Unit 6
Unit 6
Unit 6
Index
1. Written communication
1.1. General points
1.2. Differences between written and spoken language
1.3. Classroom considerations
Introduction
Consider the well-known joke:
This joke shows how written language can be used to entertain and to tease, in
addition to other perhaps more conventional informative purposes. Written
communication is all around us in our everyday lives, from the newspaper we read
when we have breakfast to the “stop” sign at the end of the street.
What is more, written communication is intimately linked with the idea of text, which a
set of ideas and concepts woven together with a myriad of stitches forming the links
between them. In sort, the text is a vital element to our communication which is as
indispensable to us as the clothes we wear.
This unit will start by introducing the general background to written communication. It
will then examine the formal and structural elements of texts. After this, it will focus
on different rules for writing texts, before finishing by looking at some specific
routines and formulas used in everyday writing. Eventually, there is the relation of the
topic with the teaching practice and the conclusions.
1. Written communication
What is more, the fact that the interlocutor is not present to show how the well the
communication is being conveyed, and the impossibility of using extralinguistic
elements in the text, means that is the language itself which carries the weight of
transmitting the message. So, the writer can use some paralinguistic elements, as for
example, punctuation, underlining, capitalization, etc.
It is evident that writing is a very complex activity, and one which needs to be learned
even in the native language. All children learn to speak naturally, but not all of them
learn to write fluently and well.
Davies and Widdowson have identified the following functions in written texts:
1. The Modal function, which shows the attitude of the writer to his message.
This is often achieved through the use of modal verbs.
2. The Metalinguistic function, which shows what the writer intends his/her
terms to mean.
3. The Contact function, which has the purpose of maintaining contact and
communication with the reader by keeping the channel open.
Apart from that, there are obvious formal differences between written and spoken
language. In brief, the grammar of written language tends to be more complex, so
there is more pre-modification, subordination and passives. Also, sentences tend to
be longer, and written language is the final draft to spoken language’s first draft.
Similarly, the vocabulary in written language is more carefully selected and precise.
The previous weight of correctness has been replaced by. Appropriateness; minor
non-impeding errors are not considered as important as the ability to transmit the
message successfully and in an appropriate manner. Hence, when assessing, the
teacher’s first priority must be to give credit for the student’s efforts at
communication.
Their basic characteristic is that of a sequence of events, often using dynamic verbs
and sequential adverbials (then, next, etc.) to provide the structure of the narrative.
Typical forms of narrative texts are: fairy stories, mysteries to personal experiences
recounted in an email, etc. Their typical structure will involve an initial setting, a
complication and a resolution (the traditional happy ending).
Descriptive texts
Descriptive texts are concerned with perception of time and space, and are often
intimately linked to narrative texts. They can range from simple sentences to a
complex description. Often, these texts will set the scene for a narrative passage.
Directive texts
The aim of directive texts is to tell the reader what to do. The clearest examples are
signs, for example, road signs. Other examples can be found in stage directions,
instructions in an operating manual and recipes. Therefore, a directive text can
explain how something works, instruct how to carry out a particular activity or it may
deal with human behaviour.
The language of directive texts tends to be clear and to the point. The second person
is commonly used, combined with verbs in imperative voice.
Expository texts
The purpose of expository texts is to characterise (often abstract) phenomena. They
have the aim of informing, describing, persuading and explaining. Some examples
are: essays, newspaper articles, etc.
Common features of expository texts can be found in the techniques they use to
explain the information. For instance: sequencing of ideas, comparison and contrast,
enumeration and exemplification. Expository texts will usually be primarily objective.
Argumentative texts
The purpose of an argumentative text is to influence the reader to some degree, by
stating a position and then attempt to justify it. Good examples would be letters of
complaint, discursive essays, etc.
The texts will usually start with a statement of a position, which is then supported by
evidence and arguments. The text will end with a conclusion, summarising up the
arguments. Furthermore, arguments may be present both for and against a point,
with the conclusion coming down on one side or the other.
Language used in argumentative texts is often the present tense, although past and
future tenses will be used to give evidence, examples or predictions. The text should
be well structured and the use of linkers and conjunctions is common. Repetition and
rhetorical questions are also used.
Literary texts
This classification covers all texts where a main purpose of the texts is aesthetic, and
the text seeks to portray a reality distinct from that of the real world. They include
poetry, drama and prose fiction, although it can be extended to autobiographies.
What is more, sometimes in literary texts the relationship between the medium and
the content is not always clear, and the formal features of the text must be
understood in order to appreciate it fully.
Scientific texts
These texts are concerned with presenting empirical facts. Thus, they show
important elements of intertextuality and the writer shows how the text attempts to fill
a gap in the current body of knowledge about its specific subject.
Scientific texts are normally clearly structured, with general opening comments on
the current ate of research in the field, a statement of hypothesis, a description of an
experiment, analysis of the data and a conclusion. In addition, the language used is
disinterested and objective, trying to present the truth without attempting to persuade
the reader. It may also use technical and highly specialised vocabulary, and
nowadays it is common to find graphical elements (graphs, charts, etc.).
Didactic texts
The punctuation and layout of the text are important in that they signal to the reader
the boundaries of the discourse within the text. The use of punctuation responds to a
set of conventions. For example, readers expect sentences to begin with capital
letters and to end with a full stop, question marks should signal question, etc.
They are words or phrases that indicate the logical relationship between ideas and
sentences. Some examples are:
Grammatical devices
These devices refer to the use of grammatical forms which give cohesion to the text,
notably through the anaphoric and cataphoric use of pro-forms and deictic devices.
Lexical devices
It is to be expected that a text will be lexically cohesive. A text dealing with a given
subject matter will necessary contain words related to that semantic field. Ideas are
often repeated using synonyms or explanations, often in oppositions.
4.1. Textuality
Textuality refers to the nature in which the text interacts with the reader and the
processes the reader must use to extract the meaning or the message from the text.
To do this, Beaugrande refer to the seven standards of textuality:
4.2. Macrorules
Macrorules serve to delate or reduce information, in a sense of make it more
manageable to the reader. Dijk (1978) presented four principal Macrorules:
5.1. Letters
Letters, both formal an informal, typically reflect a series of generally accepted
formulas. For instance, the layout of a formal letter follows a routine, with the
recipient’s address and the sender’s address started at the top of the page.
7. Conclusion
8. References