference of two cubes

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) the sum of two cubes

Examples: Factorise the following expressions.

1. x3 − 8 = x3 − 23 = (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)
2. 64x3 + 27y 3 = (4x)3 + (3y)3


= (4x + 3y) (4x)2 − (4x)(3y) + (3y)2
= (4x + 3y)(16x2 − 12xy + 9y 2 ).

2
As an exercise, try to factorise x6 + 1 by first writing it as x3 + 12 , then by writing it as

3
x2 + 13 .

26
EXERCISE 9: Factorise the following, where possible:
1. x2 − 5x + 6 10. x2 − 14x + 49 19. 50x2 − 40x + 8
2. x2 + 7x + 12 11. 81 + 18y 2 + y 4 20. 16y 2 − x2 − 6x − 9
3. 2x2 + 5x − 3 12. x2 − 64 21. (2x + y)2 − (3x − 2y)2
4. 12x2 + x − 1 13. 16x2 − 49y 2 22. e2t + 3et + 2
5. x2 + 9 14. x3 − 27 23. x6 − 1
6. (x + 4)2 + 2(x + 4) + 1 15. y 3 + 8 24. 3x2 − 9x
7. x2 − 6 16. x2 − 8 25. m2 − 12m + 26
8. p2 + 16p − 22 17. r2 + 2r − 33 26. r2 − 9r − 29
9. 5v 2 − 10v + 21 18. n2 + 13n + 29

27
1.2.3 Polynomials
The function P (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 is a quadratic polynomial or a polynomial of degree
2. A function P (x) is called a polynomial of degree n if

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0

where n is a non-negative integer, a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants (called coefficients), and

the leading coefficient an 6= 0.

P (x) = ax + b is of degree 1, a linear function.

P (x) = 3x7 + 4x5 − 2 is a polynomial of degree 7.
2
f (x) = 6x3/2 − + 4 is not a polynomial.
↑ xտ
not an negative
integer power

Once P (x) is defined, the coefficients will be fixed, but the value of x can alter. To highlight
this point, consider evaluating the polynomial at different x−values:

If P (x) = 3x2 + 7x + 4
then P (0) = 3(0)2 + 7(0) + 4 = 4
P (1) = 3(1)2 + 7(1) + 4 = 14
P (a) = 3a2 + 7a + 4
P (−1) = 3(−1)2 + 7(−1) + 4 = 0.

1.2.4 Manipulating Polynomials

Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Addition (subtraction) is
performed by adding (subtracting) the coefficients of like terms. e.g.,

P (x) = 7x3 + 4x2 + x − 2

Q(x) = 3x4 + 5x3 − 8x2 − 9x + 1
then, P (x) + Q(x) = 3x4 + (7 + 5)x3 + (4 − 8)x2 + (1 − 9)x + (−2 + 1)
= 3x4 + 12x3 − 4x2 − 8x − 1.

Multiplication: P (x) × Q(x). If the polynomials are large, then set up in the table form

3x4 + 5x3 − 8x2 − 9x+1

7x3 + 4x2 + x−2
− 6x4 −10x3 +16x2 +18x−2
3x5 + 5x4 − 8x3 − 9x2 + x
12x +20x5 −32x4 −36x3 + 4x2
6

21x7 +35x6 −56x5 −63x4 + 7x3

21x7 +47x6 −33x5 −96x4 −47x3 +11x2 +19x−2

28
Division of Polynomials: We will look at two methods;

P (x)
1. for any polynomials — long division algorithm.
Q(x)

2. Remainder Theorem
— when dividing by linear factors.
Factor Theorem

1.2.5 The Long Division Algorithm

The operation of division of polynomials is carried out in the same way as “long division”
of integers. Recall the method for calculating 214679 ÷ 53.

405 0
53 21467 9
− 212↓↓ ↓
267 ↓
− 265 ↓
2 9 remainder 6= 0, ∴ 53 is not a factor of 4050

53 is divided into the first 3 digits, ‘214’, to give 4. The remainder is calculated by subtracting
4 × 53 (212) from 214 to get 2. The next step is to ‘bring down’ the next digit, ‘6’, and
repeat the procedure. Note that, in this example, 53 is larger than 26, so the quotient is
entered as ‘0’ and the next digit, ‘7’ is brought down. When the remainder is less than the
divisor, the procedure stops.
So we can write 214679 = (4050 × 53) + 29, or
214679 29
= 4050 +
53 53

Examples of Polynomial Division:

1. (x2 + 9x + 4) ÷ (x + 1).

The method is similar for polynomial division. In this case, x is divided into the first term,
x2 , to give x. The remainder, 8x, is calculated by multiplying x by x + 1 and subtracting the
result from x2 + 9x. Then the next term, 4, is brought down and the procedure is repeated.
When the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor, the procedure must
stop.

x +8
x + 1 x2 + 9x + 4
− x2 + x ↓
8x + 4
− 8x + 8
−4 remainder 6= 0, ∴ (x + 1) is not a factor of x2 + 9x + 4

x2 + 9x + 4 −4
Thus, =x+8+ .
x+1 x+1

Or, x2 + 9x + 4 = (x + 8)(x + 1) − 4

29
 x3 + 4x2 + 3x − 4
2. .
x2 + 2x + 1
x +2
x2 + 2x + 1 x3 + 4x2 + 3x − 4
− x3 + 2x2 + x ↓
2x2 + 2x − 4
− 2x2 + 4x + 2
−2x − 6

x3 + 4x2 + 3x − 4 2x + 6
Thus, 2
=x+2− 2 .
x + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1

3. (2x4 + 6x + 11) ÷ (x − 2) (missing powers of x)

Set the problem out as follows

3 2
2x + 4x + 8x + 22
x − 2 2x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 + 6x + 11
− 2x4 − 4x3 ↓ ↓ ↓
3 2
4x + 0x ↓ ↓
3 2
− 4x − 8x ↓ ↓
8x2 + 6x ↓
− 8x2 − 16x ↓
22x + 11
− 22x − 44
55

2x4 + 6x + 11 55
Thus, = 2x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 22 +
x−2 x−2
4 3 2
or 2x + 6x + 11 = (x − 2)(2x + 4x + 8x + 22) + 55.

EXERCISE 10: Divide the following polynomials:

2x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1 3x4 − 9x3 − x2 + 5x − 10
1. 5.
x−1 x−3
x3 + 4x2 + 3x − 4 10x3 − 25x2 + 12x − 5
2. 6.
x2 + 2x − 1 2x − 5
3 2
x + 2x − x − 2 2x − 9x2 + 13x
3
3. 7.
x−1 x2 − 3x + 4
x3 + 2x + 8 (x − 1)(4x2 + 2x + 2)
4. 8.
x+1 2x + 1

Can we avoid having to use long division? Yes, but only when the denominator of the
division operation is linear.

30
1.2.6 Remainder Theorem
We will now present a known fact about the remainder term which comes out of polynomial
long division in the case where the divisor is the linear polynomial (x − a). Firstly the result
is presented in the form of a theorem and then the theorem is justified through mathematical
proof. Mathematics is often presented in a theorem-proof framework. The mathematical
statements that get labelled as a theorem are statements of significance in mathematics.
Thus it is the important results of mathematics that get called theorems. A proof of a
theorem presents a justification for the result. The proof should use only known results and
properties of mathematics. Preceding this is a preamble that leads in to the statement of
the theorem - it gives the observations that lead to the theorem and its proof.
Note from example 1 in the previous section that

x2 + 9x + 4 = (x + 1)(x + 8) − 4.

Choosing x = −1 yields 1 − 9 + 4 = −4. Also note from example 3 in the previous section
that

2x4 + 6x + 11 = (x − 2)(2x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 22) + 55.

Choosing x = 2 yields 32 + 12 + 11 = 55.

In each case the original polynomial can be expressed as a product of the divisor and a
second polynomial, plus a constant. The constant can be determined by evaluating the
original polynomial at the value of x that makes the divisor zero.
Theorem. If the polynomial P (x) is divided by the linear polynomial (x − a) until a
remainder, R is obtained that does not involve any power of x, then R = P (a).
Proof. When the polynomial P (x) is divided by the linear polynomial (x − a) until a
remainder, R is obtained that does not involve any power of x, then we must have

P (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + R

for some polynomial Q(x) and constant, R. If we substitute x = a in this equation, we get

P (a) = (a − a)Q(a) + R = 0 × Q(a) + R = R (the remainder)

It follows that the remainder, R, is just P (a) and the theorem is proved.

This theorem enables us to find the remainder

without actually performing a long division.

Example 1 (again): (x2 + 9x + 4) ÷ (x + 1).

Let P (x) = x2 + 9x + 4.
We are dividing by x + 1, so we use a = −1 in the formula.

P (−1) = (−1)2 + 9(−1) + 4 = 1 − 9 + 4 = −4 as before.

This is the remainder after dividing P (x) by x + 1.

31
Example 3 (again): (2x4 + 6x + 11) ÷ (x − 2).

Let P (x) = 2x4 + 6x + 11.

We divide by x − 2, so we use a = 2 in the formula.

P (2) = 2(2)4 + 6 × 2 + 11 = 21 + 12 + 11 = 55 as before.

Following on from the Remainder Theorem; consider 14 ÷ 7 = 2 + 0 (remainder). Since the

remainder is equal to zero, we say that 7 is a factor of 14. If a polynomial P (x) is divided
by x − a and there is no reminder (R = 0), then x − a is a factor of P (x). We have a special
case of the Remainder Theorem, which is important enough to have its own named theorem.
1.2.7 The Factor Theorem
If, for a polynomial P (x); P (a) = 0; then (x − a) is a factor of P (x), and a is called a zero
or root of P (x). Thus by finding the zeros of a polynomial, we can find the factors of the
polynomial.

Factor Theorem. If for x = a, P (a) = 0, then

x = a is a root and (x − a) is a factor of P (x).

Example 1: Find the zeros of P (x) = x3 − x2 − 14x + 24 then find the linear factors.

There are at most 3 factors — (x−a)(x−b)(x−c). The constant term is 24, so the product abc
must be equal to 24. Therefore, we look for factors of 24, namely ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24
and check if any of these is a root of P (x).

Now, P (1) 6= 0 and P (−1) 6= 0, but P (2) = 0 ∴ (x − 2) is a factor of P (x).

Using long division, Factor Theorem, or otherwise, we can then find the remaining factors.

P (x) = x3 − x2 − 14x + 24 = (x − 2)(Ax2 + Bx + C)

= (x − 2)(x2 + x − 12)
= (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 4).

The factors of P (x) are (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 4). The zeros of P (x) are x = 2, 3, −4.
Example 2: Factorise P (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 − 10x − 24.

P (1) = 2 + 7 − 10 − 24 6= 0
P (2) = 2 × 8 + 7 × 4 − 10 × 2 − 24 = 16 + 28 − 20 − 24 = 0

∴ (x − 2) is a factor of P (x).

2x3 + 7x2 − 10x − 24 = (x − 2)(Ax2 + Bx + C)

= (x − 2)(2x2 + 11x + 12)
= (x − 2)(2x + 3)(x + 4).

32
EXERCISE 11:

1. If P (x) = 3x3 + 13x2 + 6x − 12, without using long division, find the remainder when
P (x) is divided by
(a) x − 2 (b) x + 3

2. Use the Factor Theorem, or otherwise, to find linear factors for the following
(a) x3 + 2x2 − 41x − 42 (b) 2x3 − 3x2 − 11x + 6

3. (a) Show that the remainder when 6x3 + 7x2 −
3x + 2 is divided by 2x − 1 is 3.

Hint: Recall factors of 2x − 1 are 2 x − 21 .
(b) Find the remainder when 3x3 − x is divided by 2x + 1.

4. In each of the following, find the quotient, Q(x), and the remainder, R(x), when the
first polynomial, P (x), is divided by the second polynomial, D(x).
(a) P (x) = x3 − x + 6, D(x) = x + 2 (b) P (x) = x3 − 6x2 − x − 8, D(x) = x − 4

5. Use the factor theorem to determine whether or not the first polynomial is a factor of
the second
(a) x − 1 ; 2x2 + x − 3 (b) x − 2 ; x3 − 3x + 2 (c) 3x + 1 ; 3x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 1

6. Factorise the following

(a) x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 (b) 2x3 − 7x2 + 7x − 2 (c) x3 + x2 + x + 1

7. In each of the following, find the value of k if D(x) is a factor of P (x)

(a) P (x) = x3 + kx2 + 2x − 5, D(x) = x − 1

(b) P (x) = 2x3 + x2 + kx + 2k 2 , D(x) = x + 1
(c) P (x) = 2x3 − x2 + (k − 1)x + 1, D(x) = 2x + 1

8. When x3 + x2 + kx − 3 is divided by x − 3, the remainder is 30. Find k.

9. When 3x3 − ax2 − bx + 1 is divided by x − 2 the remainder is 15. If x − 1 is a factor

of the given polynomial, find the values of a and b.

10. If x + 1 is a factor of a0 x3 + a1 x2 + a2 x + a3 , show that a0 + a2 = a1 + a3 .

33
1.2.8 Solution of Polynomial Equations
Quadratic equations
To solve quadratic equations, ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0), we factorise the LHS into linear
factors (if possible) and then use the principle that if p × q = 0 then either p = 0 or q = 0.

Example: Solve 3x2 + 5x = 0.

3x2 + 5x = x(3x + 5) = 0.
Either x = 0 or 3x + 5 = 0, so that x = 0 and x = − 35 are solutions of 3x2 + 5x = 0.

The Quadratic Formula

If the factors cannot be found by trial and error, we use the quadratic formula;
b c
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then x2 + x + = 0.
a a
 
b b2 b2 c
∴ x2 + x + 2 − 2 + = 0
a 4a 4a a
 2  2 
b b − 4ac
∴ x+ − =0 complete the square
2a 4a2
 2  2 
b b − 4ac
∴ x+ =
2a 4a2
  s 
b b2 − 4ac
∴ x+ =±
2a 4a2
√ 2 
b b − 4ac
∴ x=− ± .
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Thus x = .
2a
These are the roots, solutions or zeros of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. There may
be zero, one or two of them depending on the whether b2 − 4ac is negative, zero or positive.

Note that an alternate approach to this derivation uses the factors of a difference of squares
after completion of the square.
Cubic and higher order polynomials
To solve cubics or higher order polynomials, use the Remainder and Factor Theorems to find
the factors, then the zeros.

Example 1: Solve f (x) = 3x + 7x2 − 6x3 = 0.

We have x(3 + 7x − 6x2 ) = 0

x(3x + 1)(2x − 3) = 0

1 3
so x = 0, − , .
3 2

34
Example 2: Solve P (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 12 = 0.

Check if a factor of 12 is a root of the cubic.

P (1) = 1 + 3 − 4 − 12 6= 0.
P (2) = 8 + 3(4) − 4(2) − 12 = 0 ∴ (x − 2) is a factor.
x + 3x − 4x − 12 = (x − 2)(x2 + 5x + 6)
3 2

= (x − 2)(x + 2)(x + 3). (these are the factors)

So the solutions of P (x) are x = −3, ±2.

EXERCISE 12:

1. Solve for Real x:

(a) x2 − 7x + 6 = 0 (c) (2x − 1)(x − 2) = 5
(b) 2x2 + 5x − 12 = 0 (d) 9x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
2. Find rational solutions for f (x) = 0, where
(a) f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 − 17x − 10 (b) f (x) = x4 + 4x3 + 4x2

3. Solve the following

x x−6 1
(a) x(2x − 1) = 3 (b) x2 = 20(x − 5) (c) 2x(x − 1) = 3 (d) + =
4 x 2
4. Django thinks of a positive number between 1 and 10, then adds to it the square of
itself to reach the sum of 72. What number did Django think of?

5. The length of a large room is three times its width. What is the length if the area is
192 m2 ?

6. A cyclist rides 120km from Townsville to Ingham at a uniform rate (speed). If she had
ridden 3 km/hr slower, her trip would have taken 2 hours longer. At what rate (speed)
did she ride?

35
1.2.9 Introduction to Partial Fractions
A rational function is of the form

P (x)
f (x) = , Q(x) 6= 0
Q(x)

6 2x − 1
where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials. e.g., and 3 are rational functions.
x−7 x + 6x + 1
We can combine two rational functions into a single fraction by addition. e.g.,

6 3 6(x − 5) + 3(x − 2)
+ = ((x − 2)(x − 5) is a common denominator)
x−2 x−5 (x − 2)(x − 5)
6x − 30 + 3x − 6
=
(x − 2)(x − 5)
9x − 36
= .
(x − 2)(x − 5)

We are often required to reverse this process and express a rational function as a sum of
9x − 6
simpler functions. For example, to express as a sum of simple terms, write
(x − 2)(x − 5)

9x − 36 A B
= + .
(x − 2)(x − 5) x−2 x−5

We then need to find A and B. This technique is called the method of Partial Fractions. The
methods is sometimes described as decomposing the rational function into partial fractions.
Before we launch into a description of how partial fractions are computed it would be useful
for you to look at the process of finding a common denominator in adding/subtracting
rational functions. Compute each of the following:

1 1
1. + =
x x+1
1 3
2. + =
2x x + 1
1 2
3. − =
2(x − 3) x + 1
1 1
4. + =
x + 1 (x + 1)2
1 x
5. − 2 =
x x +4
3 5
6. + 2 =
x − 2 x + 4x + 10
−2 4
7. 2
+ 2 =
(x − 4) x + 4x + 10
1 1
8. + =
x + 2 (x + 2)3

36
In decomposing into partial fractions, we commence with a rational function, composed of
polynomials on the numerator and denominator. The polynomials have the property that
the highest power of the variable on the numerator is lower than the highest power of the
variable on the denominator. (If this isn’t the case we can perform polynomial division to
place the rational function in that form.) In order to decompose into partial fractions, it
must be the case that the denominator can be factorised. If that cannot happen then there
is no partial fraction decomposition.
Linear Factors
In this first case, the denominator is factorised to give unique linear factors.
5x + 1
Example 1: Express as a sum of simple fractions.
x2 + x − 2

METHOD 1: Firstly we must factorize the denominator:

5x + 1 5x + 1
=
x2 +x−2 (x + 2)(x − 1)

Each factor in the denominator gives rise to a term in the expansion. Thus we write

5x + 1 A B
= +
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1
A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
=
(x + 2)(x − 1)

We now multiply both sides by the denominator to get

5x + 1 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
= Ax − A + Bx + 2B
= (A + B)x − A + 2B.

Now this equation must be true for all values of x. This means that the coefficient of x
on both sides must be the same and the constant terms must also be the same. Equating
coefficient of powers of x gives

x 5=A+B (1.1)
1 1 = −A + 2B (1.2)

We can add equations (1.1) and (1.2) to eliminate A. This gives

6 = 3B ∴ B=2
Substitute into (1.1) 5=A+2 ∴ A=3

5x + 1 3 2
∴ = + .
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1

37
METHOD 2: (COVER-UP METHOD)

5x + 1 A B
= +
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1

Again, multiply through by (x + 2)(x − 1) to get

5x + 1 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)

This is true for all x, so we choose values of x which simplify our problem.
i.e., x = 1 and x = −2.

x=1 5 + 1 = 0 + 3B ∴ B=2
x = −2 −10 + 1 = −3A + 0 ∴ A=3

5x + 1 3 2
∴ = + .
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1
Note that each chosen value of x makes one of the unknowns disappear from the equation.
This is why it is called the cover-up method.

54
Example 2: Expand using partial fractions.
(x2 + x − 20)(x − 1)

Factorizing the denominator gives

54 A B C
= + +
(x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1) x+5 x−4 x−1

Multiplying through by (x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1) we get

54 = A(x − 4)(x − 1) + B(x + 5)(x − 1) + C(x + 5)(x − 4)

Let x = 4, 54 = 9 × 3 × B ∴ B=2
x = 1, 54 = 6 × (−3) × C ∴ C = −3
x = −5, 54 = (−9) × (−6) × A ∴ A=1

54 1 2 3
∴ = + − .
(x + 5)(x − 4)(x − 1) x+5 x−4 x−1

38
Non-Linear factors
2x2 − 2x + 3
Example: Expand using partial fractions.
x3 − x2 − x − 2

2x2 − 2x + 3 2x2 − 2x + 3
= (long division)
x3 − x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x2 + x + 1)

There are two factors in the denominator. Each will give a term in the expansion which will
have the form

2x2 − 2x + 3 A Bx + C
2
= + 2
(x − 2)(x + x + 1) x−2 x +x+1

Note: For a quadratic denominator we use a linear numerator i.e., the top line is always 1
degree less than the bottom. e.g. If the denominator was a quartic, the numerator would be
Bx3 + Cx2 + Dx + E (or cubic).

2x2 − 2x + 3 A(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 2)

∴ =
(x − 2)(x2 + x + 1) (x − 2)(x2 + x + 1)
∴ 2x2 − 2x + 3 = A(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 2)

Note: The cover-up method doesn’t help here, so we expand the brackets.

= Ax2 + Ax + A + Bx2 − 2Bx + Cx − 2C

Equating the coefficients of powers of x

x2 2=A+B (1.3)
x −2 = A − 2B + C (1.4)
1 3=A − 2C (1.5)

This system of 3 equations with 3 unknowns can be reduced to a system of 2 equations with
2 unknowns by eliminating C in (1.4) using equation (1.5).

2 × (1.4) −4 = 2A − 4B + 2C (1.6)
(1.6) + (1.5) −1 = 3A − 4B (1.7)

Now equations (1.3) and (1.7) have only A and B. Hence we now have two equations with
two unknowns. Eliminating B from equation (1.7)

4 × (1.3) + (1.7) 8 − 1 = 4A + 3A
∴ 7 = 7A i.e. A=1
Substitute into (1.3) 2=1+B ∴ B=1
Substitute into (1.4) −2 = 1 − 2 + C ∴ C = −1

2x2 − 2x + 3 1 x−1
∴ 2
= + 2 .
(x − 2)(x + x + 1) x−2 x +x+1

39
Repeated Factors
When we have repeated factors (i.e. factors raised to a power), we must take every possibility
into account when calculating the solution.
3x + 4
Example: Expand using partial fractions.
x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 4

Factorizing the denominator and separating the factors gives

3x + 4 A B C
2
= + 2
+
(x + 2) (x + 1) x + 2 (x + 2) x+1

Note that both (x + 2) and (x + 2)2 are included as possible denominators.

Multiplying through by (x + 2)2 (x + 1) we get

3x + 4 = A(x+2)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x + 2)2

We use the standard cover-up method to determine C

Let x = −1, −3+4=0+0+C ∴ C=1

Normally we would now multiply out the brackets and equate the coefficients of powers of x
to calculate A and B. Here we will demonstrate an alternate method. As we know the left
hand side of the equation is equal to the right hand side, we can substitute any value for x
into both sides to determine another equation. For example:

Let x = 0, 4 = 2A + B + 4 (1) Note that C = 1

Let x = 1, 7 = 6A + 2B + 9 (2)

We now solve these simultaneous equations as before to determine A and B.

Equations (1) and (2) simplify to

2A + B = 0 (3)
6A + 2B = −2 (4)

(4) − 2 × (3) 6A − 4A + 2B − 2B = −2 + 0
2A = −2
∴ A = −1

Substituting A into (3) gives

−2 + B = 0
∴B=2

3x + 4 −1 2 1
∴ = + +
x3 2
+ 5x + 8x + 4 x + 2 (x + 2) 2 x+1

40
EXERCISE 13: Express each of the following as partial fractions:
5x + 1 7x − x2 x4 + x3 − x2 − x + 1
1. 4. 7.
(x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)2 (x + 2) x3 − x
x+5 15x + 28 −2x2 + 3x − 5
2. 5. 8.
(x + 1)(x + 3) 3x2 + 25x + 8 (x2 + 4)(x + 1)
2x2 − 3x − 11 5x2 + 26x + 29 2x3 + 9x2 + 4
3. 6. 3 2 9. 2 2
(x + 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) x + 6x + 11x + 6 x (x + 4)(x − 1)

41
1.2.10 Inequalities
There are many examples where we need to deal with inequalities (rather than equalities).
The following notation is used.

a<b is read as “a is less than b”

a>b is read as “a is greater than b”
a6b is read as “a is less than or equal to b”
a>b is read as “a is greater than or equal to b”

Interval Notation
Certain sets of real numbers can be represented by intervals of the real number line. The
following three statements are equivalent.

(i) x > a

(ii) {x : x > a, x ∈ R} or {x : x > a}

(iii) x ∈ [a, ∞).

The set [a, ∞) is called an interval and corresponds geometrically to a portion of the real
number line. Intervals can be open or closed or neither. For instance, the following is an
example of an open interval.

{x : a < x < b} = (a, b)

This set consists of all numbers between a and b, and is represented on the number line in
the following way

x
a b

Notice the endpoints are excluded. This is indicated by the round brackets ( ) and by the
open dots on the diagram.
The closed interval from a to b is the set

{x : a 6 x 6 b} = [a, b]

x
a b

The endpoints are included here. This is indicated by the square brackets [ ] and by the solid
dots on the diagram.

42
We can also consider infinite intervals or intervals which include only one endpoint. The
possible types of intervals are listed below.

Notation Set Description Picture

(a, b) {x : a < x < b}
a b
[a, b] {x : a 6 x 6 b}
a b
[a, b) {x : a 6 x < b}
a b
(a, b] {x : a < x 6 b}
a b
(a, ∞) {x : x > a} ✲
a
[a, ∞) {x : x > a} ✲
a
(−∞, b) {x : x < b} ✛
b
(−∞, b] {x : x 6 b} ✛
b
(−∞, ∞) R (set of all real numbers) ✛ ✲

Note: The set [a, ∞] does not exist. This is because the notation [a, ∞] means the set of all
numbers greater than or equal to a and less than or equal to infinity. However, infinity is
considered to be a quantity greater than any fixed number, and so is not a number itself.
The following rules apply when working with inequalities.

(1) If a < b, then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c

(2) If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d

a b
(3) If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc and <
c c
a b
(4) If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc and >
c c
1 1
(5) If 0 < a < b, then >
a b

In particular, to summarise (4) and (5):

When multiplying or dividing an inequality by a negative number,

or taking the reciprocal, reverse the direction of the inequality sign.

43
Solving Linear Inequalities
The solution of an inequality consists of the set (or sets) of values for the variable which
make the inequality a true statement. The procedure used is similar to that used in solving
standard equations.

Example 1: Solve 3 − 2x > 15.

3 − 2x > 15
∴ −2x > 12
∴ x 6 −6 (as we are dividing by a negative number)
or x ∈ (−∞, −6].

✛ x
−7 −6 −5

3 1
Example 2: Solve (1 − x) > − x.
2 4
3 1
(1 − x) > − x
2 4
∴ 6(1 − x) > 1 − 4x
∴ 6 − 6x > 1 − 4x
∴ 5 > 2x
5
i.e. x < or x ∈ (−∞, 5/2).
2

point excluded
✛ x
0 5/2

Example 3: Solve −1 < 2x + 3 < 6.

−1 < 2x + 3 < 6
∴ −4 < 2x < 3
3
∴ −2 < x <
2
or x ∈ (−2, 3/2).

x
−2 0 3/2

44
Example 4: Solve 2x < x − 4 6 3x + 8.

We can treat this problem as two separate inequalities

2x < x − 4 and x − 4 6 3x + 8

We now solve each inequality separately but our final answer must satisfy both inequalities

2x < x − 4 and x − 4 6 3x + 8
x < −4 −2x 6 12
x > −6.

The diagram of these two solutions is

✛
✲
x
−6 −4

We need the values of x that satisfy both inequalities, so the solution is −6 6 x < −4 or
x ∈ [−6, −4).

1.2.11 Modulus or Absolute Value

Definition 1. The modulus or absolute value of a number a, denoted by |a|, is the distance
from a to 0 on the real number line.

Distances are always positive (or zero) thus |a| > 0 for all numbers a.

Definition 2. Let a ∈ R. The modulus or absolute value |a| is defined by

(
a if a > 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0.
√ √
Definition 3. |a| = a2 , where denotes the positive square root.

Properties of Absolute Values

Suppose a, b ∈ R and n ∈ Z, then

(i) |ab| = |a||b|

 
a |a|
(ii)   =
b |b|
(iii) |an | = |a|n .

45
You may find some of the following identities useful when dealing with absolute values.

1. |x| = a if and only if x = ±a

2. |x| < a if and only if −a < x < a

3. |x| > a if and only if x < −a or x > a.

Example 1: Solve |x − 2| < 3.

From identity 2 we get

−3 < x − 2 < 3
∴ −1 < x <5

Alternatively we could have solved the problem geometrically by interpreting |x − a| as the

distance of x from a. Therefore |x − 2| < 3 can be interpreted as “the distance of x from 2
is less than 3”. From the diagram, we get the same result.

✛
3 ✲✛ 3 ✲
x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5

∴ −1 < x < 5.

Example 2: Solve |3x + 2| > 4.

This is of the form of inequality 3 above, hence

3x + 2 6 −4 or 3x + 2 > 4
∴ 3x 6 −6 ∴ 3x > 2
∴ x 6 −2 ∴ x > 2/3

✛ ✲ x
−2 −1 0 2 1 2
3

The solution is x 6 −2 or x > 2/3. i.e. x ∈ (−∞, −2] ∪ [2/3, ∞).

It is sometimes convenient to eliminate the modulus sign by squaring both sides of the
inequality. However this can only be done (without affecting the inequality) if both sides
are positive.

Example 3: 4<6 so 42 < 62

but − 6 < −4 and (−6)2 > (−4)2

46
  
x + 3
Example 4: Solve 
  > 1.
x + 1
 
|x + 3| a |a|
∴ >1 as   =
|x + 1| b |b|
∴ |x + 3| > |x + 1| as |x + 1| > 0
∴ (x + 3)2 > (x + 1)2 as both |x + 1| > 0 and |x + 3| > 0
∴ x2 + 6x + 9 > x2 + 2x + 1
∴ 4x > −8
∴ x > −2

Example 5: Solve |2x − 3| 6 |x − 1|.

Squaring both sides

(2x − 3)2 6 (x − 1)2

∴ 4x2 − 12x + 9 6 x2 − 2x + 1
∴ 3x2 − 10x + 8 6 0
∴ (3x − 4)(x − 2) 6 0

A graph of the left hand side is as follows.

4
3
1 2

From this we can see that the inequality is satisfied for

4
6 x 6 2.
3

The graph y = |f (x)| can be sketched by firstly sketching y = f (x) and then “reflecting in
the x axis” all those parts of the graph which are negative.

Example 6: Sketch the curve y = |x − 2|.

y =x−2 y = |x − 2|
2
−→ 2

47
EXERCISE 14: Determine the intervals in which the following inequalities are satisfied:
1. 2 − x > 2(x + 4) 11. 6 + x > x2
2. x + 4 ≥ 3(x − 3) 12. |1 − x| − x ≥ 0
3. −5 ≤ 3 − 2x ≤ 9 13. |2x − 5| ≤ |x + 4|
4. −1 ≤ 2x + 1 < 3 x−1
14. >0
5. 3x + 1 ≤ 1 − 3x ≤ x + 5 x+2
15. (x − 2)2 (x + 1)(x − 3) < 0
6. 2x − 3 ≤ x − 5 ≤ 3x − 3
16. (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5) ≥ 0
7. 2x < x − 1 ≤ 3x + 5
(x − 1)(x + 2)
8. |x + 1| ≤ |x − 2| 17. <0

x + 4
 3−x
9.  ≤1 x+1
x − 2 18. >1
x(1 − x)
10. (x − 1)(x + 4) ≥ 0
19. |x2 − 2| < 1

48
1.2.12 Variation (Proportionality)
Direct Variation
A quantity A is directly proportional to or varies (directly) with another quantity B if
A = kB, where k is a constant, called the constant of proportionality. We denote (direct)
proportionality by A ∝ B.

Illustration: A travelling salesman receives an allowance of 10 cents per km.

The actual allowance varies according to the number of kilometres travelled.
The allowance is “directly proportional” to the number of kilometres travelled.
The variables are: A — allowance
n — number of kilometres travelled
A varies directly as n. This is denoted by

A∝n
i.e. A = kn

where k is the constant of proportionality.

More generally, direct proportion occurs between variables A and B when A = kB p where
k is the constant of proportionality and p is any power such that p > 0. The next example
includes a power, p. The constant of proportionality is determined using extra information
given and the relationship is used to determine the value of one variable given a value of the
other.

Example: y is directly proportional to the cube of x. If y = 16 when x = 2, what is the

value of x when y = 54?

y ∝ x3
∴ y = kx3 (∗)

Solve for k using x = 2 when y = 16

16 = k × 23
∴ k=2

Substitute into (∗) giving y = 2x3 . Now find x when y = 54.

54 = 2x3
∴ 27 = x3
∴ x = 3.

Inverse Variation
Inverse proportion occurs between variables A and B when A = kB p where k is the constant
of proportionality and p is any power such that p < 0.
1
We denote (indirect) proportionality by A ∝ .
B

49
Example 1: The current c flowing in an electric circuit is inversely proportional to the
resistance R. If c = 6 when R = 40, find R when c = 21 .

If c is inversely proportional to R then it is proportional to the reciprocal of R.

1
i.e. c ∝
R
∴ c = k/R (∗∗)
Find k using c = 6 when R = 40

6 = k/40
∴ k = 240
240 1
Subsitute into (∗∗) so that c = . Now find R when c = .
R 2
1 240
=
2 R
∴ R = 2 × 240 = 480.

In the next example proportional relationships between two pairs of variables are indicated.
One variable is the same in each pair. The information given is then used to determine the
relationship between the two of the variables whose relationship was not given explicitly.

Example 2: y varies as x2 and x varies inversely as z 1/3 . How does y vary with z?
1
y ∝ x2 and x∝
z 1/3
K2
∴ y = K1 x2 and x=
z 1/3
 2
K2
∴ y = K1
z 1/3
K1 K2 2
=
z 2/3
C
= 2/3 as K1 , K2 , C are constants.
z

Note: We often have one variable that is proportional to a number of different variables.
We can combine all relationships into one equation.
In the final example we are given the proportional change in two independent variables that
results in a proportional change in a third dependent variable. Note that in this example
the constant of proportionality does not need to be calculated.

Example 3: The electrical resistance R of a conductor varies directly as its length and
inversely as the square of the diameter d. Find the percentage change in R if the length is
increased by 8% and the diameter is decreased by 25%.

i.e. R ∝ ℓ/d2 or R = kℓ/d2 .

50
Initially, let R = R1 , ℓ = ℓ1 , and d = d1 , so that

kℓ1
R1 =
d1 2

Later we have R = R2 , ℓ = ℓ2 = 1.08ℓ1 (increased 8%), and d = d2 = 0.75d1 (decreased

25%).

kℓ2 k(1.08ℓ1 )
R2 = =
d2 2 (0.75d1 )2
1.08 kℓ1
= 2
× 2
(0.75) d1
= 1.92R1

∴ Percentage increase in R is 0.92 × 100% = 92%.

EXERCISE 15:

1. One end of a string is fixed to a point on a smooth horizontal table and a mass at
the other end of the string is moving on the table with uniform speed in a circle. The
tension of the string varies directly as the square of the speed and inversely as the
radius of the circle. The tension is 21.6 kg weight when the speed is 24 m/sec and
radius 2.5 m. Find the radius corresponding to a speed of 20 m/sec and a tension of
18 kg weight.

2. The gravitational attraction F between two bodies is directly proportional to the prod-
uct of their masses m and M respectively, and inversely proportional to the square of
their distance D apart. What would be the percentage change in F if m were increased
by 50%, M by 40% and D decreased by 20% ?

3. The height of a steel column necessary to support a load without buckling varies
directly as the square of the diameter of the column and inversely as the square root
of the load. What percentage increase in the load is possible if the same height of steel
column is used but the diameter is increased by 10%?

4. A bank statement exactly 30 years old is discovered. It states:

“This 10-year-old account is now worth 185.03 and pays 4% interest compounded
annually.”
An investment with annual compound interest varies directly as 1 + r to the power
n, where r is the interest rate expressed as a decimal and n is the number of years of
compounding.
What was the value of the original investment, and what is it worth now?

51
1.2.13 The Binomial Theorem
Expressions of the form (a + b)n where a, b ∈ R (are real numbers) and n ∈ N (a positive
integer) are called binomial expansions and occur frequently in mathematics. Expressions
such as

(x − 1)2 , (x + 2)3 , (a − b)4 , etc.

can be expanded by repeated multiplication. However, for more complicated expressions

such as

(x − 4)10 , (a + b)8 , etc.

repeated multiplication becomes tedious. Note that ultimately we will want to relax the
condition on the exponent, so later we will allow n ∈ R.
Our first approach is to expand using Pascal’s Triangle. The first two rows of the triangle
consist of a 1 and then two 1s. Subsequent rows are generated so that each term in the row
is the sum of the two nearest terms in the line above.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

Each row gives the coefficients in the expansion of (a + b)n for some value of n.

Note: The expression (a + b)n has n + 1 terms in its expansion.

Example: Expand (a + b)3 .

As n = 3 there are 4 terms in this expansion. Hence the coefficients of (a + b)3 are given by
row 4 of Pascal’s triangle.

i.e. (a + b)3 = 1a3 b0 + 3a2 b1 + 3a1 b2 + 1a0 b3

= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .

Note the patterns. The powers of a decrease from one term to the next, while the powers
of b increase from one term to the next. In each term the sum of the exponent of a and the
exponent of b fixed.

Pascal’s triangle is useful, but we need to obtain an explicit expression for (a + b)n for any
positive value of the integer n. To obtain this, we must introduce factorial notation and
binomial coefficient notation. We will introduce the notation and illustrate some properties
of binomial coefficients before returning to a statement of the binomial theorem.

Definition 1. n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . 3 × 2 × 1 is the product of

the first n natural numbers. We also define 0! = 1 and 1! = 1.

52
Example: 2! = 2 × 1 = 2, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1, etc.

Definition 2. “n choose k” is the binomial coefficient and is defined as:

 
n n!
=
k (n − k)!k!

 
n
Note: is sometimes written as n Ck .
k

Example 1: Binomial Coefficients.

 
5 5! 5! 5 × 4 × /3 × /2 × /1
= = =
2 (5 − 2)! 2! 3! 2! /3 × /2 × /1 × 2 × 1
5×4
= = 10.
  2×1
5 5! 5! 5 × 4 × /3 × /2 × /1
= = =
3 (5 − 3)! 3! 2! 3! 2 × 1 × /3 × /2 × /1
5×4
= = 10.
2×1
   
n n
In general, it can be shown that = .
k n−k

Example 2: If n = 5 and k = 2 then

     
5 5 5
= =
2 5−2 3

which was shown in Example 1.

 
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . 3 × 2 × 1 n(n − 1)
Example 3: = = =
2 (n − 2)! 2! (n − 2) . . . 3 × 2 × 1 × 2 × 1 2×1
   
n n
Note: By definition = 1 and = 1.
n 0
These identities can be be obtained by noting that 0! = 1 by definition.

It is useful to note that by cancelling common factors the binomial coefficients can be written
as in the following:
 
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . 3 × 2 × 1
Example 4: = =
k (n − k)! k! (n − k) . . . 3 × 2 × 1 × k(k − 1) . . . 2 × 1
n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1)
=
k(k − 1) . . . 2 × 1

53
EXERCISE 16:

1. Evaluate:
         
8! 6 20 56 3 9
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
7! 3 4 2 0 9
     
n n 40
2. Show that = and hence evaluate
r n−r 38
     
n n n+1
3. Show that + =
r r+1 r+1
     
n n−1 n−1
4. Verify Vandermonde’s identity. That is, show that = +
r r r−1
5. Find x if:
       
16 16 x x
(a) = (b) =
x 7 5 11

We can now expand a general formula for (a + b)n for any positive integer, n, via. the
binomial theorem.

If a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
n  
n
X n
(a + b) = an−k bk
k=0
k
         
n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−1 n n
= a + a b+ a b + ... + ab + b
0 1 2 n−1 n

 
n
where is the binomial coefficient. Note that we have not proved the theorem, but simply
k
stated it. The proof is beyond the scope of MA1000, but you need to know the theorem and
how to use it.

Example 5: Binomial Theorem.

3  
3
X 3 3−k k
(a + b) = a b
k=0
k
       
3 3−0 0 3 3−1 1 3 3−2 2 3 3−3 3
= a b + a b + a b + a b
0 1 2 3
       
3 3 3! 3 3
The coefficients: =1 = =3 =3 =1
0 1 2! 1! 2 3

∴ (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

54
Using the observation we made at example 5 above, the binomial theorem can also be written
as

n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3

(a + b)n = an + nan−1 b + a b + a b + · · · + bn
2! 3!

Example 6: Expand (x − 3)5 .

n = 5, a = x, and b = −3

(x − 3)5 = [x + (−3)]5
2 2
5 5−1 1 5 × /4 5−2 5 × /4 × /3 5−3
= x + 5x (−3) + x (−3)2 + x (−3)3
/2 × 1 /3 × /2 × 1
5 × /4 × /3 × /2 5−4 /5 × /4 × /3 × /2 × 1 5−5
+ x (−3)4 + x (−3)5
/4 × /3 × /2 × 1 /5 × /4 × /3 × /2 × 1
= x5 − 15x4 + 90x3 − 270x2 + 405x − 243

EXERCISE 17:

1. Expand and simplify using the Binomial Theorem:

(a) (2x + 3)5 (b) (3a − 1)4

2. How many terms will each of the following expansions have? Find the first four terms:
(a) (x2 + 2)9 (b) (1 − b2 )12

3. Consider the Binomial expansion of (1 + 1)n .

n  
X n
Use this to show that = 2n .
r=0
r

4. Write down the 9th term in the expansion of (a + b)13 .

1
5. Find the middle term of the expansion of (x + )10 .
x
3
6. Find the term which is independent of x in the expansion (2x − )4 .
x
7. Find the term containing y 6 in the expansion of (3xy 2 − z 2 )7 .

55
1.2.14 The Binomial Series

If we put a = 1 and b = x in the binomial expansion then

n  
n
X n
(a + b) = an−k bk
k=0
k

becomes
n  
n
X n
(1 + x) = xk
k=0
k

which is a polynomial of degree n. This leads to the extension of the binomial theorem to
the case where n is no longer a positive integer. If n ∈ R, then (1 + x)n is no longer a finite
sum; it becomes an infinite series.

The Binomial Series

If n is any real number and |x| < 1, then

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...
2! 3!
∞  
X n r
= x
r=0
r

which is an infinite series.

Note that in generalising over the exponent (n ∈ N became n ∈ R) we have lost some
flexibility in the numbers that can appear in the binomial - we are restricted to |x| < 1.
The expansion of (1 + x)n is an infinite series which may be truncated, resulting in a finite
sum which can be used as an approximation to (1 + x)n . The more terms retained in this
finite sum, the better the approximation is.
The significance of the the binomial series is that it allows us to write down an expression
for the power of any binomial in terms of positive integer powers. In general positive integer
powers are regarded as being easier to work with mathematically.
1
Example 1: Expand √ .
4−x

We must first convert this to the form (1 + x)n .

1 1
√ =p
4−x 4(1 − x/4)
1
= p
2 1 − x/4
1 x −1/2
= 1−
2 4
1 h  x i−1/2
= 1+ −
2 4

56
Using the binomial expansion with n = −1/2 and x replaced by (−x/4) we get
  x  (− 1 )(− 3 )  x 2
1 1
√ = 1 + (− 12 ) − + 2 2
−
4−x 2 4 2! 4

(− 12 )(− 23 )(− 52 )  x 3
+ − + ...
3! 4
 
1 x 3x2 5x3
= 1+ + + + ...
2 8 128 16 × 64

Remember that for the expansion of (1 + x)n we require |x| < 1. Therefore, in this case, we
require
 x x
   
−  =   < 1
4 4
x
i.e. − 1 < < 1 or − 4 < x < 4.
4
 
1 1 x 3x2 5x3
Hence √ ≃ 1+ + + if −4 < x < 4 where we have truncated the
4−x 2 8 128 1024
infinite series after the first four terms.

Linear Approximation for (1 + x)n

If x is very small (i.e., |x| ≪ 1, which is read “x is very much smaller than 1”), we may
ignore the terms containing x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . in the binomial series, so that

(1 + x)n ≃ 1 + nx.
1
Example 2: 2
= (1 + x)−2 ≃ 1 − 2x.
(1 + x)
The linear approximation is 1 − 2x, provided |x| < 1. If x = 0.01 then 1 − 2x = 0.98, whereas
1
is actually equal to 0.98029 · · · .
(1 + x)2

Example 3: Find the linear approximation for (4 + 7x)3/2 .

We must firstly put this into the form (1 + x)n ,

 3/2
3/2 3/2 7
∴ (4 + 7x) =4 1+ x
4
 3/2
7x
=8 1+
4

Now using (1 + x)n ≃ 1 + nx we get

 3/2      
7x 3 7x 7x 4
8 1+ ≃8 1+ if   < 1 or |x| < .
4 2 4 4 7
= 8 + 21x.

57
Higher Order Approximations for (1 + x)n
If we require a quadratic (second order) approximation to (1 + x)n , we only include the
terms involving powers of x up to x2 . For a cubic (third order) approximation to (1 + x)n ,
we would only include terms up to x3 , etc.

2x2 − x + 3
Example: Given , find a quadratic approximation.
(1 + x2 )(1 − x)

Using partial fractions:

2x2 − x + 3 A Bx + C
2
= +
(1 + x )(1 − x) 1−x 1 + x2
∴ 2x2 − x + 3 = A(1 + x2 ) + (1 − x)(Bx + C)
= A + Ax2 + Bx + C − Bx2 − Cx

Equating coefficients:

x2 : 2=A−B
x: −1 = B−C
1: 3=A +C

Solving these gives A = 2, B = 0, and C = 1.

2x2 − x + 3 2 1
∴ 2
= +
(1 + x )(1 − x) 1 − x 1 + x2

We may now find the binomial expansions for each of these terms
2
1. = 2[1 + (−x)]−1
1−x  
(−1)(−2) 2
= 2 1 + (−1)(−x) + (−x) + · · ·
2×1
= 2[1 + x + x2 + · · · ]
1
2. = (1 + x2 )−1
1 + x2

(−1)(−2) 2
2
= 1 + (−1) x2 + x + ···
2×1
= 1 − x2 + x4 − · · ·
2x2 − x + 3 2 1
Hence 2
= +
(1 + x )(1 − x) 1 − x 1 + x2
= 2[1 + x + x2 + · · · ] + [1 − x2 + x4 − · · · ]
≃ 3 + 2x + x2 . Quadratic Approximation

58
EXERCISE 18:

1. Find at least the first four terms of the Binomial Series for:
√ 1
(a) (1 − x)−2 (b) 1 + x (c) √
1+x
2. (a) Use your answer
√ to 1.(b) to find a second order approximation to the Binomial
Series for 1 + x
x
(b) Use your answer to 1.(c) to find the Binomial Series for √
1+x
3. Find the first four terms of the Binomial Series for:
√ 1
(a) 4 + x2 (b) (9 − 9x)− 2

4. Find
√ the first
√ non-zero term of the Binomial Series expansion for
1 + x − 1 − x − x, |x| < 1
2Q0
5. The charge Q on a leaking capacitor is given by: Q = , where t is the
(1 + t)(2 + t)
time (seconds) and Q0 is the initial charge (farads).
(a) Express Q in partial fractions;
(b) Find the Binomial Series expansion for your answer to (a);
(c) Show that
 
3 7 2
Q ≈ 1 − t + t Q0 , provided that t is small.
2 4

6. The field strength H of a magnet at a point on the x–axis at a distance x from the
centre is given by
 
M 1 1
H= −
2a (x − a)2 (x + a)2

where M is the moment and 2a is the length of the magnet.

Show that if x is large compared to a then
2M
H≈ .
x3

59
1.3 Coordinate Geometry
Coordinate geometry is the study of geometric objects through algebraic representation and
manipulation of equations describing their properties (position, characteristic features, etc.).
Objects are described by pairs of points (in two dimensional space) and triples of points
(in three dimensional space). In MA1000 we focus on two-dimensional space and we work
on a coordinate plane which is constructed using axes that are perpendicular to each other.
Points on the plane are identified using (x, y) coordinates with the x-coordinate indicating
the horizontal position of a point and the y-coordinate indicating the vertical position of a
point.
1.3.1 The Straight Line
The first geometric object we discuss is the straight line. Consider two fixed points,
A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ) that lie on the line. Diagrammatically the line looks like this.
y-axis

y2 B

y2 − y1

y1 A θ
x2 − x1

θ ✲
x1 x2 x-axis

Gradient: This is one of the characteristics of a straight line. The gradient (or slope), m, of
the line with segment AB is defined by
y2 − y1
m= if x2 6= x1
x2 − x1
= tan θ

where θ is measured from the positive x−axis in an anticlockwise direction.

Note: Vertical Lines

y
✻

•A

If x1 = x2 , the gradient is not defined.

•B
✲
x

60
Horizontal Lines

y
✻
A
• B
•
If y1 = y2 , the gradient is zero.
✲
x

Parallel Lines

y
Parallel lines make the same angle ✻
with the x−axis and hence have
the same gradient.

θ θ θ ✲
x

Perpendicular Lines

The product of the gradients of y

perpendicular lines is −1. We will ✻
slope = m1
see a proof of this later.

i.e. m1 m2 = −1

1 ✲
or m1 = − .
m2 x

slope = m2
Example 1: The vertices of a triangle are A = (−2, 1), B = (3, 2), and C = (4, −3).
(1) Show that the line AB is perpendicular (⊥) to BC.
(2) Find the angle AB makes with the x-axis.
y2 − y1
1. Gradient m =
x2 − x1

If mAB is the gradient of AB and mBC is the gradient of BC, we need to show that mAB ×
mBC = −1.

2−1 1
mAB = =
3 − (−2) 5
−3 − 2
mBC = = −5
4−3
1
∴ mAB × mBC = × −5 = −1 ∴ AB ⊥ BC
5

61
 1
2. mAB = tan θ =
5
1
∴ θ = tan−1 ≃ 11.3◦
5

Equation of a Straight Line

We will find the equation to the straight line with slope m, passing through the point (x1 , y1 ).
That is, we assume that the slope is known and so is one point on the line.

y
✻

•
P = (x, y)

•
A = (x1 , y1 ) ✲
x

Let A = (x1 , y1 ) be a fixed point on the line and P = (x, y) be any other point on the same
line.

As slope of the line = slope of AP

y − y1
then m=
x − x1

∴ y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

This is the equation to a straight line through the point (x1 , y1 ) with a slope m. This
equation can also be written in the form

y = mx + c

where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept. Remember the y-intercept is obtained by
letting x = 0 and can be determined in terms of x1 , y1 and m.

Example 2: Find the equation of the line passing through the point (2, −3) and (1) parallel
to and (2) perpendicular to the line 3x + 4y − 5 = 0.

(1) 3x + 4y − 5 = 0
∴ 4y = −3x + 5
3 5
∴ y =− x+
4 4

62
The required line is parallel to this line. Therefore it has the same gradient, i.e. m = −3/4.
Our line also passes through the point (2, −3)

∴ y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
becomes y − (−3) = − (x − 2)
4
3 3
∴ y+3=− x+
4 2
3 3
∴ y =− x− .
4 2
3x 5
(2) The required line is perpendicular to the line y = − +
4 4
∴ m = negative reciprocal of −3/4
i.e. m = 4/3

The line also passes through the point (2, −3),

∴ y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
4
becomes y + 3 = (x − 2)
3
4x 8
= −
3 3
4 17
∴ y = x− .
3 3

EXERCISE 19:
1. Find the equation of the following straight lines:
3
(a) gradient , passing through (−6, 5);
4
(b) passing through (2, −8) and (7, 2)
(c) passing through (−5, −2) and making an angle of 135 with the x–axis
(d) parallel to the x–axis and passing through the point (5, 2)
(e) parallel to the y–axis and passing through the point (−2, −4)
(f) x–intercept −3, y–intercept −2
(g) containing the point (2, −3) and parallel to the line 3x + 2y − 6 = 0
(h) containing the point (2, −3) and perpendicular to the line 3x + 2y − 6 = 0
2. The co-ordinates of A are (0, −2) and B are (3, 0). The x–coordinate of a point C on
AB is 6. Find
(a) the equation of AB;
(b) the angle AB makes with the positive x–axis;
(c) the equation of the line containing the point C and perpendicular to AB.
3. Find a proof that the product of the gradients of perpendicular lines is −1. What
are the essential features of the proof? That is, what mathematical concepts and
procedures does the proof rely on?

63
1.3.2 Conic Sections: (The Circle, Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Parabola.)
The next geometric objects we consider are called conic sections or simply conics. These
arise when a plane intersects a double cone (two cones sharing the same axis and arranged
apex to apex). This arrangement is indicated in the figure below. If the plane is per-
pendicular to the axis then a circle results. If the plane is other than perpendicular and
intersects one cone only an ellipse or parabola results. Finally if the plane is arranged
such that it intersects both cones then a hyperbola results. See here for more information:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ConicSection.html

1.3.3 The Circle

y
✻

P = (x, y)

r y

✲
x x

If (x, y) is a point on the circle with radius r and centre at the origin, then by Pythagoras:

x2 + y 2 = r 2

64
For a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r, the equation is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

This is the “standard form” of the equation of a circle and immediately identifies the coor-
dinates of the centre and radius of a circle.

Example 1: Find the centre and the radius of (x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 9.

√
Centre is (−2, 1) radius = 9 = 3.

Example 2: Given that a circle has radius of 6 and a centre located at (−3, 4), find its
equation.

(x + 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 36

If we expand this we would get

x2 + 6x + y 2 − 8y − 11 = 0

We should be able to recognise this as the equation of a circle. The “General Equation” for
a circle is

x2 + y 2 + Ax + By + C = 0

This can always be transformed into standard form by completing the square on both x and
y.

Example 3: Describe the curve whose equation is x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 14 = 0.

x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 14 = 0
∴ x2 − 4x + y 2 + 10y + 14 = 0
∴ (x − 2)2 − 4 + (y + 5)2 − 25 + 14 = 0
∴ (x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 15
√
This is a circle, centre (2, −5) and radius 15.

65
1.3.4 Tangents to Circles
A tangent to a circle is a straight line which touches the circle at only one point (the point
of contact). The line joining the centre of the circle to the point of contact is perpendicular
to the tangent.

⋆point of contact

tangent

Example 1: Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 + 4x − 2y − 20 = 0 at

the point (1, 5) on the circle.

Completing the square:

(x + 2)2 − 4 + (y − 1)2 − 1 − 20 = 0
(x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 25

This is the equation of a circle, centre (−2, 1) and radius 5.

P
⋆ (1,5)
tangent
⋆
C(−2,1)

5−1 4 3
Gradient of CP is: mCP = = . Hence the gradient of the tangent is − (negative
1+2 3 4
reciprocal). The tangent also passes through the point of contact, (1, 5)

Hence y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
3
becomes y − 5 = − (x − 1)
4
3x 3
∴ y−5=− +
4 4
3x 23
∴ y=− +
4 4
is the equation to the tangent.

66
EXERCISE 20:

1. Show that the point (4, −3) does not lie on the circle x2 + y 2 − 5x + 3y + 2 = 0

2. Find the equation of the circle which touches the x–axis at (4, 0) and touches the y–axis
at (0, 4)

3. (a) Find the equation of the circle whose centre is the point (−1, −2) and radius is
of length 5 units
(b) What is the length of the intercept cut off by this circle on the x–axis?
(c) Find the length of the tangent to this circle from the point (6, 4)

4. Consider a circle with centre (3, −1) and radius 5

(a) Find the length of the tangent to the circle from the point (2, 6)
(b) What is the equation to the tangent?

5. Find the equation to the circle such that the points A(-3,5) and B(4,-2) form the ends
of a diameter.

6. Find the coordinates of the points in which the line y − 2x = 1 cuts the circle x2 +
y 2 − 2x + 4y − 45 = 0 .

7. If the line y = 2x + k is a tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 − 6x + 2y − 10 = 0, find the

value of k.

8. Find a proof that the line joining the centre of the circle to the point of contact of the
tangent is perpendicular to the tangent at that point.

67
1.3.5 Ellipses

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b

is the standard form for an ellipse centred at the origin. If a > b > 0 then the ellipse has a
semi-major axis (the longer of its two axes) with length a along the x−axis and semi-minor
axis (the shorter of its two axes) with length b along the y-axis as indicated in the figure
below.
y
✻
b∗

semi-minor
✲
−a∗ ∗
semi-major a x

∗
−b

If b > a > 0 then the ellipse has the semi-major axis with length b along the y−axis and the
semi-minor axis with length a along the x−axis.
The standard form for the equation for an ellipse with centre (h, k) is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

The semi-major and semi-minor axes are parallel to the axes of the coordinate system. The
general equation for an ellipse is

Ax2 + By 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0.

Such equations can always be transformed into standard form by completing the square on
both x and y.
Notes:

1. Ellipses with axes that are not parallel to the coordinate axes do occur, but we do not
consider them in MA1000.

2. Ellipses do not have rotational symmetry about their centre, but a circle does. This
means if we rotate an ellipse about its centre it won’t look the same (unless we rotate
through an integer multiple of 180◦ ), but any rotation of a circle about its centre leaves
the circumference of the circle in the same place.

3. If a = b then the ellipse becomes a circle. That is, a circle is a special case of an ellipse.

68
Example 1: Describe the curve whose equation is 4x2 + y 2 − 16x − 10y + 21 = 0.

4x2 + y 2 − 16x − 10y + 21 = 0

4x2 − 16x + y 2 − 10y + 21 = 0
4(x2 − 4x) + (y − 5)2 − 25 + 21 = 0
4[(x − 2)2 − 4] + (y − 5)2 − 4 = 0
4(x − 2)2 − 16 + (y − 5)2 − 4 = 0
4(x − 2)2 + (y − 5)2 = 20
(x − 2)2 (y − 5)2
+ = 1.
5 20
√
This is an ellipse with centre (2, 5) with the√semi-major axis of length 20 aligned parallel
to the y-axis and semi-minor axis of length 5 aligned parallel to the x-axis.

1.3.6 Hyperbolas
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with its centre at the origin is either

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b

or

y 2 x2
− 2 =1
b2 a

We will work with the first of these and then make comments about how the second differs
from the first.
x2 y2
The working that follows assumes a2
− b2
= 1. To find the x intercepts put y = 0, so that

x2
= 1, ∴ x = ±a
a2

To find the y intercepts put x = 0, so that

y2
− 2 = 1, ∴ y 2 = −b2
b
Therefore there are no y intercepts.
 
2 2 x2 b2 2
When x is large, y = b −1 ≃ 2 x . The asymptotes are straight lines given by
a2 a
b
y = ± x. These are lines that hyperbola gets very close to (but never quite reaches) as x
a
and y values get large.

69
 b b
y=− x
a y y= x
a
✻

⋆−a ✲x
a⋆

We see that the hyperbola has vertices on the x−axis. These are the points (x = ±a) on the
hyperbola that are closest to its centre. Also note that there are no points on the hyperbola
for which x ∈ (−a, a).

y 2 x2
If the hyperbola has the form 2 − 2 = 1 then the hyperbola has the same asymptotes as
b a
the previous case, but the vertices are now on the y−axis at y = ±b. In this case there are
no points on the hyperbola for which y ∈ (−b, b).

The equation for a hyperbola with centre (h, k) is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2

or

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
− =1
b2 a2

depending on whether the vertices are on an axis parallel to the x−axis or an axis parallel
to the y−axis. Irrespective of the axis on which the vertices lie, the general equation of a
hyperbola is

Ax2 − By 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0.

The equations of the asymptotes are:

b
y = k ± (x − h)
a

70
Example 1: Describe the curve whose equation is 4x2 − 9y 2 + 8x + 18y = 41.

Completing the square on both x and y gives

4(x2 + 2x) − 9(y 2 − 2y) = 41

4[(x + 1)2 − 1] − 9[(y − 1)2 − 1] = 41
4(x + 1)2 − 4 − 9(y − 1)2 + 9 = 41
4(x + 1)2 − 9(y − 1)2 = 36
(x + 1)2 (y − 1)2
− = 1.
9 4
This is the equation for a hyperbola with centre at (−1, 1) and a = 3, b = 2.

1.3.7 Parabolas
The quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0 has a graph which is parabolic. If a > 0, the
graph opens upwards, whereas if a < 0 the graph opens downwards.

∗Vertex

∗
Vertex
a<0 a>0

The
 b turningb

point of the parabola y = f (x) is called its vertex and it has the coordinates
− 2a , f − 2a .

Example 1: Sketch the graph y = f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1.

y-intercept: x = 0 ⇒ y =0−0+1=1
x-intercept: y = 0 ⇒ 0 = 2x2 − 4x + 1
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
∴ x=
√ 2a
4 ± 16 − 8
=
√4
4± 8
=
4 √
4±2 2
=
4√
2± 2
=
2

71
Recall: The value and sign of the discriminant (∆ = b2 − 4ac) will tell us how many
solutions there are to the equation f (x) = 0, i.e. how many x−intercepts there are:

• ∆ > 0 =⇒ two x−intercepts

• ∆ = 0 =⇒ one x−intercept

• ∆ < 0 =⇒ no x−intercepts
 
b 4 b
Vertex: x = − = = 1 ∴y=f − = f (1) = 2 × 12 − 4 × 1 + 1 = −1
2a 4 2a

∴ the vertex lies at (1, −1).

The graph of y = f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1 is

y✻

∗(0,1)
∗ ∗2+√2 ✲
√
2− 2 ✒ ∗ x
(1,−1)
2 2
Axis of Symmetry

72
EXERCISE 21:

1. Identify the type of curve given by the following equations. Identify lengths of semi-
major, semi-minor axes and equations of asymptotes where appropriate.
(a) 4x2 + 9y 2 − 16x + 54y + 61 = 0 (b) y 2 − 4x2 + 16x + 6y = 23

2. A stone is projected vertically upwards from the ground. The height h(t) (in metres)
above the ground is a function of time t (t ≥ 0), with rule

h(t) = 12.5t − 5t2 .

Find the greatest height reached.

3. A symmetrical road bridge has the shape of half an ellipse. Its span is 30 metres and
its height is 20 metres. Determine the height at a distance of 12 metres from the axis
of symmetry.

4. A symmetrical parabolic bridge has a height of 4 metres and a span of 8 metres. A

vehicle is 4 metres broad and has a height of just over 3 metres.

(a) Can the vehicle pass under the bridge?

(b) Determine the maximum head height which a vehicle 3 metres wide can have to
pass under the bridge without contact.
√ x2
5. (a) Find the values of x where the line y = m(x− 6) intersects the ellipse +y 2 = 1
2
(Note: your answer will depend on m).
√
(b) Use this to find the equations to the tangents to the ellipse from the point ( 6, 0).
x2 y 2
6. If the line y = mx + c is tangent to the ellipse + = 1, prove that c2 = b2 + a2 m2 .
a2 b 2
7. The coordinates of one end of a focal chord of the parabola y 2 = 8x are (8,-8). Find
the coordinates of the other end.

8. For what values of m is line y = mx tangent to the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1?

73
2 Functions and their Graphs
In this chapter we will use graphs to help identify the important properties and features of
a function or relation.

2.1 Definitions
Definition 1. A relation is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) and is usually defined by a property
or rule, i.e. the equation.

The words “ordered pair” mean that the positioning of the objects x and y in the brackets
is significant. We have come across these many times, usually in the context of graphing
where x represents a horizontal coordinate and y a vertical coordinate.
Definition 2. The domain of the relation is the set of all possible x values (the first elements
of the ordered pairs).
Definition 3. The range of the relation is the set of all possible y values (the second elements
of the ordered pairs).

Example 1: x2 + y 2 = 1 is a relation describing the unit circle. (h, k) = (0, 0), r = 1

y
✻
1

✲ Domain: −1 6 x 6 1
−1 1 x Range: −1 6 y 6 1

−1

Example 2: y = x2 + 1 is a relation describing a parabola.

y
✻

Domain: x ∈ R (all real numbers)

Range: y > 1
×1
✲
x

Definition 4. A function is a relation with the property that no two ordered pairs have the
same x coordinate.

Example 3: Consider the unit circle, x2 + y 2 = 1. This is not a function as there are points
on the curve that have the same x value but two different y values.

i.e. If x = 0, then 02 + y 2 = 1
∴ y = ±1.

74
Example 4: The parabola y = x2 + 1 is a function.

The Vertical Line Test: A curve is a function if no

vertical line cuts the curve more than once.

In the next few sections we will present some terminology that is used to characterise func-
tions. In particular we will talk about the domain, range and sign of functions and whether
they are increasing or decreasing.

2.2 Function Notation

We can write f (x) = x2 + 2x − 3 instead of y = x2 + 2x − 3. i.e. f (x) is the value of y for the
given value of x. y changes according to the value of x. Therefore x is called the independent
variable and y is called the dependent variable.
2.2.1 Domain
As stated earlier, the domain of a function is the set of all possible values of x allowed for
that function. Functions are often given merely by a rule, without the domain written in
full. Where no domain is specified, it will be assumed that the maximal domain is intended.
√
Example 1: The domain of the function f (x) = x is x > 0 (as you cannot take the
square root of a negative real number).

1
Example 2: The domain of the function f (x) = is x 6= 0 (all real numbers, except x = 0).
x

1
Example 3: The domain of the function f (x) = √ is x > 0. (Note: the point x = 0 is
x
excluded because you cannot divide by zero.)

√
Example 4: Find the domain of f (x) = x − 3.

This function is defined if x − 3 > 0, i.e. x > 3.

∴ Domain of f = Df : x > 3.

x+2
Example 5: Find the domain of f (x) = .
(x − 1)(x + 1)

This function is only defined if x 6= 1 and x 6= −1.

∴ Domain of f = Df : x 6= −1 and x 6= 1.
i.e. all real values of x excluding x = ±1.

75
EXERCISE 22:

1. For each of the following graphs (i)–(iv), state

(a) the domain and range, and
(b) whether the relation is a function or not.

y
(i) (ii)
y 1
1

-4 -2 x 1 x
-1

(iii) y
y
(iv) 5
2
-4 -2 3
y =2
2 4 x 1
-2
-4 -2 -1 2 x
x = −1

2. Find the domains of the following functions:

10 x2 √ 4
(a) f (x) = (b) h(x) = (c) f (x) = 1 − x (d) g(x) = √
x x−1 4 − 2x
3. For each function, construct a table of values and sketch the function. From the sketch,
state the domain and range.
√ 1
(a) y = 3 − x (b) y = (x − 1)2 (c) y = x + 3 (d) y =
x−2
4. By considering the restrictions on the values of x and y, find the domain and range of
the following.
√ 3
q
√ 1
(a) y = x 2 (b) y = (c) y = 1 − x (d) y = √
1−x 2 2
x − 25
5. A plumber melts and mixes x grams of solder (a metal alloy, with a low melting point,
used to join metals with higher melting points) that is 40% tin with y grams of another
brand of solder that is 20% tin to yield a final solder mixture that contains a total of
200 grams of tin. Find the domain of x and the range of y.

76
2.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
A function is called increasing on an interval I if

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.

y
✻

f (x2 )

f (x1 )

✲
x1 x2 x

A function is called decreasing on I if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.

y
✻
f (x1 )
f (x2 )

✲
x1 x2 x

2.4 Sign of Functions

Example 1: For f (x) = 2x2 − 3x − 5, find (i) where f (x) = 0, (ii) where f (x) > 0, (iii)
where f (x) < 0, and (iv) the intervals on which f (x) is increasing (decreasing).

(i) f (x) = 0 : 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0

(2x − 5)(x + 1) = 0
5
∴ x = , −1
2
We recognise f (x) to be the equation for a parabola (opening upwards). To graph this
parabola we must also find its vertex.


b b
Recall that the coordinates of the vertex are − 2a , f − 2a . In this case,

b 3
x=− =
2a
 4  
b 3
y=f − =f
2a 4
 2  
3 3 49
=2 −3 −5=−
4 4 8

77
  
3 49
Vertex: ,−
4 8

We can now draw (sketch) the graph of f (x).

y
✻

y = 2x2 − 3x − 5

✲
−1× ×5/2 x

−5×
×3

4
, − 49
8

(ii) From the graph: f (x) > 0 when x < −1 or x > 5/2.
(iii) From the graph: f (x) < 0 when −1 < x < 5/2.
(iv) From the graph:
The function is increasing for x > 3/4.
The function is decreasing for x < 3/4.

2.5 Cubics
Recall that the general equation for a cubic is f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a 6= 0.

Orientation: If a > 0, the curve is similar to

If a < 0, the curve is similar to

When sketching a cubic you may need to solve ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 to find the x−
intercepts. This can usually be done using the Factor theorem or Remainder theorem.

Example 1: Sketch the curve f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10.

Orientation: a = 1 > 0. Therefore the shape is

y − intercepts: (x = 0) ∴ y = −10.
x − intercepts: (y = 0) ∴ 0 = x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10.
The factor theorem and long division gives
x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10 = (x + 1)(x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
∴ x = −1, −5, 2.

78
Sketch the graph:

y
✻

×−5 −1× ×2 ✲x
−10×

Note that we can often get a good idea of what the graph of a function looks like without
plotting points. In fact this approach often gives a better picture of the function, because a
plot of a function can often miss features (e.g., if the plotted points are too far apart). To
sketch the graph of a function, we look for features such as the x and y intercepts. For the
next group of functions, we will also need to look for the asymptotes of the function. Later
we will see how to find the turning points of a function.
These features are usually sufficient to get a good idea of what a function looks like.

EXERCISE 23:

1. Sketch the graphs of the following quadratics. In doing so, find the x and y intercepts,
places where the functions are positive or negative and where the function is increasing
or decreasing.
(a) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 2 (c) f (x) = 2x2 − 7x − 15
(b) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 6 (d) f (x) = −4x2 + 4x + 2
2. Sketch the graphs of the following cubics. In doing so, find the x and y intercepts and
places where the functions are positive or negative.
(a) f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 (c) f (x) = 2x3 − 8x2 + 10x − 4
3
(b) f (x) = x − 3x + 2 (d) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 14x − 12
3. Graphing a function is easier if information regarding the slope of a function is available,
as well as information about the function itself. In particular this allows turning points
to be determined. These are points where the slope of a function changes sign, from
positive to negative or vice versa. In each of the following f (x) is a function to be
graphed and s(x) is its slope. Plot f (x) and s(x) on the same axes. Note how turning
points for the function f (x) occur where s(x) = 0. Is it the case that if s(x) = 0 then
a turning point occurs on the graph for f (x)? Explain.
(a) f (x) = x2 , s(x) = 2x (c) f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2, s(x) = 3x2 + 4x − 1
(b) f (x) = x3 , s(x) = 3x2 (d) f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2, s(x) = 3x2 − 3
(e) f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4, s(x) = 4x3 − 10x
In (d) what do you notice about the value of the function at the turning point
further to the right on the graph? Can you predict when a zero of a polynomial
will correspond to a turning point?

79
2.6 Limits
In this section we consider how to characterise functions in terms of their behaviour near
places where they are undefined - that is behaviour at the edge of a domain. This will lead
to the concept of a limit. In a mathematical sense the word “limit” means:

“The value of f (x) as x approaches some particular value, a.”

In the case where we are at the edge of the domain the function it is often the case that the
function is not defined at x = a.

Example 1: The following functions have restricted domains because they each have a
denominator that is zero at one point.

3
1. f (x) =
x−2
x
2. f (x) =
2x
2 sin x
3. f (x) =
x
x2
4. f (x) =
ex − 1
5x + 10
5. f (x) =
x+2

Exercise In each of the functions in example 1, state the value of x that is excluded from
the domain. We will inspect the behaviour of each of these functions near the point that
is excluded from the domain, by evaluating each one of them at a carefully chosen set of
points.
Analaysis of behaviour of a function at the edge of its domain
3
We look at the first of the functions in example 1. Here f (x) = is undefined at x = 2.
x−2
We consider a sequence of x values less than 2, increasing from x = 1 toward x = 2 in such
a way that 2 − x decreases by a factor of 10 each time. We can think of this as focusing a
microscope at the place where the function is undefined.

3
x f (x) =
x−2
1 −3
1.5 −6
1.75 −12
1.9 −30
1.99 −300
1.999 −3000
1.9999 −30000
1.99999 −300000
1.999999 −3000000
2 undefined

80
Of interest in this analysis is how the value of the function changes as the point where the
function is undefined is approached. In this example the function values are negative and it
appears as though they become arbitrarily large in magnitude as that point is approached.
We can perform a similar analysis for values of x decreasing from x = 3 toward x = 2.
Complete the table below:

3
x f (x) =
x−2
3 3
2.5
2.25
2.1
2.01
2.001
2.0001
2.00001
2.000001
2 undefined

Describe the behaviour of the function as x approaches 2 from the values of x > 2. Is it the
same behaviour as when x approaches 2 from the values of x < 2?

Exercise On the following pages complete the tables for the other four functions in example
1.

81
 x
2. f (x) =
2x

x x
x f (x) = x f (x) =
2x 2x
1 0.5 −1 0.5
0.5 −0.5
0.25 −0.25
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0 undefined 0 undefined

Describe the behaviour of the function as x approaches 0 from each side. Is the
behaviour the same from each side?

2 sin x
3. f (x) =
x

2 sin x 2 sin x
x f (x) = x f (x) =
x x
1 1.68294197 −1 1.68294197
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0 undefined 0 undefined

Describe the behaviour of the function as x approaches 0 from each side. Is the
behaviour the same from each side?

82
 x2
4. f (x) =
ex − 1

x2 x2
x f (x) = x f (x) =
ex − 1 ex − 1
1 0.58197671 −1 −1.58197671
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0 undefined 0 undefined

Describe the behaviour of the function as x approaches 0 from each side. Is the
behaviour the same from each side?

5x + 10
5. f (x) =
x+2

5x + 10 5x + 10
x f (x) = x f (x) =
x+2 x+2
−3 5 −1 5
−2.5
−2.25
−2.1
−2.01
−2.001
−2.0001
−2.00001
−2.000001
−2 undefined −2 undefined

Describe the behaviour of the function as x approaches −2 from each side. Is the
behaviour the same from each side?

We can compare the behaviour of each of the five functions by completing the following
table:

83
 Function Behaviour
3
As x approaches 2, the point at which the function is undefined, f (x) gets larger
x−2
in magnitude, apparently without bound. The behaviour is in opposites: from
values lower than 2 the function is negative, but from values higher than 2 the
function is positive.
x
As x approaches 0, the point at which the function is undefined, f (x) is con-
2x
stant, in fact f (x) = 1/2. The behaviour is
2 sin x
As x approaches 0, the point at which the function is undefined, f (x) is almost
x
constant, in fact f (x) = 2. The behaviour is
x2
As x approaches 0, the point at which the function is undefined, f (x) is almost
ex − 1
constant, in fact f (x) = 0. The behaviour is
5x + 10
As x approaches −2, the point at which the function is undefined, f (x) is
x+2
constant, in fact f (x) = 5. The behaviour is

In four out of the five cases we have seen the function approach a constant value, while in
the other (the first case) the functions values became very large in magnitude, with different
values depending on the direction of approach.

In those cases where the function values approach the same value from either side of the
point where the function is undefined we can summarise this behavior as:

x 1
lim f (x) = lim =
x→0 x→0 2x 2
2 sin x
lim f (x) = lim = 2
x→0 x→0 x
x2
lim f (x) = lim = 0
x→0 x→0 ex − 1

5x + 10
lim f (x) = lim = 5
x→−2 x→−2 x + 2

The notation lim f (x) is read as “the limit as x tends to zero of f (x)”. This is a shorthand
x→0
to say that we have established the value of the function as x gets arbitrarily close to 0. Note
that this notation does not communicate any information about the actual function value at
x = 0 (which we would denote f (0) if we could compute it). What we can see is that in each
of these examples, if we were to substitute the limiting value of x directly into the function
a ratio 0/0 is observed. We call this an indeterminate form, because we cannot predict the
limiting value by direct substitution into the function - and as we see any limiting value of
f (x) is possible.

x 5x + 10
In the case of the functions f (x) = and f (x) = it is possible to determine the
2x x+2

84
limiting value of the function by cancelling common factors. In fact
x 1
f (x) = =
2x 2
at every value of x where f (x) is defined, remembering that f (x) is undefined at x = 0
because the denominator is zero there. Similarly
5x + 10
f (x) = =5
x+2
at every value of x where f (x) is defined, remembering that f (x) is undefined at x = −2
because the denominator is zero there. This type of analysis is not possible on the other
functions because there are no common factors to cancel.

3
In the remaining example, f (x) = , the function values became infinitely large in
x−2
magnitude as the point where f (x) was undefined was approached. On one side they were
negative and the other they were positive. For this reason we would say:

lim f (x) is undefined.

x→2

We can however make a statement about the limit as we approach from just one side of the
point where the function is undefined. Thus in the first example we would write
3
lim− f (x) = lim− = −∞
x→2 x→2 x−2
3
lim+ f (x) = lim+ = ∞
x→2 x→2 x−2
In each case the superscript “−” and superscript “+” means that the point is approached
only from the left or right respectively. These are known as “one-sided” limits. Note also
that the notation “∞”, the “infinity” symbol represents an unbounded large number.

Application of the concept of a limit. We used the analysis of functions where the
domain was restricted by a zero in the denominator as motivation for the investigation above,
however the concept of the limit is not restricted to circumstances in which a function has
a domain that excludes one point. In fact the limit is a concept that occurs frequently in
mathematics and it is cornerstone of calculus.

Example 2: Find lim x + 2.

x→2

From the graph:

y
✻ ✠
4
✒

✲
−2 2 x

85
From the left: As x approaches 2 from the left y approaches 4.
Notation: lim− x + 2 = 4. (Left-Hand Limit)
x→2

From the right: As x approaches 2 from the right y approaches 4.

Notation: lim+ x + 2 = 4. (Right-Hand Limit)
x→2

We have lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 4.

x→2 x→2

As the left-hand limit equals the right-hand limit, we can say that the limit exists and
lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

Example 3: Find lim f (x) when

x→2

(
x+2 , x62
f (x) =
3 , x>2

From the graph:

y
✻
4 •
✒ ✛
3
2

✲
−2 2 x

From the left: lim f (x) = lim− x + 2 = 4

x→2− x→2
From the right: lim+ f (x) = lim+ 3 = 3
x→2 x→2
Here lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)
x→2− x→2

i.e. Left-Hand Limit 6= Right-Hand Limit

∴ lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2

Thus for a limit to exist, we must have

Left-Hand Limit = Right-Hand Limit.

Only then can we say

lim f (x) = L, where L is the limit.

x→a

86
2.6.1 Limit Laws
If lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist, then we have the following properties
x→a x→a

1. lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

2. lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

3. lim = x→a if lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

2.6.2 Evaluating Limits

We need to be able to evaluate limits like

lim f (x), lim g(x), lim h(x),

x→∞ x→0 x→a

In some cases, there are no problems. For example we can often evaluate a limit by simply
substituting the limiting value of x into the function:

lim x2 + 2x + 1 = lim x2 + lim 2x + lim 1

x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 1+2+1
= 4,
2
lim cos(x ) = cos 0
x→0
= 1,
 2
1 1
lim = lim
x→∞ x2 x→∞ x
= 0,
 2
lim x2 = lim x
x→∞ x→∞
= ∞.

In the last case, x is obviously unbounded, and there is no limit—we say the limit does not
exist, although we often use the language that “the function tends to infinity” or that “the
limit is infinity”. (Note that this is the only time that you can say something is equal to
infinity—that is, when the limit is infinity).
In general, for powers of x:

 0, q < 0
q
lim x = 1, q = 0 .
x→∞ 
∞, q > 0

Sometimes this result is expressed using the inverse:


1  0, p > 0
lim = 1, p = 0 .
x→∞ xp 
∞, p < 0

87
For functions that may be discontinuous functions, we need to check the left and right limits.
For example, find limx→1 f (x), where

2x + 1, x ≤ 1
f (x) = .
x2 + 2, x > 1

Now,

lim− f (x) = 2 × 1 + 1 = 3, lim+ f (x) = 12 + 2 = 3.

x→1 x→1

Both left and right limits exist and are equal.

∴ lim f (x) = 3.
x→1

Sometimes we have to be careful. For example, consider limx→1 f (x), where

 x2 −1
, x 6= 1
f (x) = x−1 .
3, x=1

Now, as we saw earlier we can cancel common factors,

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
= = x + 1,
x−1 (x − 1)

so that

lim f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 2 = lim+ f (x) = lim+ (x + 1).

x→1− x→1 x→1 x→1

Therefore the left and right limits of f (x) at x = 1 exist and are equal:

lim f (x) = 2.
x→1

Note however that f (1) = 3. The function is discontinuous, yet the limit exists at x = 1:

lim f (x) 6= f (1).

x→1

Definition: A continuous function is one for which everywhere in its domain, function
values are equal to the limit:

lim f (x) = f (a) for all a ∈ Df .

x→a

All polynomial, trigonometric and exponential functions have this property. An intuitive
definition for continuity is that a function is continuous if its graph can be drawn without
lifting the pen off the page.

Limits that can’t be evaluated by simple substitution. Suppose that:

lim f (x) = 0, lim g(x) = 0, lim h(x) → ∞, lim f (x) → ∞, lim g(x) → ∞
x→a x→a x→a x→b x→b

88
In the following cases further analysis is needed to evaluate the limit. Usually we need to
change the form of the function:

f (x)
1. lim . Looks like 0/0.
x→a g(x)

f (x)
2. lim . Looks like ∞/∞.
x→b g(x)

3. lim f (x)h(x). Looks like 0 × ∞.

x→a

4. lim f (x) − g(x). Looks like ∞ − ∞.

x→b

To illustrate the type of analysis we can do, we will consider ratios of polynomials. For
example, find lim f (x), where
x→∞

x2 + 2x + 5
f (x) =
x2 + 3x + 4

{Note: there are no common factors. If there are, analysis is often aided by cancelling them.}

x2 + 2x + 5
lim f (x) = lim (we try dividing top and bottom by the highest power of x)
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 3x + 4


6 x2 1 + x2 + x52
= lim

x→∞ 6 x2 1 + 3 + 42
x

x
1 + x2 + x52
= lim

x→∞ 1 + 3 + 42
x x
1+0+0
=
1+0+0
= 1.

Hence the limit exists, and

lim f (x) = 1.
x→∞

1
Note: Some standard limits to remember: • lim →∞
x→0 x

1
• lim →0
x→∞ x

c
• lim → ∞
x→0 x

x
• lim → ∞
x→∞ c

89
 x3 + 1
As another example, find lim g(x), where g(x) =
x→∞ x4 + 3x + 4

Now,
x3 + 1
lim g(x) = lim (divide top and bottom by the highest power of x)
x→∞ x→∞ x4 + 3x + 4


6 x4 x1 + x14
= lim 4

x→∞ 6 x 1 + x33 + x44
1 1
x
+ x4
= lim 3 4
x→∞ 1+ x3
+ x4
0
= =0
1

How do we determine if the limit does not exist? For example, consider:


x3 + 4x2 6 x3 1 + x4
lim = lim

x→∞ x2 + 1 x→∞ 6 x3 1 + 13
x x
1 + x4
= lim
x→∞ 1 + 13
x x
1+0 1
= = →∞
0+0 0
x + 4x2
3
∴ lim → ∞ and the limit does not exist
x→∞ x2 + 1

In general, if
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0
q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xn−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0 , bm 6= 0,

then

∞, n > m
p(x)  an
lim = , n=m .
x→∞ q(x)  bm
0, n < m

Limits that go to ∞ can be converted to limits that go to 0 and vice versa by a substitution
1
of the form: x = . For example, consider:
y

x2 + 2x + 5
lim
x→∞ x2 + 3x + 4

 
1 1
Let y = or x = : then, as x → ∞, y → 0
x y

90
 1
x2 + 2x + 5 y2
+ 2 y1 + 5
= 1 (multiply top and bottom by the highest power of y)
x2 + 3x + 4 + 3 y1 + 4
y2
 
y 2 y12 + 2 y1 + 5
=  
y 2 y12 + 3 y1 + 4
1 + 2y + 5y 2
=
1 + 3y + 4y 2

1
Noting that lim = lim y = 0,
x→∞ x y→0

x2 + 2x + 5 1 + 2y + 5y 2
lim = lim
x→∞ x2 + 3x + 4 y→0 1 + 3y + 4y 2
1+0+0
=
1+0+0
= 1

In the following example the limit is of the form ∞ × 0 so we need other methods to change
the form of the function. Consider:
√ √ √

lim x x+a− x
x→∞

We need to re-arrange this into a format that allows us to determine the limit, if it exists.
 
√ √ √
√ √  a  21 √
lim x x+a− x = lim x x 1+ − x
x→∞ x→∞ x
 
a  21
= lim x 1+ −1
x→∞ x
Using the Binomial series,




 a  21 1  a  12 21 − 1  a 2 1 1
2 2
−1 1
2
− 2  a 3
1+ = 1+ + ++ + ···
x 2 x 2! x 3! x
2 3
a a a
= 1+ − 2+ − ···
2x 8x 16x3 
√ √ √
a a2 a3
Thus lim x x + a − x = lim x 6 1 + − + − ···− 6 1
x→∞ x→∞ 2x 8x2 16x3
 
a a2 a3
= lim 6 x. − 6 x. 62 + 6 x. − ···
x→∞ 26x 8x 16x63 2
 2 
a a a3
= + lim − + − ··· ∗∗
2 x→∞ 8x 16x2
a
= +0
2
a
=
2

91
 1
** Note that all the terms in the brackets contain k , where k = 1, 2, · · · , and all of these
x
will go to zero, as x → ∞.

EXERCISE 24: Evaluate the following limits, if they exist:

x3 + 5x + 1 4x3 + x2 + x + 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1. lim 7. lim 13. lim
x→∞ 2x3 + 7x − 25 x→∞ 4x4 + x2 + x + 1 x→1 x−1
x3 + 5x x3 + 2x + 2 x2 − 6x + 5
2. lim 3 8. lim 14. lim
x→0 2x + 7x x→∞ 3x3 + 4x2 + 2x + 1 x→5 x−5
x2 + 3 + (2/x) x3 + 2x2 + 2 x2 + 5x + 6
3. lim 9. lim 15. lim
x→∞ 3x2 + 4x + 2 + (1/x) x→0 3x3 + 4x2 + 2x + 1 x→−3 x2 + 11x + 24

x4 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 3x + 12 x2 − 2x + 1
4. lim 10. lim 16. lim 3
x→2 x + 4 x→1 x + x2 − x − 1
x→∞ 3x3 + 2x √
x4 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 3x + 12 17. lim x2 + x − x
5. lim 11. lim x→∞
3 x→−4 x + 4 √
x→0 3x + 2x
3x + 11 18. lim x2 + x − x
4x + x2 + x + 1
4
12. lim x→−∞
6. lim x→−4 x+4
x→∞ 4x3 + x2 + x + 1

92
2.7 Rational Functions
Recall that a rational function is of the form

P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(x) 6= 0 . We will consider some special cases
of these, namely functions of the form
1 a 1 a
f (x) = , f (x) = + k, f (x) = , and f (x) = + k.
x x−h x2 (x − h)2

Through the questions at the end of the section we will make some comments about the
case when the P (x) and Q(x) are any quadratic. We will ultimately draw graphs of these
functions. In order to do this we will draw together some of the ways of characterising
functions that we have introduced in this chapter.
2.7.1 Asymptotes
Definition 1. (Horizontal Asymptote) The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote
of y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

x→∞ x→−∞

1
For example, y = has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 (the x−axis) as:
x

1 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

(Vertical Asymptote) The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of y = f (x) if at least

one of the following statements is true.

lim f (x) = ∞; lim f (x) = ∞; lim f (x) = ∞;

x→a x→a− x→a+

lim f (x) = −∞; lim f (x) = −∞; lim f (x) = −∞.

x→a x→a− x→a+

For Rational Functions, vertical asymptotes are located by equating the denominator to zero,
after cancelling common factors. (This method does not apply for other functions.)
2.7.2 Graphs of rational functions
We will refer to the case where Q(x) is a linear function as a simple rational function. In
the examples that follow the numerator is either constant or linear. We can cater for more
general numerators by using long division, there are some examples of these in the exercises.

1
A graph of y = f (x) =
x
We begin by exploring the characteristic features of this function. The graph follows by
putting this information together.

93
Domain of f (x): Because the denominator is zero at x = 0 the domain excludes this point:
Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}.
Sign of f (x): Because the numerator is positive, when x > 0, f (x) > 0,
and when x < 0, f (x) < 0.
1 1
Increasing/decreasing: We have when x2 > x1 > 0 that < so f (x) is decreasing when x > 0.
x2 x1
1 1
And when x1 < x2 < 0 that > so f (x) is also decreasing when x < 0.
x1 x2
Intercepts: x intercepts: these occur at y = 0 so solve 0 = 1/x ∴ no x intercepts.
y intercepts: these occur at x = 0. This point is excluded from the domain,
so there are no y intercepts.
Vertical Asymptotes: Since the denominator is zero at x = 0 in the factorised form of the function,
there is a vertical asymptote at x = 0. Taking account of the information we
have about when f (x) is positive or negative we have:
lim− f (x) = −∞
x→0

lim f (x) = ∞
x→0+

1
Horizontal Asymptotes: lim f (x) = lim = 0−
x→−∞ x→−∞ x

1
lim f (x) = lim = 0+
x→+∞ x→∞ x

Hence y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Recall from our work on limits that the symbols 0− and 0+ represent approaching the point
0 from values less than zero or greater than zero respectively.
1
The graph of f (x) = (a rectangular hyperbola) can now be sketched.
x
y
✻
1
y=
x

✲ Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}
x Rf = {y ∈ R : y 6= 0}

94
 1
Example 1: Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x−2

Domain of f (x): Because the denominator is zero at x = 2 the domain excludes this point:
Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}.
Sign of f (x): Because the numerator is positive, when x > 2, f (x) > 0,
and when x < 2, f (x) < 0.
1 1
Increasing/decreasing: We have when x2 > x1 > 2 that < so f (x) is
x2 − 2 x1 − 2
decreasing when x > 2.
1 1
And when x1 < x2 < 2 that > so f (x) is
x1 − 2 x2 − 2
also decreasing when x < 2.
Intercepts: x intercepts: these occur at y = 0 so solve 0 = 1/(x − 2) ∴ no x intercepts.
y intercepts: these occur at x = 0. Thus y = 1/(0 − 2) = −1/2
is the y intercept.
Vertical Asymptotes: Since the denominator is zero at x = 2 in the factorised form of the function,
there is a vertical asymptote at x = 2. Taking account of the information we
have about when f (x) is positive or negative we have:
lim− f (x) = −∞
x→2

lim f (x) = ∞
x→2+

1
Horizontal Asymptotes: lim f (x) = lim = 0−
x→−∞ x→−∞ x − 2

1
lim f (x) = lim = 0+
x→+∞ x→∞ x − 2

Hence y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

y
✻
Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
Rf = {y ∈ R : y 6= 0}

✲ y = 0 is a
× x horizontal asymptote
−1
2

x = 2 is a
vertical asymptote

1 1
Note that the graph of f (x) = is identical to that of f (x) = , but it has been shifted
x−2 x
to 2 units to the right.

95
2.7.3 Translations of rational functions
1
The analysis above allows us to generalise: the graph of f (x) = is identical to the
x−h
1
graph of f (x) = , but translated h units to the right. This is a horizontal translation.
x
1
Example 2: Graph the function f (x) = .
x+4

1
We identify this as being of the form f (x) = and will determine the quantity h.
x−h
1 1
f (x) = =
x+4 x − (−4)
∴ h = −4.

1 1
Hence the graph of f (x) = is identical to that of f (x) = , but it has been shifted −4
x+4 x
units to the right. i.e. 4 units to the left. Using this approach there is no need to identify
characteristic features of the function f (x) = 1/(x + 4) - they have been identified through
the connection to the function f (x) = 1/x. The graph is thus:
y
✻

1
×4 ✲ y=0
x (asymptote)

Df : x 6= −4
x = −4 Rf : y =
6 0
(asymptote)

Note that to aid in the detail we can compute intercepts:

x intercepts: these occur at y = 0 so solve 0 = 1/(x + 4) ∴ no x intercepts.

y intercepts: these occur at x = 0. Thus y = 1/(0 + 4) = 1/4 is the y intercept.

96
 1
Example 3: Graph f (x) = +1
x
Domain of f (x): As the denominator is zero at x = 0 the domain excludes this point:

Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}

1 x+1
Sign of f (x): Consider: f (x) = +1= .
x x
f (x) > 0 when x < −1 or when x > 0 and f (x) < 0 when − 1 < x < 0

Increasing/decreasing:
1 1
For x2 > x1 > 2 we have < so f (x) is decreasing when x > 0.
x2 x1
1 1
For x1 < x2 < 2 we have > so f (x) is also decreasing when x < 2.
x1 x2

1
x intercept: y = 0 0= +1
x
1
∴ = −1
x
∴ x = −1
y intercept: x = 0 This point is excluded from the domain, ∴ no y intercepts.

Vertical Asymptotes:
Since the denominator is zero at x = 0 in the factorised form of the function
there is a vertical asymptote when x = 0.Taking account of the information we
have about when f (x) is positive or negative we have:
lim− f (x) = −∞
x→0

lim f (x) = ∞
x→0+

1
Horizontal Asymptotes: lim f (x) = lim + 1 = 0− + 1 = 1−
x→−∞ x→−∞ x
1
lim f (x) = lim + 1 = 0+ + 1 = 1+
x→+∞ x→∞ x

Hence y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

y
✻ 1
y =1+
x

y=1
✲
−1× x
Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}
Rf = {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}

97
 1 1
The graph of f (x) = + 1 is the same shape as the graph of f (x) = but it has been
x x
translated vertically upward by one unit. This is a vertical translation.

1 1
In general: The graph of f (x) = + k is the same shape as f (x) = , translated h units
x−h x
along the x-axis and k units up the y-axis.
1
Example 4: Graph y = − .
x
y
✻
y = 1/x
y = −1/x

✲
x

1 1
The graph of f (x) = − is the reflection in the x−axis of the graph f (x) = .
x x

a 1
Exercise: Describe how the graph of y = is related to the graph of y = .
x x
x−1
Example 5: Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x−2

We can approach this in one of two ways. The first approach is to do a complete analysis
such as for example 1, determining the characteristic features of the function and synthesis-
ing this information to come up with the graph. The second approach is to place the function
1 1
in the form of f (x) = +k. We can then identify the graph as a translation of f (x) = .
x−h x

We take the second approach and use long division.

1
x−2 x−1
x−2
1

1 1
∴ f (x) = 1 + is now in the required form. Hence we must translate f (x) = two
x−2 x
units to the right and one unit vertically (upward).

98
 x=2
y
✻

y=1
1/2× ✲
1× x

x intercepts: (y = 0) ∴ x = 1
y intercepts: (x = 0) ∴ y = −1/2
Domain/Range: Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
Rf = {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}

Be sure to repeat this example using a complete analysis such as in example 1. This involves
identifying the domain of the function, where the function is positive, where the function is
negative (using inequalities), where the function is increasing, where the function is decreas-
ing (using properties of the 1/x function) and the location of the vertical and horizontal
asymptotes using limits.

EXERCISE 25:

1. Sketch the graphs of the following. Be sure that you can do these either (i) using a
complete analysis or by (ii) recognising the translation of the 1/x function. State the
domain and range, and any horizontal and vertical asymptotes:
2 x−2
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
3−x x+2
2. In each of the following graph the function. Using partial fractions should help in all of
these, while in (b) and (c) long division should be helpful in identifying some features
of the graph. In each case a complete analysis should be conducted - although note
that determining intervals on which these functions are increasing/decreasing may be
difficult.
x+1 x(x − 2)
(a) f (x) = (c) f (x) =
(x + 3)(x − 1) (x − 1)(x + 1)
2
x
(b) f (x) = 2
x −4
3. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 1
1
(b) On the same set of axes, sketch its reciprocal y = stating its domain and
x2 −1
range and any horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
4. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = (x + 1)(2 − x) and its reciprocal
1
y=
(x + 1)(2 − x)

99
2.7.4 Even and Odd Functions
We now present another way of characterising functions. This is in terms of their symmetry.
An even function satisfies the condition

f (−x) = f (x)

The graphs of even functions are symmetric about the y-axis.

Example: Consider f (x) = x2 .

To show that this is an even function, we calculate f (−x).

f (−x) = (−x)2 and (−x)2 = x2 which is equal to f (x). ∴ f (x) = x2 is an even function.

y
✻
y = x2
f (a)

✲
−a a x

An odd function satisfies the condition

f (−x) = −f (x)

The graphs of odd functions are symmetric through the origin.

Example: Consider f (x) = x3 .

f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −f (x) ∴ f (x) = x3 is an odd function.

y
✻ y = x3

..
......
f (a)
.....
..
...........
−a ... ✲
........... a x
.......
.
......
.. ..... −f (a)

Some functions are neither even nor odd.

100
Example: Consider f (x) = x2 + x.

f (−x) = (−x)2 + (−x) = x2 − x which is not the same as either f (x) or −f (−x). Therefore
f (x) = x2 + x is neither even nor odd.

Note: Knowing whether a function is odd or even is useful when you are sketching some
of the more difficult graphs.

EXERCISE 26:

1. Are the following functions even, odd or neither?

(a) f (x) = x4 + x (c) h(x) = x−2
(b) g(x) = x3 − 2x 1
(d) p(x) = 3
x
(e) (g)

(f) (h)

2. Prove the following:

(a) The sum and the product of even functions are both even.
(b) The sum of odd functions is odd and the product of two odd functions is even.
(c) If f (x) is odd then |f (x)| and f (x)2 are even.
(d) If f (x) is even, then |f (x)| and f (x)2 are even.
1
3. Represent the function f (x) = as the sum of an even and an odd function.
(1 − x)2

101
2.7.5 Graphs of rational functions with an exact square in the denominator
In the previous sections we have been concerned with cases where the denominator of the
rational function has been linear. In the exercises (Ex 25, Q2) we saw that cases in which
the denominator is a quadratic that can be factorised can be approached by using partial
fractions to express the rational function as the sum of rational functions each with linear
denominator. In this section we look at the case where the denominator involves an exact
square and cannot be factorised.

1
A graph of y = f (x) =
x2

Domain of f (x): Because the denominator is zero at x = 0 the domain excludes this point:
Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}.
Sign of f (x): Both the numerator and denominator are always positive, f (x) > 0 for all x.
1 1
Increasing/decreasing: We have when x2 > x1 > 0 that 2 < 2 so f (x) is decreasing when x > 0.
x2 x1
1 1
And when x1 < x2 < 0 that 2 < 2 so f (x) is increasing when x < 0.
x1 x2
1 1
Even/Odd: f (−x) = 2
= 2 = f (x) ∴ f (x) is even.
(−x) x
As the function is even, then it is symmetric about the y-axis.
1
x intercepts: (y = 0) Need to solve 0 = . Can’t ∴ no x intercepts.
x2
y intercepts: As x = 0 is not included in the domain there are no y intercepts
Vertical Asymptotes: Since the denominator is zero at x = 0 in the factorised form of the function
there is a vertical asymptote when x = 0.Taking account of the information we
have about when f (x) being positive and even we have:
lim f (x) = ∞
x→0

1
Horizontal Asymptotes: lim f (x) = lim = 0+
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2

1
lim f (x) = lim 2 = 0+
x→∞ x→∞ x

Hence y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

y
✻ 1
y=
x2

✲
x

Domain/Range: Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 0} Rf = {y ∈ R : y > 0}

102
We saw that when a rational function had a linear denominator that we could often identify
the graph as being a translation of f (x) = 1/x. The same ideas apply here. In particular
a a
the graph of y = 2
+ k is obtained by translating the graph of y = 2 by h units to
(x − h) x
the right and k units vertically (upwards).
1
Example: Graph the curve y = + 3.
(x − 2)2

1
Here we regonise this as a translation of the graph of y = 2 two units to the right and one
x
unit up.

1 1
x intercepts: Solve (y = 0) 0 = 2
+3 ∴ = −3 ∴ no x intercepts.
(x − 2) (x − 2)3
1 1
y intercepts: Compute (x = 0) y = 2
+3 ∴ y =3 .
(−2) 4

y
✻

y=3

✲
x
x=2

Domain/Range: Df = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
Rf = {y ∈ R : y > 3}

Be sure that you can complete this example using a complete analysis such as in the earlier
examples. This involves identifying the domain of the function, where the function is positive,
where the function is negative (using inequalities), where the function is increasing, where
the function is decreasing (using properties of the 1/x2 function) and the location of the
vertical and horizontal asymptotes using limits.

103
EXERCISE 27:

1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions, stating domain, range, intercepts and
any horizontal or vertical asymptotes. Be sure that you can do these questions in two
ways (i) identifying the function as a translation of f (x) = 1/x2 and by conducting a
complete analysis as in earlier sections.
1 1
(a) f (x) = 2 + 1 (c) h(x) = −
x (x − 3)2
1 1
(b) g(x) = 2 (d) p(x) = +2
(x − 3) (x + 1)2

2. Sketch the graph of the following functions, stating domain, range, intercepts and any
horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
1 2x + 3
(a) f (x) = 2 (c) h(x) = 2
x +1 x + 6x + 10
1 2x + 3
(b) g(x) = 2
(d) p(x) = 2
(x − 3) − 3 x + 6x + 5

3. How do the examples in the previous question differ from the special case f (x) =
a
(x−h)2
+ k presented earlier?
1
4. Which of the following transformations were applied to the graph y = 2 to obtain
x
each of the graphs shown.
(A) Translation to the right (C) Translation up (E) Reflection in the x-axis
(B) Translation to the left (D) Translation down
(a) (c)
7 1
6 0
5 -1
4
-2
3
-3
2
-4
1
0 -5
-1 -6
-2 -7
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

(b) (d)
7 6
6 5
5 4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1
5. If a function is given by f (x) = 2 , sketch each of the following stating domain, range,
x
intercepts and any horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
(a) f (x + 2) (c) −f (x − 1) − 1
(b) f (x − 2) + 2 (d) f (x + 2) − 2

104
2.8 Composition of Functions
Definition 1. The composition of two function f ◦ g is defined to be

(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)]

Example 1: If f (x) = 2x + 4 and g(x) = x2 , then find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).

(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)]
= f [x2 ]
= 2x2 + 4.
(g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)]
= g[2x + 4]
= (2x + 4)2 .

In general (f ◦ g)(x) 6= (g ◦ f )(x).

√ 1
Example 2: If f (x) = x − 1, x > 1 and g(x) = , x 6= 0, then find (f ◦ g)(x) and
x
(g ◦ f )(x).

(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)]
h1i
=f
rx
1
= − 1.
x
(g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)]
√
= g[ x − 1]
1
=√ .
x−1

EXERCISE 28:

1. For the following functions f and g, find f ◦ g, g ◦ f , f ◦ f and g ◦ g.

√ √
(a) f (x) = 2x + 3, g(x) = 4x − 1 (c) f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = 1 − x
(b) f (x) = 2x2 − x, g(x) = 3x + 2
2. If y = f ◦ g is given as follows, find f (x) and g(x).
√
(a) y = 2x + 3 (c) y = (2x)−3
(b) y = (x2 + 5x + 6)3
3. Use composite functions to solve the following:
(a) (x + 2)2 − 5(x + 2) + 6 = 0 (c) (2x )2 − 5(2x ) + 4 = 0
(b) (x − 5)2 − 16 = 0 (d) 3(4x2 − 9) − 2 = 19

105
2.9 Inverse Functions
The inverse of a function f (x) must satisfy the following condition:

(f ◦ f −1 )(x) = (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x

where f −1 (x) is the inverse of f (x).

Note the inverse function is not the same as the recriprocal of f (x), i.e.

1
f −1 (x) 6=
f (x)

Example 1: Find the inverse function f −1 (x) for the following:

x
f (x) =−3
2
x
i.e. y = − 3
2
1 −1
We require that f [f −1 (x)] = x, i.e. f (x) − 3 = x. Now, solve for f −1 (x)
2
1 −1
f (x) = x + 3
2
∴ f −1 (x) = 2x + 6.

Another method to obtain the inverse is to swap the positions of x and y in the original
equation and solve for y. Thus
x
−3y=
2
y
becomes x = − 3.
2

Solving for y gives

2x = y − 6
∴ y = 2x + 6

i.e. f −1 (x) = 2x + 6, as before.

We can check our result by verifying that (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x.

(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 [f (x)]
hx i
= f −1 −3
hx 2 i
=2 −3 +6
2
=x−6+6=x as required.

The relationship between f −1 (x) and f (x) is best illustrated graphically.

106
 y
✻
6×
y=x
f −1 (x) = 2x + 6
x
f (x) = − 3
−3
× ×6 ✲x 2

×−3

Note that the graphs of f (x) and f −1 (x) are actually reflections of each other in the line
y = x. Also, the domain of f −1 is the same as the range of f and vice-versa. i.e.

Df = Rf −1
Rf = Df −1

2.9.1 Existence of Inverse Functions

Consider the function y = x2
y = x2 y=x
y
✻ ......
.
.......
..
.......
.
.......
.
.......
..
....... ✲
... x
....
..
.......
.
.......
..

The function f (x) = x2 does not have an inverse function because if you reflect f (x) = x2 in
the line y = x the result is not a function (as the resulting curve has two y values for each
value of x > 0). For this reason a function must be one-to-one to have an inverse.
2.9.2 One-to-One Functions
A function is said to be one-to-one if, for each y value in the range, there is only one
corresponding x value in the domain.

107
2.9.3 Horizontal Line Test
A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects the graph more than once.
y y
✻ ✻

✲ ✲
x x

not one-to-one one-to-one

2.9.4 Restricting Domains

Most functions can be made one-to-one by restricting the domain, i.e. we only consider a
part of the domain.

Example: Consider f (x) = x2 .

From sketching the curve y = x2 and using the horizontal line test we see that f (x) is not
one-to-one.
y
✻

✲
x

If we now try to get the inverse our result will not be a function.

f (x) = y = x2
Inverse: Swap x and y.

x = y2
√
∴ y=± x

108
 y = x2 y = x2
(x < 0) (x > 0) y=x
y
.....
✻ ..
.......
.
....... √
y=+ x
...
.......
..
.......
.
....... ✲
x
....
...
.......
..
....... √
y=− x
...
.......
...
....

From the graph: y = x2 has no inverse function √

but f (x) = x2 , x > 0 has an inverse f −1 (x) = +√ x.
and g(x) = x2 , x < 0 has an inverse g −1 (x) = − x.

Hence if we restrict the domain of f (x) so that f (x) is one-to-one then we can get an inverse.

EXERCISE 29:

1. Determine if the given functions are one-to-one

(a) f (x) = 7x − 3 (c) h(x) = |x|
2
(b) g(x) = x − 2x + 5 (d) p(x) = x4 + 5, 0≤x≤2
2. Find the inverse (if it exists) for the following functions:
√ 2
(a) f (x) = 4x + 6 (d) f (x) = 2 + 5x, x ≥ −
5
x−2 1
(b) f (x) = , x 6= −2 2
(e) f (x) = x + x, x ≥ −
x+2 2
1 + 3x 5
(c) f (x) = , x 6=
5 − 2x 2
3. (a) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1.
(b) State two domains for which f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1 defines one-to-one functions.
(c) Find and graph the two functions which are the inverse of the functions you
defined in (b).

109
2.10 The Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
The function f (x) = ax , where a ∈ R+ , a 6= 1, is an exponential function. i.e. the base a is
any positive real number excluding 1. If a = 1 then f (x) = 1, since 1x = 1 (trivial case).
y
✻

f (x) = ax , 0 < a < 1. f (x) = ax , a > 1.

×
✲
x

The graph of ax increases as x increases when a > 1, but decreases as x increases when
0 < a < 1. The domain and range in each case are Df : x ∈ R and Rf : y > 0 respectively.
The graph of f (x) = ax has the following properties:

(i) the curve passes through (0, 1),

(ii) each curve is asymptotic to the x-axis,

(iii) and each curve lies above the x-axis.

1 x
If for example, a = 12 , then 2
= 2−x , so we can consider this graph to be of the form
f (x) = a−x , a > 1.

Exercise: If a = 1, what does the graph of f (x) = ax look like?

If a = e, Euler’s number, an irrational number where

e ≃ 2.71828 · · ·

we obtain “THE” exponential function

f (x) = ex

which is sometimes written as exp(x). The graphs of ex and e−x have the same domain,
range, and properties as graphs of ax and a−x .

110
The graphs of ex and e−x are
y
✻
f (x) = e−x f (x) = ex

(−1, e)× ×(1, e)

×1
✲
x

You will be expected to recognise and draw these graphs.

Recall from earlier that y = ax and loga y = x are equivalent statements.

Example 1: For f (x) = ax , find the corresponding logarithm function.

Let y = f (x) = ax , x ∈ R and y > 0. Now interchange x and y, so that x = ay , y ∈ R and

x > 0. The latter is equivalent to y = g(x) = loga x.

Note on the graphs below that f (x) and g(x) are reflections of each other in the line y = x.
We can see that f (x) and g(x) are inverses of each other.
The graphs of f (x) = ax and g(x) = loga x are

f (x) = ax y=x
y
.....
✻ .
.......
.. g(x) = loga x
.......
.
.......
.
.......
....
1× ......
.......
.. ✲
....... ×1 x
....
..
.......
.
.......
..
....

f (x) = ax , a > 1 g(x) = loga x

Df : x ∈ R Dg : x > 0
Rf : y > 0. Rg : y ∈ R.

111
Properties of the log function:

(a) The log function is defined only for x > 0, i.e. we can’t take the log of a negative.

(b) The y-axis is a vertical asymptote.

(c) Since loga 1 = 0 regardless of the value of a, it always passes through the point (1, 0).

The properties of the exponential and logarithm functions give the following results

loga (ax ) = x for x ∈ R

loga x
a =x for all x > 0.

The ‘power of a’ and loga effectively ‘cancel’ each other.

If a = e, using the notation above, f (x) = ex , and g(x) = loge x = log x = ln x (the natural
logarithm). The graphs of ex and ln x are

f (x) = ex y=x
y
✻ .......
.
.......
.
.......
..
.......
.
.......
.. g(x) = ln x
1× ......
.......
.. ✲
....... ×1 x
....
.
.......
..
.......
..
....

The above ‘cancellation’ laws then become

ln(ex ) = x for x ∈ R
ln x
e =x for all x > 0.

112
2.10.1 Variations on basic Exponential and Logarithm Functions
The exponential function f (x) = ex−h + k shifts the graph of ex by h units to the right (along
the x-axis) and k units upward (along the y-axis).

Example 2: Graph f (x) = ex−2 + 1.

y y = ex
✻

(0, 1)
×
✲
x

↓ translation (2 units to the right)

y
✻

y = ex−2

×(2, 1)
✲
x

↓ translation (1 unit up the y-axis)

y
✻
y = ex−2 + 1

×(2, 2)
y=1
✲
x

The domain and range of f (x) = ex−2 + 1 are Df : x ∈ R, and Rf : y > 1.

113
The logarithm function f (x) = loga (x − h) + k shifts the graph of loga x by h units to the
right (along the x-axis) and k units upward (along the y-axis).

Example 3: Graph f (x) = log(x − 2) + 1.

y
✻
y = ln x

×(1, 0) ✲
x

↓ translation (2 units to the right)

y
✻

y = ln(x − 2)
×(3, 0) ✲
x

x=2

↓ translation (1 unit up the y-axis)

y
✻
y = ln(x − 2) + 1
×(3, 1)
✲
x

x=2

The domain and range of f (x) = log(x − 2) + 1 are Df : x > 2, and Rf : y ∈ R.

114
EXERCISE 30:

1. Sketch the graphs of the following, stating the domain and range, and any intercepts,
horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
(a) f (x) = ln(x − 1) (d) p(x) = ex − 2
(b) g(x) = 1 + log10 x (e) q(x) = e−x − 2
(c) h(x) = ex−2
2. Show that the graphs of y = 2x and y = 2x−1 cut off line segments of equal length on
all lines parallel to the x-axis where y > 0.
3. A vertical line cuts the graphs of y = log2 x and y = log2 (2x) at points P and Q
respectively. Find the length of PQ, the line joining the two points.

115
3 Trigonometry
3.1 Measuring angles: Radians and Degrees
Angles measure rotation about an axis. Equivalently rotation can be thought of as “angular
displacement”. The figures below show two angles. We can get a conceptual view of an
angle that results from rotation by imagining an axis of rotation that is perpendicular to
the page on which the figures are drawn. The angle is the rotation that we undertake in
standing at the intersection of the two lines (point O in the second of the figures) and moving
from an orientation where we look down one of the lines (such as OF in the second figure)
to an orientation where we look down the second of the lines (such as OD in the second
figure). Often the algebraic symbol θ is used to represent the angle between two straight
lines. Sometimes the magnitude of the displacement is what we are concerned with (as in
the figure on the left) and other times the angular displacement has a direction associated
with it. The usual conventions is that anti-clockwise rotation results in a positive angular
displacement and clockwise rotation a negative angular displacement.

The size of an angle can be measured in degrees or radians. The angle of a full circle is 360
degrees (360◦ ) or 2π radians (2π c ). Thus

360◦ = 2π c

One half of this is 180◦ or π c . Note that this does not mean that π and 180 are in any way
the same. It is only when we put in the units that we get 180◦ = π c . Note that we also have

1◦ = (π/180)c
or 1c = (180/π)◦

Note that, whenever an angle is measured in degrees it is important to include the units
(the degree sign) explicitly. Often though, if the measurement is in radians, the units can
be omitted. Thus if the units are not specified, it is understood that the angle is in radians.
Therefore, sin x will always mean “the sine of x radians”.

116
Example 1: Convert the following angles from degrees to radians.

30◦ = 30(π/180)c = (π/6)c

45◦ = 45(π/180)c = (π/4)c
90◦ = 90(π/180)c = (π/2)c

Example 2: Convert the following angles from radians to degrees.

3π c 3π 180◦
= × = 270◦
2 2 π
4π c
4π 180◦
= × = 144◦
5 5 π

3.2 Trigonometry from right-angled triangles: ratios from an

angle
Trigonometric functions are usually first encountered in considering geometric properties of
right-angled triangles. It is the ratios of the lengths of sides of a right-angled triangle that
feature in their definition.
The longest side is is the hypotenuse. Here
C this is AC. With respect to angle θ, BC is
the side opposite and AB is the side adjacent.
ADJ
Then cos θ =
HYP
OPP
sin θ =
HYP
θ OPP sin θ
tan θ = = .
A B ADJ cos θ

3.3 Trigonometry from a circle: coordinates on the unit circle

We can define trigonometric functions as functions of real numbers and for this pupose, we
consider a circle of unit radius (i.e. r = 1); centred on the origin: x2 + y 2 = 1. This circle is
so important it is called the unit circle.
y
✻
At the origin (0, 0) an angle θ can be
P (θ) formed between the positive x-axis and a
•
1 yθ radial line that intersects the unit circle at
θ a point P . For each value of θ the point
✲
xθ x on the unit circle is unique. As θ changes
the position of P varies and so the values
of the (x, y) coordinates of P depend on
θ. We label them xθ and yθ .

117
From the trig function definitions, we have that when the point P lies such that 0 6 θ 6 π/2
xθ yθ
then cos θ = and sin θ =
1 1

∴ xθ = cos θ and yθ = sin θ

Once we extend beyond the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 we can define the trigonometric functions
by reference to the point P on the unit circle for any value of θ ∈ R:

Thus cos θ = the x coordinate of P

sin θ = the y coordinate of P
sin θ the y coordinate of P
tan θ = = when x 6= 0.
cos θ the x coordinate of P

Now, as on the unit circle −1 6 x 6 1 the range of cosine must satisfy −1 6 cos θ 6 1,
and as on the unit circle −1 6 y 6 1 the range of cosine must satisfy −1 6 sin θ 6 1.

We also define the reciprocal functions

1
sec θ = , cos θ 6= 0
cos θ
1
cosec θ = , sin θ 6= 0
sin θ
1
cot θ = , tan θ 6= 0
tan θ

3.3.1 Two different representations of the unit circle

The equation of the unit circle is x2 + y 2 = 1. We can also identify the circle through
parametric equations

x = cos θ, y = sin θ, where 0 6 θ 6 2π.

Here θ is a parameter. In fact so long as θ is allowed to vary over any interval that is at least
2π in magnitude then the parametric equations are an equivalent representation of the unit
circle.
Now that we have two different ways of representing the same circle we need to be able to
distinguish between them. The original form of the equation of a circle is called the cartesian
form of the circle: x2 + y 2 = 1

118
3.3.2 Trigonometric identities from the unit circle
We can substitute for x and y from the parametric equations for the circle into the Cartesian
form to get the unit circle identity:

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 for all θ

This is an important identity for the trigonometric functions. You need to remember it!
Dividing this identity by cos2 θ, we get

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

or dividing by sin2 θ, we get

cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ

These identities are also important. As an example of how these identities can be used,
consider the following.

Example: Simplify (cos θ + sin θ)2 + (cos θ − sin θ)2 .

(cos θ + sin θ)2 + (cos θ − sin θ)2

= cos2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ + sin2 θ + cos2 θ − 2 sin θ cos θ + sin2 θ
= 2 cos2 θ + 2 sin2 θ
= 2(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)
= 2 × 1 = 2.

EXERCISE 31:

1. Find the five remaining trigonometric ratios in each of the following cases:
(a) cos θ = 3/5, 0 < θ < π/2 (c) cot β = 3, π < β < 3π/2
(b) sec α = −3/2, π/2 < α < π
2. Prove the following trigonometric identities:
1 + cos x sin x
(a) tan x + cot x = sec x cosec x (b) =
sin x 1 − cos x
3. Show that sec2 x can be written as 1 + sin2 x + sin4 x + sin6 x + · · · .
3
4. If A is acute and sin A = , find a value for cosec2 A − cot2 A.
5
BD
5. In the diagram given, show that = cot2 B.
DC
A

B C
D

6. Prove that sin2 x cos2 y − cos2 x sin2 y = sin2 x − sin2 y.

119
 xy
7. If x sec A = y tan A, prove that tan A sec A = .
y2 − x2
8. Express cot2 A in terms of sin2 A.
9. Eliminate θ to find a relationship between x and y given that

x = 2 + 3 cos θ y = 5 − 2 sin θ

What type of geometric shape do these parametric equations represent?

1
10. If tan θ = t, show that sin θ cos θ =
1 + t2

3.4 Quadrants and the CAST Diagram

In this section by using the symmetry and patterns evident in the unit circle we make some
deductions about the properties of trigonometric functions.

On the unit circle we have, x = cos θ and y = sin θ.

3.4.1 Values of sine and cosine at the quadrant boundaries

We know where the unit circle intersects the coordinate axes on the cartesian plane and the
angles θ at which these intersections occur: θ = 0, π/2, π and 3π/2

At the point A = (1, 0), θ = 0.

y ∴ cos 0 = x = 1, sin 0 = y = 0.
✻
B cos 0 = 1
i.e.
sin 0 = 0
C (1, 0)
✲ π
A x At the point B = (0, 1), θ = .
2
π
cos =0
D 2
∴ π
sin = 1
2

At C = (−1, 0), θ = π.

cos π = −1
∴
sin π = 0

3π
At D = (0, −1), θ = .
2

3π
cos =0
∴ 2
3π
sin = −1
2

120
 3.4.2 Periodic property of the trigonometric functions
If P (θ) is the point on a circle at angle θ, then the points P (θ), P (θ + 2π), P (θ + 4π), etc.
all coincide. Therefore, in general

cos θ = cos(θ + 2kπ)

sin θ = sin(θ + 2kπ)

for any integer value of k. This property of the trigonometric functions is one of their most
distinguishing features. We say the trigonometric functions are periodic. Their period is 2π
because this is the smallest quantity we can add to the argument to get the same image
(output).
3.4.3 Symmetry of the unit circle - relating angles to the first quadrant
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four quadrants.

y
✻

2 1
(1, 0)
✲
x
3 4

In this section we show how to determine cos θ, sin θ etc for values of θ outside the interval
0 < θ < π/2. We do this using the symmetry of the unit circle and relate back to the first
quadrant where 0 < θ < π/2.

Second Quadrant: We can use symmetry properties of the unit circle to relate the values of
trigonometric functions when π/2 < θ < π to values of these functions in the first quadrant
(0 < θ < π/2).
y
✻

P (π − θ) P (θ)
• • Consider the point P (θ) in quadrant 1
yθ 1 1 yθ and the point P (π − θ) in quadrant 2.
θ θ ✲ P (θ) has coordinates (xθ , yθ ) which are
xθ xθ x
both positive. P (π −θ) has coordinates
(xπ−θ , yπ−θ )

121
 By symmetry, the y coordinates are equal and the x coordinates are equal in magnitude but
opposite in sign.

Hence, cos(π − θ) = xπ−θ = −xθ

∴ cos(π − θ) = − cos(θ)

sin(π − θ) = yπ−θ = yθ
∴ sin(π − θ) = sin(θ)
yπ−θ yθ yθ
tan(π − θ) = = =−
xπ−θ −xθ xθ
∴ tan(π − θ) = − tan(θ)

Example 3: Rewrite the following trigonometric expressions with arguments in the first
quadrant.
2π  π π
(1) sin = sin π − = sin
3 3 3
3π  π  π
(2) cos = cos π − = − cos
4 4 4

Third Quadrant: We can use symmetry properties of the unit circle to relate the values of
trigonometric functions when π < θ < 3π/2 to values of these functions in the first quadrant
(0 < θ < π/2).
y
✻

P (θ) Consider the point P (θ) with coor-

•
1 yθ dinates (xθ , yθ ) in quadrant 1 and
xθ θ the point P (π + θ) with coordinates
✲
θ xθ x (xπ+θ , yπ+θ ) in quadrant 3. By symme-
yθ try, their coordinates are equal in mag-
1
• nitude but opposite in sign.
P (π + θ)

Hence, cos(π + θ) = xπ+θ = −xθ

∴ cos(π + θ) = − cos(θ)

sin(π + θ) = yπ+θ = −yθ

∴ sin(π + θ) = − sin(θ)

sin(π + θ) −yθ yθ
tan(π + θ) = = =
cos(π + θ) −xθ xθ
∴ tan(π + θ) = tan(θ)

122
Fourth Quadrant: We can use symmetry properties of the unit circle to relate the values
of trigonometric functions when 3π/2 < θ < 2π to values of these functions in the first
quadrant (0 < θ < π/2).
y
✻

P (θ) Consider the point P (θ) with coordi-

• nates (xθ , yθ ) in the first quadrant and
1 yθ the point P (2π − θ) with coordinates
θ xθ ✲ (x2π−θ , y2π−θ ) in the fourth quadrant.
θ x
yθ By symmetry, their x coordinates are
1 equal and their y coordinates are equal
•
P (2π − θ) in magnitude but opposite in sign.

Hence, cos(2π − θ) = x2π−θ = xθ

∴ cos(2π − θ) = cos(θ)

sin(2π − θ) = y2π−θ = −yθ

∴ sin(2π − θ) = − sin(θ)

sin(2π − θ) −yθ yθ
tan(2π − θ) = = =−
cos(2π − θ) xθ xθ
∴ tan(2π − θ) = − tan(θ)

Example 4: Rewrite the following trigonometric expressions with angles in the first quad-
rant.
5π  π π
(1) sin = sin π + = − sin
4 4 4
7π  π π
(2) cos = cos 2π − = cos
4 4 4

These identities can be summarized by remembering that any angle between 0c and 2π c can
be related to an angle, θ, in the first quadrant by writing it as

π−θ (2nd quadrant)

π+θ (3rd quadrant)
2π − θ (4th quadrant).

The sign of the function can be deduced using the following CAST diagram.

Cos is positive in the fourth quadrant.

S A All functions are positive in the first quadrant.
Sin is positive in the second quadrant.
Tan is positive in the third quadrant.
T C

123
3.5 Common Triangles
There are particular angles for which we should know values of the trigonometric functions.
These values can be obtained from the following triangles.

π π 1
cos =√
4 4 2
√
2 π 1
1 sin =√
4 2
π
tan = 1
π/4 4
1

√
π π 1 π 3
cos = cos =
6 3 2 6 2
√
2 √ 2 π 3 π 1
3 sin = sin =
3 2 6 2
π √ π 1
tan = 3 tan = √
π/3 3 6 3
1 1

2π  π π 1
Examples : cos = cos π − = − cos = −
3 3 3 2
3π  π  π 1
sin = sin π − = sin = √
4 4 4 2
7π  π  π
tan = tan 2π − = − tan = −1
4 4 4

3.6 Complementary Angles

Complementary angles add to π/2 radians.

π 
θ
sin − θ = cos θ
2
π 
cos − θ = sin θ
2
π 
π tan − θ = cot θ
−θ 2
2

π 3π
In general if the angle for the trigonometric function is of the form ± θ or ± θ, the
2 2
trigonometric function changes: i.e. sin → cos cos → sin tan → cot

124
These relationships can also be identified using symmetry arguments based on the unit circle.
Can you see what these arguments are?
π π  π 1
Example 1: sin + = + cos = √ .
2 4 4 2
 
3π π π √
Example 2: tan + = − cot = 3.
2 6 6

EXERCISE 32:

1. Calculate sine, cosine and tangent for the following angles:

3π 4π 3π 11π 7π 5π
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) π (f) (g)
4 3 4 4 4 6
π π π π
2. Without using tables or a calculator, evaluate sin cos2 + sin cos
6 3 4 4
3. Find a simple alternative expression for the following:
π
(a) sin( + A) (c) cosec(−C) (e) tan(E + 2π)
2
3π
(b) sin(2π − B) (d) cos( + D)
2
π π
4. Prove that tan( − θ) sec(π + θ) cos( + θ) = 1
2 2
5. In a triange ABC, show that cos(A + C) = − cos B

125
3.7 Addition Formulae
The remaining trigonometric identities are obtained from the addition formulae. These are
presented below this paragraph without proof. You need to remember these identities and be
able to quote those that follow. For many people remembering how to obtain the subsequent
results is easier than rote learning those subsequent results.

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

From these we can obtain the formulae for sin(x − y) and cos(x − y)

sin(x − y) = sin[x + (−y)]

= sin x cos(−y) + cos x sin(−y)

∴ sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y

cos(x − y) = cos[x + (−y)]

= cos x cos(−y) − sin x sin(−y)

∴ cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

sin(x + y)
tan(x + y) =
cos(x + y)
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
=
cos x cos y − sin x sin y

Dividing top and bottom by cos x cos y, we get

sin x cos y cos x sin y

+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
tan(x + y) =
cos x cos y sin x sin y
−
cos x cos y cos x cos y

tan x + tan y
i.e. tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y

Replacing y with −y, we have

tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) =
1 + tan x tan y

126


Example 1: Expand sin 3π4
+ α .
 
3π 3π 3π
sin + α = sin cos α + cos sin α
4 4 4
π π
= sin cos α − cos sin α
4 4
1 1
= √ cos α − √ sin α.
2 2

1 3π
Example 2: If cos A = , < A < 2π
2 2
3 π
and sin B = , <B<π
5 2
Find (a) sin(A + B), and
(b) cos(A − B) without using a calculator.

S A
First, recall the diagram:
T C

The expansions of sin(A + B) and cos(A − B) require values for sin A and cos B. We are
given that 3π/2 < A < 2π, which indicates that A lies in quadrant 4, so that sin A < 0. We
have also been given that π/2 < B < π, which indicates that B lies in quadrant 2, so that
cos B < 0.

1 3π
First using cos A = and < A < 2π, find sin A:
2 2

Using: cos2 A + sin2 A = 1. Rearranging and solving for sin A gives

√
sin A = ± 1 − cos2 A.

Substituting the value of cos A into this expression yields two possible values for sin A:
r √
1 3
sin A = ± 1 − = ± .
4 2
As noted above the angle A lies in the fourth quadrant, so the sine has to be negative. Thus:
√
3
sin A = − .
2
3 π
Second, using sin B = , and < B < π find cos B:
5 2

Using: cos2 B + sin2 B = 1. Rearranging and solving for cos B gives

p
cos B = ± 1 − sin2 B.

127
Substituting the value of sin B into this expression yields two possible values for cos B:
r
9 4
cos B = ± 1 − =± .
25 5
As noted above the angle B lies in the second quadrant, so the cosine is negative. Thus:
4
cos B = − .
5
With this information we can now use the trigonometric identities to solve the problem:

(a) sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

√
− 3 −4 1 3
= × + ×
2 5 2 5
√
4 3+3
= .
10
(b) cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
√
1 −4 − 3 3
= × + ×
2 5 2 5
√
−4 − 3 3
= .
10

EXERCISE 33:

1. Use addition formulae to simplify the following:

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ tan 75◦ − tan 45◦
(a) sin 70 cos 20 + cos 70 sin 20 (e)
1 + tan 75◦ tan 45◦
(b) cos 65◦ cos 25◦ − sin 65◦ sin 25◦ tan 15◦ + tan 30◦
(c) sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x (f)
1 − tan 15◦ tan 30◦
(d) cos 2α cos α + sin 2α sin α tan x − tan 2y
(g)
1 + tan x tan 2y
2. If tan A = 3 and tan B = 2, find the values of:
(a) tan(A + B) (b) tan(B − A)
3. If cos α = 3/5, where 0 < α < π/2 and cos β = −4/5, where π/2 < β < π, find
(a) sin α, tan α (c) sin(α + β) (e) tan(α − β)
(b) sin β, tan β (d) cos(α − β) (f) tan(β + π/4)
√
4. Prove that tan 75◦ = 2 + 3 using an appropriate addition formula.
5. Find tan 15◦ in the simplest surd form.
6. Simplify without expanding each term:
cos(α + β) cos(α − β) − sin(α + β) sin(α − β)
7. Use the identities
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β, sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β,
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β, cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β.
to find expressions for sin α cos β, cos α cos β and sin α sin β.

128
 1 − tan B
8. If sin(A + B) = cos(A + B) show that tan A = .
1 + tan B
9. For any triangle, show that the sum of the tan of the three angles equals the product
of the tan of the three angles.

3.8 Double Angle Formulae

If we let y = x in the addition formula we get identities for the trig functions of multiples of
angles

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

we get
sin(x + x) = sin x cos x + cos x sin x

i.e. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

Similarly, cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

becomes cos(x + x) = cos x cos x − sin x sin x

i.e. cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x

tan x + tan y
Also, tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
2 tan x
becomes tan 2x =
1 − tan2 x

By using the identity cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, we obtain the alternative forms of the double angle
formula for cos 2x

cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x
i.e.
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1

4 π
Example 1: If sin α = , < α < π, find (a) sin 2α, (b) cos 2α, and (c) tan 2α.
5 2
S A
First, recall the diagram:
T C

The expansion of sin 2α, cos 2α, and tan 2α will require values for cos α. We are given that
π/2 < α < π, which indicates that α lies in quadrant 2, so that cos α < 0.
Now using the identity cos2 α + sin2 α = 1 we can solve for cos α:
s  2
p
2 4 3
cos α = ± 1 − sin α = ± 1 − =±
5 5

129
Our knowledge that α lies in the second quadrant means we take the minus sign:
3
cos α = − .
5
Then:

(a) sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

4 −3 24
=2× × =− .
5 5 25
(b) cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α
9 16 7
= − =− .
25 25 25
sin 2α
(c) tan 2α =
cos 2α
−24/25 24
= = .
−7/25 7

Example 2: Simplify 2 sin 2α cos 2α.

2 sin 2α cos 2α = sin 2(2α)

= sin 4α.

Example 3: Simplify cos2 15 − sin2 15 .

cos2 15 − sin2 15 = cos 2(15 )

√
3
= cos 30 = .
2

7
Example 4: If cos 2α = − and α is an acute angle (i.e. less than 90 ), find (i) cos α, (ii)
9
sin α, (iii) tan α.

(i) cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1

cos 2α + 1
∴ cos2 α =
r2
cos 2α + 1
∴ cos α = ±
2

Take the positive square root, as we are in quadrant 1.

r
cos 2α + 1
∴ cos α = +
2
r
−7/9 + 1
=
r 2
r
2/9 1 1
= = = .
2 9 3

130
(ii) As cos 2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α
1 − cos 2α
∴ sin2 α =
r2
1 − cos 2α
∴ sin α = + (Quadrant 1)
2
r r
1 + 7/9 16/9
= =
r 2 √ 2
8 2 2
= = .
9 3
Note that as you have cos α from part (i) you could also have made use of the identity
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1.
 2
2 2 1 8
∴ sin α = 1 − cos α = 1 − =
9 9
r √
8 2 2
∴ sin α = + = . (Quadrant 1)
9 3

Another approach would involve using cos α from part (i), then drawing up a triangle to get
a value for sin α as follows. Note that the lengths of the sides in the triangle are arbitrary
- that is we could choose any lengths we like, so long as the ratios of the lengths have the
property that with respect to the angle α:

length of adjacent side 1

= .
length of hypotenuse 3

√
Using Pythagoras’ theorem we find x = 8,
√ √
3 x 8 2 2
∴ sin α = = .
3 3
α
1

sin α
(iii) tan α =
cos
√α
2 2/3 √
= = 2 2.
1/3

131
EXERCISE 34:

1. Express the following in terms of 2θ:

(a) 2 sin θ cos θ (c) 2 cos2 θ − 1 (e) sin2 θ − cos2 θ
(b) 4 cos θ sin θ (d) cos2 θ − sin2 θ 2 tan θ
(f)
1 − tan2 θ
2. If cos β = −1/3 and π < β < 3π/2, find the values of:
(a) sin 2β (b) cos 2β (c) tan 2β
3. If cos 2θ = −7/9 and θ is acute, find the values of:
(a) cos θ (b) sin θ (c) tan θ
4. Prove the following trigonometric identities:
(a) cos4 x − sin4 x = cos 2x (c) cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
(b) sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x
5. Two ladders, one of which is twice as long as the other, rest on a floor and reach the
same vertical height on the wall. The shorter ladder makes an angle of 60 with the
floor. What angle does the longer ladder make with the floor?
6. Show that sin 8x = 8 sin x cos x cos 2x cos 4x
7. A flag pole 4m high has two hooks at the 1m mark and 3
at the top. They are connected to the ground by rope
which is staked in the ground 5m from the base of the
15 1
flag pole as shown. Show that tan B = . B
A
29 5
1 − t2
8. Show that cos 2θ = where t = tan θ
1 + t2

132
 3.9 Trigonometric Graphs
Consider the graph of y = f (θ) = sin θ.
Table of values:

π π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
θ 0 π 2π
6 √3 2 √3 6 6 3
√ 2 3
√ 6
1 3 3 1 1 3 3 1
y 0 1 0 − − −1 − − 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y
✻
P ( π2 )
2π •...............................
P (π)
P ( 3 )......................................... √ 1 ......................................................................................
• • 3 3/2 ......................................................................................
P ( 5π P (π)
)................................................
6 • • 6 1/2 ......................................................................................

P (π)•...................................................
•P (0) π ✲
−2 0 π π 5π π 7π 3π 5π 2π 5π xθ
3 2 6 6 2 3 2
•................................................
• 11π −1/2 ......................................................................................
P ( 7π
6
) P( 6 ) √
4π
.........................................
• • 5π − 3/2 ......................................................................................
P( 3 ) ...............................
• P( 3 ) −1 ......................................................................................
P ( 3π 2
)

The graph of y = f (θ) = sin θ continues indefinitely in each direction, beyond the values
show in the table. The basic shape, being repeated over and over again. This
curve is called ‘the sine curve’ or ‘the sine wave’. This function is said to be ‘periodic’
with ‘period 2π’ because the length of one complete wave is 2π.
3.9.1 Graphs of sine and cosine with different Amplitude and Angular
Frequency
Graphs of: f (θ) = a sin(nθ) and f (θ) = a cos(nθ)
The constants a and n in these formulae cause transformations on the basic sine and cosine
curves. sin θ and cos θ have a maximum value of 1 and a minimum value of −1. So it follows
that a sin θ and a cos θ have a maximum value of a and a minimum vaue of −a. The effect
of the a is to dilate the graph parallel to the y-axis (i.e. either stretch or compress).
|a| is called the amplitude of the graph.

Excercise: If a is negative, what effect would it have on the curve?

We have seen from the graphs of sin θ and cos θ, that they repeat themselves over intervals in
θ greater than their period 2π. We can state this fact by noting that the following equation
for T

sin(θ + T ) = sin θ

has a smallest non-zero solution of T = 2π. T is the symbol used for the period.
Now the graphs of f (θ) = a sin nθ and f (θ) = a cos nθ have a period T that satisfies

sin(n(θ + T )) = sin(nθ + nT ) = sin nθ

133
 2π
Thus we require nT = 2π and so the period of these functions is T = . The constant n
n
has the effect of dilating the graph parallel to the θ-axis.

2π
The period of the sine and cosine curves is T = .
n

When trigonometric functions are used to represent quantities that have periodic behaviour
over time the multiplier of the time variable is known as the angular frequency. Thus in

f (t) = a sin nt

where t measures time, n is the angular frequency. It is the time taken for the argument of
the sine function, nt, to increase by 2π.

Example 1: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = 3 cos 2θ, 0 6 θ 6 2π.

2π 2π
Here a = 3 and n = 2. Hence the amplitude is |a| = 3 and the period is T = = = π.
n 2
That is, the curve completes one cycle in a distance of π. For 0 6 θ 6 2π, the curve
completes two cycles.
f (θ)
✻
3

✲
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π θ
4 2 4 4 2 4

−3

θ
Example 2: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = − sin , 0 6 θ 6 2π.
2

1 2π 2π
Here a = −1 and n = . Hence the amplitude is |a| = 1 and the period is T = = =
2 n 1/2
4π. That is, the curve completes one cycle in a distance of 4π. For 0 6 θ 6 2π, we have only
θ
half a cycle. Note the effect of the negative number a is to reflect the graph of f (θ) = sin
2
in the x−axis.
f (θ)
✻
θ
1 f (θ) = − sin
2

✲
π 2π θ

−1

134
3.9.2 Horizontal Translations of the graphs of sine and cosine
Graphs of: a sin n(θ − α) and a cos n(θ − α)

We now have θ replaced by θ − α. This has the effect of translating the graph of a sin nθ or
a cos nθ α units to the right along the θ-axis.

α is called the horizontal shift or phase.

 π
Example 3: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = cos θ − , 0 6 θ 6 2π.
4

2π 2π
Here a = 1 and n = 1. Hence the amplitude is |a| = 1 and the period is T = = = 2π.
n 1
π π
The phase is α = , which has the effect of translating the basic cosine curve units to the
4 4
right.

f (θ)  π
✻ f (θ) = cos θ −
1
4
✲

✲
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π θ
4 2 4 4 2 4

−1
f (θ) = cos θ

 π
Example 4: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = 3 cos 2 θ + , 0 6 θ 6 2π.
4

2π 2π
Here a = 3 and n = 2. Hence the amplitude is |a| = 3 and the period is T = = = π.
n 2
π π
The phase is α = , which has the effect of translating the curve of f (θ) = 3 cos 2θ, units
4 4
to the left.
 π
f (θ)
✻ f (θ) = 3 cos 2 θ +
3
4

✲
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π θ
4 2 4 4 2 4

−3
f (θ) = 3 cos 2θ

135
3.9.3 Vertical Translations of graphs of sine and cosine
Graphs of: a sin n(θ − α) + b and a cos n(θ − α) + b.

The effect of the constant b is to translate the curve b units up or down the y-axis according
to whether b is positive or negative. It does not alter the period or the amplitude of the curve.

The range of these functions is {y ∈ R : b − |a| ≤ y ≤ b + |a|}.

θ
Example 5: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = − sin + 2, 0 6 θ 6 2π.
2

θ
The constant 2 raises the graph of f (θ) = − sin , two units up the y-axis. The range is
2
0 6 f (θ) 6 2, the amplitude is |a| = 1, and the period is 4π. Note that only half of the cycle
needs to be drawn as 0 6 θ 6 2π.
f (θ)
✻

2
θ
f (θ) = − sin +2
2
1

✲
π 2π θ
−1
θ
f (θ) = − sin
2

3.9.4 The Tangent Function

To sketch the graph of f (θ) = tan θ we first locate the zeros of the function then the vertical
sin θ
asymptotes. Since tan θ = , the graph will cross the θ axis where sin θ = 0 (i.e. at
cos θ
π
θ = nπ). The asymptotes will occur at cos θ = 0 or θ = + nπ. (Note that sin θ 6= 0 at
2
these points). It follows that the graph looks like
f (θ)
✻

✲
3π −π π 0 π π 3π θ
− −
2 2 2 2

Note that the period of the graph is T = π.

136
In general the period, T , of the tangent function with angular frequency n is given by
π π
T = . i.e., the function repeats itself every units.
n n
π π
Example 6: Sketch the graph of f (θ) = tan 2θ, − 6θ6 .
2 2
π π
Here n = 2, so the period T = = .
n 2
f (θ)
✻ f (θ) = tan 2θ

✲
−
π
−
π π π θ
2 4 4 2

EXERCISE 35:

1. State (i) the amplitude, (ii) angular frequency, (iii) horizontal translation, and (iv)
vertical translation for  
h  π i t
(a) cos 3 t + −1 (b) cos −π −3 (c) 2 sin(4t − π) + 1
4 2
2. Write down the trigonometric function described by:
1
(a) the cosine function with amplitude , angular frequency 3, horizontal translation
2
2π
units to the right and vertical translation 2 units downwards
3
(b) the sine function with amplitude 10, angular frequency 5 and horizontal transla-
π
tion units to the left.
10
3. A mass attached to the end of a spring oscillates so that its displacement s cm from a
central position is given by: s = 6 sin(3πt), where t is the time in seconds.
(a) What is the maximum displacement from the central position?
(b) Where is the object 5 seconds into the motion?
(c) Where is the object 17.3 seconds into the motion?
4. Graph the functions:
 π x  π
(a) y = cos x − (b) y = tan (c) y = sin x + +2
3 2 4
5. A fisherman notes that the height of the tide in the harbour can be found by using the
π
equation h = 5 + 2 cos t where h metres is the height of the tide and t is the number
6
of hours after midnight.

137
 (a) What is the height of the high tide and when does it occur in the first 24 hours?
(b) What is the height difference between high and low tides?
(c) Sketch the graph of h for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24
(d) The man knows that his trawler needs a depth of 6 metres to enter the harbour.
Between what hours is he able to bring his boat back into the harbour?
6. Sketch the curve y = π cos(πx + π) + π for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 3π.
7. This graph shows a function of the form y = A sin(Bx + C) + D. Determine the values
of A, B, C and D.

(2π/3,-2) (2π,-2)
-2

-4
(π/3,-4)
(4π/3,-6)

-6
0 π/3 2π/3 π 4π/3 5π/3 2π

8. A pendulum hands from a ceiling as shown. As the pendulum swings, the distance
d centimetres from one wall of the room depends on the time t seconds since it
was set in motion. The equation for the distance d as a function of t is given as
π
d = 30 cos( t) + 80, t ≥ 0. Find:
3
(a) The distance from the pendulum to the wall after 2 seconds.

(b) The maximum distance of the pendulum from the wall.

d
9. When between 12:00 noon and 1:00pm are the minute and hour hands of a clock 180◦
apart?
2π
10. The times of sunrise in Townsville are given by T = 340 − 50 cos((n + 10) × ) where
365
T is the number of minutes after midnight and n is the number of the day of the year.
If a student starts studying at 6:15am each day, how many days do they start studying
before sunrise?

138
3.10 Solving Trigonometric Equations
Generally, trigonometric equations have an infinite number of solutions unless the domain is
restricted in some way.
3.10.1 Equations involving the sine function
Solving: sin θ = a
√
Example 1: Solve 2 sin θ − 3 = 0.

Note that no domain is specified. Hence it is assumed we are solving for θ ∈ R. Also, x is
measured in radians.
√
3 S A
Rewrite the equation as sin θ = .
2 T C
√
Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2. We recognise the quantity 3/2 as one associated
with one of the “common triangles” from section 3.5. Thus we draw the triangle below

π
6 and we recall
√
2 √ π 3
3 sin = .
3 2
π
Thus θ = is a solution in the first quadrant.
3
π/3
1
A solution in the second quadrant is found when we consider the symmetry of the unit circle.
From section 3.4.3 we had that sin(π −α) = sin α for any α. Using α = π/3 in that statement
means

 √
π π 3
sin π − = sin =
3 3 2

2π
so θ = is a solution to the equation in the second quadrant. Sine has period 2π and so
3
each of the solutions in the first and second quadrant can have integer multiples of 2π added
to them to obtain more solutions. In fact the equation has an infinite number of solutions.
π
 + 2nπ

3
∴ θ = 2π (n is an integer)

 + 2nπ
3

139
Graphically the solutions
√ of the equation occur at the points of intersection of the curves
3
y = sin θ and y = .
2
y
✻
√
×
1 ...
× ...
× × × 3
... ... y=
... ... 2
... ...
... ... ✲
π 2π π 2π 3π x
3 3

−1

3.10.2 Equations involving the cosine function

Solving: cos θ = a
√
Example 2: Solve 2 cos θ − 1 = 0.

Note that no domain is specified, so we solve for all θ ∈ R.

1 S A
Rewrite the equations as cos θ = √
2 T C
√
Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4. We recognise the quantity 1/ 2 as one associated
with one of the “common triangles” from section 3.5. Thus we draw the triangle below

π
4 and we recall
√ π 1
2 1 cos = √ .
4 2
π
Thus θ = is a solution in the first quadrant.
4
π/4
1
A solution in the fourth quadrant is found when we consider the symmetry of the unit circle.
From section 3.4.3 we had that cos(2π − α) = cos α for any α. Using α = π/4 in that
statement means

 π π 1
cos 2π − = cos = √
4 4 2

7π
so θ = is a solution to the equation in the fourth quadrant. But since cosine has period
4
2π we have an infinite number of solutions. Thus

140
 π
 + 2nπ

4
θ= (n is an integer)
 7π + 2nπ = 2π − π + 2nπ = − π + 2(n − 1)π

4 4 4

Alternately we can record the solutions this way:

π
 + 2nπ

4
θ= (n is an integer)
− π + 2nπ

4

3.10.3 Equations involving the tangent function

Solving: tan θ = a

Example 3: Solve: 3 tan θ − 5 = 0.

5 S A
∴ tan θ =
3 T C

The tangent function is positive in quadrants 1 and 3. This ratio doesn’t correspond to one
of the standard triangles, so we must use a calculator to find θ (in radians). We find
 
−1 5
x = tan ≃ 1.030c is a solution in the first quadrant.
3

A solution in the third quadrant is found when we consider the symmetry of the unit circle.
From section 3.4.3 we had that tan(π + α) = tan α for any α. Using α = 1.030c in that
statement means

5
tan(π + 1.030c ) = tan 1.030c =
3

Thus θ ≃ π + 1.030c is a solution in the third quadrant.

The general solution is therefore

(
1.030 + nπ
θ= (n is an integer)
π + 1.030 + nπ

This result could also be written as θ = 1.030 + nπ.

141
3.10.4 Restricted Domain
Consider the example for cos θ = a again.
√
Example 4: Solve 2 cos θ − 1 = 0, 0 6 θ 6 2π.

This time our domain is restricted. We only want solutions that lie in the range 0 6 θ 6 2π.
π
From before: θ = 2nπ ± .
4
π
If n = 0 θ= (inside range)
4
π
or θ = − (outside range)
4
π 9π
n=1 θ = 2π + = (outside range)
4 4
π 7π
or θ = 2π − = (inside range)
4 4
For the domain specified we have only two solutions, namely

π 7π
θ= or θ = .
4 4

EXERCISE 36:

1. Solve for x:  π
(a) 2 cos x − 1 = 0, x ∈ [0, 4π] (d) sin 2x − = 1, x ∈ [0, 2π)
6
(b) sin x = 0.9962, x ∈ [0, 360◦ ] (e) tan(3x + 80◦ ) = −0.8390, x ∈
(c) tan x + 1 = 0, x ∈ [0, 2π] [0, 180◦ )
2. Solve for θ where θ ∈ [0, 2π]:
(a) sin θ + cos θ = 1 (d) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
(b) cos2 θ + sin θ + 1 = 0 (e) tan θ = cot(2θ)
1 (f) sin(2θ) = sin(7θ)
(c) sin θ + cos θ =
2
3. Solve for x in the following quadratic equation in sin x 2 sin2 x + 7 sin x − 4 = 0
4. A particle moves in a straight line so that its distance, x metres, from a point O is
given by the equation x = 3 + 4 sin 2t, where t is the time in seconds after the particle
begins to move.
(a) Find the distance from O when the particle began to move.
(b) Find the time when the particle reaches O, correct to two decimal places.
5. Solve the simultaneous equation:
√
3 tan x = 2 sin x (1) 5 tan2 x + 13 = 11 sec2 x (2)

142
3.11 Limits involving trigonometric functions
Limits involving trigonometric functions sometimes arise in calculus. One example is

sin θ
lim .
θ→0 θ

First, we need to state (without proof) a theorem and then prove a lemma, before we can
prove this result. (A lemma is small, preliminary theorem.)
Squeeze Theorem: If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = L, and
x→a x→a

f (x) 6 h(x) 6 g(x) for a − δ < x < a + δ

where δ is a positive, non-zero number (δ can be arbitrarily small), then

lim h(x) = L.
x→a

We also need to prove the following.

Lemma: lim sin θ = 0, lim cos θ = 1.
θ→0 θ→0
Proof:
Consider the following diagram (we will use this later, also):
y B
P
tan θ
1
arc length s = 1.θ
sin θ
θ A
O cos θ Q (1,0) x

1-cos θ

s
In radian measure, θ = , where s is the arc length, and r is the radius. As r = 1, s = θ.
r
Noting that length P A < s = θ and using Pythagoras theorem,

P Q2 + QA2 = AP 2 < θ2 i.e. sin2 θ + (1 − cos θ)2 < θ2

As sin2 θ > 0 and (1 − cos θ)2 > 0 and their sum is less that θ2 , each individually must be
less than θ2 :

sin2 θ < θ2 , (1 − cos θ)2 < θ2

That is, | sin θ| < |θ|, |1 − cos θ| < |θ|
∴ −θ < | sin θ| < θ, −θ < |1 − cos θ| < θ

143
Now, noting that limθ→0 θ = 0, and using the result from the previous theorem,

From the first inequality lim | sin θ| = lim θ = 0.

θ→0 θ→0
Because the absolute value tends to zero lim sin θ = 0.
θ→0
Then from the second inequality lim(1 − cos θ) = lim θ
θ→0 θ→0
= 0
Thus also because lim(1 − cos θ) = 1 − lim cos θ = 0
θ→0 θ→0
we have the result lim cos θ = 1. ✷
θ→0

Next we prove the main result.

sin θ
Theorem: lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

Proof:
From the previous figure, note that

Area △ AOP < Area sector AOP < Area △ AOB

We will determine an expression for each of the three areas in this inequality.
Firstly, the area of the sector AOP as a proportion of the area of the circle is the same as
the length of the arc AP as a proportion of the circumference of the circle. That is,

Area sector AOP length of sectorAP

=
Area Circle circumference of circle
Area sector AOP 1.θ
thus =
π.12 2π.1
6 πθ θ
∴ Area sector AOP = = .
6 π2 2

Now the areas of the triangles at each end of the inequality are given by

1 1
Area △ AOP = . sin θ.1, Area △ AOB = . tan θ.1,
2 2

and we obtain

sin θ θ tan θ π
< < , 0<θ< .
2 2 2 2

Dividing through by sin θ(> 0) and multiplying through by 2, we have

θ 1
1< < .
sin θ cos θ

The same inequality holds when θ < 0. To see this, note that

144
 −θ −θ θ 1 1
= = , = .
sin(−θ) − sin θ sin θ cos(−θ) cos θ

π
So, for 0 < |θ| < ,
2

θ 1
1< < .
sin θ cos θ

θ 1
We can re-arrange this inequality, after noting that > 0, > 0 is always true,
sin θ cos θ
whether θ > 0 or θ < 0. First, consider

θ
1 <
sin θ
sin θ < θ
sin θ
< 1
θ

Next, consider

θ 1
<
sin θ cos θ
θ
cos θ < 1
sin θ
θ cos θ < sin θ
sin θ
cos θ <
θ

Combining these inequalities, we obtain

sin θ π
cos θ < < 1, |θ| < .
θ 2

Now, applying the result from the previous lemma and theorem,

sin θ
lim = lim cos θ = 1 ✷
θ→0 θ θ→0

The strategy in evaluating limits involving trigonometric functions is to manipulate expres-

sions so that the form

sin θ
lim
θ→0 θ

appears in the working.

145
 sin 2θ
Example. Evaluate: lim
θ→0 θ
The first approach demonstrated is to place the expression in the form for which the limit
derived above can be used.

sin 2θ sin 2θ
lim = 2 lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 2θ
sin 2θ
= 2 lim when θ → 0 then 2θ → 0 also
2θ→0 2θ
sin φ
= 2 lim where φ = 2θ
φ→0 φ
= 2×1=2

The second approach is to first use a trigonometric identity and then use the limit derived
above.

sin 2θ 2 sin θ cos θ

lim = lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ
sin θ
= 2 lim lim cos θ
θ→0 θ θ→0
= 2×1×1
= 2

EXERCISE 37:

1
1. Show that the angle of intersection of the two tangents to the curve y = x − at the
x
−1 8
points where x = −1 and x = 3 is tan .
29
sin x
2. Using the fact that | sin x| < 1, show that: lim =0
x→∞ x

3. Evaluate:
sin ax sin x
(a) lim , a is const. (b) lim , a is const.
x→0 x x→0 ax
1 − cos x x
(c) lim Hint: use the double angle formula for cos 2 .
x→0 x2 2
−1
sin (2x)
(d) lim (e) limπ (sec x − tan x)
x→0 x x→ 2

sin(x2 − 3x) 1
4. Show that the lim 2
is .
x→3 x −9 2
cos x − 1
5. Evaluate: lim
x→0 xp
Hint: use cos x = 1 − sin2 x and thenp multiply the numerator and denominator by
the conjugate of the numerator (i.e. 1 − sin2 x + 1).

146
4 Differential Calculus
4.1 The Gradient of a Curve
The gradient at any point on a curve is defined as the gradient of the tangent to the curve
at that point. Whereas the gradient of a straight line is constant, the gradient of a curve is
constantly changing.
Consider y = f (x), with P (x, y) being any point on the curve and Q a neighbouring point,
also lying on the curve. The coordinates of Q will be (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) where y + ∆y =
f (x + ∆x). Thus ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x).
y
✻

y + ∆y •Q(x + ∆x, y + ∆y)

✻
∆y
P (x, y)
y • ❄
✛ ✲
∆x
✲
x x + ∆x x

The chord (straight line) through P Q has gradient

change in y ∆y
mP Q = =
change in x ∆x

As we take Q closer to P then eventually the slope of P Q will approach the actual slope of
the tangent at P . The gradient of the tangent at P is defined as the limit of the gradient of
the chord P Q as ∆x → 0.
i.e. Gradient of tangent at P

= lim mP Q
∆x→0
∆y
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= Derivative of f (x) at P .

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
i.e. f ′ (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x

f ′ (x) is a new function giving the slope/gradient of the curve y = f (x) at P . The derivative
dy dy
is often represented by the symbol . Thus if y = f (x), = f ′ (x) gives the slope of the
dx dx
d d
graph at the point x. This symbol can also be written as (y). Thus (y) means to take
dx dx
the derivative of the function, y, with respect to x.

147
4.2 Rules for Differentiation
It is possible to prove the following rules for differentiation. Each of them can be deduced
by evaluating the limit:

dy f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= f ′ (x) = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

dc
1. If c is a constant then =0
dx
d n
2. (x ) = nxn−1 for all x ∈ R
dx
d
3. (cxn ) = cnxn−1
dx
d df dg
4. (f + g) = +
dx dx dx
Example 1:
√ 1 2
y = 5x3 + 6 x − 3 + 3/2 + 4
x x
3 1/2
= 5x + 6x − x + 2x−3/2 + 4
−3

dy 1 −3 −5/2
∴ = 15x2 + 6 × x−1/2 − (−3)x−4 + 2 × x +0
dx 2 2
3 3 3
= 15x2 + √ + 4 − 5/2 .
x x x

Example 2: Find the equation of the tangent to f (x) = x3 − 5x − 1 at the point (−2, 1).

Since f (x) = x3 − 5x − 1
then f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 5
∴ f ′ (−2) = 3(−2)2 − 5 = 7

The tangent at (−2, 1) has m = 7, therefore the equation to the tangent is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
i.e. y − 1 = 7(x + 2)
i.e. y = 7x + 15.

Example 3: Find the coordinates of any points on the following curve where the tangent
is horizontal.

f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 5.
∴ f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 6x − 9.

148
The tangent is horizontal if it has zero slope. i.e., m = f ′ (x) = 0.

∴ 3x2 + 6x − 9 = 0.
∴ x2 + 2x − 3 = 0.
∴ (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0.
∴ x = 1, −3.

When x = 1, f (1) = 1+3−9+5 = 0. When x = −3, f (−3) = (−3)3 +3(−3)2 −9(−3)+5 = 32.
Therefore, at the points (1, 0) and (−3, 32) the tangents have zero gradient.

EXERCISE 38:

1. If f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 1, find f ′ (x) and evaluate f ′ (0), f ′ (1), f ′ (2), f ′ (−1).
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f (x) = x3 − 2x + 1 at (2, 5).
√ 1
3. Find the co-ordinates of the point on f (x) = x where the tangent has slope .
2
a
4. Find a if f (x) = has a tangent with slope 3 at the point x = 3.
x
5. Two curves are said to be tangential to each other when they have a common tangent
1
at a point of intersection. Show that the graphs of y = and y = 3x − 2x2 are
x
tangential.
6. For what value of c is the line y = x + c a tangent to the curve y = x2 + 3x + 2?
7. Differentiate each of the following:
1 √ √
(a) y = x2 + π 2 (b) y = 5x3 − (c) y = 7 x + x 7
5x3
8. If f (x) = x10 and g(x) = x2 − 4 are two functions of x show that: The derivative of a
product is not the product of the derivatives.

149
4.3 Continuity
Definition: A function is continuous at x = a if (i) f (x) has a definite value, f (a), at
x = a, and (ii) lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Example 4: Consider Example 5: Consider

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
f (x) = x + 2 f (x) = =
x−2 x−2
y y
✻ ✻
4 4

2 2

✲ ✲
−2 2 x −2 2 x

(i) f (2) = 4. (i) f (2) does not exist.

(ii) lim f (x) = 4. (ii) lim f (x) = 4.
x→2 x→2

Therefore the function is continuous at Therefore the function is not continu-

x = 2. ous at x = 2.

4.4 Differentiability
A function fails to be differentiable at x = a if any of the following occur:

(a) it is discontinuous,

(b) it has “sharp spikes”, or

(c) it has a vertical tangent.

Example: The following curve is not differentiable at a, b, or c.

y
✻

✲
a b c x

150
4.5 Derivative of a Product of Functions
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions then

d dv du
(uv) = u + v or (uv)′ = uv ′ + u′ v
dx dx dx

This is the Product Rule.

Example 6: Differentiate y = (3x + 2)(2x2 − 3x + 4).

Let u = 3x + 2 and v = 2x2 − 3x + 4

du dv
∴ = 4 and = 4x − 3
dx dx
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (3x + 2)(4x − 3) + (2x2 − 3x + 4)3
= 18x2 − 10x + 6.

4.6 Chain Rule

If y = g(u) and u = h(x), then

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx

Note: There is no dash notation for the chain rule as we have two “different” derivatives.

Example 7: Differentiate y = (2x + 1)3 .

dy du
Let u = 2x + 1, so that y = u3 . We have = 3u2 and = 2.
du dx
dy dy du
Chain Rule: = ×
dx du dx
= 3u2 × 2
= 6(2x + 1)2 .

1
Example 8: Differentiate y = .
(x2 − 1)2

dy du
Let u = x2 − 1, so that y = u−2 . We have = −2u−3 and = 2x.
du dx
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
2
= − 3 × 2x
u
4x
=− 2 .
(x − 1)3

151
4.7 Derivative of a Quotient
If u = g(x), v = h(x) and y = u/v, then

du dv
dy v −u u vu′ − uv ′
= dx 2 dx or =
dx v v v2

This is the Quotient Rule.

Note: If you write y = u/v = uv −1 , then you can use the product rule to differentiate
functions of this type.

2x + 1
Example 9: Differentiate: y = .
4x − 3

du dv
Let u = 2x + 1 and v = 4x − 3, ∴ = 2, =4
dx dx
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
(4x − 3)2 − (2x + 1)4
=
(4x − 3)2
10
=− .
(4x − 3)2

x
Example 10: Differentiate: y = .
1 + x2

du dv
Let u = x and v = 1 + x2 , ∴ = 1, = 2x
dx dx
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
(1 + x2 ) × 1 − x × 2x
=
(1 + x2 )2
1 − x2
= .
(1 + x2 )2

EXERCISE 39: Differentiate the following, showing your working:

x2 + x 1 x
1. y = 5. y = 9.
x 1 + x2 1 + 2x2
2 √
2. y = (x − 1)(2x + 3) x+1 10. x2 + 2
6. y = √
3. f (x) = x3 (4x5 + x) x x
11. √
2
x 1+ x
x +3 7. f (x) = 1
4. f (x) = 3 (1 − x) 2
3x 1
8. f (x) = (1 + x2 )(1 − 2x) 2

152
4.8 Derivatives of Exponential Functions and Logarithms
We can show that the elementary functions have the derivatives shown.

d x
e = ex
dx
d 1
ln x = Note: ln x is only defined for x > 0.
dx x

In general, if y = eu where u = u(x), then by the chain rule:

dy dy du du
= × = eu .
dx du dx dx
Example 1: Differentiate: y = e6x .

dy du
Let u = 6x, so that y = eu . We have = eu and = 6.
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = × = eu × 6 = 6e6x .
dx du dx

2
Example 2: Differentiate: y = ex .

dy du
Let u = x2 , so that y = eu . We have = eu and = 2x.
du dx
dy dy du 2
∴ = × = eu × 2x = 2xex .
dx du dx

In general, if y = ln u where u = u(x), then by the Chain Rule:

dy dy du 1 du
= × = .
dx du dx u dx
Example 3: Differentiate:: y = ln(6x2 − 4x + 1).

dy 1 du
Let u = 6x2 − 4x + 1, so that y = ln u. We have = and = 12x − 4.
du u dx
dy 1 12x − 4
∴ = × (12x − 4) = 2 .
dx u 6x − 4x + 1

EXERCISE 40: Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

et + 1
1. g(t) = t 5. y = ln(x2 + 7x)
e −1
2 6. y = x ln x
2. f (x) = e−x 2
2 7. y = ex +3x
3. f (x) = log(1 − x + x )
8. y = xe2x
4. y = ln(x2 )

153
4.9 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions
We can show that the elementary functions have the derivatives shown.

d
sin x = cos x
dx
d
cos x = − sin x
dx
d
tan x = sec2 x
dx

Example 1: Differentiate y = sin(2x − 6).

dy du
Let u = 2x − 6, so that y = sin u. We have = cos u and = 2.
du dx

dy dy du
∴ = × = cos u × 2 = 2 cos(2x − 6).
dx du dx

Example 2: Differentiate y = tan 3x.

dy du
Let u = 3x, so that y = tan u. We have = sec2 u and = 3.
du dx

dy dy du
∴ = × = sec2 u × 3 = 3 sec2 (3x).
dx du dx
√
Example 3: Differentiate y = cos x.

√ dy 1 1 du
Let u = cos x, so that y = u = u1/2 . We have = u−1/2 = √ and = − sin x.
du 2 2 u dx

dy dy du 1 sin x
∴ = × = √ × (− sin x) = − √ .
dx du dx 2 u 2 cos x

4.10 Derivatives of Reciprocal Functions

The reciprocal trigonometric functions can be differentiated using the Chain Rule.

Example: Differentiate y = sec x.

1
y = sec x = = (cos x)−1 .
cos x

dy 1 du
Let u = cos x, so that y = u−1 . We have = −u−2 = − 2 and = − sin x.
du u dx

dy dy du 1 sin x
∴ = × = − 2 × (− sin x) =
dx du dx u cos2 x
1 sin x
= ×
cos x cos x
= sec x tan x.

154
 d
Exercise: Show that (cosec x) = − cosec x cot x, and
dx
d
(cot x) = − cosec2 x.
dx

Example 1: Differentiate ln(sin x).

dy 1 du
Let u = sin x, so that y = ln u. We have = and = cos x.
du u dx

dy dy du 1 cos x
∴ = × = × cos x = = cot x.
dx du dx u sin x

EXERCISE 41: Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

1. f (x) = sin 6x 9. f (x) = sin x cos 2x
2. f (x) = x2 sin x 10. y = elog(sin x)
3. f (x) = cos(x3 ) 11. y = ln(cos x)
4. f (x) = x2 sec x 12. y = ecos x
5. f (x) = tan(x5 ) 13. y = cos3 x
6. f (x) = ex cos x 14. y = x sin(x2 + 2x)
7. f (x) = e2x sin x 15. y = cos(x + sin x)
8. f (x) = ln(sin 2x) 16. y = (sin x)x . Hint: Take logarithm of both
sides first.
dy d2 y
17. Find and 2 given the relation: y = sin(2x + 3y)
dx dx

155
4.11 Higher Order Derivatives
f ′ (x) is the derivative of f (x), (the change in y with respect to x).
f ′ (x) may have a derivative of its own, denoted by
 
d ′ d dy d2 y
′′
f (x) = (f (x)) = = = y ′′ (the change in f ′ (x) with respect to x)
dx dx dx dx2

d3 y
Similarly the third derivative is f ′′′ (x) = , etc.
dx3
Example:

f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 4x − 1
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 4
f ′′ (x) = 6x − 12
f ′′′ (x) = 6.

EXERCISE 42:

1. Find f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x) for the following:

x 2 1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = ex (c) f (x) = ln(1 + x2 )
1+x 2
2. If f (x) = ax3 + bx2 , evaluate the following differential equation: x2 f ′′ (x) − 4xf ′ (x) +
6f (x).
dy
3. On the same set of axes, draw graphs of the given function (y) and its derivative ( ).
dx
(a) y = x2 (b) y = x2 + x (c) y = 3x − x3
dy
4. Draw the graph of y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x. On the same set of axes draw graphs for and
dx
d2 y
.
dx2
5. The graph of the derivative f ′ (x) of a function f (x) is shown.
(a) If f (0) = 0, sketch a possible
2
graph of f (x).
1
(b) Also sketch the graph of f ′′ (x).
0

-1

-2

-2 -1 0 1 2

6. If f (x) = ex − ex, find:

(a) f ′ (0) (c) The value of x for which f ′ (x) = 0.
(b) f ′′ (0) (d) The value of x for which f ′′ (x) = 0.

156
4.12 Implicit Differentiation
The functions we have dealt with so far can all be expressed explicitly. (i.e., in the form
y = f (x)) Some functions are defined implicitly by a relation between x and y such as

x2 y + y 3 = 6xy or e(x+y) = y 2 lnx.

Here, we cannot express y explicitly in terms of x. To differentiate such expressions we

use the method of implicit differentiation. We differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t.
dy
(with respect to) x using the Chain Rule and then solve for .
dx
dy
Example 1: If x2 + y 2 = 30, find .
dx

Differentiate w.r.t. x:

d 2 d d
(x ) + (y 2 ) = (30)
dx dx dx

Note that y is a function of x, so we must use the Chain Rule:

 
d 2 d 2 dy dy
That gives (y ) = (y ) = 2y
dx dy dx dx

dy
∴ 2x + 2y =0
dx
dy
2y = −2x
dx
dy x
=− .
dx y

dy
Example 2: If x3 + y 3 = 6xy, find .
dx

Differentiate w.r.t. x:
d 3 d d
(x ) + (y 3 ) = (6xy)
dx dx dx

d
Note that the product rule is required for the evaluation of (6xy).
dx

dy dy
∴ 3x2 + 3y 2 = 6y + 6x .
dx dx

157
 dy
Solving for ,
dx

dy dy
3y 2 − 6x = 6y − 3x2
dx dx
dy
(3y 2 − 6x) = 6y − 3x2
dx
dy 6y − 3x2 2y − x2
∴ = 2 = 2 .
dx 3y − 6x y − 2x

Higher Order Derivatives

dy d2 y
Example 3: Find and 2 in term of x and y, when
dx dx

2x3 − 3y 2 = 7.
d d d
(2x3 ) − (3y 2 ) = (7).
dx dx dx
dy
∴ 6x2 − 6y = 0.
dx
dy
∴ y = x2
dx
dy x2
or = .
dx y

d2 y
To find use the Quotient Rule:
dx2
    d dy
d2 y d dy d x2 y dx (x2 ) − x2 dx
= = =
dx2 dx dx dx y y2
dy
2xy − x2 dx
= .
y2

dy x2
However, = .
dx y
2
d2 y 2xy − x2 xy
∴ =
dx2 y2
2xy 2 − x4
= .
y3

158
EXERCISE 43:

dy d2 y
1. Find and 2 given the relations:
dx dx
2 2
(a) x 3 + y 3 = 4 (c) xy + y 3 = 8
(b) x5 + 4xy 3 − 3y 5 = 2 (d) y = xey
dy 9x2 + 2y 2
2. For the function 3x3 + 2xy 2 = 2y + 3, show that =
dx 2(1 − 2xy)
3. Find the gradient and the equation of the tangent to the curve x3 + 3xy = y 3 + 37 at
the point (3,2).
4. Differentiate the equations implicitly with respect to x:
(a) lny = ex (b) x2 lny − x3 = 10
5. If a thermal nuclear reactor is built in the shape of a right circular cylinder of radius
r and height h, then, according to neutron diffusion theory, r and h must satisfy the
equation:
 2  
2.4048 π 2 dr
+ = k = constant. Find .
r h dh
6. The output of a certain Townsville factory is given by Q = 2x3 +x2 y +y 3 kg, where x is
the number of hours of skilled labour and y is the number of hours of unskilled labour;
the current labour force consists of 30 hours of skilled labour and 20 hours of unskilled
labour. Using implicit differentiation, estimate the change in unskilled labour, y, that
should be made to offset a one-hour increase in skilled labour, x, so that output will
be maintained at its current level.

159
4.13 Related Rates
dy
The quantity can be interpreted as: “the rate at which y varies w.r.t. x”
dx
We now look at problems which deal with the rate of change of one variable in terms of the
rate of change of another variable.

Example 1: The area, A, of an oil spill is in the shape of a circle and increasing with time.
dA
Find the rate at which the area is increasing w.r.t. time (i.e. ) if the radius of the circle
dt
dr
is increasing at a rate of 2m/min (i.e. = 2m/min) when r = 200m.
dt

dA dr
We must firstly relate and using the Chain Rule.
dt dt
Note that A depends on r, and r depends on t. Therefore A depends on t. From the chain
rule,

dA dA dr
=
dt dr dt

But for a circle: A = πr2

dA
∴ = 2πr
dr
dA dr
∴ = 2πr
dt dt
dA dr
We are asked to find when r = 200m and = 2m/min.
dt dt
dA
∴ = 2π × 200 × 2
dt
= 800π m2 /min.

Hence the area of the circle is increasing at a rate of 800π m2 /min.

dV
Example 2: A spherical balloon is being inflated at a rate of 2m3 /min (i.e. = 2). Find
dt
dr
the rate at which the radius is increasing w.r.t. time (i.e. ) when r = 3m.
dt

dV dr
We must firstly relate and using the chain rule:
dt dt

dV dV dr
i.e. =
dt dr dt

160
 4
For a sphere V = πr3
3
dV
∴ = 4πr2
dr
dV dr
∴ = 4πr2 .
dt dt
dr dV
We are asked to find when = 2m3 /min and r = 3m.
dt dt
dr
∴ 2 = 4π × 9 ×
dt
dr 2 1
∴ = = ≃ 0.0177m/min.
dt 36π 18π
Hence, when the radius is 3m, the radius is changing at a rate of 0.0177m/min.

Example 3: A 5m long ladder rests against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is drawn
away from the wall at a rate of 1m/s. How fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall
when the foot of the ladder is 4m from the wall.
y
✻

(0, y)

dy 5m
dt ❄

✲
(x, 0)
x
✲ dx
dt
dy dx
We need to find when x = 4m and = 1m/s. We relate x and y from the triangle:
dt dt

x2 + y 2 = 25

We now differentiate implicitly w.r.t. t, giving

dx dy
+ 2y
2x =0
dt dt
dy dx
2y = −2x
dt dt
dy x dx
∴ =− .
dt y dt
Now when x = 4, we have 4 + y 2
2
= 25
∴ y2 =9
∴ y =3
dx dy
Substituting x = 4m, y = 3m, and = 1m/s into the expression for gives
dt dt

dy 4 4
= − × 1 = − m/s.
dt 3 3
161
EXERCISE 44:
k
1. The pressure P inside a cylinder is given by P = , where a and k are constant.
πa2 x

x
a

Find the rate of change of pressure with respect to time t in terms of the velocity of
dP
the piston. If initially x = a and P = P0 , find when x has doubled its initial value
dt
and the piston is travelling at 1 m/sec.
2. The electric resistance of a resistor is given by R = 4.000 + 0.003T 2 , where R is
measured in ohms and T is Temperature in degrees Celsius (◦ C). If the temperature is
increasing at 0.100◦ C/second, find how fast the resistance changes when T = 150◦ C.
3. Fatty deposits have increased the circular cross-sectional opening of a person’s artery.
A drug reduces fat such that the radius of the opening decreases at the rate of 0.020
mm/month. Find the rate at which the area decreases when r = 1.2 mm.
4. Two cars start from point A at the same time, one travelling west at 60km/h and the
other travelling north at 45km/h. How fast is the distance between them increasing
three hours later?
5. A block of ice in the form of a cube has 10cm long edges. It is melting evenly so that
its dimensions decrease at the rate of 1mm per second (i.e. the block always remains
a cube). At what rate is the volume decreasing:
(a) Initially? (b) When edges are 5cm?
6. A man walks along a straight path at a speed of 1.5m/s. A searchlight is located on
the ground 6m from the path where the man starts his walk and is kept focused on
the man. Show that after the man walks 8m, the searchlight is rotating at a rate of
0.16 radians/sec.
7. Given that y = xx , find the rate of change of y with respect to time (t) when x has a
value of 1 and is changing at a rate of 2 units/sec.
8. A large tank in the form of an inverted right circular cone with altitude 6m and a base
radius 3m is being filled with water at a rate of 4000L/min. How fast is the water
rising when the tank is half full? (Leave π in your answer).
9. A man 1.80m tall approaches a street light 4.5m above the ground at the rate of 1.5m/s.
How fast is the end of the man’s shadow moving when he is 3m from the base of the
light?
10. One end of a rope is tied to a bucket of cement. The other end is passed over a pulley
5m above the floor and tied 1m above the floor to the back of a tractor. If the rope is
taut and the tractor moves slowly away at 0.5m/s, show that the bucket is rising at a
speed of 0.3m/s when the tractor is 3m from the plumbline through the pulley.

162
4.14 Using the Derivative
The derivative, f ′ (x), of a function, y = f (x), is the rate at which y changes w.r.t. x. It
defines the slope of the curve at x.
Consider the following curve:

× ×

✲
a b c x
At a: The slope of the tangent is positive. Therefore f (x) is an increasing function here and
f ′ (x) > 0.
At c: The slope of the tangent is negative. Therefore f (x) is a decreasing function here and
f ′ (x) < 0.
At b: The slope of the tangent is zero. i.e., f ′ (x) = 0.

4.15 Turning Points, Critical Points, Stationary Points

Points on the curve where f ′ (x) = 0 are called critical points or stationary points. Critical
points may be local maxima, local minima, or points of inflection. If the derivative changes
sign at a critical point it is either a local maximum or local minimum. If the derivative does
not change sign at the critical point then it is a point of inflection. To determine the nature
of critical points we solve f ′ (x) = 0 and then apply the following test.
4.15.1 First Derivative Test
One of the following situations occurs if f ′ (x) = 0.

1.
x < a, f ′ (x) < 0
x = a, f ′ (x) = 0
x > a, f ′ (x) > 0

a
then at the point (a, f (a)) we have a local minimum.
a
2.
x < a, f ′ (x) > 0
x = a, f ′ (x) = 0
x > a, f ′ (x) < 0

then at the point (a, f (a)) we have a local maximum.

163
 a
3.
x < a, f ′ (x) > 0
x = a, f ′ (x) = 0
x > a, f ′ (x) > 0

a
OR
x < a, f ′ (x) < 0
x = a, f ′ (x) = 0
x > a, f ′ (x) < 0

then at the point (a, f (a)) we have a point of horizontal inflection.

This information is helpful if we wish to sketch the graph of a function.

Example 1: Sketch the curve f (x) = x3 − 3x.

y intercepts: x = 0 ∴ y=0
x intercepts: y = 0 ∴ 0 = x3 − 3x
= x(x2 −√3) √
√ = x(x − 3)(x + 3)
∴ x = 0, ± 3.
Critical Points: f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x2 − 1)
Set f ′ (x) equal to zero: 0 = 3x2 − 3
∴ 0 = x2 − 1
∴ x = ±1
When x = 1, y = 1 − 3 = −2. When x = −1, y = −1 + 3 = 2.
Therefore we have critical points at (1, −2) and (−1, 2).
Nature of Critical Points:
For x = 1: x < 1 f ′ (x) < 0
x > 1 f ′ (x) > 0
Therefore there is a local minimum at (1, −2).
For x = −1: x < −1 f ′ (x) > 0
x > −1 f ′ (x) < 0
Therefore there is a local maximum at (−1, 2).
Other Information:
As x → +∞, y → +∞.
As x → −∞, y → −∞.

We can use this information to produce the following sketch of the graph of the function.

164
 y
✻

(−1, 2)
×
×
√ × √× ✲
− 3 3 x
×(1, −2)

4.15.2 Second Derivative

df d2 f
In the same way that is defined as the rate of change of f , is defined as the rate of
dx dx2
df
change of . i.e., the rate of change of the slope.
dx
Concavity:

CONCAVE CONCAVE
DOWN UP

The slope of f ′ (x) is decreas- The slope of f ′ (x) is increasing

ing from left to right. Therefore from left to right − → +. There-
f ′′ (x), the rate of change of slope, fore f ′′ (x) > 0.
is negative. i.e. f ′′ (x) < 0.

If f ′′ (x) < 0 the curve is concave down.

If f ′′ (x) > 0 the curve is concave up.

We can also use this information in determining the nature of critical points.

165
 4.15.3 Second Derivative Test

f′ = 0

If f ′ (a) = 0 and f ′′ (a) < 0 then we have a

f′ > 0 f′ < 0 local maximum at (a, f (a)).

If f ′ (a) = 0 and f ′′ (a) > 0 then we have a

f′ < 0 f′ > 0
local minimum at (a, f (a)).

f′ = 0

Example 1: Returning to the previous example, where f (x) = x3 − 3x.

We will now use the second derivative test to check for local maxima/minima at x = ±1.

At x = 1 f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3
∴ f ′′ (x) = 6x
∴ f ′′ (1) = 6 > 0 ∴ minimum at (1, −2)
At x = −1 f ′′ (x) = 6x
∴ f ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 ∴ maximum at (−1, 2)

166
EXERCISE 45:

1. Sketch graphs of the following showing all turning points, intercepts and asymptotes:
x
(a) x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 1 (b)
(x + 3)2
2. In an underwater telephone cable the ratio of the radius of the core to the thickness of
the protective sheath is 
denoted
 by x. The speed v at which
 the
 signal
 is transmitted
1 dv 1
is proportional to x2 ln . Show that = Kx 2 ln − 1 where K is the
x dx x
constant of proportionality, and hence deduce the turning points of v. Distinguish
1
between these turning points and show that the speed is greatest when x = √ .
e
3. If f (x) = x3 − 6x, find for what values of x:
(a) f ′ (x) is negative? (b) f ′ (x) is zero? (c) f ′ (x) is positive?
Interprete these results geometrically on a diagram.
4. Find the intervals of x for which the functions below are increasing or decreasing, then
sketch the curves for each function marking any turning points.
x+1
(a) y = x4 (b) y = x3 − x2 − x + 4 (c) y = 2
x +3
5. If f (x) = (x + 1)3 (x − 2)4 , show that f ′ (x) = (x + 1)2 (x − 2)3 (7x − 2). Hence, find
the turning points of f (x) and distinguish between them. Sketch the curve. For what
values of x is f (x):
(a) increasing (b) decreasing
6. Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1)3 (x + 2)2 .
7. Find the turning points of the function y = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 . Sketch the curve.
8. If a curve whose equation is 12y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has the following properties, find
a, b, c, d and sketch the curve.
(a) it passes through the origin, and the tangent there makes an angle of 45 with the
x-axis.
(b) there are stationary points at x = 1 and x = 2.
9. Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 2x3 where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
dy d2 y
Sketch the graphs of y, and 2 on the same set of axes.
dx dx
(x + 1)(x − 2)
10. Given f (x) = . For what value of x is:
x(x − 1)
(a) f (x) > 0 (b) f (x) < 0 (c) f ′ (x) > 0 (d) f ′ (x) < 0

167
4.16 Maxima/Minima Problems
The methods we have covered in this section for finding maximum and minimum values have
many real applications. e.g., minimum cost, maximum profit, minimum surface area, etc.

Example 1: Square corners are cut from a piece of tin-plate 12cm × 12cm, which is then
bent to form an open box. What size squares should be cut away if the volume is to be a
maximum?

x
x ✻ ...
................................
...
...
12 ...
...
12 − 2x ...
...
...
x ❄ ... x
.
12 − 2x

Suppose we cut squares of length xcm.

Volume = length × breadth × height

V = (12 − 2x)2 x
= x(144 − 48x + 4x2 )
= 144x − 48x2 + 4x3
dV
= 144 − 96x + 12x2
dx
= 12(12 − 8x + x2 )
= 12(x − 6)(x − 2)
= 0 if x = 6 or x = 2.

Second Derivative Test:

d2 V
= 24x − 96
dx2
d2 V
For x = 2, = 48 − 96 = −48 < 0 (maximum).
dx2
d2 V
For x = 6, = 144 − 96 = 48 > 0 (minimum).
dx2
Thus, to maximize the volume, we remove squares of side 2cm.

Example 2: A rectangular field is enclosed with 1600m of fencing. Find the maximum
possible area of the field.
x

y Perimeter: 1600 = 2x + 2y
∴ 800 = x + y (1)

168
The area of the field is

A = xy (2)
Substitute (1) into (2) A = x(800 − x)
= 800x − x2 . (3)

Differentiate this expression

dA
= 800 − 2x
dx

dA
Set = 0 and solve for x:
dx

0 = 800 − 2x
∴ x = 400m.

We now check that this is indeed a maximum by using the second derivative test:

d2 A
= −2 < 0 (maximum)
dx2
∴ x = 400m
Substitute into (3), so that A = 800 × 400 − 4002 = 160, 000m2 .

169
EXERCISE 46:

1. The top and bottom margins of a poster are each 6 cm and the side margins are each
4 cm. If the printed material on the poster is fixed at 384 cm2 , find the dimensions of
the poster with the smallest area.
2. A block of metal is cast into a solid cylinder whose volume is 10cm2 . Find the radius
of the base that will minimise the surface area.
3. A piece of wire 12cm long is bent to form a rectangle. Find the dimensions of the
figure so that its area is a maximum.
4. Show that the minimum value of:
x 1
(a) is e. (b) xlnx is − .
lnx e
5. Find the maximum volume of a cylinder in which the sum of the height and the base
radius is 3m.
6. Find the coordinates of the point(s) on the parabola y = 3.5 − x2 closest to the fixed
point (0,2).
1
7. Prove that lnx + is never less than 1.
x
8. A cone of radius r and height h is inscribed in a sphere of radius R. Show that if the
4R
volume of the cone is a maximum, its height is .
3
9. Dale, a potato grower, can deliver 8 tonnes of potatoes to the markets at a profit of
2.50 per tonne. For each week he delays his delivery, he can add 4 tonnes to his
shipment but his profit would be reduced by 25c per tonne per week. How long should
Dale wait in order to make the maximum profit?
10. Sean is to drive a truck, 400km from Townsville to Cairns. When he is travelling at an
1 1600
average speed of xkm/hr, the truck consumes fuel at the rate of ( + x) litres
400 x
per km. If Sean is paid d dollars per hour plus a fixed commission of s c dollars, and
(4f + d)
fuel costs f dollars per litre, show that the most economical speed is 20 .
f

170
5 Integral Calculus
5.1 Indefinite Integrals
In some cases, the process of integration is an anti-derivative. The derivative of x3 is 3x2 .
Integration tells us the function that has a derivative of 3x2 , i.e. x3 is one of the possible
answers. There are infinitely many solutions to this problem;

x3 + 1, x3 − 5, x3 + 20, etc.

All possible answers are of the form

x3 + c where c ∈ R.

We say that x3 + c is the anti-derivative or integral of 3x2 and write

Z
3x2 dx = x3 + c

which is read as “the integral of 3x2 w.r.t. x”. Here c is an arbitrary constant called the
constant of integration.
In general if F (x) and f (x) are functions such that F ′ (x) = f (x), then

d
(i) f (x) is the derivative of F (x): F (x) = f (x)
dx
Z
(ii) F (x) is the integral (anti-derivative) of f (x): f (x) dx = F (x) + c

R
Thus the statement F ′ (x) = f (x) is equivalent to the statement f (x) dx = F (x) + c, where
f (x) is the integrand and dx indicates that x is the variable of integration. The set of all
antiderivatives of f (x) is called the indefinite integral of f (x) w.r.t. x.

5.2 Rules for Integrating

These follow from the corresponding rules for differentiation.

Z
k dx = kx + c where k is a constant.
Z
xn+1
xn dx = +c (n 6= −1)
n+1
Z Z
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx
Z Z Z
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.

Here, c is the constant of integration.

171
Example 1:
Z
x4 3x2
(x3 + 3x + 4) dx = + + 4x + c.
4 2

Z  
4 2
Example 2: √ + 3/2 − 2x1/2 + 6 dx
x x
Z
= (4x−1/2 + 2x−3/2 − 2x1/2 + 6) dx

4x1/2 2x−1/2 2x3/2

= + − + 6x + c
1/2 (−1/2) 3/2
4
= 8x1/2 − 4x−1/2 − x3/2 + 6x + c.
3

To determine the value of the integration constant we need extra information.

Example 3: If f ′ (x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) passes through the point (2, 4), find f (x).
Z
f (x) = (4x − 3) dx
x2
= 4 − 3x + c
2
= 2x2 − 3x + c
When x = 2, y = 4 ∴ 4=2×4−3×2+c
∴ c=2
∴ f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 2.

From the knowledge of differential calculus we can obtain the integrals of some fundamental
functions.
Z
ex dx = ex + c
Z
1
dx = ln|x| + c
x
Z
cos x dx = sin x + c
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + c
Z
sec2 x dx = tan x + c
Z
sec x tan x dx = sec x + c

Example 4:
Z
ex + cos x dx = ex + sin x + c.

172
Determining integrals involving trigonometric functions may involve the use of trigonometric
identities.
Z Z
Example 5: tan x dx = sec2 x − 1 dx
2
as 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x

= tan x − x + c.

5.3 Substitution
This method may be regarded as the converse of differentiating via the Chain Rule. The aim
of substitution is to transform a difficult integral into one which involves a standard result.
Z
Example 1: Calculate e6x dx.

du du
Let u = 6x, ∴ = 6 or dx = .
dx 6
Z Z
du
∴ e dx = eu
6x
6
1 u
= e +c
6
e6x
= + c.
6

Note: The substitution transforms the integrand from a function of x to a function of

u. Therefore we must also transform the differentials from dx to du – we use the derivative
du/dx to do this.
Z
Example 2: Calculate sin 3x dx.

du du
Let u = 3x, ∴ = 3 or dx = .
dx 3
Z Z
du
∴ sin 3x dx = sin u
3
1
= (− cos u) + c
3
cos 3x
=− + c.
3

173
 Z
Example 3: Calculate x(1 + x2 )3 dx.
du du
Let u = 1 + x2 , ∴ = 2x or x dx = .
dx 2
Z Z
du
∴ x(1 + x ) dx = u3
2 3
2
4
1u
= +c
2 4
(1 + x2 )4
= + c.
8

Example 4:
Z Z
2 1 − cos 2x
sin x dx = dx as cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x
2
 
1 sin 2x
= x− + c.
2 2

Z
sin x
Example 5: Calculate dx.
cos2 x

du
Let u = cos x, then = − sin x or sin x dx = −du.
dx
Z Z
sin x 1
∴ dx = − du
cos2 x u2
Z
= − u−2 du
u−1
=− +c
−1
1 1
= +c= + c.
u cos x
Z
Example 6: Consider the integral I = (x2 + 1)3/2 dx.

This example shows that the method of substitution doesn’t always help us.
du du
Try u = x2 + 1, so that = 2x or dx = .
dx 2x
√ du
But u = x2 + 1, therefore x = u − 1 and dx = √ .
2 u−1
Z
du
∴ I = u3/2 √ .
2 u−1
In this case, the choice of substitution was not helpful.

174
EXERCISE 47: Determine the following indefinite integrals:
Z Z Z
−4 5 1
1. x − 2 dx 7. dx 13. sin 2x − cos 2x dx
x 4−x
Z Z Z
− 23 − 34
2. x − x dx 8. e6x dx 14. sec x tan x dx
Z Z Z
√
3. −1
x − 4 x dx 9. 4e12x + 4e−12x dx 15. 2cosecx cot x dx
Z Z Z
−3x 2 x x
4. 2e dx 10. 2xe−x dx 16. sin cos dx
2 2
Z Z Z
4 − 12
5. + 2x dx 11. sin 3x dx 17. 2 cos2 x dx
x
Z Z
1
6. dx 12. sec2 3x dx
x+1

175
5.4 Definite Integrals
The set of all antiderivatives of f (x) is called the indefinite integral of f (x) w.r.t. x. All the
integrals we have dealt with so far have been indefinite integrals. We now need to define a
definite integral.
The definite integral of f (x) from x = a to x = b is

Z b
f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) − F (a)
a

Here, a is the lower limit of integration and b is the upper limit of integration.

Note: This can be interpreted geometrically as the area under the curve f (x) between
x = a and x = b.

y
6
f (x)

a
-x
b

Z 2
Example 1: Evaluate the definite integral x3 dx.
1

Z 2  2
3 x4
x dx =
1 4 1
4
2 14
= −
4 4
16 1
= −
4 4
15
= .
4

Note that the constant of integration does not appear in the result of a definite integral.
Z 2
Example 2: Evaluate the integral x2 dx.
1

Z 2  2
2 x3
x dx =
1 3
 3 1  3 
2 1
= −
3 3
8 1 7
= − = .
3 3 3

176
5.5 Properties of Definite Integrals

Z b Z b Z b
1. f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Z b Z b
2. kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx where k is a constant
a a
Z b Z c Z b
3. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c

Example 1:
Z −1 2 Z −1 2
x +4 x 4
2
dx = 2
+ 2 dx
−2 x −2 x x
Z −1
= (1 + 4x−2 ) dx
−2
 −1
4x−1
= x+
−1 −2
 −1
4
= x−
x −2
   
4 4
= −1 − − −2 −
−1 −2
= 3 − 0 = 3.

Example 2:
Z 2 h i2
1
dx = ln|x|
1 x 1

= ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2.

Z 2
1
Example 3: Evaluate the definite integral dx.
0 2x + 1

du du
Let u = 2x + 1, ∴ = 2 or dx = .
dx 2
Again, we change the limits of integration.
When x = 0, u = 0 + 1 = 1. When x = 2, u = 4 + 1 = 5.
Z 2 Z 5
1 1 du
∴ dx =
0 2x + 1 1 u 2
 5
1
= ln u
2 1
1 1
= ln 5 − ln 1
2 2
ln 5
= .
2

177
 Z 1
−1/2
Example 4: Calculate x3 + 1 × x2 dx.
0

du du
Let u = x3 + 1, ∴ = 3x2 or x2 dx = .
dx 3
When x = 0, u = 1. When x = 1, u = 2.
Z 1 Z 2
3

−1/2 2 du
∴ x +1 × x dx = u−1/2
0 1 3
 1/2 2
1u
=
3 1/2 1
 2
2 1/2
= u
3
 1  
2 1/2 2 1/2
= 2 − 1
3 3
2 √
= ( 2 − 1).
3
Z π/4
Example 5: Evaluate the definite integral sin 2x dx.
0

du du
Let u = 2x, = 2 or dx =
∴ .
dx 2
When changing the variable of integration, we also need to change the limits of integration:
When x = 0, u = 2 × 0 = 0. When x = π/4, u = 2 × π/4 = π/2.
Z π/4 Z π/2
du
∴ sin 2x dx = sin u
0 0 2
1 π/2
= − cos u 0
2
   
cos(π/2) cos 0
= − − −
2 2
1 1
=0+ = .
2 2

EXERCISE 48: Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2 Z π/4
2
1. x + 5 dx 5. sin 2x dx
1 0
Z 9 Z π/4
3 1
2. + x− 2 dx 6. sin 2x + cos 2x dx
1 x 0
Z 1 Z π/4
1
3. dx 7. tan2 x dx
0 4x + 1 0
Z 1 Z π/2
4. e3x − e−3x dx 8. sin2 x dx
0 0

178
EXERCISE 1:
b4 c y y5 1

1. (a) 3x (b) (c) 28 (d) (e) (f) (g) 2xy y 2 − x2
a2 x2 2 2 33 ab3
4

x+y 1 1−x
(h) x−1 + y −1 = (i) ax−1 − 1 + a−1 x 2. (a) (b) −27 4.
xy 2 x

EXERCISE 2:
5 3
1. (a) x = 4 (b) x = (c) x = − (d) x = 2 or x = 3 (e) x = 0 or x = −2
3 2
1
(f) x = 1 (g) x = 0 or x = 2 2. x = − 4. n = 4 or n = 8
2

EXERCISE 3:
1 22 1 1 1 1
1. (a) 2 (b) (c) 1 5 (d) 1 (e) 4 2. (a) 1 (b) (x 2 −5 2 )(x 2 +5 2 )
9 32 a b
6 4
3. 4 5. x = −2

EXERCISE 4:
11 √ √ √ √
1. (a) 36 (b) 3 5 (c) −4 5 2. (a) 6 −√2 √(b) 5 −
√ 6
2 (c) 1
3. (a) FALSE (b) TRUE (c) TRUE 4. 4 5, 9, 2 21, 3 10
5. (a) x=7 (b) x = 13
6. (a) x = 42, y = −24 (b) x = 4, y = 8 (c) x = 4, y = −2 (d) x = 2, y = 1

EXERCISE 5:
√ √ √ √ √

3 5 35 √  3 4 3−3 2
1. (a) (b) (c) 3 2+ 3 (d)
10 7 √ √ 5
66 √ 2+2− 6 √6
√
2. 3. 2 − 3 4. 5. 108 6. 15
23 4

EXERCISE 6:

1. (a) 5 (b) −4 (c) 1 (d) 8 (e) − log5 2 (f) 2 (g) 25 (h) 18

1 1
2. (a) x = 2−3 = (b) x = 5 (c) 10 (d) x = −4 (N.P.) or x = 2 (e) x =
8 4

EXERCISE 7:
2
e3 1 y 
1. x = 2. −1 3. 1.1 4. t = ln 5. P = Ae−bt
2 4 a

EXERCISE 8:

1. 6a3 + 21a2 2. 8x2 + 2xy − 15y 2 3. x2 + 2x − 8 4. 49x2 − 4 5. 9x2 − 100y 2

6. 9x2 + 60xy + 100y 2 7. 4x2 − 12x + 9 8. 2x4 + 7x2 − 15 9. 15 − 13x + 2x2
9
10. 2 + 12 + 4x2
x

179
EXERCISE 9:

1. (x − 2)(x − 3) 2. (x + 3)(x + 4) 3. (2x −√1)(x + 3)

√ 4. (3x√+ 1)(4x − 1)√
2
5. not possible 6. (x + 5) 7. (x − 6)(x + 6) 8. (p + 8 − 86)(p + 8 + 86)
√ ! √ !
130 130
9. 5 v − 1 − v−1+ 10. (x − 7)2 11. (y 2 + 9)2 12. (x − 8)(x + 8)
5 5
13. (4x − 7y)(4x + 7y) 14. (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9) 15. (y + 2)(y 2 − 2y !+ 4)
√ √ !
√ √ √ √ 13 + 53 13 − 53
16. (x− 8)(x+ 8) 17. (r+1− 34)(r+1+ 34) 18. n + n+
2 2
19. 2(5x−2)2 20. (4y −x−3)(4y +x+3) 21. (3y −x)(5x−y) t t
√22. (e +1)(e√+2)
2 2
23. (x+1)(x−1)(x ! −x+1)(x +x+1)! 24. 3x(x−3) 25. (m−6− 10)(m−6+ 10)
√ √
9 + 197 9 − 197
26. r − r−
2 2

EXERCISE 10:
4 2 5
1. 2x2 +5x+3+ 2. x+2− 2 3. x2 +3x+2 4. x2 −x+3+
x−1 x + 2x − 1 x+1
3 4 2 25 2 4x
5. 3x − x + 2 − 6. 5x + 6 + 7. 2x − 3x + 2
x−3 2x − 5 x − 3x + 4
2 3
8. 2x − 2x + 1 −
2x + 1

EXERCISE 11:

1. (a) 76 (b) 6 2. (a) (x − 6)(x + 1)(x + 7) (b) (x − 3)(x + 2)(2x − 1)

1
3. (b) 4. (a) Q(x) = x2 − 2x + 3, R = 0 (b) Q(x) = x2 − 2x − 9, R = −44
8
5. (a) YES (b) NO (c) YES 6. (a) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) (b) (x − 1)(x − 2)(2x − 1)
2 1
(c) (x + 1)(x + 1) 7. (a) k = 2 (b) k = − , 1 (c) k = 2 8. k = −1
2
9. a = 1, b = 3

EXERCISE 12:
√
3 1 −4 ± 7 1
1. (a) 1, 6 (b) , −4 (c) 3, − (d) 2. (a) 2, −5, − (b) 0, −2
2 2 √ 9 2
3 1± 7
3. (a) −1, (b) 10, 10 (c) (d) 4, −6 4. 8 5. 24 m 6. 15 km/hr
2 2

EXERCISE 13:
3 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 2
1. + 2. − 3. + − 4. + +
x+2 x−1 x+1 x+3 x+2 x+1 x−1 x − 1 x + 2 (x − 1)2
3 4 −2 3 4 1 1 1
5. + 6. + + 7. + − +x+1
3x + 1 x + 8 x+3 x+2 x+1 2(x + 1) 2(x − 1) x
3 2 1 1 2x 3
8. 2 − 9. − − 2 − 2 +
x +4 x+1 x x x +4 x−1

180
EXERCISE 14:
13
1. x < −2 2. x ≤ 3. −3 ≤ x ≤ 4 4. −1 ≤ x < 1 5. −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2
1
6. no solution 7. −3 ≤ x < −1 8. x ≤ 9. x ≤ −1 10. x ≤ −4 or x ≥ 1
2
1 1
11. −2 < x < 3 12. x ≤ 13. ≤ x ≤ 9 14. x < −2 or x > 1
2 3
15. −1 < x < 3, x 6= 2 16. −4 ≤ x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 5 17. −2 < x < 1 or x > 3
√ √
18. 0 < x < 1 19. − 3 < x < −1 or 1 < x < 3

EXERCISE 15:

1. 2.083̇ m 2. 228% 3. 46% 4. Original investment 125, current value 600.13

EXERCISE 16:

1. (a) 8 (b) 20 (c) 4845 (d) 1540 (e) 1 (f) 1

5. (a) x = 7 or 9 (b) x = 16

EXERCISE 17:

1. (a) 32x5 + 240x4 + 720x3 + 1080x2 + 810x + 243 (b) 81a4 − 108a3 + 54a2 − 12a + 1
2. (a) 10 terms: x18 +18x16 +144x14 +672x12 +· · · (b) 13 terms: 1−12b2 +66b4 −220b6 +· · ·
4. 1287a5 b8 5. 252 6. 216 7. 945x3 y 6 z 8

EXERCISE 18:
x x2 x3 x 3x2 5x3
1. (a) 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + · · · (b) 1 + − + −··· (c) 1 − + − +···
2 8 16 2 8 16
x x2 x2 3x3 5x4 x2 x4 x6
−
2. (a) 1 + (b) x − + − + ··· 3. (a) 2 + − +
2 8 2 8 16 4 64 512
1 x x2 5x3 x3 2Q0 2Q0 3 7 2 15 3
(b) + + + 4. 5. (a) − (b) Q0 (1− t+ t − t +· · · )
3 6 8 48 8 (1 + t) (2 + t) 2 4 8

EXERCISE 19:
3x 19
1. (a) y = + (b) y = 2x − 12 (c) y = −x − 7 (d) y = 2 (e) x = −2
4 2
2x 3x 2x 13 2x
(f) y = − − 2 (g) y = − (h) y = − 2. (a) y = − 2 (b) 33.69◦
3 2 3 3 3
−3x
(c) y = + 11
2

EXERCISE 20:
√ √
2. (x − 4)2 + (y − 4)2 = 16 3. (a) (x + 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25 (b) 2 21 (c) 60
4x 10 3x 15
4. (a) 5 (b) y = + or y = − + 5. x2 + y 2 − x − 3y − 22 = 0
3 3 4 2

181
6. (2,5) and (-4,-7) 7. k = 7

EXERCISE 21:
(x − 2)2 (y + 3)2
1. (a) + = 1; Ellipse: length of axes 2 and 3
9 4
(y + 3)2 (x − 2)2
(b) − = 1; Hyperbola: asymptotes given by y = −3 ± 2(x − 2)
16 4
2. 7.8125 3. 12 m 4. (a) No (b) 3.4375 m
√ √
2 6m2 ± 2 − 8m2 1 √ 1
5. (a) x = (b) y = ± (x − 6) 7. ( , 2)
1 + 2m2 2 2

EXERCISE 22:

1. (i) (a) Domain: x ≤ 0; Range: y ∈ R (b) not a function

(ii) (a) Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1; Range: −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 (b) not a function
(iii) (a) Domain: x 6= 0; Range: y 6= 0 (b) is a function
(iv) (a) Domain: x 6= −1; Range: y 6= 2 (b) is a function
2. (a) x 6= 0 (b) x 6= 1 (c) x ≤ 1 (d) x < 2
3. (a) Domain: x ∈ R; Range: y ∈ R (b) Domain: x ∈ R; Range: y ≥ 0
(c) Domain: x ≥ −3; Range: y ≥ 0 (d) Domain: x 6= 2; Range: y 6= 0
4. (a) Domain: x ∈ R; Range: y ≥ 0 (b) Domain: x 6= ±1; Range: y < 0, y ≥ 3
(c) Domain: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1; Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 (d) Domain: x < −5, x > 5; Range: y > 0
5. Domain: 0 ≤ x ≤ 500; Range: 0 ≤ y ≤ 1000

EXERCISE 24:
1 5 1 1
1. 2. 3. 4. ∞ 5. ∞ 6. ∞ 7. 0 8. 9. 2
2 7 3 3

EXERCISE 25:

1. (a) Domain: x 6= 3; Range: y 6= 0; H.A.: y = 0; V.A.: x = 3.

(b) Domain: x 6= −2; Range: y 6= 1; H.A.: y = 1; V.A.: x = −2.
2. (a) Domain: x 6= −3 and x 6= 1; Range: y ∈ R; H.A.: y = 0; V.A.: x = −3 and x = 1.
(b) Domain: x 6= −2, x 6= 2; Range: y ≤ 0 ory > 1; H.A.: y = 1; V.A.: x = −2 and x = 2.
(c) Domain: x 6= −1 and x 6= 1; Range: y ∈ R; H.A.: y = 1; V.A.: x = −1 and x = 1.
3. (b) Domain: x 6= −1, x 6= 1; Range: y ≤ −1, y > 0; H.A.: y = 0; V.A.: x = −1, x = 1.
4. Domain: x 6= −1, x 6= 2; Range: y ≤ −1, y > 0; H.A.: y = 0; V.A.: x = −1, x = 1.

EXERCISE 26:

1. (a) neither (b) odd (c) even (d) odd (e) odd (f) even (g) neither
1 + x2 2x
(h) even 3. 2 2
+
(1 − x ) (1 − x2 )2

182
EXERCISE 27:

1. (a) Domain: x 6= 0; Range: y > 1; x-int: none; y-int: none; Asym.: x = 0, y = 1

1
(b) Domain: x 6= 3; Range: y > 0; x-int: none; y-int: ; Asym.: x = 3, y = 0
9
1
(c) Domain: x 6= 3; Range: y < 0; x-int: none; y-int: − ; Asym.: x = 3, y = 0
9
(d) Domain: x 6= −1; Range: y > 2; x-int: none; y-int: 3;Asym.: x = −1, y = 2
4. (a) C (b) B & C (c) A, D & E (d) A
1
5. (a) Domain: x 6= −2; Range: y > 0; x-int: none; y-int: ; Asym.: x = −2, y = 0
4
9
(b) Domain: x 6= 2; Range: y > 2; x-int: none; y-int: ; Asym.: x = 2, y = 2
4
(c) Domain: x 6= 1; Range: y < −1; x-int: none; y-int: -2; Asym.: x = 1, y = −1
7
(d) Domain: x 6= −2; Range: y > −2; x-int: -2.707,-1.293; y-int: − ; Asym.: x = −2,
4
y = −2

EXERCISE 28:

1. (a) f ◦ g(x) = 8x + 1, g ◦ f (x) = 8x + 11, f ◦ f (x) = 4x + 9, g ◦ g(x) = 16x − 5

(b) f ◦g(x) = 18x2 +21x+6, g◦f 2 4 3
q(x) = 6x −3x+2, f ◦f (x) = 8x −8x +x, g◦g(x) q = 9x+8
√ √ √ √
(c) f ◦g(x) = −x, g◦f (x) = 1 − x2 − 1, f ◦f (x) = x2 − 2, g◦g(x) = 1 − 1 − x
√
2. (a) g(x) = 2x + 3, f (x) = x (b) g(x) = x2 + 5x + 6, f (x) = x3
(c) g(x) = 2x, f (x) = x−3 3. (a) 0,1 (b) 1,9 (c) 0,2 (d) ± 2

EXERCISE 29:
x−6 2x + 2
1. (a) yes (b) no (c) no (d) yes 2. (a) f −1 (x) = (b) f −1 (x) =
4 r 1−x
2
5x − 1 x − 2 1 1
(c) f −1 (x) = (d) f −1 (x) = (e) f −1 (x) = − + x +
2x + 3 5 2 4 √
3. (b) x > 1 and x < 1 (c) The inverse of f (x) = x2 − 2x√ + 1, x < 1, is f −1
(x) = 1 − x
2 −1
The inverse of f (x) = x − 2x + 1, x > 1, is f (x) = 1 + x

EXERCISE 30:

1. (a) Df : x > 1; Rf : y ∈ R; x-int: 2; y-int: none; Asym.: x = 1

1
(b) Df : x > 0; Rf : y ∈ R; x-int: 10 ; y-int: none; Asymp.: x = 0
(c) Df : x ∈ R; Rf : y > 0; x-int: none; y-int: e−2 ; Asym.: y = 0
(d) Df : x ∈ R; Rf : y > −2; x-int: ln 2; y-int: −1; Asym.: y = −2
(e) Df : x ∈ R; Rf : y > −2; x-int: − ln 2; y-int: −1; Asym.: y = −2
3. 1

EXERCISE 31:
4 4 3 5 5
1. (a) sin θ = , tan θ = , cot θ = , sec θ = , cosec θ =
√5 3 4 √ 3 4
5 2 5 2 3
(b) sin α = , cos α = − , tan α = − , cot α = − √ , cosec α = √
3 3 2 5 5

183
 √
1 3 1 10 √
(c) sin β = − √ , cos β = − √ , tan β = , sec β = − , cosec β = − 10
10 10 3 3
2 2 2
1 − sin A (x − 2) (y − 5)
4. 1 8. 2 9. + =1
sin A 9 4

EXERCISE 32:
√
1. These answers for the tangent only. (a)−1 (b) 3 (c) −1 (d) −1 (e) 0
1 5
(f) −1 (g) − √ 2.
3 8
3. (a) cos A (b) − sin B (c) − cosec C (d) sin D (e) tan E

EXERCISE 33:
1
1. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) sin 3x (d) cos α (e) √ (f) 1 (g) tan(x − 2y)
3
1 4 4 3 3
2. (a) −1 (b) − 3. (a) sin α = , tan α = (b) sin β = , tan β = −
7 5 3 5 4
7 1 √
(c) − (d) 0 (e) not defined (f) 5. 2 − 3 6. cos 2α
25 7
sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)
7. sin α cos β = , cos α cos β = ,
2 2
cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)
sin α sin β = .
2

EXERCISE 34:

1. (a) sin
√ 2θ (b) 2 sin 2θ (c)
√ cos 2θ (d) cos 2θ √ (e) − cos 2θ (f) tan 2θ
4 2 7 4 2 1 2 2 √
2. (a) (b) − (c) − 3. (a) (b) (c) 2 2 5. 25.66◦
9 9 7 3 3

EXERCISE 35:
1
1. (b) (i) 1 (ii) (iii) 2π units to right (iv) 3 units down
2
π
(c) (i) 2 (ii) 4 (iii) units to right (iv) 1 unit up
  4 
1 2π π
2. (a) cos 3 t − −2 (b) 10 sin 5 t + 3. (a) 6 (b) 0 (c) −1.8540
2 3 10
5. (a) h = 7 at midnight (t=0), noon (t=12), midnight (t=24) (b) 4m
(d) Before 2am, between 10am and 2pm, between 10pm and 2am the next morning.
π
7. A = 2, B = 1.5, C = − , D = −4 8. (a) 65cm (b) 110cm 9. 12:32:44 pm
2
10. 93 days
EXERCISE 36:
π 5π 7π 11π 3π 7π π 4π
1. (a) , , , (b) 85.003◦ , 94.997◦ (c) , (d) ,
◦
3 ◦3 3◦ 3 4 4 3 3
(e) 20 , 80 , 140
π 3π 3π
2. (a) 0, , , 2π (b) (c) 0.425, 5.858, 1.995, 4.288 (d) All θ in [0, 2π]
2 2 2

184
 π 5π 7π 11π 2π 4π 6π 8π π π 5π 7π 11π 13π 5π 17π
(e) , , , (f) 0, , , , , 2π, , , , , π, , , ,
6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 9 3 9 9 9 9 3 9
π 5π π 5π
3. x = , 4. t=2 5. ,
6 6 3 3

EXERCISE 37:
1 1 2
3. (a) a (b) (c) (d) − (e) 2 (f) 0
a 2 3

EXERCISE 38:

1. f ′ (0) = −3, f ′ (1) = 4, f ′ (2) = 17, f ′ (−1) = −4 2. y = 10x − 15 3. (1,1)

3 7 √
4. a = −27 6. c = 1 7. (a) 2x (b) 15x2 + 4 (c) √ + 7
5x 2 x

EXERCISE 39:
−1 3 −2x
1. 1 2. 6x2 + 6x − 2 3. 32x7 + 4x3 4. 2
− 4 5.
3x x (1 + x2 )2
1 1
6. √ − √
2 x 2 x3
√
2−x −1 + 2x − 5x2 1 − 2x2 x 2+ x
7. p 8. √ 9. 10. √ 11. √
2 (1 − x)3 1 − 2x (1 + 2x2 )2 2
x +2 2(1 + x)2

EXERCISE 40:
−2et −x2 2x − 1 2 2x + 7
1. 2. −2xe 3. 4. 5. 6. ln x + 1
(et − 1)2 1 − x + x2 x x2 + 7x
x2 +3x 2x 2x
7. (2x + 3)e 8. e + 2xe

EXERCISE 41:

1. 6 cos 6x 2. x2 cos x + 2x sin x 3. −3x2 sin x3 4. 2x sec x + x2 sec x tan x

5. 5x4 sec2 x5 6. ex cos x − ex sin x 7. e2x cos x + 2e2x sin x 8. 2 cot 2x
9. cos x cos 2x − 2 sin x sin 2x 10. cos x if sin x > 0 11. − tan x 12. − sin xecos x
13. −3 cos2 x sin x 14. sin(x2 + 2x) + 2x(x + 1) cos(x2 + 2x) 15. −(1 + cos x) sin(x + sin x)
dy 2 cos(2x + 3y)
16. (ln(sin x) + x cot x)(sin x)x 17. =
dx 1 − 3 cos(2x + 3y)

EXERCISE 42:
1 −2 2 2 2
1. (a) f ′ (x) = 2
, f ′′ (x) = 3
(b) f ′ (x) = 2xex , f ′′ (x) = 2ex + 4x2 ex
(1 + x) (1 + x)
x 1 − x2
(c) f ′ (x) = , f ′′
(x) = 2. 0 6. (a) 1-e (b) 1 (c) x = 1
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
(d) not possible

185
EXERCISE 43:  1
dy y 3 dy −5x4 − 4y 3 dy −y d2 y 2xy
1. (a) =− (b) = (c) = , =
dx x dx 12xy 2 − 15y 4 dx x + 3y 2 dx2 (x + 3y 2 )3
dy ey 2lny
(d) = 3. m = 11, y = 11x − 31 4. (a) ex y (b) 3y −
dx 1 − xey x
5
r
5. −0.1729 3 6. Decreased by 3.14 hours
h

EXERCISE 44:
dP −k dP −P0 dR dA
1. = 2 2 v, = 2. = 0.09 ohms/sec 3. = 0.1508 mm2 /month
dt πa x dt 4a dt dt
16
4. 75 km/h 5. (a) 30cm3 /sec (b) 7.5cm3 /sec 7. 2 8. m/min 9. 2.5m/s
9π

EXERCISE 45:
1. (a) maximum at (1, 5); minimum at (3, 1); y−intercept: 1  
1
(b) Vertical Asymptote at x = −3; Horizontal asymptote at y = 0. Maximum at . 3,
√ √ √ √ √ 12
3. (a) − 2 < x < 2 (b) x = ± 2 (c) x < − 2 or x > 2
4. (a) decreasing for x < 0, increasing for x > 0, stationary for x = 0.
(b) increasing for x < 0, decreasing for x > 0, stationary for x = 0.
(c) decreasing for x < −2, x > 1, increasing for −2 < x < 1, stationary for x = −2, x = 1.
2 28 38
5. HI at (-1,0), MIN at (2,0), MAX at ( , 6 )
7 7
2 2
(a) increasing for x < but x 6= −1 and x > 2. (b) decreasing for < x < 2
7 7
10. (a) x < −1, x > 2 and 0 < x < 1
(b) −1 < x < 0 and 1 < x < 2 (c) x > 0.5 (d) x < 0.5

EXERCISE 46: r
5
5. 4πm3
3
1. 24cm × 36cm 2. r = 3. 3cm × 3cm
π
6. (−1, 2.5) and (1, 2.5) 9. 4 weeks

EXERCISE 47:
3
1 5 1 3 8x 2 2
1. − 3 + + c 2. 3x 3 + 1 + c 3. ln |x| − +c 4. − e−3x + c
3x x x3 3 3
√ e6x
5. 4 ln |x| + 4 x + c 6. ln |x + 1| + c 7. − ln |4 − x| + c 8. +c
6
e12x e−12x 2 cos 3x tan 3x
9. − +c 10. −e−x + c 11. − +c 12. +c
3 3 3 3
cos 2x sin 2x cos x
13. − − +c 14. sec x + c 15. −2cosecx + c 16. − +c
2 2 2
sin 2x
17. +x+c
2

EXERCISE 48:
22 ln 5 e3 + e−3 − 2 1 π π
1. 2. 3 ln 9 + 4 3. 4. 5. 6. 1 7. 1 − 8.
3 4 3 2 4 4

186