Performance of Electrolyzer With Solar Powered
Performance of Electrolyzer With Solar Powered
Performance of Electrolyzer With Solar Powered
ScienceDirect
Article history: This paper investigates the performance of a hydrogen refueling system that consists of a
Received 16 January 2021 polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer integrated with photovoltaic arrays, and an
Received in revised form electrochemical compressor to increase the hydrogen pressure. The energetic and exer-
10 April 2021 getic performance of the hydrogen refueling station is analyzed at different working con-
Accepted 4 May 2021 ditions. The exergy cost of hydrogen production is studied in three different case scenarios;
Available online 4 June 2021 that consist of i) off-grid station with the photovoltaic system and a battery bank to supply
the required electric power, ii) on-grid station but the required power is supplied by the
Keywords: electric grid only when solar energy is not available and iii) on-grid station without energy
Solar hydrogen refueling station storage. The efficiency of the station significantly increases when the electric grid em-
Exergy cost powers the system. The maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of the photovoltaic
PEM electrolyzer system at solar irradiation of 850 W m-2 are 13.57% and 14.51%, respectively. The exergy
Electrochemical compressor cost of hydrogen production in the on-grid station with energy storage is almost 30% higher
Energy storage than the off-grid station. Moreover, the exergy cost of hydrogen in the on-grid station
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Baniasadi), [email protected] (E. Afshari).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.05.026
0360-3199/© 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
24272 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 2 4 2 7 1 e2 4 2 8 5
without energy storage is almost 4 times higher than the off-grid station and the energy
and exergy efficiencies are considerably higher.
© 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
stations. They investigated two cascades and buffer storage time, an electrochemical hydrogen compressor is proposed
systems in terms of compressor input power, irreversibility, to be integrated with the electrolyzer. The EHC has signifi-
and tank filling time. Their results show that the time cant features such as higher efficiency than small-scale
required to reach a final pressure of 35 MPa in the buffer mechanical compressors, no moving parts, and low spe-
storage system is 66% lower than that of the cascade storage cific power consumption.
system. Shah et al. [16] presented a conceptual design of a The exergy cost of hydrogen production in the refueling
hydrogen refueling station using a photovoltaic system for a station is determined and it is compared in three case
residential building. They considered 60 photovoltaic panels scenarios that consist of on-grid and off-grid stations with
of 18.9 kW silicon monocrystalline cells with a total area of battery energy storage.
238 m2 to supply 99.4% of the total power demand. The
hydrogen refueling station consists of a high-pressure elec-
trolyzer (165 bar) and the 2.24 kg H2 produced during the day
is stored in cascaded tanks to reach a final pressure of System description
350 bar. Rothuizen et al. [17] developed a thermodynamic
model to simulate a high-pressure hydrogen refueling sta- Fig. 1 shows a flow diagram of the solar hydrogen production
tion with a storage system. They suggested that the cascade and storage system for the vehicular application. The power
storage system deteriorates the compressor performance generated by the photovoltaic arrays is transferred to the
and reduces the cooling capacity, significantly; because the electrolyzer, in which water is decomposed and hydrogen and
cascade hydrogen storage system requires almost 12% less oxygen are produced. The produced hydrogen by the PEM
electrical energy for cooling and the compressor energy electrolyzer is directed to the electrochemical compressor and
consumption decreases by about 17%. its pressure increases. High-pressure hydrogen is stored in the
Dispenza et al. [18] accomplished a research project on an tank and can be used for fuel cell vehicles.
on-site hydrogen refueling station integrated with an on-grid Hydrogen refueling stations involve a lot of safety chal-
solar photovoltaic system, and F. Gruger et al. [19] proposed lenges due to hydrogen thermophysical characteristics. In
an on-site wind-powered hydrogen refueling station for particular, the low ignition temperature and flammability of
shared fuel cell electric vehicles. In both studies, alkaline hydrogen over a wide range of concentrations. On the other
electrolyzer is considered for hydrogen production. Then, hand, low hydrogen density causes storage problems which
hydrogen is compressed by a mechanical compressor, cooled, forces us to adopt very high gas pressure and make the leaks a
and stored in baffle tanks. Although different energy sources significant hazard. Therefore, safety practices are essential for
are used, a similar system arrangement has been studied, the successful implementation of hydrogen refueling stations.
which consists of hydrogen production, processing and stor- Safety practices generally rely on the integrated use of
age. Micena [20] studied a hydrogen refueling station fed by a HAZard Operability Analysis (HAZOP), Failure Mode and Effect
photovoltaic plant for a taxi fleet, that comprises alkaline Analysis (FMEA), and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), which
water electrolyzer to produce hydrogen, and a mechanical constitute standard methods in safety engineering [23]. The
compressor that increase the pressure of hydrogen to the level Society of Automotive Engineers developed standard SAE
of pressure required for the hydrogen dispensing. Their re- J2601 [24] that suggests realistic hydrogen station character-
sults indicate that 185.4 kgH2/day is required to supply 100% of ization metrics, but few public data exist on actual station
the taxi fleet with hydrogen, while only 19.8 kgH2/day is suf- performance.
ficient to supply 10% of the fleet. The technical and geometric properties of the components
In this study, for the first time in the literature, an elec- are presented in Table 1. The purpose of this study is to
trochemical hydrogen compressor (EHC) is utilized in a perform an exergy-economic analysis of the integrated solar
hydrogen refueling station to increase the pressure of hydrogen refueling station based on the numerical simulation
hydrogen before storage in the tank. In the previous studies by results. The utilization of renewable energy resources for
the authors [21,22], three-dimensional numerical models of hydrogen vehicles requires high energy conversion efficiency
the electrochemical compressor and PEM electrolyzer are in the production systems. The first step in increasing the
developed, and the influence of geometrical and working pa- efficiency of a hybrid system is to identify the performance of
rameters on the performance of the systems are investigated. each component. Therefore, exergy analysis of the proposed
In the present study, the results of numerical modeling are refueling system is performed to calculate the exergy
used for thermodynamic and exergieconomic analyses of the destruction rate of the system and the results of this study can
hydrogen refueling station. The main contributions of the be used to optimize the design of the system by reducing the
present study are as follows: exergy degradation of the system.
Photovoltaic modules have several basic parameters that
The past studies on hydrogen refueling stations are mostly describe the technical specifications of the modules. The
dedicated to the utilization of alkaline electrolyzer to pro- specifications are usually reported in standard conditions, i.e.
duce hydrogen and a mechanical compressor to increase the ambient temperature of 25 C and the radiation intensity
the hydrogen pressure. In this study, a PEM electrolyzer is of 1000 W/m2. It should be noted that the parameters can be
used that brings advantageous characteristics such as high changed depending on the modules' nominal power and
purity hydrogen, no circulation of corrosive electrolyte, low manufacturing technology. The design of a photovoltaic sys-
power consumption, operation at high pressure, and the tem should be done according to the ambient conditions of the
possibility of direct hydrogen storage. Moreover, for the first installation location. Table 1 presents the technical
24274 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 2 4 2 7 1 e2 4 2 8 5
specifications of the single crystalline silicon photovoltaic entropy, and the index 0 represents standard conditions.
module used in this study. Given the molar fraction of species, the chemical exergy for
The solar refueling station is designed such that it is not the input and output species of the electrolyzer and electro-
dependent on the electric power grid. Since solar systems are chemical compressor is calculated as follows [26]:
not capable of continuous power generation and their capac- X X
ity depends on weather conditions, energy storage units such exch ¼ k þ RT0
xk exch xk lnxk (2)
as batteries can be used to supply the power demand. A
where xk and exchk are the mole fraction and the chemical
lithium-ion battery provides the highest energy density than
exergy of the species k, respectively. The total exergy of each
other batteries, it does not require full discharge and it can be
stream is obtained as follows:
charged at any time without affecting its performance.
Lithium-ion batteries are used in this study and the specifi- ex ¼ exch þ exph (3)
cations of the lithium-ion battery bank used in the solar
The exergy destruction rate of each component is calcu-
refueling station are given in Table 1.
lated using the exergy of inlet and outlet flows as follows [26]:
X
T0 _ X X
1 Qk þ _ exi ¼
m m _ þ Ex
_ exo þ W _ d (4)
Exergy analysis Tk in out
To perform exergy analysis of the integrated system, the where exi is input exergy, exo is output exergy, Q_ k is the
exergy of each fluid stream should be calculated according thermal exergy rate, W_ is the produced useful work and Ex_ d
to the dead state reference conditions. The temperature represents the exergy destruction rate.
and pressure in the reference conditions are 298 K and Based on the aforementioned equations, the exergy effi-
1 atm, respectively. The enthalpy and entropy of the ciency of the subsystems and the integrated system is calcu-
streams are determined based on the results of the nu- lated as follows:
merical analysis of electrolyzer and electrochemical
compressor. The physical exergy of the streams is calcu- Ex_ H ;out
jtotal ¼ 2
(5)
lated as follows [26]: _
Exin;solar
Exergy analysis of the subsystems meet the power demand of the electrochemical compressor,
electrolyzer, and battery systems.
Photovoltaic cells are used to convert solar energy to electrical
PPV ¼ Pstack;comp þ Pstack;elec þ Pbat (12)
energy and to empower the electrolyzer system and the
electrochemical compressor. When solar energy is not avail- where Pstack;comp is the compressor stack power, Pstack;elec is the
able, the battery system can be used to supply electrical electrolyzer stack power and Pbat is the battery power.
power. Here, the performance of the photovoltaic system, The energy efficiency of the photovoltaic system is defined
batteries, electrolyzer stack, and electrochemical compressor as the ratio of the electrical power generated by the photo-
is examined using the second law of thermodynamic. voltaic module to the solar irradiation received by the photo-
voltaic module [27].
Photovoltaic system
To integrate the photovoltaic panel with the electrolyzer and PPV
hPV ¼ (13)
electrochemical compressor, the voltage-current characteristics S
of the panel should be specified. The general equation between where Sis the absorbed solar irradiation and it is defined as
current and voltage of a photovoltaic cell is as follows [25]: follows:
I ¼ Iph Id ¼ Iph Ir e½ðqþðVþIRs ÞÞ=ATcell k 1 (6) S ¼ ns np Ga APV (14)
where I is the photovoltaic cell output current, V is the output The input exergy by solar radiation is calculated as follows
voltage of the photovoltaic system, Id is diode current, Ir is [27]:
reverse saturation current, qis electron charge equal to 1:602
4
1019 , Ais an ideal factor, i.e. equal to 1 for amorphous cells _ in;solar ¼ 1 3 Ta þ 1 Ta
Ex S (15)
and 2 for crystalline cells, and Tcell is the operating tempera- 4 Tsun 3 Tsun
ture of the cell in Kelvin. Given that np is the number of cells in where Tsun is the Sun's black body temperature, i.e. 6000 K, and
parallel and ns is the number of cells in series in a module, the APV is the photovoltaic module area [27]. The exergy output of
general equation is written as follows [25]: the photovoltaic panel can be calculated as outlet exergy for a
photovoltaic panel, including thermal exergy and electrical
I ¼ np Iph np Ir e½q=VATcell k ns 1 (7)
exergies [28].
Using Eq. (7), the voltage-current characteristics of the
Ex _ thermal þ Ex
_ useful; solar ¼ Ex _ electrical (16)
photovoltaic module can be obtained based on the solar irra-
diation and the operating temperature of the cell. Using the Exergy of the thermal energy [29]:
above equation, the characteristic curve of each photovoltaic
!
module is obtained. The photonic current Iph is directly pro- Ta
_ thermal ¼ Q 1
Ex (17)
portional to solar irradiation. The current depends on the TTcell:eff
temperature of the cell and it is calculated as follows [25]:
where
Ga
Iph ðGa ; Tcell Þ ¼ Isc ðSTSÞ ½1 þ K0 ðTcell Ts Þ (8) Q ¼ UA Tcell:eff Ta (18)
Gas
where Ga is the solar irradiation and Tcell is the operating The overall heat loss coefficient of a photovoltaic module
temperature of the cell that depends on solar irradiation. includes convection and radiation losses.
Other constant parameters in Eq. (8) are Isc ðSTS), which is the
U ¼ hc þ hr (19)
short-circuit current under standard test conditions,
Gas standard irradiation (1000 W/m2), K0 the short-circuit tem- where hc is the convection heat transfer coefficient between
perature coefficient, and Ts the standard temperature (25 C). the photovoltaic module and the surrounding environment,
The operating temperature of the cell is approximately pro- which is calculated using the empirical equations as follows
portional to the solar irradiation as stated below: [27]:
A similar procedure to EHC cell is performed for the elec- Exergo-economic analysis
trolyzer to determine the voltage and input power of the
electrolyzer stack as follows: Exergo-economic analysis is a powerful tool for evaluating the
performance of a system based on a combination of thermo-
Vstack;elec ¼ Ncell;elec Vcell;elec (31) dynamic and economic methods. In a thermodynamic system,
several inlet and outlet streams associated with heat transfer
to the environment and work can be considered. The mass and
Pstack;elec ¼ Ielec Vstack;elec (32)
energy streams transfer exergy into and out of the system. In
The thermal energy dissipation rate Q_ loss;elec from the this analysis, the cost of these flows should be linked to the
electrolyzer cell is calculated using the following energy bal- exergy transfer rate. The costs of input, output flows, work, or
ance equation. heat transfer to the environment are calculated as follows [31]:
Pcell;elec Q_ loss;elec þ H
_ H O;in H
2
_ H ;out H
2
_ O ;out ¼ 0
2
(33) C_ i ¼ ci Ex
_ i ¼ ci m_ i Exi (40)
The enthalpy of inlet water and outlet oxygen and
hydrogen is calculated based on the numerical analysis re-
C_ o ¼ co Ex
_ o ¼ co m_ o Exo (41)
sults. The thermal power loss from the electrolyzer stack is
calculated as follows:
C_ w ¼ cW W
_ (42)
Q_ loss;elec; stack ¼ Ncell;elec Q_ loss;elec (34)
Ex_ H ;out The first term on the left side of Eq. (44) represents the rate
jPEM elec ¼ 2
(36)
Pstack;elec þ Ex_ H O;in of output costs of the component k, and the second term on
2
the right side represents the input cost rate of the component
Battery subsystem k. Also, C_ w;k and C_ q;k are the cost rates of work and heat
The capacity of a battery should be determined so that it can transfer. The costs of maintenance and initial investment are
provide power when the required solar energy is not available based on valid references and equipment costs in terms of
either at night or even for several cloudy days. The battery their capacity, and they are generally the summation of the
capacity is obtained by the following equation [30]: investment cost (ZCI ) and the maintenance cost (ZOM ) as
Ebat ¼ C Vbat (37) defined below [31]:
where Ebat is the amount of energy required that should be Z ¼ ZCI þ ZOM (45)
supplied by the battery, C is the battery capacity and Vbat is the
It is considered that the maintenance cost is equal to 3% of
battery voltage. The energy required to be stored in the battery
the annual investment cost for the electrolyzer and electro-
is obtained from the following equation [30].
chemical compressor that is calculated as follows [28]:
Ebat ¼ Pstack;comp þ Pstack;elec tnosun (38) f ACC PStack
ZCI ¼ (46)
where tnosun is the time duration when solar energy is not t
available and the power required by the subsystems should be where f is the maintenance cost factor which is often 1.06,
supplied by the battery. By determining the energy that is ACC is the annual investment cost, and t is the operating
24278 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 2 4 2 7 1 e2 4 2 8 5
_ H O:in þ CW W
CH2 O Ex _ stack;elec þ ZPEM elec ¼ CO Ex
_ O :out þ CH Ex
_ H :out To calculate the number of photovoltaic arrays for the solar
2 2 2 2 2
refueling station, the required power by the electrolyzer sys-
(49)
tem and electrochemical compressor should be determined.
Electrochemcial compressor: Various factors cause the photovoltaic arrays to produce
electricity less than their rated power. The most important
_ H :in þ CW W
CH2 Ex _ stack;comp þ ZPEM comp ¼ CH Ex
_ H :out (50)
2 2 2 factors are the converter efficiency, photovoltaic system los-
Overall system: ses, temperature, and contamination effects.
Considering the energy conversion losses in the inverter,
CPV Exin;solar þCH2 O ExH2 O:in þZtotal ¼ CH2 ExH2 :out (51) the output power of the photovoltaic arrays should be more
The investment costs of the subsystems are considered as than the required power of the electrolyzer and electro-
presented in Table 2. The economic calculations are on the chemical compressor. In this study, inverter efficiency is
exchange rates of October 2020 (1.00 USD - 0.85 EUR). It is considered 92%.
assumed that the lifetime of all equipment is 20 years, and the In this study, the required power for the PEM electrolyzer
electrolyzer and electrochemical compressor stacks will be and the electrochemical compressor is 11.22 kW and 385.56 W,
replaced after 10 years at half of their initial cost. respectively. Therefore, the total power required in the station
The cost of hydrogen production based on the capital, and is 11.605 kW, which is equivalent to 278.53 kWh for 24 h.
operating and maintenance costs is calculated using the Taking into account the effect of losses, with a maximum of
method presented by Silveira et al. [38] as follows: 5%, and inverter efficiency of 92%, the required energy of the
station is 318.68 kWh. The average sunshine duration in the
Ccap city of Isfahan is 5 h per day [33]. Therefore, the maximum
CH2 ¼ f þ CO&M (52)
t EnH2
power output generated by photovoltaic arrays is about
where CH2 [US$/kWh] is the cost of produced hydrogen, Ccap 63.736 kW. However, the effect of parameters that decrease
[US$] is the investment cost of the hydrogen station, f [1/year] the output power of the photovoltaic module should be
is the annuity factor, t [hours/year] refers to the annual considered. The effect of those parameters is explained below.
operating time of the system and CO&M is the operation and
maintenance cost of the system that is considered as 3% of the Manufacturer error
investment cost [22]. Also, EnH2 is the energy of the produced The output power of the photovoltaic modules is considered
hydrogen that is equal to the mass flow rate of produced concerning the manufacturing precision, which is approxi-
hydrogen multiply by LHV of hydrogen. mately 5% as mentioned in Table 1 [33]. Therefore, for the
The annuity factor is calculated as follows: selected module, the maximum reduction in output power is
16 W and thus the final power of the module is 304 W.
qk ðq 1Þ
f¼ (53)
ðqk 1Þ
The effect of pollution and dust
with
The output power of the photovoltaic module decreases due
r to contaminations over the module surface and air pollution,
q¼1 þ (54)
100 which depends on the weather conditions of the location. In
where r is the annual inflation rate and k is the amortization large cities, power reduction due to air pollution is considered
payback that is considered 7% and 20 years, respectively. about 5%. Since the output power of the module is 304 W
To calculate the pay-back period of the solar hydrogen concerning the manufacturer's error, the output power of the
refueling station, the target cost of hydrogen production for module is 288.8 W by considering pollution effects.
fuel cell cars, according to the department of energy of US, is
considered as $4/gge (gasoline gallon equivalent, i.e. almost The effect of ambient temperature
equivalent to 1 kg of hydrogen) to be competitive advanced The average effective daily temperature of a solar cell in the
hybrid vehicles [39]. photovoltaic module is obtained as:
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 2 4 2 7 1 e2 4 2 8 5 24279
The effect of ambient conditions on photovoltaic module Design of solar hydrogen refueling station with a constant
performance hydrogen production rate
The characteristics of the photovoltaic system are subject to The design of the solar refueling station is carried out in three
environmental parameters such as ambient temperature and cases to evaluate the energy and exergy efficiency of the in-
solar radiation intensity. The characteristics are inherently tegrated system and the cost of hydrogen production.
nonlinear. The maximum power can be obtained by selecting
the best operating condition of the photovoltaic arrays under 1. In the first case (off-grid), it is assumed that a constant
constant irradiation and ambient temperature. It should be hydrogen production rate is provided by the station for 24 h
noted that the best performance condition changes due to the and the refueling station is off-grid. The photovoltaic sys-
variation of environmental parameters. tem is used with lithium-ion battery storage.
Fig. 8 shows the output power of the module at solar ra- 2. In the second case (on-grid with PV and battery), it is
diation intensity of 600e1000 W m-2 and the ambient tem- assumed that the refueling station produces a constant
perature of 298 K. As the intensity of solar radiation increases, amount of hydrogen during the day, but that the required
the output current of the PV module increases. An increase in electric power is supplied from the grid when the solar
the output current of the module leads to an increase in the energy is unavailable.
3. In the third case (on-grid), it is assumed that the hydrogen
refueling station is empowered by the electric grid and the
photovoltaic system and battery bank are eliminated.
low and almost equal in the first and second cases because the
Table 5 e Comparison between refueling stations in the
efficiency of the photovoltaic module is low. The increase of
1st and 2nd scenarios.
the current density of the electrolyzer and compressor leads
Case study 1st Scenario 2nd Scenario
to an increase in the number of photovoltaic modules,
$ j h $ J h therefore, the energy and exergy efficiency of station 9 is lower
CH2 CH2
GJ GJ than station 1. The only difference between the two cases is
1 92.09 0.25 0.13 66.06 0.25 0.13 the cost of hydrogen production. In the latter case, when the
2 91.53 0.17 0.088 67.55 0.17 0.088 station is on-grid and batteries are not utilized, the cost of
3 93.5 0.12 0.064 67.74 0.12 0.064 producing hydrogen decreases.
4 96.5 0.096 0.055 69.24 0.096 0.055
Table 6 also compares the stations in the first and third
5 99.81 0.076 0.044 71.69 0.076 0.044
scenarios (battery and photovoltaic modules are eliminated).
6 102.8 0.064 0.033 73.75 0.064 0.033
7 105.5 0.054 0.028 75.57 0.054 0.028 As mentioned earlier, the output power and exergy efficiency
8 109.2 0.047 0.024 77.86 0.047 0.024 of the on-grid station is significantly higher than the off-grid
9 112.8 0.041 0.021 80.04 0.041 0.021 station due to the low efficiency of the photovoltaic system.
Moreover, when batteries and photovoltaic arrays are de-
tached from the station, the cost of hydrogen production per
capacity of the different stations in the first case, i.e. the off- energy consumption reduces. Although the utilization of
grid station integrated with photovoltaic arrays and the bat- photovoltaic arrays increases the cost of hydrogen, the impact
tery bank. The required energy that should be supplied by of solar energy on the conservation of fossil fuel resources and
batteries and photovoltaic arrays and the capacity of the sta- the reduction of environmental pollution is considered
tion are reported for different operating conditions of the valuable.
electrolyzer and electrochemical compressor. The increase of
hydrogen production capacity from 1.12 to 5.58 kg/day in the
refueling station requires more than six times larger photo- Conclusions
voltaic modules and battery energy storage capacity.
Table 5 presents a comparison between the refueling sta- Due to the intermittent nature of solar irradiation, the rate of
tion in the first scenario (off-grid) and the station in the second hydrogen production by solar electrolysis does not exactly
scenario (on-grid without battery). The comparison is made in match the rate of consumption, therefore, a storage system is
terms of energy and exergy efficiency and the cost of hydrogen essential to enhance the reliability of the systems. In this
production. The energy and exergy efficiency of the station is study, the Li-ion battery is used as a short-term power storage
unit to supply the required power to the electrolyzer system
when solar energy is not available. The produced hydrogen is
fed to the electrochemical compressor and its pressure is
Table 6 e Comparison between refueling stations in the
1st and 3rd scenarios. increased to the desired pressure for use in fuel cell vehicles.
The results of numerical analysis of a PEM electrolyzer cell
Case study 3rd Scenario 1st Scenario
and electrochemical compressor cell, in the past studies by
$ j h $ J h the authors [21,22], are applied to a hydrogen refueling station
CH2 CH2
GJ GJ that supplies 5.6 kg H2 per day for 8 fuel cell vehicles. The
1 21.82 0.91 0.85 92.09 0.25 0.13 results of energy and exergy-economic analyses of the solar
2 23.02 0.88 0.81 91.53 0.17 0.088 hydrogen refueling station are summarized as follows:
3 24.29 0.84 0.78 93.5 0.12 0.064
4 25.45 0.82 0.76 96.5 0.096 0.055
The performance of a photovoltaic system is a function of
5 26.65 0.79 0.74 99.81 0.076 0.044
6 27.89 0.77 0.71 102.8 0.064 0.033 ambient temperature, atmosphere turbidity, and solar ra-
7 29.16 0.75 0.69 105.5 0.054 0.028 diation intensity, and the characteristics of PV cells are
8 30.47 0.72 0.67 109.2 0.047 0.024 inherently nonlinear. As the solar irradiation increases, the
9 31.87 0.7 0.65 112.8 0.041 0.021 output current from the photovoltaic cell increases and it
24284 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 2 4 2 7 1 e2 4 2 8 5
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