Electric Circuits

Pyramids Higher Institute for
Engineering and Technology
Electric Circuits I
Magdy A. Abdelhay
Lecturer,
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering,
Pyramids Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology,
Giza, Egypt.
Contents
Title i
1 Voltage and Current 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Atoms and Their Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Voltage Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Ampere-Hour Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Battery Life Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Resistance 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Resistance: Circular Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Circular Mils (CM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Wire Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Resistance: Metric Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.1 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.3 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.4 Inferred Absolute Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.5 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.6 PPM/°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Types of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1 Fixed Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.2 Variable Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.7 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7.1 Surface Mount Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
iii
3 Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy 45
3.1 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Plotting Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4 Series dc Circuits 59
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Series Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.1 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Power Distribution in a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5 Voltage Sources in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.7 Voltage Division in a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.7.1 Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.8 Interchanging Series Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.9 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.9.1 Voltage Sources and Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.9.2 Double-Subscript Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.9.3 Single-Subscript Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.9.4 General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5 Parallel dc Circuits 93
5.1 Parallel Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.1 Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2 Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3 Power Distribution in a Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5 Current Divider Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.5.1 Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6 Voltage Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.7 Open and Short Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
iv
6 Series-Parallel Circuits 129
6.1 Reduce and Return Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.2 Block Diagram Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.3 Descriptive Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4 Ladder Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7 Methods of Analysis 151

7.1 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.3 Mesh Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.4 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8 Circuit Theorems 175

8.1 Linearity Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3 Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.4 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.5 Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.6 Maximum Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9 Capacitors and Inductors 207

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.4 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.5 Series and Parallel Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10 First-Order Circuits 233

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.4 Singularity Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Bibliography 275
v
Voltage and Current
1
1.1 Introduction
Now that the foundation for the study of electricity/electronics has been established, the
concepts of voltage and current can be investigated. The term voltage is encountered
practically every day. We have all replaced batteries in our flashlights, answering machines,
calculators, automobiles, and so on, that had specific voltage ratings. We are aware that
most outlets in our homes are 220 volts. Although current may be a less familiar term, we
know what happens when we place too many appliances on the same outlet—the circuit
breaker opens due to the excessive current that results. It is fairly common knowledge that
current is something that moves through the wires and causes sparks and possibly fire if
there is a “short circuit.” Current heats up the coils of an electric heater or the range of
an electric stove; it generates light when passing through the filament of a bulb; it causes
twists and kinks in the wire of an electric iron over time, and so on. All in all, the terms
voltage and current are part of the vocabulary of most individuals.
In this chapter, the basic impact of current and voltage and the properties of each are
introduced and discussed in some detail. Hopefully, any mysteries surrounding the general
characteristics of each will be eliminated, and you will gain a clear understanding of the
impact of each on an electric/electronics circuit.
1
1. Voltage and Current 2
Figure 1.1: Hydrogen and helium atoms.
1.2 Atoms and Their Structure

A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and voltage requires a degree
of familiarity with the atom and its structure. The simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen
atom, made up of two basic particles, the proton and the electron, in the relative positions
shown in Fig. 1.1(a). The nucleus of the hydrogen atom is the proton, a positively charged
particle.
The orbiting electron carries a negative charge equal in magnitude to the positive charge
of the proton.
In all other elements, the nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly heavier than
protons and have no electrical charge. The helium atom, for example, has two neutrons in
addition to two electrons and two protons, as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). In general,
the atomic structure of any stable atom has an equal number of electrons and protons.
Different atoms have various numbers of electrons in concentric orbits called shells
around the nucleus. The first shell, which is closest to the nucleus, can contain only two
electrons. If an atom has three electrons, the extra electron must be placed in the next shell.
The number of electrons in each succeeding shell is determined by 2n2 where n is the shell
number. Each shell is then broken down into subshells where the number of electrons is
limited to 2, 6, 10, and 14 in that order as you move away from the nucleus.
Copper is the most commonly used metal in the electrical/electronics industry. An
examination of its atomic structure will reveal why it has such widespread application. As
shown in Fig. 1.2, it has 29 electrons in orbits around the nucleus, with the 29th electron
appearing all by itself in the 4th shell. Note that the number of electrons in each shell and
subshell is as defined above. There are two important things to note in Fig. 1.2. First,
the 4th shell, which can have a total of 2n2 = 2(4)2 = 32 electrons, has only one electron.
The outermost shell is incomplete and, in fact, is far from complete because it has only
one electron. Atoms with complete shells (that is, a number of electrons equal to 2n2 ) are
usually quite stable. Those atoms with a small percentage of the defined number for the
3 Atoms and Their Structure
Figure 1.2: The atomic structure of copper.
Figure 1.3: Charles Augustin Coulomb.
outermost shell are normally considered somewhat unstable and volatile. Second, the 29th
electron is the farthest electron from the nucleus. Opposite charges are attracted to each
other, but the farther apart they are, the less the attraction. In fact, the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the 29th electron of copper can be determined by Coulomb’s law
developed by Charles Augustin Coulomb (Fig. 1.3) in the late 18th century:
Q1 Q2
F =k (newtons, N) (1.1)
r2
where F is in newtons (N), k = a constant = 9.0 × 109 N.m2 /C2 , Q1 and Q2 are the charges
in coulombs (a unit of measure discussed in the next section), and r is the distance between
the two charges in meters.
At this point, the most important thing to note is that the distance between the charges
appears as a squared term in the denominator. First, the fact that this term is in the denom-
inator clearly reveals that as it increases, the force will decrease. However, since it is a
squared term, the force will drop dramatically with distance. For instance, if the distance is
doubled, the force will drop to 1/4 because (2)2 = 4. If the distance is increased by a factor
of 4, it will drop by 1/16, and so on. The result, therefore, is that the force of attraction
between the 29th electron and the nucleus is significantly less than that between an electron
in the first shell and the nucleus. The result is that the 29th electron is loosely bound to the
atomic structure and with a little bit of pressure from outside sources could be encouraged
to leave the parent atom.
If this 29th electron gains sufficient energy from the surrounding medium to leave the
parent atom, it is called a free electron. In 1 cubic in. of copper at room temperature, there
are approximately 1.4×1024 free electrons. Expanded, that is 1,400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
free electrons in a 1 in. square cube. The point is that we are dealing with enormous num-
bers of electrons when we talk about the number of free electrons in a copper wire— not
just a few that you could leisurely count. Further, the numbers involved are clear evidence
of the need to become proficient in the use of powers of ten to represent numbers and use
them in mathematical calculations.
Other metals that exhibit the same properties as copper, but to a different degree, are
silver, gold, and aluminum, and some rarer metals such as tungsten. Additional comments
on the characteristics of conductors are in the following sections.
1.3 Voltage
If we separate the 29th electron in Fig. 1.2 from the rest of the atomic structure of copper
by a dashed line as shown in Fig. 1.4(a), we create regions that have a net positive and
negative charge as shown in Fig. 1.4(b) and (c). For the region inside the dashed boundary,
the number of protons in the nucleus exceeds the number of orbiting electrons by 1, so the
net charge is positive as shown in both figures. This positive region created by separating
the free electron from the basic atomic structure is called a positive ion. If the free electron
then leaves the vicinity of the parent atom as shown in Fig. 1.4(d), regions of positive and
negative charge have been established.
This separation of charge to establish regions of positive and negative charge is the
action that occurs in every battery. Through chemical action, a heavy concentration of
positive charge (positive ions) is established at the positive terminal, with an equally heavy
concentration of negative charge (electrons) at the negative terminal.
In general,
every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive and neg-
ative charges.
It is that simple: If you want to create a voltage level of any magnitude, simply establish
a region of positive and negative charge. The more the required voltage, the greater the
quantity of positive and negative charge.
In Fig. 1.5(a), for example, a region of positive charge has been established by a pack-
aged number of positive ions, and a region of negative charge by a similar number of
5 Voltage
Figure 1.4: Defining the positive ion.
Figure 1.5: Defining the voltage between two points.

Figure 1.6: Count Alessandro Volta.
electrons, both separated by a distance r. Since it would be inconsequential to talk about

the voltage established by the separation of a single electron, a package of electrons called
a coulomb (C) of charge was defined as follows:
One coulomb of charge is the total charge associated with 6.242 × 1018 electrons.
A coulomb of positive charge would have the same magnitude but opposite polarity.
In Fig. 1.5(b), if we take a coulomb of negative charge near the surface of the positive
charge and move it toward the negative charge, energy must be expended to overcome
the repulsive forces of the larger negative charge and the attractive forces of the positive
charge. In the process of moving the charge from point a to point b in Fig. 1.5(b):
if a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move the negative charge of 1 coulomb (C),
there is a difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
The defining equation is

W
v= (1.2)
Q
where V = volts (V), W = joules (J) and Q = coulombs (C).
Take particular note that the charge is measured in coulombs, the energy in joules,
and the voltage in volts. The unit of measurement, volt, was chosen to honor the efforts
of Alessandro Volta, who first demonstrated that a voltage could be established through
chemical action (Fig. 1.6).
If the charge is now moved all the way to the surface of the larger negative charge as
shown in Fig. 1.5(c), using 2 joules of energy for the whole trip, there are 2 volts between
the two charged bodies. If the package of positive and negative charge is larger, as shown in
Fig. 1.5(d), more energy will have to be expended to overcome the larger repulsive forces
of the large negative charge and attractive forces of the large positive charge. As shown in
Fig. 1.5(d), 4.8 joules of energy were expended, resulting in a voltage of 4.8 V between
the two points. We can therefore conclude that it would take 12 joules of energy to move
1 coulomb of negative charge from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a 12 V
car battery.
7 Voltage
Through algebraic manipulations, we can define an equation to determine the energy

required to move charge through a difference in voltage:
W = QV (1.3)
Finally, if we want to know how much charge was involved:
W
Q= (1.4)
V
EXAMPLE 1.1 Find the voltage between two points if 60 J of energy are required to
move a charge of 20 C between the two points.
Solution:
W 60 J
V= = =3V
Q 20 C
EXAMPLE 1.2 Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 µC between

two points if the voltage between the points is 6 V.
Solution:
W = QV = (50 × 10−6 C)(6 V) = 300 × 10−6 J = 300 µJ
There are a variety of ways to separate charge to establish the desired voltage. The most
common is the chemical action used in car batteries, flashlight batteries, and, in fact, all
portable batteries. Other sources use mechanical methods such as car generators and steam
power plants or alternative sources such as solar cells and windmills. In total, however, the
sole purpose of the system is to create a separation of charge. In the future, therefore, when
you see a positive and a negative terminal on any type of battery, you can think of it as a
point where a large concentration of charge has gathered to create a voltage between the
two points. More important is to recognize that a voltage exists between two points—for
a battery between the positive and negative terminals. Hooking up just the positive or the
negative terminal of a battery and not the other would be meaningless.
Both terminals must be connected to define the applied voltage.
As we moved the 1 coulomb of charge in Fig. 1.5(b), the energy expended would
depend on where we were in the crossing. The position of the charge is therefore a factor
in determining the voltage level at each point in the crossing. Since the potential energy
associated with a body is defined by its position, the term potential is often applied to define
voltage levels. For example, the difference in potential is 4 V between the two points, or
Figure 1.7: There is motion of free carriers in an isolated piece of copper wire, but the flow
of charge fails to have a particular direction.
the potential difference between a point and ground is 12 V, and so on.
1.4 Current
The question, “Which came first—the chicken or the egg?” can be applied vhere also be-
cause the layperson has a tendency to use the terms current and voltage interchangeably as
if both were sources of energy. It is time to set things straight:
The applied voltage is the starting mechanism—the current is a reaction to the applied
voltage.
In Fig. 1.7(a), a copper wire sits isolated on a laboratory bench. If we cut the wire
with an imaginary perpendicular plane, producing the circular cross section shown in Fig.
1.7(b), we would be amazed to find that there are free electrons crossing the surface in both
directions. Those free electrons generated at room temperature are in constant motion in
random directions. However, at any instant of time, the number of electrons crossing the
imaginary plane in one direction is exactly equal to that crossing in the opposite direction,
so the net flow in any one direction is zero. Even though the wire seems dead to the world
sitting by itself on the bench, internally, it is quite active. The same would be true for any
other good conductor.
Now, to make this electron flow do work for us, we need to give it a direction and be
able to control its magnitude. This is accomplished by simply applying a voltage across the
wire to force the electrons to move toward the positive terminal of the battery, as shown in
Fig. 1.8. The instant the wire is placed across the terminals, the free electrons in the wire
drift toward the positive terminal. The positive ions in the copper wire simply oscillate
in a mean fixed position. As the electrons pass through the wire, the negative terminal
of the battery acts as a supply of additional electrons to keep the process moving. The
electrons arriving at the positive terminal are absorbed, and through the chemical action of
9 Current
Figure 1.8: Motion of negatively charged electrons in a copper wire when placed across
battery terminals with a difference in potential of volts (V).
Figure 1.9: Basic electric circuit.
the battery, additional electrons are deposited at the negative terminal to make up for those
that left.
To take the process a step further, consider the configuration in Fig. 2.9, where a copper
wire has been used to connect a light bulb to a battery to create the simplest of electric
circuits. The instant the final connection is made, the free electrons of negative charge drift
toward the positive terminal, while the positive ions left behind in the copper wire simply
oscillate in a mean fixed position. The flow of charge (the electrons) through the bulb heats
up the filament of the bulb through friction to the point that it glows red-hot and emits the
desired light.
In total, therefore, the applied voltage has established a flow of electrons in a particular
direction. In fact, by definition,
if 6.242 × 1018 electrons (1 coulomb) pass through the imaginary plane in Fig. 1.9 in 1
second, the flow of charge, or current, is said to be 1 ampere (A).
The unit of current measurement, ampere, was chosen to honor the efforts of André
Ampère in the study of electricity in motion (Fig. 1.10).
Figure 1.10: André Marie Ampère.
Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, the current in amperes can be determined
using the following equation:
Q
I= (1.5)
t
where I = amperes (A), Q = coulombs (C), and t = time (s).
The capital letter I was chosen from the French word for current, intensité. The SI
abbreviation for each quantity in Eq. (1.5) is provided to the right of the equation. The
equation clearly reveals that for equal time intervals, the more charge that flows through
the wire, the larger the resulting current.
Through algebraic manipulations, the other two quantities can be determined as fol-
lows:
Q = It (coulombs, C) (1.6)
and
Q
t= (seconds, s) (1.7)
I
EXAMPLE 1.3 The charge flowing through the imaginary surface in Fig. 1.9 is 0.16
C every 64 ms. Determine the current in amperes.
Solution:
Q 0.16 C 160 × 10−3 = 2.50 A C
I= = =
t 64 × 10−3 s 64 × 10−3 s
EXAMPLE 1.4 Determine how long it will take 4 × 1016 electrons to pass through the
imaginary surface in Fig. 1.9 if the current is 5 mA.
Solution: Determine the charge in coulombs:

1C
4 × 10 16
electrons
( (((( = 0.641 × 10−2 C = 6.41 mC
6.242 × 1018 (
electrons
((((
Q 6.41 × 10−3 C
t= = = 1.28 s
I 5 × 10−3 A
In summary, therefore,
11 Voltage Sources
the applied voltage (or potential difference) in an electrical/electronics system is the “pres-
sure” to set the system in motion, and the current is the reaction to that pressure.
A mechanical analogy often used to explain the above is the simple garden hose. In the
absence of any pressure, the water sits quietly in the hose with no general direction, just as
electrons do not have a net direction in the absence of an applied voltage. However, release
the spigot, and the applied pressure forces the water to flow through the hose. Similarly,
apply a voltage to the circuit, and a flow of charge or current results.
A second glance at Fig. 1.9 reveals that two directions of charge flow have been in-
dicated. One is called conventional flow, and the other is called electron flow. This text
discusses only conventional flow for a variety of reasons; namely, it is the most widely used
at educational institutions and in industry, it is employed in the design of all electronic de-
vice symbols, and it is the popular choice for all major computer software packages. The
flow controversy is a result of an assumption made at the time electricity was discovered
that the positive charge was the moving particle in metallic conductors. Be assured that the
choice of conventional flow will not create great difficulty and confusion in the chapters
to follow. Once the direction of I is established, the issue is dropped and the analysis can
continue without confusion.
1.5 Voltage Sources
The term dc, used throughout this text, is an abbreviation for direct current, which en-
compasses all systems where there is a unidirectional (one direction) flow of charge. This
section reviews dc voltage supplies that apply a fixed voltage to electrical/electronics sys-
tems.
The graphic symbol for all dc voltage sources is shown in Fig. 1.11. Note that the
relative length of the bars at each end define the polarity of the supply. The long bar
represents the positive side; the short bar, the negative. Note also the use of the letter E to
denote voltage source. It comes from the fact that
an electromotive force (emf) is a force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in a
system due to the application of a difference in potential.
In general, dc voltage sources can be divided into three basic types: (1) batteries (chem-
ical action or solar energy), (2) generators (electromechanical), and (3) power supplies
(rectification—a conversion process to be described in your electronics courses).
Figure 1.11: Standard symbol for a dc voltage source.
1.6 Ampere-Hour Rating
The most important piece of data for any battery (other than its voltage rating) is its
ampere-hour (Ah) rating. You have probably noted in the photographs of batteries in
this chapter that both the voltage and the ampere-hour rating have been provided for each
battery.
The ampere-hour (Ah) rating provides an indication of how long a battery of fixed voltage
will be able to supply a particular current.
A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide a current of 1

A for 100 hours, 10 A for 10 hours, or 100 A for 1 hour. Quite obviously, the greater the
current, the shorter the time. An equation for determining the length of time a battery will
supply a particular current is the following:
ampere-hour (Ah) rating

Life (hours) = (1.8)
amperes drawn (A)
EXAMPLE 1.5 How long will a 9 V transistor battery with an amperehour rating of
520 mAh provide a current of 20 mA?
Solution:
520 mAh 520
Life (hours) = = h = 26 h
20 mA 20
EXAMPLE 1.6 How long can a 1.5 V flashlight battery provide a current of 250 mA
to light the bulb if the ampere-hour rating is 16 Ah?
Solution:
16 Ah 16
Life (hours) = = h = 64 h
250 mA 250 × 10−3
13 Battery Life Factors
Figure 1.12: Ampere-hour rating (capacity) versus drain current for an Energizer D cell.
1.7 Battery Life Factors

The previous section made it clear that the life of a battery is directly related to the magni-
tude of the current drawn from the supply. However, there are factors that affect the given
ampere-hour rating of a battery, so we may find that a battery with an ampere-hour rating
of 100 can supply a current of 10A for 10 hours but can supply a current of 100A for only
20 minutes rather than the full 1 hour calculated using Eq. (1.8). In other words,
the capacity of a battery (in ampere-hours) will change with change in current demand.
This is not to say that Eq. (1.8) is totally invalid. It can always be used to gain some
insight into how long a battery can supply a particular current. However, be aware that
there are factors that affect the amperehour rating. Just as with most systems, including
the human body, the more we demand, the shorter the time that the output level can be
maintained. This is clearly verified by the curves in Fig. 1.12 for the Eveready Energizer D
cell. As the constant current drain increased, the ampere-hour rating decreased from about
18 Ah at 25 mA to around 12 Ah at 300 mA.
Another factor that affects the ampere-hour rating is the temperature of the unit and the
surrounding medium. In Fig. 1.13, the capacity of the same battery plotted in Fig. 1.12
shows a peak value near the common room temperature of 68◦ F. At very cold temperatures
and very warm temperatures, the capacity drops. Clearly, the ampere-hour rating will be
provided at or near room temperature to give it a maximum value, but be aware that it will
drop off with an increase or decrease in temperature. Most of us have noted that the battery
in a car, radio, two-way radio, flashlight, or whatever seems to have less power in really
cold weather. It would seem, then, that the battery capacity would increase with higher
temperatures—apparently not the case. In general, therefore,
the ampere-hour rating of a battery will decrease from the roomtemperature level with very
Figure 1.13: Ampere-hour rating (capacity) versus temperature for an Energizer D cell.
Figure 1.14: Terminal voltage versus discharge time for specific drain currents for an En-
ergizer D cell.
cold and very warm temperatures.
Another interesting factor that affects the performance of a battery is how long it is
asked to supply a particular voltage at a continuous drain current. Note the curves in Fig.
1.14, where the terminal voltage dropped at each level of drain current as the time period
increased. The lower the current drain, the longer it could supply the desired current. At
100 mA, it was limited to about 100 hours near the rated voltage, but at 25 mA, it did not
drop below 1.2 V until about 500 hours had passed. That is an increase in time of 5 : 1,
which is significant. The result is that
the terminal voltage of a battery will eventually drop (at any level of current drain) if the
time period of continuous discharge is too long.
2
Resistance
2.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we found that placing a voltage across a wire or simple circuit
results in a flow of charge or current through the wire or circuit. The question remains,
however, What determines the level of current that results when a particular voltage is
applied? Why is the current heavier in some circuits than in others? The answers lie in
the fact that there is an opposition to the flow of charge in the system that depends on
the components of the circuit. This opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical
circuit, called resistance, has the units of ohms and uses the Greek letter omega (Ω) as its
symbol. The graphic symbol for resistance, which resembles the cutting edge of a saw, is
provided in Fig. 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Resistance symbol and notation.
This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction between the free electrons and
other electrons, ions, and atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied electrical
energy into heat that raises the temperature of the electrical component and surrounding
medium. The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply due to passing current
through a high-resistance material.
Each material with its unique atomic structure reacts differently to pressures to estab-
15
2. Resistance 16
lish current through its core. Conductors that permit a generous flow of charge with little
external pressure have low resistance levels, while insulators have high resistance charac-
teristics.
2.2 Resistance: Circular Wires

The resistance of any material is due primarily to four factors:
1. Material
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Temperature of the material
As noted in Section 2.1, the atomic structure determines how easily a free electron will
pass through a material. The longer the path through which the free electron must pass, the
greater the resistance factor. Free electrons pass more easily through conductors with larger
cross-sectional areas. In addition, the higher the temperature of the conductive materials,
the greater the internal vibration and motion of the components that make up the atomic
structure of the wire, and the more difficult it is for the free electrons to find a path through
the material.
The first three elements are related by the following basic equation for resistance:
l
R=ρ (2.1)
A
where ρ = CM − Ω/ft at T = 20◦ C, l =feet, and A = area in circular mils (CM). Eeach
component of the equation defined by Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.
The material is identified by a factor called the resistivity, which uses the Greek letter
rho (ρ) as its symbol and is measured in CM − Ω/ft. Its value at a temperature of 20◦ C
(room temperature = 68◦ F) is provided in Table 2.1 for a variety of common materials.
Since the larger the resistivity, the greater the resistance to setting up a flow of charge,
it appears as a multiplying factor in Eq. (2.1); that is, it appears in the numerator of the
equation. It is important to realize at this point that since the resistivity is provided at a
particular temperature, Eq. (2.1) is applicable only at room temperature.
17 Resistance: Circular Wires
Table 2.1: Resistivity (ρ) of various materials.
Since the resistivity is in the numerator of Eq. (2.1),
the higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a conductor
as shown for two conductors of the same length in Fig. 2.3(a).

Further,
the longer the conductor, the greater the resistance
since the length also appears in the numerator of Eq. (2.1). Note Fig. 2.3(b). Finally,
the greater the area of a conductor, the less the resistance
because the area appears in the denominator of Eq. (2.1). Note Fig. 2.3(c).
Figure 2.3: Cases in which R2 > R1 . For each case, all remaining parameters that control
the resistance level are the same.
2.2.1 Circular Mils (CM)

In Eq. (2.1), the area is measured in a quantity called circular mils (CM). It is the quantity
used in most commercial wire tables, and thus it needs to be carefully defined. The mil is
a unit of measurement for length and is related to the inch by
1
1 mil = in.
1000
2. Resistance 18
or
1000 mils = 1 in.
In general, therefore, the mil is a very small unit of measurement for length. There are
1000 mils in an inch, or 1 mil is only 1/1000 of an inch. It is a length that is not visible
with the naked eye although it can be measured with special instrumentation. The phrase
milling used in steel factories is derived from the fact that a few mils of material are often
removed by heavy machinery such as a lathe, and the thickness of steel is usually measured
in mils.
By definition,
a wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 CM.
as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Defining the circular mil (CM).
An interesting result of such a definition is that the area of a circular wire in circular
mils can be defined by the following equation:
ACM = (dmils )2 (2.2)
Verification of this equation appears in Fig. 2.5 which shows that a wire with a diameter
of 2 mils has a total area of 4 CM and a wire with a diameter of 3 mils has a total area of 9
CM.
Figure 2.5: Verification of Eq. (2.2): ACM = (dmils )2
Remember, to compute the area of a wire in circular mils when the diameter is given
in inches, first convert the diameter to mils by simply writing the diameter in decimal form
and moving the decimal point three places to the right. For example,
19 Resistance: Circular Wires
Then the area is determined by
ACM = (dmils )2 = (125 mils)2 = 15, 625 CM
Sometimes when you are working with conductors that are not circular, you will need
to convert square mils to circular mils, and vice versa. Applying the basic equation for the
area of a circle and substituting a diameter of 1 mil results in
from which we can conclude the following:
π
1 CM = sq mils (2.3)
4
or
4
1 sq mils = CM (2.4)
π
EXAMPLE 2.1 What is the resistance of a 100 ft length of copper wire with a diameter
of 0.020 in. at 20°C?
Solution:
CM-Ω
ρ = 10.37 0.020 in. = 20 mils
ft
ACM = (dmils )2 = (20 mils)2 = 400 CM
l (10.37 CM-Ω/ f t)(100 ft)
R=ρ = = 2.59 Ω
A 400 CM
EXAMPLE 2.2 An undetermined number of feet of wire have been used from the
carton in Fig. 2.6. Find the length of the remaining copper wire if it has a diameter of 1/16
in. and a resistance of 0.5Ω.
Figure 2.6: Example 2.2.
Solution:
1
ρ = 10.37 CM-Ω/ f t in. = 0.0625 in. = 62.5 mils
16
2. Resistance 20
ACM = (dmils )2 = (62.5 mils)2 = 3906.25 CM

l RA (0.5Ω)(3906.25 CM) 1953.125
R=ρ ⇒l= = = = 188.34 ft
A ρ CM-Ω 10.37
10.37
ft
EXAMPLE 2.3 What is the resistance of a copper bus-bar, as used in the power dis-
tribution panel of a high-rise office building, with the dimensions indicated in Fig. 3.7?
Solution:
l (10.37 CM-Ω/ft)(3 ft) 31.11

R=ρ = = = 9.774 × 10−6 Ω
A 3.183 × 106 CM 3.183 × 106
(quite small 0.000009774 Ω ∼= 0 Ω)
You will learn in the following chapters that the less the resistance of a conductor, the
lower the losses in conduction from the source to the load. Similarly, since resistivity is
a major factor in determining the resistance of a conductor, the lower the resistivity, the
lower the resistance for the same size conductor. It would appear from Table 3.1 that
silver, copper, gold, and aluminum would be the best conductors and the most common.
In general, there are other factors, however, such as malleability (ability of a material to
be shaped), ductility (ability of a material to be drawn into long, thin wires), temperature
sensitivity, resistance to abuse, and, of course, cost, that must all be weighed when choosing
a conductor for a particular application.
In general, copper is the most widely used material because it is quite malleable, duc-
tile, and available; has good thermal characteristics; and is less expensive than silver or
21 Wire Tables
gold. It is certainly not cheap, however. Contractors always ensure that the copper wiring
has been removed before leveling a building because of its salvage value. Aluminum was
once used for general wiring because it is cheaper than copper, but its thermal characteris-
tics created some difficulties. The heating due to current flow and the cooling that occurred
when the circuit was turned off resulted in expansion and contraction of the aluminum wire
to the point where connections eventually loosened, and resulting in dangerous side effects.
Aluminum is still used today, however, in areas such as integrated circuit manufacturing
and in situations where the connections can be made secure. Silver and gold are, of course,
much more expensive than copper or aluminum, but the cost is justified for certain appli-
cations. Silver has excellent plating characteristics for surface preparations, and gold is
used quite extensively in integrated circuits. Tungsten has a resistivity three times that of
copper, but there are occasions when its physical characteristics (durability, hardness) are
the overriding considerations.
2.3 Wire Tables

The wire table was designed primarily to standardize the size of wire produced by manu-
facturers. As a result, the manufacturer has a larger market, and the consumer knows that
standard wire sizes will always be available. The table was designed to assist the user in
every way possible; it usually includes data such as the cross-sectional area in circular mils,
diameter in mils, ohms per 1000 feet at 20°C, and weight per 1000 feet.
The American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes are given in Table 3.2 for solid round copper
wire. A column indicating the maximum allowable current in amperes, as determined by
the National Fire Protection Association, has also been included.
The chosen sizes have an interesting relationship: For every drop in 3 gage numbers,
the area is doubled; and for every drop in 10 gage numbers, the area increases by a factor
of 10.
Examining Eq. (2.1), we note also that doubling the area cuts the resistance in half,
and increasing the area by a factor of 10 decreases the resistance of 1/10 the original,
everything else kept constant.
The actual sizes of some of the gage wires listed in Table 2.2 are shown in Fig. 2.8 with
a few of their areas of application. A few examples using Table 2.2 follow.
EXAMPLE 2.4 Find the resistance of 650 ft of #8 copper wire (T=20°C).

Solution: For #8 copper wire (solid),Ω/1000 ft at 20°C = 0.6282 Ω, and

0.6282 Ω
650
ft = 0.408 Ω
1000
ft
2. Resistance 22
Table 2.2: American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes.

23 Wire Tables
Figure 2.8: Popular wire sizes and some of their areas of application.
EXAMPLE 2.5 What is the diameter, in inches, of a #12 copper wire?

Solution: For #12 copper wire (solid), A = 6529.9 CM, and
√
ACM = 6529.9 CM ∼
p
dmils = = 80.81 mils
d = 0.0808 in. (or close to 1/12 in.)
EXAMPLE 2.6 For the system in Fig. 2.9, the total resistance of each power line
cannot exceed 0.025 Ω, and the maximum current to be drawn by the load is 95 A. What
gage wire should be used?
Solution:
l i (10.37 CM-Ω/ft)(100 ft)
R=ρ ⇒A=ρ = = 41, 480 CM
A R 0.025 Ω
Using the wire table, we choose the wire with the next largest area, which is #4, to satisfy
the resistance requirement. We note, however, that 95 A must flow through the line. This
specification requires that #3 wire be used since the #4 wire can carry a maximum current
of only 85 A.
2. Resistance 24
Figure 2.10: Defining ρ in ohm-centimeters.
Table 2.3: Resistivity (ρ) of various materials.
2.4 Resistance: Metric Units

The design of resistive elements for various areas of application, including thin-film resis-
tors and integrated circuits, uses metric units for the quantities of Eq. (2.1). In SI units, the
resistivity would be measured in ohm-meters, the area in square meters, and the length in
meters. However, the meter is generally too large a unit of measure for most applications,
and so the centimeter is usually employed. The resulting dimensions for Eq. (2.1) are
therefore
The units for ρ can be derived from
RA Ω-cm2
ρ= = = Ω-cm
l cm
The resistivity of a material is actually the resistance of a sample such as that appearing
in Fig. 2.10. Table 2.3 provides a list of values of ρ in ohm-centimeters. Note that the area
now is expressed in square centimeters, which can be determined using the basic equation
A = πd 2 /4, eliminating the need to work with circular mils, the special unit of measure
associated with circular wires.
25 Resistance: Metric Units
EXAMPLE 2.7 Determine the resistance of 100 ft of #28 copper telephone wire if the
diameter is 0.0126 in.
Solution: Unit conversions:

12 in 2.54 cm
l = 100
ft = 3048
1ft 1in.

2.54 cm
d = 0.0126 in. = 0.032 cm
1 in.
Therefore,
πd 2 (3.1416)(0.032 cm)2
A= = = 8.04 × 10−4 cm2
4 4
l (1.723 × 10−6 Ω-cm)(3048 cm) ∼
R=ρ = = 6.5 Ω
A 8.04 × 10−4 cm2
Using the units for circular wires and Table 2.2 for the area of a #28 wire, we find
l (10.37 CM-Ω/ft)(100 ft) ∼

R=ρ = = 6.5 Ω
A 159.79 CM
EXAMPLE 2.8 Determine the resistance of the thin-film resistor in Fig. 2.11 if the
sheet resistance Rs (defined by Rs = ρ/d) is 100 Ω.
Figure 2.11: Thin-film resistor
Solution: For deposited materials of the same thickness, the sheet resistance factor is
usually employed in the design of thin-film resistors. Eq. (2.1) can be written
l l ρ l l
R=ρ =ρ = = Rs
A dw d w w
where l is the length of the sample and w is the width. Substituting into the above equation
yields
l (100 Ω)(0.6 cm)
R = Rs = = 200 Ω
w 0.3 cm
as one might expect since l = 2w.
The conversion factor between resistivity in circular mil-ohms per foot and ohm-centimeters
2. Resistance 26
is the following:
ρ(Ω-cm) = (1.662 × 10−7 ) × (value in CM-Ω/ft)
For example, for copper ρ = 10.37 CM-Ω/ft:
ρ(Ω-cm)) = 1.662 × 10−7 (10.37 CM-Ω/ft)

= 1.723 × 10−6 Ω-cm
as indicated in Table 2.3.

The resistivity in integrated circuit design is typically in ohmcentimeter units, although
tables often provide ρ in ohm-meters or microhm-centimeters. Using the conversion tech-
nique, we find that the conversion factor between ohm-centimeters and ohm-meters is the
following:
−6 1m 1
1.723 × 10 Ω- cm
= [1.723 × 10−6 ]Ω-m
100 cm
100
or the value in ohm-meters is 1/100 the value in ohm-centimeters, and

1
ρ(Ω-m) = × (value in Ω-cm) (2.5)
100
Similarly,
ρ(µΩ-cm) = (106 ) × (value in Ω-cm) (2.6)
For comparison purposes, typical values of r in ohm-centimeters for conductors, semi-

conductors, and insulators are provided in Table 2.4. In particular, note the power-of-ten
Table 2.4: Comparing levels of ρ in Ω-cm.
difference between conductors and insulators (1021 )—a difference of huge proportions.
There is a significant difference in levels of ρ for the list of semiconductors, but the power-
of-ten difference between the conductor and insulator levels is at least 106 for each of the
semiconductors listed.
2.5 Temperature Effects

Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators.
27 Temperature Effects
2.5.1 Conductors
Conductors have a generous number of free electrons, and any introduction of thermal
energy will have little impact on the total number of free carriers. In fact, the thermal
energy only increases the intensity of the random motion of the particles within the material
and makes it increasingly difficult for a general drift of electrons in any one direction to be
established. The result is that
for good conductors, an increase in temperature results in an increase in the resistance

level. Consequently, conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.
The plot in Fig. 2.12(a) has a positive temperature coefficient.
Figure 2.12: Demonstrating the effect of a positive and a negative temperature coefficient
on the resistance of a conductor
2.5.2 Semiconductors
In semiconductors, an increase in temperature imparts a measure of thermal energy to

the system that results in an increase in the number of free carriers in the material for
conduction. The result is that
for semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the resis-

tance level. Consequently, semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients.
The plot in Fig. 2.12(b) has a negative temperature coefficient
2.5.3 Insulators
As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the resistance

of an insulator. The result is a negative temperature coefficient.
2. Resistance 28
Figure 2.13: Effect of temperature on the resistance of copper.
2.5.4 Inferred Absolute Temperature
Fig. 2.13 reveals that for copper (and most other metallic conductors), the resistance in-
creases almost linearly (in a straight-line relationship) with an increase in temperature.
Since temperature can have such a pronounced effect on the resistance of a conductor, it
is important that we have some method of determining the resistance at any temperature
within operating limits. An equation for this purpose can be obtained by approximating
the curve in Fig. 2.13 by the straight dashed line that intersects the temperature scale at
-234.5°C. Although the actual curve extends to absolute zero (-273.15°C, or 0 K), the
straight-line approximation is quite accurate for the normal operating temperature range.
At two different temperatures, T1 and T2 , the resistance of copper is R1 and R2 , as indi-
cated on the curve. Using a property of similar triangles, we may develop a mathematical
relationship between these values of resistances at different temperatures. Let x equal the
distance from -234.5°C to T1 and y the distance from -234.5°C to T2 , as shown in Fig. 2.13.
From similar triangles,
x y
=
R1 R2
or
234.5 + T1 234.5 + T2
= (2.7)
R1 R2
The temperature of -234.5°C is called the inferred absolute temperature of copper. For
different conducting materials, the intersection of the straight-line approximation occurs at
different temperatures. A few typical values are listed in Table 2.5.
The minus sign does not appear with the inferred absolute temperature on either side
of Eq. (2.7) because x and y are the distances from -234.5°C to T1 and T2 , respectively,
and therefore are simply magnitudes. For T1 and T2 less than zero, x and y are less than
-234.5°C, and the distances are the differences between the inferred absolute temperature
and the temperature of interest.
Eq. (2.7) can easily be adapted to any material by inserting the proper inferred absolute
Table 2.5: Inferred absolute temperatures (Ti ).
temperature. It may therefore be written as follows:
|T1 | + T1 |T1 | + T2
= (2.8)
R1 R2
where |T1 | indicates that the inferred absolute temperature of the material involved is in-
serted as a positive value in the equation. In general, therefore, associate the sign only with
T1 and T2 .
EXAMPLE 2.9 If the resistance of a copper wire is 50 Ω at 20°C, what is its resistance
at 100°C (boiling point of water)?
Solution: Eq. (2.7):
234.5◦ C + 10◦ C 234.5◦ C + 100◦ C
=
50 Ω R2
(50 Ω)(194.5◦ C)
R2 = = 65.72 Ω
254.5◦ C
EXAMPLE 2.10 If the resistance of a copper wire at freezing (0°C) is 30 Ω, what is

its resistance at -40°C?
234.5◦ C + 0 234.5◦ C − 40◦ C
=
30 Ω R2
(30 Ω)(194.5◦ C)
R2 = = 24.88 Ω
234.5◦ C
EXAMPLE 2.11 If the resistance of an aluminum wire at room temperature (20°C) is

100 mΩ (measured by a milliohmmeter), at what temperature will its resistance increase
to 120 mΩ?
236◦ C + 20◦ C 236◦ C + T2
=
100 mΩ 120 mΩ
2. Resistance 30
and
256◦ C

T2 = 120 mΩ − 236◦ C = 71.2◦ C
100 mΩ
2.5.5 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

There is a second popular equation for calculating the resistance of a conductor at different
temperatures. Defining
1
α20 = (Ω/◦ C/Ω) (2.9)
|T1 | + 20◦ C
as the temperature coefficient of resistance at a temperature of 20°C, and R20 as the
resistance of the sample at 20°C, the resistance R1 at a temperature T1 is determined by
R1 = R20 [1 + α20 (T1 − 20◦ C)] (2.10)
The values of α20 for different materials have been evaluated, and a few are listed in Table
2.6.
Table 2.6: Temperature coefficient of resistance for various conductors at 20°C.
Eq. (2.10) can be written in the following form:

R1 − R20 ∆R
T1 − 20◦ C
α20 = − ∆T
R20 R20
from which the units of Ω/°C/Ω for α20 are defined.

Since ∆R/∆T is the slope of the curve in Fig. 2.13, we can conclude that
the higher the temperature coefficient of resistance for a material, the more sensitive the
resistance level to changes in temperature.
Referring to Table 2.5, we find that copper is more sensitive to temperature variations
than is silver, gold, or aluminum, although the differences are quite small. The slope
defined by α20 for constantan is so small that the curve is almost horizontal.
Since R20 of Eq. (2.10) is the resistance of the conductor at 20°C and T1 = 20°C is the
change in temperature from 20°C, Eq. (2.10) can be written in the following form:
l
R = ρ [1 + α20 ∆T ] (2.11)
A
providing an equation for resistance in terms of all the controlling parameters.
2.5.6 PPM/°C
For resistors, as for conductors, resistance changes with a change in temperature. The spec-
ification is degree Celsius (PPM/°C), providing an immediate indication of the sensitivity
level of the resistor to temperature. For resistors, a 5000 PPM level is considered high,
whereas 20 PPM is quite low. A 1000 PPM/°C characteristic reveals that a 1° change in
temperature results in a change in resistance equal to 1000 PPM, or 1000/1, 000, 000 =
1/1000 of its nameplate value—not a significant change for most applications. However,
a 10° change results in a change equal to 1/100 (1%) of its nameplate value, which is be-
coming significant. The concern, therefore, lies not only with the PPM level but with the
range of expected temperature variation.
In equation form, the change in resistance is given by
Rnominal
∆R = (PPM)(∆T ) (2.12)
106
where Rnominal is the nameplate value of the resistor at room temperature and ∆T is the
change in temperature from the reference level of 20°C.
EXAMPLE 2.12 For a 1 kΩ carbon composition resistor with a PPM of 2500, deter-
mine the resistance at 60°C.
Solution:
1000 Ω
∆R = (2500)(60◦ C − 20◦ C) = 100 Ω
106
R = Rnominal + ∆R = 1000 Ω + 100 Ω = 1100 Ω
2. Resistance 32
2.6 Types of Resistors
2.6.1 Fixed Resistors

Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in either of two groups: fixed or variable.
The most common of the low-wattage, fixed-type resistors is the film resistor shown in Fig.
2.14. It is constructed by depositing a thin layer of resistive material (typically carbon,
metal, or metal oxide) on a ceramic rod. The desired resistance is then obtained by cutting
away some of the resistive material in a helical manner to establish a long, continuous band
of high-resistance material from one end of the resistor to the other. In general, carbon-film
resistors have a beige body and a lower wattage rating. The metal-film resistor is typically
a stronger color, such as brick red or dark green, with higher wattage ratings. The metal-
oxide resistor is usually a softer pastel color, such as rating powder blue shown in Fig.
2.14(b), and has the highest wattage rating of the three.
Figure 2.14: Film resistors: (a) construction; (b) types.
When you search through most electronics catalogs or visit a local electronics dealer
to purchase resistors, you will find that the most common resistor is the film resistor. In
years past, the carbon composition resistor in Fig. 2.15 was the most common, but fewer
and fewer companies are manufacturing this variety, with its range of applications reduced
to applications in which very high temperatures and inductive effects can be a problem. Its
resistance is determined by the carbon composition material molded directly to each end of
the resistor. The high resistivity characteristics of carbon (ρ = 21, 000 CM-Ω/ft) provide a
high-resistance path for the current through the element.
For a particular style and manufacturer, the size of a resistor increases with the power or
wattage rating.
The concept of power is covered in detail in a later chapter, but for the moment recog-
nize that increased power ratings are normally associated with the ability to handle higher
current and temperature levels. Fig. 2.16 depicts the actual size of thin-film, metal-oxide
resistors in the 1/4 W to 5 W rating range. All the resistors in Fig. 2.16 are 1 MΩ, revealing
that
33 Types of Resistors
Figure 2.15: Fixed composition resistors: (a) construction; (b) appearance.
the size of a resistor does not define its resistance level.
Figure 2.16: Fixed metal-oxide resistors of different wattage ratings.
A variety of other fixed resistors are depicted in Fig. 2.17. The wirewound resistors
of Fig. 2.17(a) are formed by winding a high-resistance wire around a ceramic core. The
entire structure is then baked in a ceramic cement to provide a protective covering. Wire-
wound resistors are typically used for larger power applications, although they are also
available with very small wattage ratings and very high accuracy.
Fig. 2.17(c) and (g) are special types of wire-wound resistors with a low percent tol-
erance. Note, in particular, the high power ratings for the wirewound resistors for their
relatively small size. Figs. 2.17(b), (d), and (f) are power film resistors that use a thicker
layer of film material than used in the variety shown in Fig. 2.14. The chip resistors in Fig.
2.17(f) are used where space is a priority, such as on the surface of circuit board. Units of
this type can be less than 1/16 in. in length or width, with thickness as small as 1/30 in.,
2. Resistance 34
Figure 2.17: Various types of fixed resistors.

yet they can still handle 0.5W of power with resistance levels as high as 1000MΩ—clear
evidence that size does not determine the resistance level. The fixed resistor in Fig. 2.17(e)
has terminals applied to a layer of resistor material, with the resistance between the termi-
nals a function of the dimensions of the resistive material and the placement of the terminal
pads.
2.6.2 Variable Resistors

Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a terminal resistance that can be varied by
turning a dial, knob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the application. They can
have two or three terminals, but most have three terminals. If the two- or three-terminal de-
vice is used as a variable resistor, it is usually referred to as a rheostat. If the three-terminal
device is used for controlling potential levels, it is then commonly called a potentiome-
ter. Even though a three-terminal device can be used as a rheostat or a potentiometer
(depending on how it is connected), it is typically called a potentiometer when listed in
trade magazines or requested for a particular application.
The symbol for a three-terminal potentiometer appears in Fig. 2.18(a). When used
as a variable resistor (or rheostat), it can be hooked up in one of two ways, as shown in
Figs. 2.18(b) and (c). In Fig. 2.18(b), points a and b are hooked up to the circuit, and the
remaining terminal is left hanging. The resistance introduced is determined by that portion
of the resistive element between points a and b. In Fig. 2.18(c), the resistance is again
between points a and b, but now the remaining resistance is “shorted-out” (effect removed)
by the connection from b to c. The universally accepted symbol for a rheostat appears in
Fig. 2.18(d).
Figure 2.18: Potentiometer: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) rheostat connections; (d) rheostat
symbol.
Most potentiometers have three terminals in the relative positions shown in Fig. 2.19.
The knob, dial, or screw in the center of the housing controls the motion of a contact that
can move along the resistive element connected between the outer two terminals. The
contact is connected to the center terminal, establishing a resistance from movable contact
to each outer terminal.
The resistance between the outside terminals a and c in Fig. 2.20(a) (and Fig. 2.19) is
2. Resistance 36
Figure 2.19: Molded composition-type potentiometer.

always fixed at the full rated value of the potentiometer, regardless of the position of the
wiper arm b.
Figure 2.20: Resistance components of a potentiometer: (a) between outside terminals; (b)
between wiper arm and each outside terminal.
In other words, the resistance between terminals a and c in Fig. 2.20(a) for a 1 MΩ poten-
tiometer will always be 1 MΩ, no matter how we turn the control element and move the
contact. In Fig. 2.20(a), the center contact is not part of the network configuration.
The resistance between the wiper arm and either outside terminal can be varied from a
minimum of 0 Ω to a maximum value equal to the full rated value of the potentiometer.
In Fig. 2.20(b), the wiper arm has been placed 1/4 of the way down frompoint a to point
c. The resulting resistance between points a and b will therefore be 1/4 of the total, or 250
kΩ (for a 1 MΩ potentiometer), and the resistance between b and c will be 3/4 of the total,
or 750 kΩ.
The sum of the resistances between the wiper arm and each outside terminal equals the full
rated resistance of the potentiometer.
This was demonstrated in Fig. 2.20(b), where 250 kΩ + 750 kΩ = 1 MΩ. Specifically,
Rac = Rab + Rbc (2.13)
Therefore, as the resistance from the wiper arm to one outside contact increases, the
resistance between the wiper arm and the other outside terminal must decrease accordingly.
For example, if Rab of a 1 kΩ potentiometer is 200 Ω, then the resistance Rbc must be 800
Ω. If Rab is further decreased to 50 Ω, then Rbc must increase to 950 Ω, and so on.
2. Resistance 38
The molded carbon composition potentiometer is typically applied in networks with

smaller power demands, and it ranges in size from 20 Ω to 22 MΩ (maximum values). A
miniature trimmer (less than 1/4 in. in diameter) appears in Fig. 2.21(a), and a variety of
potentiometers that use a cermet resistive material appear in Fig. 2.21(b). The contact point
of the three-point wire-wound resistor in Fig. 2.21(c) can be moved to set the resistance
between the three terminals.
Figure 2.21: Variable resistors: (a) 4 mm trimmer (courtesy of Bourns, Inc.); (b) conductive
plastic and cermet elements; (c) three-point wire-wound resistor.
When the device is used as a potentiometer, the connections are as shown in Fig. 2.22.
It can be used to control the level of Vab , Vbc , or both, depending on the application. Addi-
tional discussion of the potentiometer in a loaded situation can be found in later chapters.
Figure 2.22: Potentiometer control of voltage levels.
2.7 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values

A wide variety of resistors, fixed or variable, are large enough to have their resistance in
ohms printed on the casing. Some, however, are too small to have numbers printed on
them, so a system of color coding is used. For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six bands
may be used. The four-band scheme is described. Later in this section the purpose of the
fifth and sixth bands will be described.
For the four-band scheme, the bands are always read from the end that has a band
closest to it, as shown in Fig. 2.23. The bands are numbered as shown for reference in the
discussion to follow.
The first two bands represent the first and second digits, respectively.
39 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values
Figure 2.23: Color coding for fixed resistors.
They are the actual first two numbers that define the numerical value of the resistor.
The third band determines the power-of-ten multiplier for the first two digits (actually the
number of zeros that follow the second digit for resistors greater than 10 Ω).
The fourth band is the manufacturer’s tolerance, which is an indication of the precision by
which the resistor was made.
If the fourth band is omitted, the tolerance is assumed to be ±20%.

The number corresponding to each color is defined in Fig. 2.24. The fourth band will
be either ±5% or ±10% as defined by gold and silver, respectively. To remember which
color goes with which percent, simply remember that ±5% resistors cost more and gold is
more valuable than silver.
Figure 2.24: Color coding.
Remembering which color goes with each digit takes a bit of practice. In general, the
colors start with the very dark shades and move toward the lighter shades. The best way to
memorize is to simply repeat over and over that red is 2, yellow is 4, and so on. Simply
practice with a friend or a fellow student, and you will learn most of the colors in short
order.
EXAMPLE 2.13 Find the value of the resistor in Fig. 2.25.

Solution: Reading from the band closest to the left edge, we find that the first two colors
of brown and red represent the numbers 1 and 2, respectively. The third band is orange,
2. Resistance 40
representing the number 3 for the power of the multiplier as follows:
12 × 103 Ω
resulting in a value of 12 kΩ. As indicated above, if 12 kΩ is written as 12, 000 Ω, the

third band reveals the number of zeros that follow the first two digits.
Now for the fourth band of gold, representing a tolerance of ±5%: To find the range
into which the manufacturer has guaranteed the resistor will fall, first convert the ±5% to
a decimal number by moving the decimal point two places to the left:
Then multiply the resistor value by this decimal number:
0.05(12 kΩ) = 600 Ω
Finally, add the resulting number to the resistor value to determine the maximum value,
and subtract the number to find the minimum value. That is,
Maximum = 12, 000 Ω + 600 Ω = 12.6 kΩ

Minimum = 12, 000 Ω − 600 Ω = 11.4 kΩ
Range = 11.4 kΩ to 12.6 kΩ
The result is that the manufacturer has guaranteed with the ±5% gold band that the resistor
will fall in the range just determined. In other words, the manufacturer does not guarantee
that the resistor will be exactly 2 kΩ but rather that it will fall in a range as defined above.
Using the above procedure, the smallest resistor that can be labeled with the color code
is 10 Ω. However,
the range can be extended to include resistors from 0.1 Ω to 10 Ω by simply using gold as
a multiplier color (third band) to represent 0.1 and using silver to represent 0.01.
This is demonstrated in the next example.
EXAMPLE 2.14 Find the value of the resistor in Fig. 2.26.

Solution: The first two colors are gray and red, representing the numbers 8 and 2. The
third color is gold, representing a multiplier of 0.1. Using the multiplier, we obtain a
41 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values
resistance of
(0.1)(82 Ω) = 8.2 Ω
The fourth band is silver, representing a tolerance of ±10%. Converting to a decimal

number and multiplying through yields
Maximum = 8.2 Ω + 0.82 Ω = 9.02 Ω

Minimum = 8.2 Ω − 0.82 Ω = 7.38 Ω
Range = 7.38 Ω to 9.02 Ω
Although it will take some time to learn the numbers associated with each color, it is
certainly encouraging to become aware that
the same color scheme to represent numbers is used for all the important elements of elec-
trical circuits.
Later on, you will find that the numerical value associated with each color is the same
for capacitors and inductors. Therefore, once learned, the scheme has repeated areas of
application.
Some manufacturers prefer to use a five-band color code. In such cases, as shown in
the top portion of Fig. 2.27, three digits are provided before the multiplier. The fifth band
remains the tolerance indicator. If the manufacturer decides to include the temperature
coefficient, a sixth band will appear as shown in the lower portion of Fig. 2.27, with the
color indicating the PPM level.
For four, five, or six bands, if the tolerance is less than 5%, the following colors are
used to reflect the % tolerances:
brown= ±1%, red= ±2%, green= ±0.5%, blue= ±0.25%, and violet= ±0.1%
You might expect that resistors would be available for a full range of values such as
10 Ω, 20 Ω, 30 Ω, 40 Ω, 50 Ω, and so on. However, this is not the case with some
typical commercial values, such as 27 Ω, 56 Ω, and 68 Ω. There is a reason for the
chosen values, which is best demonstrated by examining the list of standard values of
commercially available resistors in Table 2.7. The values in boldface blue are available
with 5%, 10%, and 20% tolerances, making them the most common of the commercial
2. Resistance 42
Figure 2.27: Five-band color coding for fixed resistors.
variety. The values in boldface black are typically available with 5% and 10% tolerances,
and those in normal print are available only in the 5% variety.
Table 2.7: Standard values of commercially available resistors.
Examining the impact of the tolerance level will help explain the choice of numbers for
the commercial values. Take the sequence 47 Ω˘68 Ω˘100 Ω, which are all available with
20% tolerances.
43 Conductance
2.7.1 Surface Mount Resistors

In general, surface mount resistors are marked in three ways: color coding, three symbols,
and two symbols.
The color coding is the same as just described earlier in this section for through-hole
resistors.
The three-symbol approach uses three digits. The first two define the first two digits
of the value; the last digit, the power of the power-of-ten multiplier.
For instance:
The two-symbol marking uses a letter followed by a number. The letter defines the value
as listed below. Note that all the numbers of the commercially available list of Table 2.7
are included.
The second symbol is the power of the power-of-ten multiplier.

For example:
Additional symbols may precede or follow the codes above and may differ depending
on the manufacturer. These may provide information on the internal resistance structure,
power rating, surface material, tapping, and tolerance.
2.8 Conductance
By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of how well
the material conducts electricity. The quantity is called conductance, has the symbol G,
and is measured in siemens (S). In equation form, conductance is
1
G= (2.14)
R
A resistance of 1 MΩ is equivalent to a conductance of 10−6 S, and a resistance of 10 Ω

is equivalent to a conductance of 10−1 S. The larger the conductance, therefore, the less
the resistance and the greater the conductivity.
2. Resistance 44
In equation form, the conductance is determined by
A
G= (S) (2.15)
ρl
indicating that increasing the area or decreasing either the length or the resistivity increases
the conductance.
EXAMPLE 2.15
(a) Determine the conductance of a 1 Ω, 50 kΩ, and 10 MΩ resistor.
(b) How does the conductance level change with increase in resistance?
Solution:
(a)
1 1
1Ω:G= = =1S
R 1Ω
1 1 1
50 kΩ : G = = = 3
= 0.02 × 10−3 S = 0.02 mS
R 50 kΩ 50 × 10 Ω
1 1 1
10 MΩ : G = = = = 0.1 × 10−6 S = 0.02 µS
R 10 MΩ 10 × 106 Ω
(b) The conductance level decreases rapidly with significant increase in resistance levels.
EXAMPLE 2.16 What is the relative increase or decrease in conductivity of a conduc-

tor if the area is reduced by 30% and the length is increased by 40%? The resistivity is
fixed.
1 1 Ai
Gi = = =
Ri ρi li ρi li
Ai
with the subscript i for the initial value. Using the subscript n for new value:
An 0.70Ai 0.70 Ai 0.70Gi

Gn = = = = = 0.5Gi
ρn ln ρi (1.4li ) 1.4 ρi li 1.4
Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy
3
3.1 Ohm’s law
The equation can be derived directly from the following basic equation for all physical
systems:
cause
Effect = (3.1)
opposition
For electrical system it can be written as
potential difference
Current = (3.2)
resistance
and Ohm’s law can be written as
E
I= (amperes, A) (3.3)
R
The law states that for a fixed resistance, the greater the voltage (or pressure) across
a resistor, the more the current, and the more the resistance for the same voltage, the less
the current. In other words, the current is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance.
By simple mathematical manipulations, the voltage and resistance can be found in
terms of the other two quantities:
E = IR (volts, V) (3.4)
45
3. Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy 46
I
+ +
E R V
– –
Figure 3.1: Basic circuit.
and
E
R= (ohms, Ω) (3.5)
I
All the quantities of Eq. (3.3) appear in the simple electrical circuit in Fig. 3.1.
Note that
the symbol E is applied to all sources of voltage
and
the symbol V is applied to all voltage drops across components of the network.
Both are measured in volts and can be applied interchangeably in Eqs. (3.3) through
(3.5).
Since the battery in Fig. 3.1 is connected directly across the resistor, the voltage VR
across the resistor must be equal to that of the supply. Applying Ohm’s law:
VR E
I= = (3.6)
R R
Note in Fig. 3.1 that the voltage source “pressures” current (conventional current) in a
direction that leaves the positive terminal of the supply and returns to the negative terminal
of the battery. This will always be the case for single-source networks. Note also that the
current enters the positive terminal and leaves the negative terminal for the load resistor R
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current through a resistor will define
the polarity of the voltage drop across the resistor
EXAMPLE 3.1 Determine the current resulting from the application of a 9 V battery
across a network with a resistance of 2.2 Ω.
V V
I R I R
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2: Defining polarities.

47 Plotting Ohm’s Law
Solution:
VR E 9V
I= = = = 4.09 A
R R 2.2 Ω
EXAMPLE 3.2 Calculate the resistance of a 60 W bulb if a current of 500 mA results

from an applied voltage of 120 V .
Solution:
VR E 120 V
I= = = = 240 Ω
R R 500 × 10−3 A
EXAMPLE 3.3 Calculate the current through the 2 kΩ resistor in Fig. 3.3 if the voltage
drop across it is 16 V .
Solution:
VR 16 V
I= = = 8 mA
R 2 × 103 Ω
EXAMPLE 3.4 Calculate the voltage that must be applied across the soldering iron in
Fig. 3.4 to establish a current of 1.5 A through the iron if its internal resistance is 80 Ω.
Solution:
E = VR = IR = (1.5 A)(80 Ω) = 120 V
3.2 Plotting Ohm’s Law

For most sets of characteristics of electronic devices, the current is represented by the
vertical axis, and the voltage by the horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. 3.5. The linear

I (amperes)
6
3
R=5Ω
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 V
(volts)
Figure 3.5: Plotting Ohm’s law.
I (amperes)
7
6
R=1
5
2
R = 10
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 V
(volts)
Figure 3.6: Demonstrating on an I −V plot that the less the resistance, the steeper the slope.
(straight-line) graph reveals that the resistance is not changing with current or voltage level;
rather, it is a fixed quantity throughout.
Once a graph such as Fig. 3.5 is developed, the current or voltage at any level can be
found from the other quantity by simply using the resulting plot. For instance, at V = 25 V ,
if a vertical line is drawn on Fig. 3.5 to the curve as shown, the resulting current can be
found by drawing a horizontal line over to the current axis, where a result of 5 A is obtained.
Similarly, at V = 10 V , a vertical line to the plot and a horizontal line to the current axis
results in a current of 2 A, as determined by Ohm’s law.
If the resistance of a plot is unknown, it can be determined at any point on the plot
since a straight line indicates a fixed resistance. At any point on the plot, find the resulting
current and voltage, and simply substitute into the following equation:
V
Rdc = (3.7)
I
To test Eq. (3.7), consider a point on the plot where V = 20 V and I = 4 A. The resulting
resistance is Rdc = 20 V /I = 20V /4 A = 5 Ω. For comparison purposes, a 1 Ω and a 10 Ω
resistor were plotted on the graph in Fig. 3.6. Note that the less the resistance, the steeper
the slope (closer to the vertical axis) of the curve.
49 Plotting Ohm’s Law
If we write Ohm’s law in the following manner and relate it to the basic straight-line
equation
we find that the slope is equal to 1 divided by the resistance value, as indicated by the
following:
∆y ∆I 1
m = slope = = = (3.8)
∆x ∆V R
where ∆ signifies a small, finite change in the variable. Eq. (3.8) reveals that the greater
the resistance, the less the slope. If written in the following form, Eq. (3.8) can be used to
determine the resistance from the linear curve:
∆V
R= (ohms) (3.9)
∆I
EXAMPLE 3.5 Determine the resistance associated with the curve in Fig. 3.7 using
Eqs. (3.7) and (3.9), and compare results.
I (mA)
5
4
ΔI = 1 mA
3
2
1
ΔV = 2 V
0 2 4 6 8 10 V (V)
Solution: At V = 6 V , I = 3 mA, and

V 6V
Rdc = = = 2 kΩ
I 3 mA
For the interval between 6 V and 8 V ,
∆V 2V
R= = = 2 kΩ
∆I 1 mA
The results are equivalent.

3.3 Power
In general, the term power is applied to provide an indication of how much work (energy
conversion) can be accomplished in a specified amount of time; that is, power is a rate
of doing work. Since energy is measured in joules (J) and time in seconds (s), power is
measured in joules/second (J/s). The electrical unit of measurement for power is the watt
(W) defined by
1 watt (W) = 1 joule/second (J/s) (3.10)
In equation form, power is determined by
W
P= (watts, W, or joules/second, J/s) (3.11)
t
with the energy (W ) measured in joules and the time t in seconds. Another measure of
power is the horsepower. The horsepower and watt are related in the following manner:
1 horsepower ∼
= 746 watts
The power delivered to, or absorbed by, an electrical device or system can be found in
terms of the current and voltage by
W QV Q
P= = =V
t t t
But
Q
I=
t
so that
P = VI (watts, W) (3.12)
By direct substitution of Ohm’s law, the equation for power can be obtained in two other
forms:
V
P = VI = V
R
and
V2
P= (watts, W) (3.13)
R
or
P = V I = (IR)I
and
P = I2R (watts, W) (3.14)
51 Power
The power supplied by a battery can be determined by simply inserting the supply
voltage into Eq. (3.12) to produce
P = EI (watts, W) (3.15)
The importance of Eq. (3.15) cannot be overstated. It clearly states the following: The
power associated with any supply is not simply a function of the supply voltage. It is
determined by the product of the supply voltage and its maximum current rating.
EXAMPLE 3.6 Find the power delivered to the dc motor of Fig. 3.8. Solution:
Mechanical
horsepower
5A developed
Electrical
power 120 V
applied
P = EI = (120 V)(5 A) = 600W = 0.6 kW
EXAMPLE 3.7 What is the power dissipated by a 5 Ω resistor if the current is 4 A?

Solution:
P = I 2 R = (4 A)2 (5 Ω) = 80 W
EXAMPLE 3.8 The I −V characteristics of a light bulb are provided in Fig. 3.9. Note
the nonlinearity of the curve, indicating a wide range in resistance of the bulb with applied
voltage. If the rated voltage is 120 V, find the wattage rating of the bulb. Also calculate the
resistance of the bulb under rated conditions.
I (mA)
625
higher R
0 120 V (V)
lower R
Figure 3.9: The nonlinear I −V characteristics of a 75 W light bulb (Example 3.8).

Solution: At 120 V,
I = 0.625 A
P = V I = (120 V)(0.625 A) = 75 W
At 120 V,
V 120 V
R= = = 192 Ω
I 0.625 A
Sometimes the power is given and the current or voltage must be determined. Through
algebraic manipulations, an equation for each variable is derived as follows:
P
P = I2R ⇒ I2 =
R
and r
P
I= (amperes, A) (3.16)
R
v2
P= ⇒ V 2 = PR
R
and
√
I= PR (volts, V) (3.17)
EXAMPLE 3.9 Determine the current through a 5 kΩ resistor when the power dissi-
pated by the element is 20 mW.
Solution:
r s
P 20 × 10−3 W p
I= = 3
= 4 × 10−6 = 2 × 10−3 A = 2 mA
R 5 × 10 Ω
3.4 Energy
The energy (W ) lost or gained by any system is determined by
W = Pt (wattseconds, Ws, or joules) (3.18)
Since power is measured in watts (or joules per second) and time in seconds, the unit of
energy is the wattsecond or joule. The wattsecond, however, is too small a quantity for
most practical purposes, so the watthour (Wh) and the kilowatthour (kWh) are defined, as
53 Energy
follows:
Energy (Wh) = power (W) × time (h) (3.19)
power (W) × time (h)

Energy (kWh) = (3.20)
1000
To develop some sense for the kilowatthour energy level, consider that 1 kWh is the energy
dissipated by a 100W bulb in 10 h. The kilowatthour meter is an instrument for measuring
the energy supplied to the residential or commercial user of electricity.
EXAMPLE 3.10 How much energy (in kilowatthours) is required to light a 60 W bulb
continuously for 1 year (365 days)?
Solution:
Pt (60 W)(24 h/day)(365 days) 525, 600 Wh
W= = = = 525.60 kWh
1000 1000 1000
EXAMPLE 3.11 How long can a 205 W television set be on before using more than 4
kWh of energy?
Solution:
Pt (W )(1000) (4 kWh)(1000)
W= ⇒ t (hours) = = = 19.51 h
1000 P 205 W
EXAMPLE 3.12 What is the cost of using a 5 hp motor for 2 h if the rate is 9per
kilowatthour?
Solution:
Pt (5 hp × 746 W/hp)(2 h)
W (kilowatthours) = = = 7.46 kWh
1000 1000
Cost = (7.46 kWh)(9 /kWh) = 67.14
EXAMPLE 3.13 What is the total cost of using all of the following at 9per kilo-
watthour?
A 1200 W toaster for 30 min
Six 50 W bulbs for 4 h
A 400 W washing machine for 45 min
A 4800 W electric clothes dryer for 20 min
System
Energy output
Wout
Energy input
Win
Energy
stored
Energy
lost
Wlost or stored
Figure 3.10: Energy flow through a system.
Solution:
(1200 W)( 12 h) + (6)(50 W)(4 h) + (400 W)( 43 h) + (4800 W)( 31 h)
W=
1000
600 Wh + 1200 Wh + 300 Wh + 1600 Wh 3700 Wh
= = = 3.7 kWh
1000 1000
Cost = (3.7 kWh)(9 /kWh) = 33.3
3.5 Efficiency
A flowchart for the energy levels associated with any system that converts energy from one
form to another is provided in Fig. 3.10. Note that the output energy level must always be
less than the applied energy due to losses and storage within the system. The best one can
hope for is that Wout and Win are relatively close in magnitude.
Conservation of energy requires that
Energy input = energy output + energy lost or stored by the system
Dividing both sides of the relationship by t gives
Win Wout Wlost ot stored in the system

= +
t t t
Since P = W /t, we have the following:
Pi = Po + Plost or stored (W) (3.21)
The efficiency (η) of the system is then determined by the following equation:
power output
Efficiency =
power input
55 Efficiency
and
Po
η= (decimal number) (3.22)
Pi
where η (the lowercase Greek letter eta) is a decimal number. Expressed as a percentage,
Po
η% = × 100% (percent) (3.23)
Pi
In terms of the input and output energy, the efficiency in percent is given by
Wo
η% = × 100% (percent) (3.24)
Wi
The maximum possible efficiency is 100%, which occurs when Po = Pi , or when the power
lost or stored in the system is zero. Obviously, the greater the internal losses of the system
in generating the necessary output power or energy, the lower the net efficiency.
EXAMPLE 3.14 A 2 hp motor operates at an efficiency of 75%. What is the power

input in watts? If the applied voltage is 220 V, what is the input current?
Solution:
Po
η% = × 100%
Pi
(2 hp)(746 W/hp)
0.75 =
Pi
and
1492 W
Pi = = 1989.33 W
0.75
Pi 1989.33 W
Pi = EI or I= = = 9.04 A
E 220 V
EXAMPLE 3.15 What is the output in horsepower of a motor with an efficiency of

80% and an input current of 8 A at 120 V?
Solution:
Po
η% = × 100%
Pi
Po
0.80 =
(120 V)(8 A)
and
Po = (0.80)(120 V)(8 A) = 768 W
with
1 hp
768
W
= 1.03 hp
746
W

EXAMPLE 3.16 If η = 0.85, determine the output energy level if the applied energy
is 50 J.
Solution:
Wo
η= ⇒ Wo = ηWi = (0.85)(50 J) = 42.5 J (3.25)
Wi
The very basic components of a generating (voltage) system are depicted in Fig. 3.11.
The source of mechanical power is a structure such as a paddlewheel that is turned by water
rushing over the dam. The gear train ensures that the rotating member of the generator is
turning at rated speed. The output voltage must then be fed through a transmission system
to the load. For each component of the system, an input and output power have been
indicated. The efficiency of each system is given by
Gear train Generator
η2
η1
Pi 1
Po 1 Pi 2 Po Pi 3 Po 3
2
η3 RL
Load
Transmission system
Figure 3.11: Basic components of a generating system.
Po1 Po2 Po3

η1 = η2 = η3 =
Pi1 Pi2 Pi3
If we form the product of these three efficiencies,
Po Po Po Po

η1 · η2 · η3 = 1 · 2 · 3 = 3
Pi1 Pi2 P 3 Pi1
and substitute the fact that Pi2 = Po1 and Pi3 = Po2 , we find that the quantities indicated
above will cancel, resulting in Po3 ¶i1 , which is a measure of the efficiency of the entire
system.
In general, for the representative cascaded system in Fig. 3.12,
ηtotal = η1 · η2 · η3 · · · ηn (3.26)
57 Efficiency
η1 η2 η3 ηn
Figure 3.12: Cascaded system.
EXAMPLE 3.17 Find the overall efficiency of the system in Fig. 3.11 if η1 = 90%,
η2 = 85%, and η3 = 95%.
Solution:
ηtotal = η1 · η2 · η3 = (0.90)(0.85)(0.95) = 0.727 or 72.7%
EXAMPLE 3.18 If the efficiency η1 drops to 40%, find the new overall efficiency and
compare the result with that obtained in Example 3.17.
Solution:
ηtotal = η1 · η2 · η3 = (0.40)(0.85)(0.95) = 0.323 or 32.3%
Certainly 32.3% is noticeably less than 72.7%. The total efficiency of a cascaded sys-
tem is therefore determined primarily by the lowest efficiency (weakest link) and is less
than (or equal to if the remaining efficiencies are 100%) the least efficient link of the sys-
tem.
4
Series dc Circuits
4.1 Introduction
Two types of current are readily available to the consumer today. One is direct current (dc),
in which ideally the flow of charge (current) does not change in magnitude (or direction)
with time. The other is sinusoidal alternating current (ac), in which the flow of charge is
continually changing in magnitude (and direction) with time. The next few chapters are an
introduction to circuit analysis purely from a dc approach.
The battery in Fig. 4.1, by virtue of the potential difference between its terminals, has
the ability to cause (or “pressure”) charge to flow through the simple circuit. The positive
terminal attracts the electrons through the wire at the same rate at which electrons are
supplied by the negative terminal. As long as the battery is connected in the circuit and
maintains its terminal characteristics, the current (dc) through the circuit will not change
in magnitude or direction.
Battery
V =—
I =— E
Iconventional
R R
E (volts) R V
Ielectron
Figure 4.1: Introducing the basic components of an electric circuit.
The current is limited only by the resistor R. The higher the resistance, the less the
59
4. Series dc Circuits 60
current, and conversely, as determined by Ohm’s law. By convention, the direction of

conventional current flow (Iconventional ) as shown in Fig. 4.1 is opposite to that of electron
flow (Ielectron ). Also, the uniform flow of charge dictates that the direct current I be the
same everywhere in the circuit.
4.2 Series Resistors

A series connection of three resistors is shown in Fig. 4.2. For resistors in series, the total
resistance of a series configuration is the sum of the resistance levels.
In equation form for any number (N) of resistors,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + · · · + RN (4.1)
Figure 4.2: Series connection of resistors.
A result of Eq. (4.1) is that
the more resistors we add in series, the greater the resistance, no matter what their value.
Further, the largest resistor in a series combination will have the most impact on the total
resistance.
For the configuration in Fig. 4.2, the total resistance would be
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 10 Ω + 30 Ω + 100 Ω = 140 Ω
EXAMPLE 4.1 Determine the total resistance of the series connection in Fig. 4.3.
Solution:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
= 20 Ω + 220 Ω + 1.2 kΩ + 5.6 kΩ = 7040 Ω = 7.04 kΩ
61 Series Resistors
Figure 4.3: Series connection of resistors for Example 4.1.
For the special case where resistors are the same value, Eq. (4.1) can be modified as
follows:
RT = NR (4.2)
where N is the number of resistors in series of value R.
EXAMPLE 4.2 Find the total resistance of the series resistors in Fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Series connection of four resistors of the same value (Example 4.2).
Solution:
RT = NR = (4)(3.3 kΩ) = 13.2 kΩ
It is important to realize that the total resistance of resistors in series is unaffected by

the order in which they are connected. The result is that the total resistance in Fig. 4.5(a)
and (b) are both the same.
EXAMPLE 4.3 Determine the total resistance for the series resistors in Fig. 4.6.
Solution:
RT = R1 + R3 + NR2
= 4.7 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ + (3)(1 kΩ) = 9.9 kΩ
Figure 4.5: Two series combinations of the same elements with the same total resistance.
Figure 4.6: Series combination of resistors for Example 4.3.
4.2.1 Instrumentation
The total resistance of any configuration can be measured by simply connecting an ohm-
meter across the access terminals as shown in Fig. 4.7 for the circuit in Fig. 4.2. Since
there is no polarity associated with resistance, either lead can be connected to point a, with
the other lead connected to point b.
Figure 4.7: Using an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of a series circuit.
4.3 Series Circuits

If we now take an 8.4 V dc supply and connect it in series with the series resistors in Fig.
4.2, we have the series circuit in Fig. 4.8.
A circuit is any combination of elements that will result in a continuous flow of charge, or
current, through the configuration.
63 Series Circuits
Figure 4.8: Schematic representation for a dc series circuit.
The manner in which the supply is connected determines the direction of the resulting
conventional current. For series dc circuits:
the direction of conventional current in a series dc circuit is such that it leaves the positive
terminal of the supply and returns to the negative terminal, as shown in Fig. 4.8.
One of the most important concepts to remember when analyzing series circuits and
defining elements that are in series is:
The current is the same at every point in a series circuit.
For the circuit in Fig. 4.8, the above statement dictates that the current is the same
through the three resistors and the voltage source. In addition, if you are ever concerned
about whether two elements are in series, simply check whether the current is the same
through each element.
In any configuration, if two elements are in series, the current must be the same. However,
if the current is the same for two adjoining elements, the elements may or may not be in
series.
Now that we have a complete circuit and current has been established, the level of
current and the voltage across each resistor should be determined. To do this, return to
Ohm’s law and replace the resistance in the equation by the total resistance of the circuit.
That is,
E
Is = (4.3)
RT
with the subscript s used to indicate source current.
It is important to realize that when a dc supply is connected, it does not “see” the
individual connection of elements but simply the total resistance “seen” at the connection
terminals, as shown in Fig. 4.9(a). In other words, it reduces the entire configuration to
one such as in Fig.4.9(b) to which Ohm’s law can easily be applied.
Figure 4.9: Resistance “seen” at the terminals of a series circuit.
Figure 4.10: Inserting the polarities across a resistor as determined by the direction of the
current.
For the configuration in Fig. 4.8, using the total resistance calculated in the last section,
the resulting current is
E 8.4 V
Is = = = 0.06 A = 60 mA
RT 140 Ω
Recognize that
the polarity of the voltage across a resistor is determined by the direction of the current.
Current entering a resistor creates a drop in voltage with the polarity indicated in
Fig. 4.10(a). Reverse the direction of the current, and the polarity will reverse as shown in
Fig. 4.10(b). Change the orientation of the resistor, and the same rules apply as shown in
Fig. 4.10(c).
The magnitude of the voltage drop across each resistor can then be found by applying
Ohm’s law using only the resistance of each resistor. That is,
V1 = I1 R1
V2 = I1 R2
V3 = I1 R3
EXAMPLE 4.4 For the series circuit in Fig. 4.11:

(a) Find the total resistance RT .
(b) Calculate the resulting source current Is .
(c) Determine the voltage across each resistor.
65 Series Circuits
Figure 4.11: Series circuit to be investigated in Example 4.4.
Solution:
(a) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 2 Ω + 1 Ω + 5 Ω = 8 Ω
E 20 V
(b) Is = = = 2.5 A
RT 8Ω
(c)
V1 = I1 R1 = Is R1 = (2.5 A)(2 Ω) = 5 V
V2 = I1 R2 = Is R2 = (2.5 A)(1 Ω) = 2.5 V
V3 = I1 R3 = Is R3 = (2.5 A)(5 Ω) = 12.5 V
EXAMPLE 4.5 For the series circuit in Fig. 4.12:

(a) Find the total resistance RT .
(b) Determine the source current Is and indicate its direction on the circuit.
(c) Find the voltage across resistor R2 and indicate its polarity on the circuit.
Figure 4.12: Series circuit to be analyzed in Example 4.5.
Solution:
(a) The elements of the circuit are rearranged as shown in Fig. 4.13.
RT = R2 + NR = 4 Ω + (3)(7 Ω) = 25 Ω
(b) Note that because of the manner in which the dc supply was connected, the current
now has a counterclockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.13.
E 50 V
Is = = =2A
RT 25 Ω
(c) The direction of the current will define the polarity for V2 appearing in Fig. 4.13.
V2 = I2 R2 = Is R2 = (2 A)(4 Ω) = 8 V
Figure 4.13: Circuit in Fig. 4.12 redrawn.
EXAMPLE 4.6 Given RT and I3 , calculate R1 and E for the circuit in Fig. 4.14.
Figure 4.14: Series circuit to be analyzed in Example 4.6.
Solution:
Since we are given the total resistance, it seems natural to first write the equation for
the total resistance and then insert what we know.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Then
12 kΩ = R1 + 4 kΩ + 6 kΩ
so that
R1 = 2 kΩ
The dc voltage can be determined directly from Ohm’s law.
E = Is RT = I3 RT = (6 mA)(12 kΩ) = 72 V
67 Series Circuits
Figure 4.15: Using voltmeters to measure the voltages across the resistors in Fig. 4.2.
It is particularly helpful in the laboratory to realize that
the voltages of a circuit can be measured without disturbing (breaking the connections in)
the circuit.
In Fig. 4.15, all the voltages of the circuit in Fig. 4.2 are being measured by voltmeters
that were connected without disturbing the original configuration. Note that all the volt-
meters are placed across the resistive elements. In addition, note that the positive (normally
red) lead of the voltmeter is connected to the point of higher potential (positive sign), with
the negative (normally black) lead of the voltmeter connected to the point of lower poten-
tial (negative sign) for V1 and V2 . The result is a positive reading on the display. If the leads
were reversed, the magnitude would remain the same, but a negative sign would appear
as shown for V3 . Take special note that the 20 V scale of our meter was used to measure
the –6 V level, while the 2 V scale of our meter was used to measure the 0.6 V and 1.8 V
levels. The maximum value of the chosen scale must always exceed the maximum value
to be measured.
Turning our attention to the current of the circuit, we find that
using an ammeter to measure the current of a circuit requires that the circuit be broken
at some point and the meter inserted in series with the branch in which the current is to be
determined.
For instance, to measure the current leaving the positive terminal of the supply, the
connection to the positive terminal must be removed to create an open circuit between the
supply and resistor R1 . The ammeter is then inserted between these two points to form a
bridge between the supply and the first resistor, as shown in Fig. 4.16. The ammeter is now
in series with the supply and the other elements of the circuit. If each meter is to provide
a positive reading, the connection must be made such that conventional current enters the
positive terminal of the meter and leaves the negative terminal. This was done for three of
the ammeters, with the ammeter to the right of R3 connected in the reverse manner. The
result is a negative sign for the current. However, also note that the current has the correct
magnitude. Since the current is 60 mA, the 200 mA scale of our meter was used for each
meter.
As expected, the current at each point in the series circuit is the same using our ideal
ammeters.
Figure 4.16: Measuring the current throughout the series circuit in Fig. 4.2.
4.4 Power Distribution in a Series Circuit

In any electrical system, the power applied will equal the power dissipated or absorbed.
For any series circuit, such as that in Fig. 4.17,
the power applied by the dc supply must equal that dissipated by the resistive elements.
In equation form,
PE = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 (4.4)
P R2 P R3
P R1
Is R1 R2 R3
PE E
Figure 4.17: Power distribution in a series circuit.

69 Power Distribution in a Series Circuit
The power delivered by the supply can be determined using
PE = EIs (watts, W) (4.5)
The power dissipated by the resistive elements can be determined by any of the following
forms (shown for resistor R1 only):
V12
P1 = V1 I1 = I12 R1 = (watts, W) (4.6)
R1
Since the current is the same through series elements, you will find in the following exam-
ples that
in a series configuration, maximum power is delivered to the largest resistor.
EXAMPLE 4.7 For the series circuit in Fig. 4.18 (all standard values):
(a) Determine the total resistance RT .
(b) Calculate the current Is .
(c) Determine the voltage across each resistor.
(d) Find the power supplied by the battery.
(e) Determine the power dissipated by each resistor.
(f) Comment on whether the total power supplied equals the total power dissipated.
Figure 4.18: Series circuit to be investigated in Example 4.7.
Solution:
(a)
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1 kΩ + 3 kΩ + 2 kΩ = 6 kΩ
(b)
E 36 V
Is = = = 6 mA
RT 6 kΩ
(c)
V1 = I1 R1 = Is R1 = (6 mA)(1 kΩ) = 6 V
V2 = I2 R2 = Is R2 = (6 mA)(3 kΩ) = 18 V
V3 = I3 R3 = Is R3 = (6 mA)(2 kΩ) = 12 V
(d)
PE = EIs = (36 V)(6 mA) = 216 mW
(e)
P1 = V1 I1 = (6 V)(6 mA) = 36 mW
P2 = I22 R2 = (6 mA)2 (3 kΩ) = 108 mW
V32 (12 V)2
P3 = = = 72 mW
R3 2 kΩ
(f)
PE = PR1 + PR2 + PR3
216 mW = 36 mW + 108 mW + 72 mW = 216 mW (checks)
4.5 Voltage Sources in Series
Voltage sources can be connected in series, as shown in Fig. 4.19, to increase or decrease
the total voltage applied to a system. The net voltage is determined by summing the sources
with the same polarity and subtracting the total of the sources with the opposite polarity.
The net polarity is the polarity of the larger sum. In Fig. 4.19(a), for example, the sources
are all “pressuring” current to follow a clockwise path, so the net voltage is
ET = E1 + E2 + E3 = 10 V + 6 V + 2 V = 18 V
as shown in the figure. In Fig. 4.19(b), however, the 4 V source is “pressuring” current
in the clockwise direction while the other two are trying to establish current in the coun-
terclockwise direction. In this case, the applied voltage for a counterclockwise direction is
greater than that for the clockwise direction. The result is the counterclockwise direction
for the current as shown in Fig. 4.19(b). The net effect can be determined by finding the
difference in applied voltage between those supplies “pressuring” current in one direction
71 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Is
E1 9V
E1 10 V
Is
E2 3V
E2 6V ET 8V
ET 18 V
Is
E3 4V
E3 2V
Is
(a) (b)
Figure 4.19: Reducing series dc voltage sources to a single source.
and the total in the other direction. In this case,
ET = E1 + E2 − E3 = 9 V + 3 V − 4 V = 8 V
with the polarity shown in the figure.
4.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is a cornerstone of the entire field and, in fact, will never
be outdated or replaced. The application of the law requires that we define a closed path of
investigation, permitting us to start at one point in the network, travel through the network,
and find our way back to the original starting point. The path does not have to be circular,
square, or any other defined shape; it must simply provide a way to leave a point and get
back to it without leaving the network.
In Fig. 4.20, if we leave point a and follow the current, we will end up at point b.
Continuing,we can pass through points c and d and eventually return through the voltage
source to point a, our starting point. The path abcda is therefore a closed path, or closed
loop. The lawspecifies that
the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed path (or closed loop) is
zero.
In symbolic form it can be written as
ΣV = 0 (4.7)
where Σ represents summation, and V the potential drops and rises. The term algebraic
simply means paying attention to the signs that result in the equations as we add and sub-
tract terms. Any direction will work as long as you get back to the starting point.
V1
a b
I R1 I
E KVL R2 V2
I
d c
Figure 4.20: Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a series dc circuit.
In Fig. 4.20, as we proceed from point d to point a across the voltage source, we move
from a negative potential (the negative sign) to a positive potential (the positive sign), so a
positive sign is given to the source voltage E. As we proceed from point a to point b, we
encounter a positive sign followed by a negative sign, so a drop in potential has occurred,
and a negative sign is applied. Continuing from b to c, we encounter another drop in
potential, so another negative sign is applied. We then arrive back at the starting point d,
and the resulting sum is set equal to zero as defined by Eq. (4.7).
Writing out the sequence with the voltages and the signs results in the following:
+E −V1 −V2 = 0
which can be rewritten as

E = V1 +V2
The result is particularly interesting because it tells us that
the applied voltage of a series dc circuit will equal the sum of the voltage drops of the
circuit.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law can also be written in the following form:
ΣVrises = ΣVdrops (4.8)
revealing that
the sum of the voltage rises around a closed path will always equal the sum of the voltage
drops.
To demonstrate that the direction that you take around the loop has no effect on the
results, let’s take the counterclockwise path and compare results. The resulting sequence
appears as
−E +V2 +V1 = 0
yielding the same result of

E = V1 +V2
EXAMPLE 4.8 Use Kirchhoff’s voltage law to determine the unknown voltage for the
circuit in Fig. 4.21.
V1 4.2 V
R1 R2
E1 16 V E2 9V
Figure 4.21: Series circuit to be examined in Example 4.8.
Solution: Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit in Fig. 5.27 in the clock-
wise direction results in
+E1 −V1 −V2 − E2 = 0
and
V1 = E1 −V2 − E2 = 16 V − 4.2 V − 9 V = 2.8 V
The result clearly indicates that you do not need to know the values of the resistors or the
current to determine the unknown voltage.
EXAMPLE 4.9 Determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in Fig. 4.22. Solu-
12 V 6V
R1 R2
E 32 V Vx R3 14 V
Figure 4.22: Series dc circuit to be analyzed in Example 4.9.
tion: In this case, the unknown voltage is not across a single resistive element but be-
tween two arbitrary points in the circuit. Simply apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around a
path, including the source or resistor R3 . For the clockwise path, including the source, the
resulting equation is the following:
+E −V1 −Vx = 0
and
Vx = E −V1 = 32 V − 12 V = 20 V
For the clockwise path, including resistor R3 , the following results:
+Vx −V2 −V3 = 0
and
Vx = V2 +V3 = 6 V + 14 V = 20 V
providing exactly the same solution.
There is no requirement that the followed path have charge flow or current. In the
following example, the current is zero everywhere, but Kirchhoff’s voltage law can still
be applied to determine the voltage between the points of interest. Also, there will be
situations where the actual polarity will not be provided. In such cases, simply assume a
polarity. If the answer is negative, the magnitude of the result is correct, but the polarity
should be reversed.
EXAMPLE 4.10 Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine voltages V1 and V2 for the
network in Fig. 4.23.
V1
25 V 1 15 V
2 V2
20 V
Figure 4.23: Combination of voltage sources to be examined in Example 4.10.
Solution: For path 1, starting at point a in a clockwise direction,
+25 V −V1 + 15 V = 0
and
V1 = 40 V
For path 2, starting at point a in a clockwise direction,
−V2 − 20 V = 0
and
V2 = 20 V
The minus sign in the solution simply indicates that the actual polarities are different from
those assumed.
The next example demonstrates that you do not need to know what elements are inside
a container when applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law. They could all be voltage sources or a
mix of sources and resistors. It doesn’t matter—simply pay strict attention to the polarities
encountered.
EXAMPLE 4.11 Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine the unknown voltage for
the circuit in Fig. 4.24.
40 V
60 V Vx
30 V
Figure 4.24: Series configuration to be examined in Example 4.11.
Solution: Note that in this circuit, there are various polarities across the unknown ele-
ments since they can contain any mixture of components. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law in the clockwise direction results in
+60 V − 40 V −Vx + 30 V = 0
and
Vx = +60 V + 30 V − 40 V = 50 V
EXAMPLE 4.12 Determine the voltage Vx for the circuit in Fig. 4.25. Note that the
polarity of Vx was not provided.
Solution: For cases where the polarity is not included, simply make an assumption about
the polarity, and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law as before. If the result has a positive sign,
the assumed polarity was correct. If the result has a minus sign, the magnitude is correct,
but the assumed polarity must be reversed. In this case, if we assume point a to be positive
and point b to be negative, an application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise
direction results in
−6 V − 14 V −Vx − 2 V = 0
14 V
6V a
Vx
2V
Figure 4.25: Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a circuit in which the polarities have not
been provided for one of the voltages (Example 4.12).
and
Vx = −20 V + 2 V = −18 V
Since the result is negative, we know that point a should be negative and point b should be
positive, but the magnitude of 18 V is correct.
EXAMPLE 4.13 For the series circuit in Fig. 4.26.

(a) Determine V2 using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
(b) Determine current I2 .
(c) Find R1 and R3 .
Figure 4.26: Series configuration to be examined in Example 4.13.
Solution:
(a) Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction starting at the negative
terminal of the supply results in
E +V3 +V2 +V1 = 0
and
V2 = E −V1 −V3 = 54 V − 18 V − 15 V = 21 V
(b)
V2 21 V
I2 = = =3A
R2 7Ω
(c)
V1 18 V
R1 = = =6Ω
I1 3A
77 Voltage Division in a Series Circuit
with
V3 15 V
R3 = = =5Ω
I3 3A
EXAMPLE 4.14 Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Fig. 4.8, verify Eq. (4.1).
Solution: Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed path:
E = V1 +V2V3
Substituting Ohm’s law:

Is RT = I1 R1 + I2 R2 + I3 R3
but
Is = I1 = I2 = I3
so that
Is RT = Is (R1 + R2 + R3 )
and
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
which is Eq. 4.1
4.7 Voltage Division in a Series Circuit

The previous section demonstrated that the sum of the voltages across the resistors of a
series circuit will always equal the applied voltage. It cannot be more or less than that value.
The next question is, How will a resistor’s value affect the voltage across the resistor? It
turns out that
the voltage across series resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance
levels.
In other words,
in a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the applied voltage it will
capture.
In addition,
the ratio of the voltages across series resistors will be the same as the ratio of their resis-
tance levels.
All of the above statements can best be described by a few simple examples. In Fig.
4.27, all the voltages across the resistive elements are provided. The largest resistor of 6 Ω
captures the bulk of the applied voltage, while the smallest resistor, R3 , has the least. In
addition, note that since the resistance level of R1 is six times that of R3 , the voltage across
R1 is six times that of R3 . The fact that the resistance level of R2 is three times that of R1
results in three times the voltage across R2 . Finally, since R1 is twice R2 , the voltage across
R1 is twice that of R2 . In general, therefore, the voltage across series resistors will have the
same ratio as their resistance levels.
Figure 4.27: Revealing how the voltage will divide across series resistive elements.
4.7.1 Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

The voltage divider rule (VDR) permits the determination of the voltage across a series
resistor without first having to determine the current of the circuit. The rule itself can be
derived by analyzing the simple series circuit in Fig. 4.28.
RT
R1 V1
R2 V2
Figure 4.28: Developing the voltage divider rule.
First, determine the total resistance as follows:
RT = R1 + R2
Then
E
Ix = I1 = I2 =
RT
Apply Ohm’s law to each resistor:

E E
V1 = I1 R1 = R1 = R1
R RT
T
E E
V2 = I2 R2 = R2 = R2
RT RT
The resulting format forV1 and V2 is
E
Vx = Rx (voltage divider rule) (4.9)
RT
where Vx is the voltage across the resistor Rx , E is the impressed voltage across the series
elements, and RT is the total resistance of the series circuit.
The voltage divider rule states that
the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times
the total applied voltage divided by the total resistance of the series configuration.
Although Eq. 4.9 was derived using a series circuit of only two elements, it can be used
for series circuits with any number of series resistors.
EXAMPLE 4.15 For the series circuit in Fig. 4.29.

(a) Without making any calculations, how much larger would you expect the voltage
across R2 to be compared to that across R1 ?
(b) Find the voltage V1 using only the voltage divider rule.
(c) Using the conclusion of part (1), determine the voltage across R2 .
(d) Use the voltage divider rule to determine the voltage across R2 , and compare your
answer to your conclusion in part (3).
(e) How does the sum of V1 and V2 compare to the applied voltage?
Figure 4.29: Series circuit to be examined using the voltage divider rule in Example 4.15.
Solution:
(a) Since resistor R2 is three times R1 , it is expected that V2 = 3V1 .
(b)
E 64 V 64 V
V1 = R1 = 20 Ω = 20 Ω = 16 V
RT 20 Ω + 60 Ω 80 Ω
(c)
V2 = 3V1 = 3(12 V) = 48 V
(d)
E 64 V
V2 = R2 = (60 Ω) = 48 V
RT 80 Ω
The results are an exact match.
(e)
E = V1 +V2
64 V + 48 V = 64 V (checks)
EXAMPLE 4.16 Using the voltage divider rule, determine voltages V1 and V3 for the
series circuit in Fig. 4.30.
Figure 4.30: Series circuit to be investigated in Examples 4.16 and 4.17.
Solution:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 2 kΩ + 5 kΩ + 8 kΩ = 15 kΩ

E 45 V
V1 = R1 = 2 kΩ =6V
RT 15 kΩ
and
E 45 V
V3 = R3 = 8 kΩ = 24 V
RT 15 Ω
The voltage divider rule can be extended to the voltage across two or more series el-
ements if the resistance in the numerator of Eq. (4.9) is expanded to include the total
resistance of the series resistors across which the voltage is to be found (R0 ). That is,
E
V 0 = R0 (4.10)
RT
EXAMPLE 4.17 Determine the voltage (denoted V 0 ) across the series combination of
resistors R1 and R2 in Fig. 4.30.
Solution: Since the voltage desired is across both R1 and R2 , the sum of R1 and R2 will
be substituted as R0 in Eq. (4.10). The result is
R0 = R1 + R2 = 2 kΩ + 5 kΩ = 7 kΩ
and
0 E 0 45 V
V =R = 7 kΩ = 21 V
RT 15 kΩ
EXAMPLE 4.18 Given the voltmeter reading in Fig. 4.31, find voltage V3 .
Figure 4.31: Voltage divider action for Example 4.18.
Solution:
Vmeter 3 kΩ(5.6 V)
V3 = R3 = =4V
R3 + R2 3 kΩ + 1.2 kΩ
EXAMPLE 4.19 Design the voltage divider circuit in Fig. 4.32 such that the voltage
across R1 will be four times the voltage across R2 ; that is, VR1 = 4VR2 .
4 mA
R1 VR
1
E 20 V
R2 VR
2
Figure 4.32: Designing a voltage divider circuit (Example 4.19).

Solution: The total resistance is defined by
RT = R1 + R2
However, if
VR1 = 4VR2
then
R1 = 4R2
so that
RT = R1 + R2 = 4R2 + R2 = 5R2
Applying Ohm’s law, we can determine the total resistance of the circuit:
E 20 V
RT = = = 5 kΩ
Is 4 mA
so
RT = 5R2 = 5 kΩ
and
5 kΩ
R2 = = 1 kΩ
5
Then
R1 = 4R2 = 4(1 kΩ) = 4 kΩ
4.8 Interchanging Series Elements
The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance,
current, or power to each element. For instance, the network in Fig. 4.33 can be redrawn
as shown in Fig. 4.34 without affecting I or V2 . The total resistance RT is 35 Ω in both
cases, and I = 70 V/35 Ω = 2 A. The voltage V2 = IR2 = (2 A)(5 Ω) = 10 V for both
configurations.
EXAMPLE 4.20 Determine I and the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor for the network
in Fig. 4.35.
Solution: The network is redrawn in Fig. 4.36.

83 Notation
Figure 4.33: Series dc circuit with elements to be interchanged.
Figure 4.34: Circuit in Fig. 4.33 with R2 and R3 interchanged.
RT =(2)(4 Ω) + 7 Ω = 15 Ω
E 37.5 V
I= = = 2.5 A
RT 15 Ω
V7 Ω =IR = (2.5 A)(7 Ω) = 17.5 V
4.9 Notation
Notation plays an increasingly important role in the analysis to follow. It is important,
therefore, that we begin to examine the notation used throughout the industry.
4.9.1 Voltage Sources and Ground

Except for a few special cases, electrical and electronic systems are grounded for reference
and safety purposes. The symbol for the ground connection appears in Fig. 4.37 with
its defined potential level—zero volts. A grounded circuit may appear as shown in Fig.
4.38(a), (b), or (c). In any case, it is understood that the negative terminal of the battery
and the bottom of the resistor R2 are at ground potential. Although Fig. 5.46(c) shows
no connection between the two grounds, it is recognized that such a connection exists for
the continuous flow of charge. If E = 12 V, then point a is 12 V positive with respect to
ground potential, and 12 V exist across the series combination of resistors R1 and R2 . If a
Figure 4.36: Redrawing the circuit in Fig. 4.35.
voltmeter placed from point b to ground reads 4 V, then the voltage across R2 is 4 V, with
the higher potential at point b.
On large schematics where space is at a premium and clarity is important, voltage
sources may be indicated as shown in Figs. 4.39(a) and 4.40(a) rather than as illustrated in
Figs. 4.39(b) and 4.40(b).
4.9.2 Double-Subscript Notation

The fact that voltage is an across variable and exists between two points has resulted in
a double-subscript notation that defines the first subscript as the higher potential. In Fig.
4.41(a), the two points that define the voltage across the resistor R are denoted by a and b.
Since a is the first subscript for Vab , point a must have a higher potential than point b if Vab
is to have a positive value. If, in fact, point b is at a higher potential than point a, Vab will
have a negative value, as indicated in Fig. 4.41(b).
In summary:
The double-subscript notation Vab specifies point a as the higher potential. If this is not the
case, a negative sign must be associated with the magnitude of Vab .
In other words, the voltage Vab is the voltage at point a with respect to (w.r.t.) point b.
0V
Figure 4.37: Ground potential.

85 Notation
R1
R1 R1
E E b
E R2
R2 R2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.38: Three ways to sketch the same series dc circuit.
12 V
R1 R1
12 V
R2 R2
(a) (b)
Figure 4.39: Replacing the special notation for a dc voltage source with the standard sym-
bol.
–5V
R1 R1
R2 R2 5V
(a) (b)
Figure 4.40: Replacing the notation for a negative dc supply with the standard notation.
Vab Vab
+ – – +
a b a b
I R R I
(Vab = +) (Vab = –)
(a) (b)
Figure 4.41: Defining the sign for double-subscript notation.
4.9.3 Single-Subscript Notation

If point b of the notation Vab is specified as ground potential (zero volts), then a single-
subscript notation can be used that provides the voltage at a point with respect to ground.
In Fig. 4.42, Va is the voltage from point a to ground. In this case, it is obviously 10 V
since it is right across the source voltage E. The voltage Vb is the voltage from point b to
ground. Because it is directly across the 4 Ω resistor, Vb = 4 V.
In summary:
The single-subscript notation Va specifies the voltage at point a with respect to ground
(zero volts). If the voltage is less than zero volts, a negative sign must be associated with
the magnitude of Va .
Figure 4.42: Defining the use of single-subscript notation for voltage levels.
4.9.4 General Comments

A particularly useful relationship can now be established that has extensive applications
in the analysis of electronic circuits. For the above notational standards, the following
relationship exists:
Vab = Va −Vb (4.11)
In other words, if the voltage at points a and b is known with respect to ground, then the
voltage Vab can be determined using Eq. (4.11). In Fig. 4.42, for example,
Vab = Va −Vb = 10 V − 4 V = 6 V
EXAMPLE 4.21 Find the voltage Vab for the conditions in Fig. 4.43.
87 Notation
Va = +16 V Vb = +20 V
a R b
Solution: Applying Eq. (4.11):
Vab = Va −Vb = 16 V − 20 V = −4 V
Note the negative sign to reflect the fact that point b is at a higher potential than point
a.
EXAMPLE 4.22 Find the voltage Va for the configuration in Fig. 4.44.
Va Vab = +5 V Vb = 4 V
a R b
Vab = Va −Vb
Va = Vab +Vb = 5 V + 4 V = 9 V
EXAMPLE 4.23 Find the voltage Vab for the configuration in Fig. 4.45.
Vab = Va −Vb = 20 V − (−15 V) = 20 V + 15 V = 35 V

Note in Example 4.23 you must be careful with the signs when applying the equation.
The voltage is dropping from a high level of +20 V to a negative voltage of −15 V. As
shown in Fig. 4.46, this represents a drop in voltage of 35 V.
V
Va = 20 V
Vab = 35 V
Gnd (0 V)
Vb = –15 V
Figure 4.46: The impact of positive and negative voltages on the total voltage drop.
EXAMPLE 4.24 Find the voltages Vb , Vc , and Vac for the network in Fig. 4.47.
E2
a + 4V –
b c
20 V
E1 = 10 V 6.000
20V
V
COM
+
Solution: Starting at ground potential (zero volts), we proceed through a rise of 10 V to

reach point a and then pass through a drop in potential of 4 V to point b. The result is that
the meter reads
vb + 10 V − 4 V = 6 V
as clearly demonstrated by Fig. 4.48. If we then proceed to point c, there is an additional

V
10 V
4V
6V
Gnd (0 V)
Figure 4.48: Determining Vb using the defined voltage levels.
drop of 20 V, resulting in
Vc = Vb−20 V=6 V−20 V=−14 V
89 Notation
as shown in Fig. 4.49. The voltage Vac can be obtained using Eq. (4.11) or by simply
V
+10 V
a
–4 V
b
Gnd (0 V) Vac = +24 V
–20 V Vc = –14 V
Figure 4.49: Review of the potential levels for the circuit in Fig. 4.47.
referring to Fig. 4.49.
Vac = Va −Vc = 10 V − (−14 V) = 24 V
EXAMPLE 4.25 Determine Vab , Vcb , and Vc for the network in Fig. 4.50.
Solution: There are two ways to approach this problem. The first is to sketch the diagram
in Fig. 4.51 and note that there is a 54 V drop across the series resistors R1 and R2 . The
current can then be determined using Ohm’s law and the voltage levels as follows:
V
+35 V
54 V
Gnd (0 V)
–19 V
Figure 4.51: Determining the total voltage drop across the resistive elements in Fig 4.50.
54 V
I= = 1.2 A
45 Ω
Vab = IR2 = (1.2 A)(25 Ω) = 30 V
Vcb = −IR1 = −(1.2 A)(20 Ω) = −24 V
Vc = E1 = −19 V
The other approach is to redraw the network as shown in Fig. 4.52 to clearly establish the
aiding effect of E1 and E2 and then solve the resulting series circuit.
Figure 4.52: Redrawing the circuit in Fig. 4.50 using standard dc voltage supply symbols.
E1 + E2 19 V + 35 V 54 V
I= = = = 1.2 A
RT 45 Ω 45 Ω
and
Vab = 30 V Vcb = −24 V Vc = −19 V
EXAMPLE 4.26 Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages V1 and V2 of
Fig. 4.53.
Solution: Redrawing the network with the standard battery symbol results in the network
in Fig. 4.54. Applying the voltage divider rule,
91 Notation
Figure 4.54: Circuit of Fig. 4.53 redrawn.
R1 E (4 Ω)(24 V)
V1 = = = 16 V
R1 + R2 4 Ω+2 Ω
R2 E (2 Ω)(24 V)
V2 = = =8V
R1 + R2 4 Ω+2 Ω
EXAMPLE 4.27 For the network in Fig. 4.55.
(a) Calculate Vab .

(b) Determine Vb .
(c) Calculate Vc .
Solution:
(a) Voltage divider rule:
R1 E (2 Ω)(10 V)
Vab = = = +2 V
RT 2 Ω+3 Ω+5 Ω
(b) Determine Voltage divider rule:
(R2 + R3 )E (3 Ω + 5 Ω)(10 V)
Vb = VR2 +VR3 = = =8V
RT 10 Ω
or
Vb = Va −Vab = E −Vab = 10 V − 2 V = 8 V
(c) Vc = ground potential = 0 V

Parallel dc Circuits
5
5.1 Parallel Resistors
The term parallel is used so often to describe a physical arrangement between two elements
that most individuals are aware of its general characteristics.
In general,
two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel if they have two points in common.
For instance, in Fig. 5.1(a), the two resistors are in parallel because they are connected
at points a and b. If both ends were not connected as shown, the resistors would not be in
parallel. In Fig. 5.1(b), resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel because they again have points
aand b in common. R1 is not in parallel with R3 because they are connected at only one
point (b). Further, R1 and R3 are not in series because a third connection appears at point
b. The same can be said for resistors R2 and R3 . In Fig. 5.1(c), resistors R1 and R2 are
in series because they have only one point in common that is not connected elsewhere in
the network. Resistors R1 and R3 are not in parallel because they have only point a in
common. In addition, they are not in series because of the third connection to point a. The
same can be said for resistors R2 and R3 . In a broader context, it can be said that the series
combination of resistors R1 and R2 is in parallel with resistor R3 . Furthermore, even though
the discussion above was only for resistors, it can be applied to any two-terminal elements
such as voltage sources and meters.
93
5. Parallel dc Circuits 94
a
a
R1 R1
R3
R1 R2 a b b R3
R2
R2
b
c
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.1: (a) Parallel resistors; (b) R1 and R2 are in parallel; (c) R3 is in parallel with the
series combination of R1 and R2 .
On schematics, the parallel combination can appear in a number of ways, as shown in

Fig. 5.2. In each case, the three resistors are in parallel. They all have points a and b in
common.
a
a a
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
b b
b
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.2: Schematic representations of three parallel resistors.
For resistors in parallel as shown in Fig. 5.3, the total resistance is determined from the
following equation:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +···+ (5.1)
RT R1 R2 R3 RN
Since G = 1/R, the equation can also be written in terms of conductance levels as follows:
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + · · · + GN (siemens, S) (5.2)
In general, however, when the total resistance is desired, the following format is applied:
1
RT = 1 1 1
(5.3)
R1 + R2 + R3 + · · · + R1N
The great feature about the equation, is that it can be applied to any number of resistors in
parallel.
EXAMPLE 5.1
95 Parallel Resistors
R1 R2 R3 RN
RT
Figure 5.3: Parallel combination of resistors.
(a) Find the total conductance of the parallel network in Fig. 5.4.
(b) Find the total resistance of the same network using the results of part (1) and using
Eq. (5.3).
Figure 5.4: Parallel resistors for Example 5.1.
Solution:
(a)
1 1 1 1
G1 = = = 0.333 S, G2 = = = 0.167 S
R1 3 Ω R2 6 Ω
and
GT = G1 + G2 = 0.333 S + 0.167 S = 0.5 S
(b) Applying Eq. (5.3)
1 1 1 1
RT = = = = =2Ω
1 1 1 1 0.333 S + 0.167 S 0.5 S
+ +
R1 R2 3Ω 6Ω
EXAMPLE 5.2
(a) By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. 5.5 has the least conductance? De-
termine the total conductance of the network and note whether your conclusion was
verified.
(b) Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by applying Eq. (5.3).
Solution:
(a) Since the 1 kΩ resistor has the largest resistance and therefore the largest opposition
to the flow of charge (level of conductivity), it will have the least level of conduc-
Figure 5.5: Parallel resistors for Example 5.2.
tance.
1 1 1 1
G1 = = = 0.5 S, G2 = = = 0.005 S = 5 mS
R1 2 Ω R2 200 Ω
1 1 1
G3 = = = = 0.001 S = 1 mS
R3 1 kΩ 1000 Ω
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 = 0.5 S + 5 mS + 1 mS = 506 mS
Note the difference in conductance level between the 2 Ω (500 mS) and the 1 kΩ (1
mS) resistor.
(b)
1 1
RT = = = 1.976 Ω
GT 506 mS
Applying Eq. (5.3):
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3 2Ω + 200 Ω + 1 1kΩ
1
= = 1.98 Ω
0.5 S + 0.005 S + 0.506 S
EXAMPLE 5.3 Find the total resistance of the configuration in Fig. 5.6.
Figure 5.6: Network to be investigated in Example 5.3.
Solution: First the network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.7 to clearly demonstrate that
all the resistors are in parallel.
Figure 5.7: Network in Fig. 5.6 redrawn.
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1
R1 ++ R2 R3 + 4 1Ω + 5 1Ω
1Ω
1 1 ∼
= = = 0.69 Ω
1 S + 0.25 S + 0.2 S 1.45 S
In general,
the total resistance of parallel resistors is always less than the value of the smallest resistor.
In addition, you will find that
if the smallest resistor of a parallel combination is much smaller than the other parallel
resistors, the total resistance will be very close to the smallest resistor value.
EXAMPLE 5.4
(a) What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω in parallel with the parallel
resistors of Example 6.1 as shown in Fig. 5.8?
(b) What is the effect of adding a parallel 1 Ω resistor to the configuration in Fig. 5.8?
Figure 5.8: Adding a parallel 100 Ω resistor to the network in Fig. 5.4.
Solution:
(a) Applying Eq. (5.3):
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3 3Ω + 6Ω + 1001 Ω
1 1
= = = 1.96 Ω
0.333 S + 0.167 S + 0.010 S 0.510 S
The parallel combination of the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors resulted in a total resistance

of 2 Ω in Example 5.1. The effect of adding a resistor in parallel of 100 Ω had little
effect on the total resistance because its resistance level is significantly higher (and
conductance level significantly less) than the other two resistors. The total change in
resistance was less than 2%. However, do note that the total resistance dropped with
the addition of the 100 Ω resistor.
(b) Applying Eq. (5.3):
1 1
RT = 1 1 1 1
= 1 1 1 1
+ + R3 + R4
R1 R2 3 Ω + 6 Ω + 100 Ω + 1 Ω
1 1
= = = 0.66 Ω
0.333 S + 0.167 S + 0.010 S + 1 S 0.51 S
The introduction of the 1 Ω resistor reduced the total resistance from 2 Ω to only
0.66 Ω—a decrease of almost 67%. The fact that the added resistor has a resis-
tance level less than the other parallel elements and one-third that of the smallest
contributed to the significant drop in resistance level.
In part (a) of Example 5.4, the total resistance dropped from 2 Ω to 1.96 Ω. In part (b),
it dropped to 0.66 Ω. The results clearly reveal that
the total resistance of parallel resistors will always drop as new resistors are added in
parallel, irrespective of their value.
Recall that this is the opposite of series resistors, where additional resistors of any value
increase the total resistance.
For equal resistors in parallel, the equation for the total resistance becomes significantly
easier to apply. For N equal resistors in parallel, Eq. (5.3) becomes
1 1 1
RT = 1 1 1 1
= 1
= N
R1 + R2 + R3 +···+ RN N R R
and
R
RT = (5.4)
N
In other words,
the total resistance of N parallel resistors of equal value is the resistance of one resistor
divided by the number (N) of parallel resistors.
EXAMPLE 5.5 Find the total resistance of the parallel resistors in Fig. 5.9.
Figure 5.9: Three equal parallel resistors to be investigated in Example 5.5.

R 12 Ω
RT = = =4Ω
N 3
EXAMPLE 5.6 Find the total resistance for the configuration in Fig. 5.10.
Figure 5.10: Parallel configuration for Example 5.6.
Redrawing the network results in the parallel network in Fig. 5.11.

Applying Eq. (5.4):
R 2Ω
RT = = = 0.5 Ω
N 4
5.1.1 Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors

For two parallel resistors, the total resistance is determined by:
1 1 1
= +
RT R1 R2
Multiplying the top and bottom of each term of the right side of the equation by the other
resistor results in

1 R2 1 R1 1 R2 R1
= + = +
RT R2 R1 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
and
R1 R2
RT = (5.5)
R1 + R2
In words, the equation states that
the total resistance of two parallel resistors is simply the product of their values divided by
their sum.
EXAMPLE 5.7 Repeat Example 5.1 using Eq. (5.5).

Solution:
R1 R2 (3 Ω)(7 Ω) 18
RT = = = Ω=2Ω
R1 + R2 3 Ω+6 Ω 9
which matches the earlier solution.
EXAMPLE 5.8 Determine the total resistance for the parallel combination in Fig. 5.7
using two applications of Eq. (5.5).
Solution: First the 1 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are combined using Eq. (5.5), resulting in the
reduced network in Fig. 5.12.
Figure 5.12: Reduced equivalent in Fig. fig: parallel7.
R1 R2 (1 Ω)(4 Ω) 4
R0T = = = Ω = 0.8 Ω
R1 + R2 1 Ω+4 Ω 5
Then Eq. (5.5) is applied again using the equivalent value:
R0T R3 (0.8 Ω)(5 Ω) 4

RT = 0 = = Ω = 0.69 Ω
RT + R3 0.8 Ω + 5 Ω 5
The result matches that obtained in Example 5.3.
Recall that series elements can be interchanged without affecting the magnitude of the
total resistance. In parallel networks,
parallel resistors can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance.
The next example demonstrates this and reveals how redrawing a network can often
define which operations or equations should be applied.
EXAMPLE 5.9 Determine the total resistance of the parallel elements in Fig. 5.13.
Figure 5.13: Parallel network for Example 5.9.
Solution: The network is redrawn in Fig. 5.14.
Figure 5.14: Redrawn network in Fig. 5.13 (Example 5.9).
R 6Ω
R0R = = =2Ω
N 3
R2 R4 (9 Ω)(72 Ω) 648
R00T = = = Ω=8Ω
R2 + R4 9 Ω + 72 Ω 81
R0T R00T (2 Ω)(8 Ω) 16
RT = 0 00 = = Ω = 1.6 Ω
RT + RT 2 Ω+8 Ω 10
The next two examples have a design orientation, in which specific network parameters
are defined and the circuit elements must be determined.
EXAMPLE 5.10 Determine the value of R2 in Fig. 5.15 to establish a total resistance
of 9 kΩ.
Solution:
R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
RT (R1 + R2 ) = R1 R2
RT R1 + RT R2 = R1 R2
RT R1 = R1 R2 − RT R2
RT R1 = (R1 − RT )R2
and
RT R1
R2 =
R1 − RT
Substituting values:
(9 kΩ)(12 kΩ) 108

R2 = = kΩ = 36 kΩ
12 kΩ − 9 kΩ 3
EXAMPLE 5.11 Determine the values of R1 , R2 and R3 in Fig. 5.16 if R2 = 2R1 ,

R3 = 2R2 , and the total resistance is 16 kΩ.
Solution:
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
103 Parallel Circuits
RT = 16 k R1 R2 R3
However,
R2 = 2R1 R3 = 2R2 = 2(2R1 ) = 4R1
so that
1 1 1 1
= + +
16 kΩ R1 2R1 4R1
and
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + +
16 kΩ R1 2 R1 4 R1
or
1 1
= 1.75
16 kΩ R1
resulting in
R1 = 1.75(15 kΩ) = 28 kΩ
R2 = 2R1 = 2(28 kΩ) = 56 kΩ
R3 = 2R2 = 2(56 kΩ) = 112 kΩ
As shown in Fig. 5.17, the total resistance of a parallel combination of resistive elements
can be found by simply applying an ohmmeter. There is no polarity to resistance, so either
lead of the ohmmeter can be connected to either side of the network. Although there are
no supplies in Fig. 5.17, always keep in mind that ohmmeters can never be applied to a
“live” circuit. It is not enough to set the supply to 0 V or to turn it off. It may still load
down (change the network configuration of) the circuit and change the reading. It is best
to remove the supply and apply the ohmmeter to the two resulting terminals.
5.2 Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit can now be established by connecting a supply across a set of parallel
resistors as shown in Fig. 5.18. The positive terminal of the supply is directly connected
Figure 5.17: Using an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of a parallel network.
to the top of each resistor, while the negative terminal is connected to the bottom of each
resistor. Therefore, it should be quite clear that the applied voltage is the same across each
resistor. In general,
the voltage is always the same across parallel elements.
Therefore, remember that
if two elements are in parallel, the voltage across them must be the same. However, if the
voltage across two neighboring elements is the same, the two elements may or may not be
in parallel.
Figure 5.18: Using an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of a parallel network.
For the voltages of the circuit in Fig. 5.18, the result is that
V1V2 = E (5.6)
Recall from series circuits that the source does not “see” the parallel combination of
elements. It reacts only to the total resistance of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 5.19. The
source current can then be determined using Ohm’s law:
E
Is = (5.7)
RT
Since the voltage is the same across parallel elements, the current through each resistor can
Figure 5.19: Replacing the parallel resistors in Fig. 5.18 with the equivalent total resis-
tance.
also be determined using Ohm’s law. That is,
V1 E V2 E
I1 = = and I2 = = (5.8)
R1 R1 R2 R2
The direction for the currents is dictated by the polarity of the voltage across the resistors.
Recall that for a resistor, current enters the positive side of a potential drop and leaves the
negative. The result, as shown in Fig. 5.18, is that the source current enters point a, and
currents I1 and I2 leave the same point.
The relationship between the source current and the parallel resistor currents can be
derived by simply taking the equation for the total resistance in Eq. (5.1):
1 1 1
= +
RT R1 R2
Multiplying both sides by the applied voltage:

1 1 1
E =E +
RT R1 R2
resulting in
E E E
= +
RT R1 R2
Then note that E/R1 = I1 and E/R2 = I2 to obtain
Is = I1 + I2 (5.9)
. The result reveals a very important property of parallel circuits:
For single-source parallel networks, the source current (Is ) is always equal to te sum of the
individual branch currents.
The duality that exists between series and parallel circuits continues to surface as we
proceed through the basic equations for electric circuits. This is fortunate because it pro-
vides a way of remembering the characteristics of one using the results of another. For
instance, in Fig. 5.20(a), we have a parallel circuit where it is clear that IT = I1 + I2 . By

simply replacing the currents of the equation in Fig. 5.201(a) by a voltage level, as shown
in Fig. 5.20(b), we have Kirchhoff’s voltage law for a series circuit: E = V1 +V2 . In other
words,
for a parallel circuit, the source current equals the sum of the branch currents, while for a
series circuit, the applied voltage equals the sum of the voltage drops.
IT + V1 – + V2 –
I1 I2 R1 R2
+
R1 R2 E
–
Duality
IT = I 1 + I 2 E = V 1 + V2
(a) (b)
Figure 5.20: Demonstrating the duality that exists between series and parallel circuits.
EXAMPLE 5.12 For the parallel network in Fig. 5.21:

(a) Find the total resistance.
(b) Calculate the source current.
(c) Determine the current through each parallel branch.
(d) Show that Eq. (5.9) is satisfied.
Solution:
(a)
R1 R2 (9 Ω)(18 Ω) 162
RT = = = Ω=6Ω
R1 + R2 9 Ω + 18 Ω 27
(b) Applying Ohm’s law:
E 27 V
Is = = = 4.5 A
RT 6Ω
(c) Applying Ohm’s law:
V1 E 27 V
I1 = = = =3A
R1 R1 9Ω
V2 E 27 V
I2 = = = = 1.5 A
R2 R2 18 Ω
(d) Substituting values from parts (b) and (c):
Is = 4.5 A = I1 + I2 = 3 A + 1.5 A = 4.5 A (checks)
EXAMPLE 5.13 For the parallel network in Fig. 5.22.

(a) Find the total resistance.
(b) Calculate the source current.
(c) Determine the current through each branch.
Solution:
(a)
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1 1
R1 + R2 + +
R3 + 1.21kΩ
10 Ω 220 Ω
1 1
= = = 9.49 Ω
100 × 10−3 + 4.545 × 10−3 + 0.833 × 10−3 105.38 × 10−3
Note that the total resistance is less than the smallest parallel resistor, and the mag-
nitude is very close to the smallest resistor because the other resistors are larger by a
factor greater than 10 : 1.
(b) Using Ohm’s law:
E 24 V
Is = = = 2.53 A
RT 9.49 Ω
(c) Applying Ohm’s law:
V1 E 24 V
I1 = = = = 2.4 A
R1 R1 10 Ω
V2 E 24 V
I2 = = = = 0.11 A
R2 R2 220 Ω
V3 E 24 V
I3 = = = = 0.02 A
R3 R3 1.2 kΩ
A careful examination of the results of Example 6.13 reveals that the larger the parallel
resistor, the smaller the branch current. In general, therefore,
for parallel resistors, the greatest current will exist in the branch with the least resistance.
A more powerful statement is that
current always seeks the path of least resistance.
EXAMPLE 5.14 Given the information provided in Fig. 5.23.

(a) Determine R3 .
(b) Find the applied voltage E.
(c) Find the source current Is .
(d) Find I2 .
Solution:
(a)
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
4 Ω 10 Ω 20 Ω R3
1
0.25 S = 0.1 S + 0.05 S +
R3
with
1
= 0.1 S
R3
Figure 5.24: Measuring the voltages of a parallel dc network.
and
1
R3 = = 10 Ω
0.1 S
(b) Using Ohm’s law:
E = V1 = I1 R1 = (4 A)(10 Ω) = 40 V
(c)
E 40 V
Is = = = 10 A
RT 4Ω
(d) Applying Ohm’s law:
V2 E 40 V
I2 = = = =2A
R2 R2 20 Ω
In Fig. 5.24, voltmeters have been connected to verify that the voltage across parallel
elements is the same. Note that the positive or red lead of each voltmeter is connected to
the high (positive) side of the voltage across each resistor to obtain a positive reading.
In Fig. 5.25, an ammeter has been hooked up to measure the source current. First, the
connection to the supply had to be broken at the positive terminal and the meter inserted
as shown. Be sure to use ammeter terminals on your meter for such measurements. The
red or positive lead of the meter is connected so that the source current enters that lead and
leaves the negative or black lead to ensure a positive reading.
A more difficult measurement is for the current through resistor R1 . This measurement
often gives trouble in the laboratory session. First, as shown in Fig. 5.26(a), resistor
R1 must be disconnected from the upper connection point to establish an open circuit.
The ammeter is then inserted between the resulting terminals so that the current enters
the positive or red terminal, as shown in Fig. 5.26(b). Always remember: When using an
Figure 5.25: Measuring the source current of a parallel network.
ammeter, first establish an open circuit in the branch in which the current is to be measured,
and then insert the meter.
Figure 5.26: Measuring the current through resistor R1 .
5.3 Power Distribution in a Parallel Circuit

Recall from the discussion of series circuits that the power applied to a series resistive
circuit equals the power dissipated by the resistive elements. The same is true for parallel
resistive networks. In fact,
for any network composed of resistive elements, the power applied by the battery will equal
that dissipated by the resistive elements.
For the parallel circuit in Fig. 5.27:
PE = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 (5.10)
which is exactly the same as obtained for the series combination. The power delivered by
111 Power Distribution in a Parallel Circuit
ow
r fl
we
Po
Is I1 I2 I3
+ + + +
E V1 R1 V2 R2 V3 R3
– – – –
Figure 5.27: Power flow in a dc parallel network.
the source in the same:

PE = EIs (watts, W) (5.11)
as is the equation for the power to each resistor (shown for R1 only):
V12
P1 = V1 I1 = I12 R1 = (watts, W) (5.12)
R1
In the equation P = V 2 /R, the voltage across each resistor in a parallel circuit will be the
same. The only factor that changes is the resistance in the denominator of the equation.
The result is that
in a parallel resistive network, the larger the resistor, the less the power absorbed.
EXAMPLE 5.15 For the parallel network in Fig. 5.28 (all standard values):
(a) Determine the total resistance RT .
(b) Find the source current and the current through each resistor.
(c) Calculate the power delivered by the source.
(d) Determine the power absorbed by each parallel resistor.
(e) Verify Eq. (5.10).

Solution:
(a)
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1
R1 + R2 + R3 1.6 kΩ + 20 1kΩ + 56 1kΩ
1 1
= = = 1.44 kΩ
625 × 10−6 + 50 × 10−6 + 17.867 × 10−6 692.867 × 10−6
E 28 V
Is = = = 19.44 mA
RT 1.44 kΩ
V1 E 28 V
I1 = = = = 17.5 mA
R1 R1 1.6 kΩ
V2 E 28 V
I2 = = = = 1.4 mA
R2 R2 20 kΩ
V3 E 28 V
I3 = = = = 0.5 mA
R3 R3 56 kΩ
(c)
PE = EIs = (28 V)(19.4 mA) = 543.2 mW
(d) Applying each form of the power equation:
P1 = V1 I1 = EI1 = (28 V)(17.5 mA) = 490 mW

P2 = I22 R2 = (1.4 mA)2 (20 kΩ) = 39.2 mW
V32 E 2 (18 V)2
P3 = = = = 14 mW
R3 R3 56 kΩ
A review of the results clearly substantiates the fact that the larger the resistor, the
less the power absorbed.
(e)
PE = PR1 + PR2 + PR3
543.2 mW = 490 mW + 39.2 mW + 14 mW = 543.2 mW (checks)
5.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

In the previous chapter, Kirchhoff’s voltage law was introduced, providing a very important
Professor Gustav Kirchhoff is also credited with developing the following equally impor-
tant relationship between the currents of a network,v called Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):
113 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
relationship between the voltages of a closed path.
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving a junction (or region) of a network
is zero.
The law can also be stated in the following way:
The sum of the currents entering a junction (or region) of a network must equal the sum of
the currents leaving the same junction (or region).
In equation form, the above statement can be written as follows:
ΣIi = ΣIo (5.13)
with Ii representing the current entering, or “in,” and Io representing the current leaving, or
“out.”
In Fig. 5.29, for example, the shaded area can enclose an entire system or a complex
network, or it can simply provide a connection point (junction) for the displayed currents.
In each case, the current entering must equal that leaving, as required by Eq. (5.13):
I2 = 2 A
I1 = 4 A System,
complex I3 = 10 A
network,
junction
I4 = 8 A
Figure 5.29: Introducing Kirchhoff ’s current law.
EXAMPLE 5.16 Determine currents I3 and I4 in Fig. 5.30 using Kirchhoff’s current
law.
Solution: There are two junctions or nodes in Fig. 5.30. Node a has only one unknown,
while node b has two unknowns. Since a single equation can be used to solve for only one
unknown, we must apply Kirchhoff’s current law to node a first.
At node a:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I1 + I2 = I3
2 A + 3 A = I3 = 5 A
At node b, using the result just obtained:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I3 + I5 = I4
5 A + 1 A = I4 = 6 A
I1 = 2 A
I4
I3
a b
I2 = 3 A I5 = 1 A
Figure 5.30: Two-node configuration for Example 6.16.
EXAMPLE 5.17 Determine currents I1 , I3 , I4 , and I5 for the network in Fig. 5.31.
b
I1 I3
R1 R3 I5
I=5A
a d
R2 R4 R5
I2 = 4 A I4
c
Figure 5.31: Four-node configuration for Example 5.17.
Solution: In this configuration, four nodes are defined. Nodes a and c have only one un-
known current at the junction, so Kirchhoff’s current law can be applied at either junction.
At node a:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I = I1 + I2
5 A = I1 + 4 A
I1 = 5 A − 4 A = 1 A
At node c:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I2 = I4
I4 = I2 = 4 A
Using the above results at the other junctions results in the following.
At node b:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I1 = I3
I3 = I1 = 1 A
At node d:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I3 + I4 = I5
1 A + 4 A = I5 = 5 A
If we enclose the entire network, we find that the current entering from the far left is
I = 5 A, while the current leaving from the far right is I5 = 5 A. The two must be equal
since the net current entering any system must equal the net current leaving.
EXAMPLE 5.18 Determine currents I3 and I5 in Fig. 5.32 through applications of

Kirchhoff’s current law.
I2 = 3 A
I4 = 1 A
a
I1 = 4 A
b
I3
I5
Figure 5.32: Network for Example 5.18.
Solution: Note first that since node b has two unknown quantities (I3 and I5 ), and node
a has only one, Kirchhoff’s current law must first be applied to node a. The result is then
applied to node b.
At node a:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I1 + I2 = I3
4 A + 3 A = I3 = 7 A
At node b:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I3 = I4 + I5
7 A = 1 A + I5
I5 = 7 A − 1 A = 6 A
EXAMPLE 5.19 For the parallel dc network in Fig. 5.33.

(a) Determine the source current Is .
(b) Find the source voltage E.
(c) Determine R3 .
(d) Calculate RT .
Is
a
I1 I2 I3
RT
E R1 R2 R3
Figure 5.34: Redrawn network in Fig. 5.33.
Solution:
(a) First apply Eq. (5.13) at node a. Although node a in Fig. 5.33 may not initially
appear as a single junction, it can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.34, where it is
clearly a common point for all the branches.
The result is
ΣIi = ΣIo
Is = I1 + I2 + I3
Is = 8 mA + 10 mA + 2 mA = 20 mA
E = V1 = I1 R1 = (8 mA)(2 kΩ) = 16 V
(c) Applying Ohm’s law in a different form:
V3 E 16 V
R3 = = = = 8 kΩ
I3 Is 2 mA
(d) Applying Ohm’s law again:
E 16 V
RT = = = 0.8 kΩ
Is 20 mA
The application of Kirchhoff’s current law is not limited to networks where all the
internal connections are known or visible. For instance, all the currents of the integrated
circuit in Fig. 5.35 are known except I1 . By treating the entire system (which could contain
over a million elements) as a single node, we can apply Kirchhoff’s current law as shown
in Example 6.20.
Before looking at Example 6.20 in detail, note that the direction of the unknown current
I1 is not provided in Fig. 5.35. On many occasions, this will be true. With so many currents
entering or leaving the system, it is difficult to know by inspection which direction should
be assigned to I1 . In such cases, simply make an assumption about the direction and then
check out the result. If the result is negative, the wrong direction was assumed. If the result
is positive, the correct direction was assumed. In either case, the magnitude of the current
will be correct.
EXAMPLE 5.20 Determine I1 for the integrated circuit in Fig. 5.35.
5 mA 10 mA
I1 4 mA
IC
6 mA 4 mA
2 mA
8 mA
Figure 5.35: Integrated circuit for Example 5.20.
Solution: Assuming that the current I1 entering the chip results in the following when
Kirchhoff’s current law is applied:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I1 + 10 mA + 4 mA + 8 mA = 5 mA + 4 mA + 2 mA + 6 mA+
I1 + 22 mA = 17 mA
I1 = 17 mA − 22 mA = −5 mA
We find that the direction for I1 is leaving the IC, although the magnitude of 5 mA is
correct.
5.5 Current Divider Rule

For series circuits we have the powerful voltage divider rule for finding the voltage across
a resistor in a series circuit. We now introduce the equally powerful current divider rule
(CDR) for finding the current through a resistor in a parallel circuit.
In general,
For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide equally.
For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the resistance, the greater the share
of input current.
For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio equal to the
inverse of their resistor values.
The current divider rule will be derived using the parallel configuration in Fig. 5.36(a).
The current IT (using the subscript T to indicate the total entering current) splits between
the N parallel resistors and then gathers itself together again at the bottom of the con-
figuration. In Fig. 5.36(b), the parallel combination of resistors has been replaced by a
single resistor equal to the total resistance of the parallel combination as determined in the
previous sections.
The current IT can then be determined using Ohm’s law:
V
IT =
RT
Since the voltage V is the same across parallel elements, the following is true:
V = I1 R1 = I2 R2 = I3 R3 = · · · = Ix Rx
where the product Ix Rx refers to any combination in the series.

119 Current Divider Rule
IT
IT
I1 I2 I3 IN
V R1 R2 R3 RN V RT
RT
(a) (b)
Figure 5.36: Deriving the current divider rule: (a) parallel network of N parallel resistors;
(b) reduced equivalent of part (a).
Substituting for V in the above equation for IT , we have
Ix Rx
IT =
RT
Solving for Ix , the final result is the current divider rule:
RT
Ix = IT (5.14)
Rx
which states that
the current through any branch of a parallel resistive network is equal to the total resistance
of the parallel network divided by the resistor of interest and multiplied by the total current
entering the parallel configuration.
EXAMPLE 5.21 For the parallel network in Fig. 5.37, determine current I1 using Eq.
(5.14).
Figure 5.37: Using the current divider rule to calculate current I1 in Example 5.21.
Solution:
1 1
RT = 1 1 1
= 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3 1 kΩ + 10 kΩ + 22 1kΩ
1 1
= = = 873.01 Ω
1 × 10−3 + 100 × 10−6 + 45.46 × 10−6 1.145 × 10−3
IT
I1 I2
R1 R2
RT
Figure 5.38: Deriving the current divider rule for the special case of only two parallel
resistors.
RT (873.01 Ω)
I1 = IT = (12 mA) = (0.873)(12 mA) = 10.48 mA
R1 1 kΩ
and the smallest parallel resistor receives the majority of the current.
Note also that
for a parallel network, the current through the smallest resistor will be very close to the
total entering current if the other parallel elements of the configuration are much larger in
magnitude.
5.5.1 Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors

For the case of two parallel resistors as shown in Fig 5.38, the total resistance is determined
by
R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
Substituting RT into Eq. (5.14) for current I1 results in

R1 R2
RT R1 +R2
I1 = IT = IT
R1 R1
and
R2
I1 = IT (5.15)
R1 + R2
Similarly, for I2 ,

R1
I2 = IT (5.16)
R1 + R2
Equations (5.15) and (5.16) states that
for two parallel resistors, the current through one is equal to the other resistor times the
total entering current divided by the sum of the two resistors.
121 Current Divider Rule
EXAMPLE 5.22 Determine current I2 for the network in Fig. 5.39 using the current
divider rule.
Figure 5.39: Using the current divider rule to determine current I2 in Example 5.22.
Solution:

R1 4 kΩ
I2 = IT = 6 A = (0.333)(6 A) = 2 A
R1 + R2 4 kΩ + 8 kΩ
RT
I2 = IT
R2
(4 kΩ)(8 kΩ)
RT = 4 kΩ || 8 kΩ = = 2.667 kΩ
4 kΩ + 8 kΩ
2.667 kΩ
I2 = 6 A = (0.333)(6 A) = 2 A
8 kΩ
matching the above solution.
EXAMPLE 5.23 Determine resistor R1 in Fig. 5.40 to implement the division of cur-
rent shown.
Figure 5.40: A design-type problem for two parallel resistors (Example 5.23).
Solution: There are essentially two approaches to this type of problem. One involves
the direct substitution of known values into the current divider rule equation followed by a
mathematical analysis. The other is the sequential application of the basic laws of electric
circuits. First we will use the latter approach.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I = I1 + I2
27 mA = 21 mA + I2
I2 = 27 mA − 21 mA = 6 mA
V2 = I2 R2 = (6 mA)(7 Ω) = 42 mV
V1 = V2 = 42 mV
Finally,
V1 42 mV
R1 = = =2Ω
I1 21 mA
Now for the other approach using the current divider rule:

R2
I1 = IT
R1 + R2

7Ω
21 mA = 27 mA
R1 + 7 Ω
(R1 + 7 Ω)(21 mA) = (7 Ω)(27 mA)
(21 mA)R1 + 147 mV = 189 mV
(21 mA)R1 = 189 mV − 147 mV = 42 mV
42 mV
R1 = =2Ω
21 mA
5.6 Voltage Sources in Parallel
Because the voltage is the same across parallel elements,
voltage sources can be placed in parallel only if they have the same voltage.
The primary reason for placing two or more batteries or supplies in parallel is to in-
crease the current rating above that of a single supply. For example, in Fig 5.41, two ideal
batteries of 12 V have been placed in parallel. The total source current using Kirchhoff’s
current law is now the sum of the rated currents of each supply. The resulting power avail-
able will be twice that of a single supply if the rated supply current of each is the same.
123 Open and Short Circuits
That is,
I1 = I2 = I
PT = E(I1 + I2 ) = E(I + I) = E(2I) = 2(EI) = 2P(one supply)
I1 Is Is = I 1 + I 2
I2
E1 12 V E2 12 V E 12 V
Figure 5.41: Demonstrating the effect of placing two ideal supplies of the same voltage in
parallel.
If for some reason two batteries of different voltages are placed in parallel, both will be-
come ineffective or damaged because the battery with the larger voltage rapidly discharges
through the battery with the smaller terminal voltage.
In general,
it is always recommended that when you are replacing batteries in series or parallel, all
the batteries be replaced.
5.7 Open and Short Circuits

Open circuits and short circuits can often cause more confusion and difficulty in the anal-
ysis of a system than standard series or parallel configurations. This will become more
obvious in the chapters to follow when we apply some of the methods and theorems.
An open circuit is two isolated terminals not connected by an element of any kind, as
shown in Fig. 5.42(a). Since a path for conduction does not exist, the current associated
with an open circuit must always be zero. The voltage across the open circuit, however,
can be any value, as determined by the system it is connected to. In summary, therefore,
an open circuit can have a potential difference (voltage) across its terminals, but the current
is always zero amperes.
In Fig. 5.42(b), an open circuit exists between terminals a and b. The voltage across the
open-circuit terminals is the supply voltage, but the current is zero due to the absence of a
complete circuit. Some practical examples of open circuits and their impact are provided
in Fig. 5.43.
I=0A
Open circuit
+
System V
–
(a)
I=0A
a
+
+
E Vopen circuit = E volts
–
–
b
(b)
Figure 5.42: Defining an open circuit.
short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection between two terminals of a
network, as shown in Fig. 5.44. The current through the short circuit can be any value,
as determined by the system it is connected to, but the voltage across the short circuit is
always zero volts because the resistance of the short circuit is assumed to be essentially
zero ohms and V = IR = I(0 Ω) = 0 V.
In summary, therefore,
a short circuit can carry a current of a level determined by the external circuit, but the
potential difference (voltage) across its terminals is always zero volts.
In Fig. 5.45(a), the current through the 2 Ω resistor is 5 A. If a short circuit should
develop across the 2 Ω resistor, the total resistance of the parallel combination of the 2 Ω
resistor and the short (of essentially zero ohms) will be
(2 Ω)(0 Ω)
2 Ω||0 Ω = =0Ω
2 Ω+0 Ω
as indicated in Fig. 5.45(b), and the current will rise to very high levels, as determined
by Ohm’s law:
E 10 V
I= = →∞A
R 0Ω
EXAMPLE 5.24 Determine voltage Vab for the network in Fig. 5.46.
Solution: The open circuit requires that I be zero amperes. The voltage drop across both
resistors is therefore zero volts since V = IR = (0)R = 0 V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law around the closed loop,
vab = E = 20 V
Fuse
+ 120 V – I=0A
+ +
V=0V System
120 V –
–
Open circuit
(a)
Contact
– Reflector
3V
Open circuit +
I=
0A Battery
(b)
+ 120 V –
Filament in bulb
+ I = 0A
120 V
– Open circuit
(c)
Figure 5.43: Examples of open circuits.
Short circuit
I
+
System V=0V
–
Figure 5.44: Defining a short circuit.
EXAMPLE 5.25 Determine voltages Vab and Vcd for the network in Fig. 5.47.
Solution: The current through the system is zero amperes due to the open circuit, result-
ing in a 0 V drop across each resistor. Both resistors can therefore be replaced by short
circuits, as shown in Fig. 5.48. Voltage Vab is then directly across the 10 V battery, and
Vab = E1 = 10 V
Voltage Vcd requires an application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
+E1 − E2 −Vcd = 0
Vcd = E1 − E2 = 10 V − 30 V = −20 V
Figure 5.45: Defining a short circuit.
The negative sign in the solution indicates that the actual voltage Vcd has the opposite
polarity of that appearing in Fig. 5.47.
EXAMPLE 5.26 Determine the unknown voltage and current for each network in Fig.
5.49.
Solution: For the network in Fig. 5.49(a), the current IT will take the path of least resis-
tance, and since the short-circuit condition at the end of the network is the least-resistance
path, all the current will pass through the short circuit. This conclusion can be verified
using the current divider rule. The voltage across the network is the same as that across the
short circuit and will be zero volts, as shown in Fig. 5.50(a).
For the network in Fig. 5.49(a)(b), the open-circuit condition requires that the current
be zero amperes. The voltage drops across the resistors must therefore be zero volts, as
determined by Ohm’s law [VR = IR = (0)R = 0 V], with the resistors acting as a connection
from the supply to the open circuit. The result is that the open-circuit voltage is E = 22 V,
as shown in Fig. 5.50(b).
E2
a + – c
+
+
+ 30 V
E1 10 V Vab Vcd
–
– –
b d
Figure 5.48: Circuit in Fig. 5.47 redrawn.
Figure 5.49: Networks for Example 5.26.
EXAMPLE 5.27 Determine V and I for the network in Fig. 5.51 if resistor R2 is
shorted out.
Solution: The redrawn network appears in Fig. 5.52. The current through the 3 Ω
resistor is zero due to the open circuit, causing all the current I to pass through the jumper.
Since V3 Ω = IR = (0)R = 0 V, the voltage V is directly across the short, and
V =0V
E 6V
I= = =3A
R1 2 Ω
Figure 5.50: Solutions to Example 6.27.
Figure 5.52: Network in Fig. 5.51 with R2 replaced by a jumper

Series-Parallel Circuits
6
6.1 Reduce and Return Approach
The network of Fig. 6.1 is redrawn as Fig. 6.2(a). For this discussion, let us assume that
voltage V4 is desired. First combine the series resistors R3 and R4 to form an equivalent
resistor R0 as shown in Fig. 7.2(b). Resistors R2 and R0 are then in parallel and can be
combined to establish an equivalent resistor as shown in Fig. 6.2(c). Resistors R1 and R0T
are then in series and can be combined to establish the total resistance of the network as
shown in Fig. 6.2(d). The reduction phase of the analysis is now complete. The network
cannot be put in a simpler form.
a b c
R1 R3
+
E R2 R4
–
Figure 6.1: Series-parallel dc network.
We can now proceed with the return phase whereby we work our way back to the
desired voltage V4 . Due to the resulting series configuration, the source current is also
the current through R1 and R0T . The voltage across R0T (and therefore across R2 ) can be
determined using Ohm’s law as shown in Fig. 6.2(e). Finally, the desired voltage V4 can
129
6. Series-Parallel Circuits 130
Is R1 R3 +
E R2 R4 V4
–
(a)
Is R1
E R2 R′ = R3 + R4
Reduce phase
(b)
Is R1
E R′T = R2⏐⏐ R′
(c)
Is = E
E RT RT = R1 + R′T
(d)
R1 +
Return phase
E R′T V2 = Is R′T
Is –
(e)
R 1 Is + R3 + R 4V 2
E R2 V2 R4 V4 =
R4 + R
– –
(f)
Figure 6.2: Introducing the reduce and return approach.
be determined by an application of the voltage divider rule as shown in Fig. 6.2(f).
EXAMPLE 6.1 Find current I3 for the series-parallel network in Fig. 6.3.
Solution: Checking for series and parallel elements, we find that resistors R2 and R3 are
in parallel. Their total resistance is
R2 R3 (12 kΩ)(6 kΩ)

R0 = R2 ||R3 = = = 4 kΩ
R2 + R3 12 kΩ + 6 kΩ
Replacing the parallel combination with a single equivalent resistance results in the con-
figuration in Fig. 6.4. Resistors R1 and R0 are then in series, resulting in a total resistance
of
RT = R1 + R0 = 2 kΩ + 4 kΩ = 6 kΩ
131 Reduce and Return Approach
Figure 6.3: Series-parallel network for Example 6.1.
Figure 6.4: Substituting the parallel equivalent resistance for resistors R2 and R3 in Fig.
6.3
The source current is then determined using Ohm’s law:
E 54 V
Is = = = 9 mA
RT 6 kΩ
In Fig. 6.4, since R1 and R0 are in series, they have the same current Is . The result is
I1 = Is = 9 mA
Returning to Fig. 6.3, we find that I1 is the total current entering the parallel combination
of R2 and R3 . Applying the current divider rule results in the desired current:

R2 12 kΩ
I3 = I1 = 9 mA = 6 mA
R2 + R3 12 kΩ + 6 kΩ
EXAMPLE 6.2 For the network in Fig. 6.5:

(a) Determine currents I4 and Is and voltage V2 .
(b) Insert the meters to measure current I4 and voltage V2 .
Solution:
(a) Checking out the network, we find that there are no two resistors in series and the
only parallel combination is resistors R2 and R3 . Combining the two parallel resistors
results in a total resistance of
R2 R3 (18 kΩ)(2 kΩ)

R0 = R2 ||R3 = = = 1.8 kΩ
R2 + R3 18 kΩ + 2 kΩ
Figure 6.5: Series-parallel network for Example 6.2.
Redrawing the network with resistance R0 inserted results in the configuration in Fig.
6.6. Then I4 can be determined directly using Ohm’s law as follows:
V4 E 12 V
I4 = = = = 1.46 mA
R4 R4 8.2 kΩ
Because the total voltage across the series combination of R1 and R0T is 12 V, the
voltage divider rule can be applied to determine voltage V2 as follows:
R0

1.8 kΩ
V2 = E= 12 V = 2.51 V
R0 + R1 1.8 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ
The current Is can be found one of two ways. Find the total resistance and use Ohm’s
law or find the current through the other parallel branch and apply Kirchhoff’s current
law. Since we already have the current I4 , the latter approach will be applied:
E 12 V
I1 = 0
= = 1.40 mA
R1 + R 6.8 kΩ + 1.8 kΩ
and
Is = I1 + I4 = 1.40 mA + 1.46 mA = 2.86 mA
(b) The meters have been properly inserted in Fig. 6.7. Note that the voltmeter is across
both resistors since the voltage across parallel elements is the same. In addition, note
that the ammeter is in series with resistor R4 , forcing the current through the meter
to be the same as that through the series resistor. The power supply is displaying the
source current.
6.2 Block Diagram Approach

In Fig. 6.8, blocks B and C are in parallel (points b and c in common), and the voltage
source E is in series with block A (point a in common). The parallel combination of B
and C is also in series with A and the voltage source E due to the common points b and c,
133 Block Diagram Approach
Figure 6.6: Schematic representation of the network in Fig. 6.5 after substituting the equiv-
alent resistance R0 for the parallel combination of R2 and R3 .
02.51 1.46
20V
Coarse
12.0 CV
2 mA
VO LTAG E
Fine V mA
COM COM
+ +
Coarse
2.86 CC
Fine
CURRENT(mA)
+ OFF ON
Is R1 I4
+ R4
R2 R3
V2
Figure 6.7: Inserting an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure I4 and V2 , respectively.

a b
A
+
E B C
–
Figure 6.8: Introducing the block diagram approach.
respectively.
To ensure that the analysis to follow is as clear and uncluttered as possible, the follow-
ing notation is used for series and parallel combinations of elements. For series resistors
R1 and R2 , a comma is inserted between their subscript notations, as shown here:
R1,2 = R1 + R2
For parallel resistors R1 and R2 , the parallel symbol is inserted between their sub-
scripted notations, as follows:
R1 R2
R1||2 = R1 ||R2 =
R1 + R2
EXAMPLE 6.3 Determine all the currents and voltages of the network in Fig. 6.9.
Solution: Blocks A, B, and C have the same relative position, but the internal components
are different. Note that blocks B and C are still in parallel and block A is in series with
the parallel combination. First, reduce each block into a single element and proceed as
described for Example 6.1.
Figure 6.10: Reduced equivalent of Fig. 6.9
In this case:
A : RA = 4 Ω
R 4Ω
B : RB = R2 ||R3 = R2||3 = = =2Ω
N 2
C : RC = R4 + R5 = R4,5 = 0.5 Ω + 1.5 Ω = 2 Ω
Blocks B and C are still in parallel, and
R 2Ω
RB||C = = =1Ω
N 2
with
RT = RA + RB||C = 4 Ω + 1 Ω = 5 Ω
and
E 10 V
Is = = =2A
RT 5Ω
We can find the currents IA , IB , and IC using the reduction of the network in Fig. 6.9
as found in Fig. 7.11. Note that IA , IB , and IC are the same in Figs. 6.9 and Fig. 6.10 and
therefore also appear in Fig. 6.10.
IA = Is = 2 A
IA Is 2 A
IB = IC = = = =1A
2 2 2
Returning to the network in 6.9, we have
IB
IR2 = IR3 = = 0.5 A
2
The voltages VA , VB , and VC from either figure are
VA = IA RA = (2 A)(4 Ω) = 8 V
VB = IB RB = (1 A)(2 Ω) = 2 V
VC = VB = 2 V
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the loop indicated in Fig. 6.10, we obtain
ΣV = E −VA −VB = 0
E = VA +VB = 8 V + 2 V
10 V = 10 V (checks)
EXAMPLE 6.4 Another possible variation of Fig. 6.8 appears in Fig. 6.11. Determine
all the currents and voltages.
Solution:
(9 Ω)(6 Ω) 54 Ω
RA = R1||2 = = = 3.6 Ω
9 Ω+6 Ω 15
(6 Ω)(3 Ω)
RB = R3 + R4||5 = 4 Ω + = 4 Ω+2 Ω = 6 Ω
6 Ω+3 Ω
RC = 3 Ω
The network in Fig. 6.11 can then be redrawn in reduced form, as shown in Fig. 6.12.
(6 Ω)(3 Ω)
RT = RA + RB||C = 3.6 Ω + = 3.6 Ω + 2 Ω = 5.6 Ω
6 Ω+3 Ω
E 16.8 V
Is = = =3A
RT 5.6 Ω
IA = Is = 3 A
Applying the current divider rule yields
RC IA (3 Ω)(3 A) 9 A
IB = = = =1A
RC + RB 3 Ω+6 Ω 9
By Kirchhoff’s current law,
IC = IA − IB = 3 A − 1 A = 2 A
By Ohm’s law,
VA = IA RA = (3 A)(3.6 Ω) = 10.8 V
VB = IB RB = VC = IC RC = (2 A)(3 Ω) = 6 V
Returning to the original network (Fig. 6.11) and applying the current divider rule,
R2 IA (6 Ω)(3 A) 18 A
I1 = = = = 1.2 A
R2 + R1 6 Ω+9 Ω 15
By Kirchhoff’s current law,
I2 = IA − I1 = 3 A − 1.2 A = 1.8 A
The block diagram approach can be used effectively to reduce the apparent complexity
of a system by identifying the major series and parallel components of the network. This
approach is demonstrated in the next few examples.
6.3 Descriptive Examples
EXAMPLE 6.5 Find the current I4 and the voltage V2 for the network in Fig. 6.13 using
the block diagram approach.
Figure 6.13: Example 6.5
Solution: With the block diagram approach, the network has the basic structure in Fig.
6.14, clearly indicating that the three branches are in parallel and the voltage across A and
B is the supply voltage. The current I4 is now immediately obvious as simply the supply
voltage divided by the resultant resistance for B. If desired, block A can be broken down
further, as shown in Fig. 6.15, to identify C and D as series elements, with the voltage
V2 capable of being determined using the voltage divider rule once the resistance of C and
D is reduced to a single value. This is an example of how making a mental sketch of the
approach before applying laws, rules, and so on, can help avoid dead ends and frustration.
Applying Ohm’s law,
E E 12 V
I4 = = = = 1.5 A
RB R4 8Ω
Combining the resistors R2 and R3 in Fig. 6.13 results in
(3 Ω)(6 Ω) 18 Ω
RD = R2 ||R3 = 3 Ω||6 Ω = = =2Ω
3 Ω+6 Ω 9Ω
and, applying the voltage divider rule,
RD E (2 Ω)(12 V) 24 V
V2 = = = =4V
RD + RC (2 Ω + 12 V 6
I4
+
E A B
–
Figure 6.14: Block diagram of Fig. 6.13.

139 Descriptive Examples
E +
D V2
– –
Figure 6.15: Alternative block diagram for the first parallel branch in Fig. 6.13.
EXAMPLE 6.6 Find the indicated currents and voltages for the network in Fig. 6.16.
Figure 6.16: Example 6.6
Solution: Again, only specific unknowns are requested. When the network is redrawn,
be sure to note which unknowns are preserved and which have to be determined using
the original configuration. The block diagram of the network may appear as shown in Fig.
6.17, clearly revealing that A and B are in series. Note in this form the number of unknowns
that have been preserved. The voltage V1 is the same across the three parallel branches in
Fig. 6.16, and V5 is the same across R4 and R5 . The unknown currents I2 and I4 are lost
since they represent the currents through only one of the parallel branches. However, once
V1 and V5 are known, you can find the required currents using Ohm’s law.
R 6Ω
R1||2 = = =3Ω
N 2
(3 Ω)(2 Ω) 6 Ω
AA = R1||2||3 = = = 1.2 Ω
3 Ω+2 Ω 5
(8 Ω)(12 Ω) 96 Ω
RB = R4||5 = = = 4.8 Ω
8 Ω + 12 Ω 20
The reduced form of Fig. 6.16 then appears as shown in Fig. 6.18, and
+ V1 –
A
Is +
+
E RT B V5
–
–
Is
Figure 6.17: Block diagram for Fig. 6.16.
Figure 6.18: Reduced form of Fig. 6.16.
RT = R1||2||3 + R4||5 = 1.2 Ω + 4.8 Ω = 6 Ω

E 24 V
Is = = =4A
RT 6Ω
with
V1 = Is R1||2||3 = (4 A)(1.2 Ω) = 4.8 V

V5 = Is R4||5 = (4 A)(4.8 Ω) = 19.2 V
Applying Ohm’s law,
V5 19.2 V
I4 = = = 2.4 A
R4 8Ω
V2 4.5 V
I2 = = = 0.8 A
R2 6Ω
The next example demonstrates that unknown voltages do not have to be across ele-
ments but can exist between any two points in a network. In addition, the importance of
redrawing the network in a more familiar form is clearly revealed by the analysis to follow.
EXAMPLE 6.7
(a) Find the voltages V1 , V3 , and Vab for the network in Fig. 6.19.
(b) Calculate the source current Is .
Solution: This is one of those situations where it may be best to redraw the network
before beginning the analysis. Since combining both sources will not affect the unknowns,
the network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 6.20, establishing a parallel network with the
total source voltage across each parallel branch. The net source voltage is the difference
between the two with the polarity of the larger.
Figure 6.20: Network of Fig. 6.19 redrawn.
1. Using the voltage divider rule:
R1 E (5 Ω)(12 V) 60 V
V1 = = = = 7.5 V
R1 + R2 5 Ω+3 Ω 8Ω
R3 E (6 Ω)(12 V) 72 V
V3 = = = =9V
R3 + R4 6 Ω+2 Ω 8Ω
The open-circuit voltage Vab is determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

around the indicated loop in Fig. 6.20 in the clockwise direction starting at terminal
a.
+V1 −V3 +Vab = 0
and
Vab = V3 −V1 = 9 V − 7.5 V = 1.5 V
2. By Ohm’s law,
V1 7.5 V
I1 = = = 1.5 A
R1 5Ω
V3 9V
I3 = = = 1.5 A
R3 6 Ω
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law,
Is = I1 + I3 = 1.5 A + 1.5 A = 3 A
EXAMPLE 6.8 For the network in Fig. 6.21, determine the voltages V1 and V2 and the
current I.
Solution: It would indeed be difficult to analyze the network in the form in Fig. 6.21
with the symbolic notation for the sources and the reference or ground connection in the
upper left corner of the diagram. However, when the network is redrawn as shown in Fig.
6.22, the unknowns and the relationship between branches become significantly clearer.
Note the common connection of the grounds and the replacing of the terminal notation by
actual supplies.
It is now obvious that

V2 = −E1 = −6 V
The minus sign simply indicates that the chosen polarity for V2 in the figure is opposite
to that of the actual voltage. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop indicated, we
obtain
−E1 +V1 − E2 = 0
V1 = E2 + E1 = 18 V + 6 V = 24 V
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to note a yields
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V1 E1 E1
= + +
R1 R4 R2 + R3
24 V 6 V 6V
= + +
6 Ω 6 Ω 12 Ω
= 4 A + 1 A + 0.5 A
I = 5.5 A
EXAMPLE 6.9 Calculate the indicated currents and voltage in Fig. 6.23.
Solution: Redrawing the network after combining series elements yields Fig. 6.24, and

E 72 V 72 V
I5 = = = = 3 mA
R(1,2,3)||4 + R5 12 kΩ + 12 kΩ 24 kΩ
R7||(8,9) E (4.5 kΩ)(72 V) 324 V
VT = = = = 19.6 V
R7||(8,9) + R6 4.5 kΩ + 12 kΩ 16.5
V7 19.6 V
I6 = = = 4.35 mA
R7||(8,9) 4.5 kΩ
Is = I5 + I6 = 3 mA + 4.35 mA = 7.35 mA
Since the potential difference between points a and b in Fig. 6.23 is fixed at E volts, the
circuit to the right or left is unaffected if the network is reconstructed as shown in Fig.
6.25.
Figure 6.25: An alternative approach to Example 6.9.
We can find each quantity required, except Is , by analyzing each circuit independently.
To find Is , we must find the source current for each circuit and add it as in the above
solution; that is, Is = I5 + I6 .
EXAMPLE 6.10 For the network in Fig. 6.26:

(a) Determine voltages Va , Vb , andVc .
(b) Find voltages Vac and Vbc .
(c) Find current I2 .
(d) Find the source current
(e) Insert voltmeters to measure voltages Va and Vbc and current Is3
Solution:
Figure 6.27: Network in Fig. 6.26 redrawn to better define a path toward the desired
unknowns.
(a) The network is redrawn in Fig. 6.27 to clearly indicate the arrangement between
elements.
First, note that voltage Va is directly across voltage source E1 . Therefore,
Va = E1 = 20 V
The same is true for voltage Vc , which is directly across the voltage source E3 .
Therefore,
Vc = E3 = 8 V
To find voltage Vb , which is actually the voltage across R3 , we must apply Kirchhoff’s
voltage law around loop 1 as follows:
+E1 − E2 −V3 = 0 V
V3 = E1 − E2 = 20 V − 5 V = 15 V
and
Vb = V3 = 15 V
(b) Voltage Vac , which is actually the voltage across resistor R1 , can then be determined
as follows:
Vac = Va −Vc = 20 V − 8 V = 12 V
Similarly, voltage Vbc , which is actually the voltage across resistor R2 , can then be
determined as follows:
Vbc = Vb −Vc = 15 V − 8 V = 7 V
(c) Current I2 can be determined using Ohm’s law:
V2 Vbc 7 V
I2 = = = = 1.75 A
R2 R2 4Ω
(d) The source current can be determined using Kirchhoff’s current law at note c:
ΣIi = ΣIo
I1 + I2 + Is3 = 0
and
V1
Is3 = −I1 − I2 = − − I2
R1
with
V1 = Vac = Va −Vc = 20 V − 8 V = 12 V
so that
12 V
− 1.75 A = −1.2 A − 1.75 A = −2.95 A
Is3 = −
10 Ω
revealing that current is actually being forced through source E3 in a direction oppo-
site to that shown in Fig. 6.26.
(e) Both voltmeters have a positive reading as shown in Fig. 7.31 while the ammeter has
a negative reading.
7.00
20.00
20V
V
COM
+
V
200V Va
COM
+
E2 +
2.95
– 5V R1
+ Vb
E1 20 V Vc
20A
A
– I2 R2
E3
+ + COM
R3
–
8V
Is
3
Figure 6.28: Complex network for Example 7.11.
6.4 Ladder Networks
A three-section ladder network appears in Fig. 6.29. The reason for the terminology is quite
obvious for the repetitive structure. Basically two approaches are used to solve networks
of this type.
147 Ladder Networks
Figure 6.29: Ladder network.
6.4.1 Method 1
Calculate the total resistance and resulting source current, and then work back through the
ladder until the desired current or voltage is obtained. This method is now employed to
determine V6 in Fig. 6.29.
Combining parallel and series elements as shown in Fig. 6.30 results in the reduced
network in Fig. 6.31, and
Figure 6.30: Working back to the source to determine RT for the network in Fig. 6.29.
Figure 6.31: Calculating RT and Is .
RT = 5 Ω + 3 Ω = 8 Ω
E 240 V
Is = = = 30 A
RT 8Ω
Working our way back to I6 (Fig. 7.35), we find that
I1 = Is
Is 30 A
I3 = = = 15 A
2 2
Figure 6.32: Working back toward I6 .
and, finally (Fig. 6.33),
Figure 6.33: Calculating I6 .
(6 Ω)I3 6
I6 = = (15 A) = 10 A
6 Ω+3 Ω 9
V6 = I6 R6 = (10 A)(2 Ω) = 20 V
6.4.2 Method 2
Assign a letter symbol to the last branch current and work back through the network to the
source, maintaining this assigned current or other current of interest. The desired current
can then be found directly. This method can best be described through the analysis of the
same network considered in Fig. 6.29, redrawn in Fig. 6.34.
Figure 6.34: An alternative approach for ladder networks.
The assigned notation for the current through the final branch is I6 :
V4 V4 V4
I6 = = =
R5 + R6 1 Ω + 2 Ω 3 Ω
149 Ladder Networks
V4 = (3 Ω)I6
V4 (3 Ω)I6
I4 = = = 0.5I6
R4 6Ω
I3 = I4 + I6 = 0.5I6 + I6 = 1.5I6
V3 = I3 R3 = (1.5I6 )(4 Ω) = (6 Ω)I6
V2 = V3 +V4 = (6 Ω)I6 + (3 Ω)I6 = (9 Ω)I6

V2 (9 Ω)I6
I2 = = = 1.5I6
R2 6Ω
Is = I2 + I3 = 1.5I6 + 1.5I6 = 3I6
V1 = I1 R1 = Is R1 = (5 Ω)Is
E = V1 +V2 = (5 Ω)Is + (9 Ω)I6 = (5 Ω)(3I6 ) + (9 Ω)I6 = (24 Ω)I6

E 240 V
I6 = = = 10 A
24 Ω 24 Ω
V6 = I6 R6 = (10 A)(2 Ω) = 20 V
as was obtained using method 1.

Methods of Analysis
7
7.1 Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages
as the circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit
variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.
To simplify matters, we shall assume in this section that circuits do not contain voltage
sources. Circuits that contain voltage sources will be analyzed in the next section.
In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with n
nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the follow-
ing three steps.
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1 , v2 , · · · , vn−1 to the remaining
n − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
We shall now explain and apply these three steps.
The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The
reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero potential.
A reference node is indicated by any of the three symbols in Fig. 7.1. The type of ground
in Fig. 7.1(c) is called a chassis ground and is used in devices where the case, enclosure,
151
7. Methods of Analysis 152
or chassis acts as a reference point for all circuits. When the potential of the earth is used
as reference, we use the earth ground in Fig. 7.1(a) or (b). We shall always use the symbol
in Fig. 7.1(b).
Figure 7.1: Common symbols for indicating a reference node, (a) common ground, (b)
ground, (c) chassis ground.
Once we have selected a reference node, we assign voltage designations to nonrefer-

ence nodes. Consider, for example, the circuit in Fig. 7.2(a). Node 0 is the reference node
(v = 0), while nodes 1 and 2 are assigned voltages v1 and v2 respectively. Keep in mind
that the node voltages are defined with respect to the reference node. As illustrated in Fig.
7.2(a), each node voltage is the voltage rise from the reference node to the corresponding
nonreference node or simply the voltage of that node with respect to the reference node.
Figure 7.2: Typical circuit for nodal analysis.
As the second step, we apply KCL to each nonreference node in the circuit. To avoid
putting too much information on the same circuit, the circuit in Fig. 7.2(a) is redrawn in
Fig. 7.2(b), where we now add i1 , i2 and i3 as the currents through resistors R1 , R2 and R3
respectively. At node 1, applying KCL gives
I1 = I2 + i1 + i2 (7.1)
153 Nodal Analysis
At node 2,
I2 + i2 = i3 (7.2)
We now apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1 , i2 and i3 in terms of node
voltages. The key idea to bear in mind is that, since resistance is a passive element, by
the passive sign convention, current must always flow from a higher potential to a lower
potential.
We can express this principle as
vhigher − vlower
i= (7.3)
R
With this in mind, we obtain from Fig. 7.2(b),
v1 − 0
i1 = or i1 = G1 v1
R1
v1 − v2
i2 = or i2 = G2 (v1 − v2 ) (7.4)
R2
v2 − 0
i3 = or i3 = G3 v2
R3
Substituting Eq. (7.4) in Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2) results, respectively, in
v1 v1 − v2
I1 = I2 + + (7.5)
R1 R2
v1 − v2 v2
I2 + = (7.6)
R2 R3
In terms of the conductances, Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6) become
I1 = I2 + G1 v1 + G2 (v1 − v2 ) (7.7)
I2 + G2 (v1 − v2 ) = G3 v2 (7.8)
The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages. If we apply KCL to
nonreference nodes, we obtain n − 1 simultaneous equations such as Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6)
or (7.7) and (7.8). For the circuit of Fig. 7.2, we solve Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6) or (7.7) and (7.8)
to obtain the node voltages v1 and v2 using any standard method, such as the substitution
method, the elimination method, Cramer’s rule, or matrix inversion. To use either of the
last two methods, one must cast the simultaneous equations in matrix form. For example,
Eqs. (7.7) and (7.8) can be cast in matrix form as
" #" # " #

G1 + G2 −G2 v1 I1 − I2
= (7.9)
−G2 G1 + G2 v2 I2
which can be solved to get v1 and v2 .
EXAMPLE 7.1 Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 7.3(a).
Figure 7.3: For Example 7.1: (a) original circuit, (b) circuit for analysis.
Solution:
Consider Fig. 7.3(b), where the circuit in Fig. 7.3(a) has been prepared for nodal analysis.
Notice how the currents are selected for the application of KCL. Except for the branches
with current sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. (By consistent,
we mean that if, for example, we assume that i2 enters the 4 Ω resistor from the left-hand
side, i2 must leave the resistor from the right-hand side.) The reference node is selected,
and the node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined.
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives
v1 − v2 v1 − 0
i1 = i2 + i3 ⇒ 5= +
4 2
Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain
20 = v1 − v2 + 2v1
or
3v1 − v2 = 20 (7.10)
155 Nodal Analysis
At node 2, we do the same thing and get
v1 − v2 v2 − 0
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5 ⇒ + 10 = 5 +
4 6
Multiplying each term by 12 results in
ev1 − 3v2 + 120 = 60 + 2v2
or
− 3v1 + 5v2 = 60 (7.11)
Now we have two simultaneous Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11). We can solve the equations using
any method and obtain the values of v1 and v2 .
METHOD 1 Using the elimination technique, we add Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11).
4v2 = 80 ⇒ v2 = 20 V
Substituting v2 = 20 in Eq. (7.10) gives
40
3v1 − 20 = 20 ⇒ v1 = = 13.333 V
3
METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11) in matrix form
as
" #" # " #
3 −1 v1 20
= (7.12)
−3 5 v2 60
The determinant of the matrix is

3 −1
∆= = 15 − 3 = 12

−3 5
We now obtain v1 and v2 as

20 −1

∆1 60 5 100 + 60
v1 = = = = 13.333 V
∆ ∆ 12

3 20

∆2 −3 60 180 + 60
v2 = = = = 20 V
∆ ∆ 12
giving us the same result as did the elimination method.
If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal
voltages.
v1 − v2 v1
i1 = 5 A, i2 = = −1.6668 A, i3 = = 6.666 A
4 2
v2
i4 = 10 A, i5 = = 3.333 A
6
The fact that i2 is negative shows that the current flows in the direction opposite to the one
assumed
EXERCISE 7.1 Obtain the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 3.4.
Figure 7.4: For Practice Prob. 7.1.
Answer: v1 = −2 V, v2 = −14 V.
EXAMPLE 7.2 Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. 7.5(a).
Figure 7.5: For Example 7.2: (a) original circuit, (b) circuit for analysis.
Solution:
The circuit in this example has three nonreference nodes, unlike the previous example
which has two nonreference nodes. We assign voltages to the three nodes as shown in Fig.
7.5(b) and label the currents.
At node 1,
v1 − v3 v1 − v2
3 = i1 + ix ⇒ 3= +
4 2
Multiplying by 4 and rearranging terms, we get
3v1 − 2v2 − v3 = 12 (7.13)

157 Nodal Analysis
At node 2,
v1 − v2 v2 − v3 v2 − 0
ix = i2 + i3 ⇒ = +
2 8 4
Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get
− 4v1 + 7v2 − v3 = 0 (7.14)
At node 3,
v1 − v3 v2 − v3 2(v1 − v2 )
i1 + i2 = 2ix ⇒ + =
4 8 2
Multiplying by 8, rearranging terms, and dividing by 3, we get
2v1 − 3v2 + v3 = 0 (7.15)
We have three simultaneous equations to solve to get the node voltages v1 , v2 and v3 . We
shall solve the equations in three ways.
METHOD 1 Using the elimination technique, we add Eqs. (7.13) and (7.15).
5v1 − 5v2 = 12
or
12
v1 − v2 = = 2.4 (7.16)
5
Adding Eqs. (7.14) and (7.15) gives
− 2v1 + 4v2 = 0 ⇒ v1 = 2v2 (7.17)
Substituting Eq. (7.17) into Eq. (7.16) yields
2v2 − v2 = 2.4 ⇒ v2 = 2.4, v1 = 2v2 = 4.8 V
From Eq. (7.15), we get
v3 = 3v2 − 2v1 = 3v2 − 4v2 = −v2 = −2.4 V
Thus,
v1 = 4.8 V, v2 = 2.4 V, v3 = −2.4 V
METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we put Eqs. (7.13) to (7.15) in matrix form
    
3 −2 −1 v1 12
−4 7 −1 v2  =  0  (7.18)
    
2 −3 1 v3 0
From this, we obtain

∆1 ∆2 ∆3
v1 = , v2 = , v3 =
∆ ∆ ∆
where ∆1 , ∆2 and ∆3 are the determinants to be calculated as follows. To calculate the
determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix, we repeat the first two rows and cross multiply.
Similarly, we obtain
Thus, we find
∆1 48 ∆2 24
v1 = = = 4.8 V, v2 = = = 2.4 V
∆ 10 ∆ 10
∆3 −24
v3 = = = −2.4 V
∆ 10
as we obtained with Method 1.
METHOD 3 We now use MATLAB to solve the matrix. Equation (7.18) can be written
as
AV = B ⇒ V = A−1 B
where A is the 3 by 3 square matrix, B is the column vector, and V is a column vector
comprised of v1 , v2 and v3 that we want to determine. We use MATLAB to determine V as
follows:
159 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Thus, v1 = 4.8 V, v2 = 2.4 V, and v3 = −2.4 V, as obtained previously.
EXERCISE 7.2 Find the voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit of Fig.
3.6.
Answer: v1 = 80 V, v2 = −64 V, v3 = 156 V.
7.2 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. We use the circuit in Fig. 7.7
for illustration. Consider the following two possibilities.
CASE 1 If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference
node, we simply set the voltage at the nonreference node equal to the voltage of the voltage
source. In Fig. 7.7, example,
v1 = 10 V (7.19)
Thus, our analysis is somewhat simplified by this knowledge of the voltage at this node.
CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two

nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode;
we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source con-

nected between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.
A supernode may be regarded as a closed surface enclosing the voltage source and its two
nodes.
Figure 7.7: A circuit with a supernode.
In Fig. 7.7, nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode. (We could have more than two nodes forming
a single supernode. For example, see the circuit in Fig. 7.14.) We analyze a circuit with
supernodes using the same three steps mentioned in the previous section except that the
supernodes are treated differently. Why? Because an essential component of nodal analysis
is applying KCL, which requires knowing the current through each element. There is no
way of knowing the current through a voltage source in advance. However, KCL must be
satisfied at a supernode like any other node. Hence, at the supernode in Fig. 7.7,
i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 (7.20)
or
v1 − v2 v1 − v3 v2 − 0 v3 − 0
+ = + (7.21)
2 4 8 6
To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode in Fig. 7.7, we redraw the circuit as
shown in Fig. 7.8. Going around the loop in the clockwise direction gives
− v2 + 5 + v3 = 0 ⇒ v2 − v3 = 5 (7.22)
Figure 7.8: Applying KVL to a supernode.
From Eqs. (7.20), (7.21), and (7.22), we obtain the node voltages. Note the following
properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.

2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
EXAMPLE 7.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 7.9, find the node voltages.
Figure 7.9: For Example 7.3.
Solution:
The supernode contains the 2-V source, nodes 1 and 2, and the 10-Ω resistor. Applying
KCL to the supernode as shown in Fig. 7.10(a) gives
2 = i1 + i2 + 7
Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages
v1 − 0 v2 − 0
2= + +7 ⇒ 8 = 2v1 + v2 + 28
2 4
or
v2 = −20 − 2v1 (7.23)
To get the relationship between v1 and v2 we apply KVL to the circuit in Fig. 7.10(b).
Figure 7.10: Applying: (a) KCL to the supernode, (b) KVL to the loop.
Going around the loop, we obtain
− v1 − 2 + v2 = 0 ⇒ v2 = v1 + 2 (7.24)
From Eqs. (7.23) and (7.24), we write
v2 = v1 + 2 = −20 − 2v1
or
3v1 = −22 ⇒ v1 = −7.333 V
and v2 = v1 + 2 = −5.333 V. Note that the 10-Ω resistor does not make any difference
because it is connected across the supernode.
EXERCISE 7.3 Find v and i in the circuit of Fig. 7.11. Answer: −0.6 V, 4.2 A.
EXAMPLE 7.4 Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 7.12.
Solution:
Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode; so do nodes 3 and 4. We apply KCL to the two supernodes
as in Fig. 7.13(a). At supernode 1-2,
i3 + 10 = i1 + i2
Expressing this in terms of the node voltages,
v3 − v2 v1 − v4 v1
+ 10 = +
6 3 2
or
5v1 + v2 − v3 − 2v4 = 60 (7.25)
Figure 7.13: Applying: (a) KCL to the two supernodes, (b) KVL to the loops.
At supernode 3-4,
v1 − v4 v3 − v2 v4 v3
i1 = i3 + i4 + i5 ⇒ = + +
3 6 1 4
or
4v1 + 2v2 − 5v3 − 16v4 = 0 (7.26)
We now apply KVL to the branches involving the voltage sources as shown in Fig. 7.13(b).
For loop 1,
− v1 + 20 + v2 = 0 ⇒ v1 − v2 = 20 (7.27)
For loop 2,
−v3 + 3vx + v4 = 0
But vx = v1 − v4 so that
3v1 − v3 − 2v4 = 0 (7.28)
For loop 3,
vx − 3vx + 6i3 − 20 = 0
But 6i3 = v3 − v2 and vx = v1 − v4 . Hence,
− 2v1 − v2 + v3 + 2v4 = 20 (7.29)
We need four node voltages, v1 , v2 , v3 and v4 , and it requires only four out of the five
Eqs. (7.25) to (7.29) to find them. Although the fifth equation is redundant, it can be
used to check results. We can solve Eqs. (7.25) to (7.28) directly using MATLAB. We can
eliminate one node voltage so that we solve three simultaneous equations instead of four.
From Eq. (7.27), v2 = v1 − 20. Substituting this into Eqs. (7.25) and (7.26), respectively,
gives
6v1 − v3 − 2v4 = 80 (7.30)
and
6v1 − 5v3 − 16v4 = 40 (7.31)
Equations (7.28), (7.30), and (7.31) can be cast in matrix form as

    
3 −1 −2 v1 0
6 −1 −2  v2  = 80
    
6 −5 −16 v3 40
Using Cramer’s rule gives

3 −1 −2 0 −1 −2

∆ = 6 −1 −2 = −18, ∆1 = 80 −1 −2 = −480,

6 −5 −16 40 −5 −16

3 0 −2 3 −1 0

∆3 = 6 80 −2 = −3120, ∆4 = 6 −1 80 = 840

6 40 −16 6 −5 40
Thus, we arrive at the node voltages as
∆1 −480 ∆3 −3120
v1 = = = 26.67 V, v3 = = = 173.33 V
∆ −18 ∆ −18
∆4 840
v4 = = = −46.67 V
∆ −18
and v2 = v1 − 20 = 6.667 V . We have not used Eq. (7.29); it can be used to cross check
results.
EXERCISE 7.4 Find and in the circuit of Fig. 7.14 using nodal analysis.
Answer: v1 = 3.043 V, v2 = −6.956 V, v3 = 0.6522 V.

165 Mesh Analysis
7.3 Mesh Analysis

Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh cur-
rents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit
variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be solved simulta-
neously. Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh
is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh
analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents. Mesh analysis is not quite as general as
nodal analysis because it is only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is
one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another; otherwise it is
nonplanar. A circuit may have crossing branches and still be planar if it can be redrawn
such that it has no crossing branches. For example, the circuit in Fig. 7.15(a) has two
crossing branches, but it can be redrawn as in Fig. 7.15(b). Hence, the circuit in Fig.
7.15(a) is planar. However, the circuit in Fig. 7.16 is nonplanar, because there is no way to
redraw it and avoid the branches crossing. Nonplanar circuits can be handled using nodal
analysis, but they will not be considered in this text.
Figure 7.15: (a) Aplanar circuit with crossing branches, (b) the same circuit redrawn with
no crossing branches.
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
Figure 7.16: To understand mesh analysis, we should first explain more about what we
mean by a mesh.
In Fig. 7.17, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not
a mesh. The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are
interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.
Figure 7.17: A circuit with two meshes.
In this section, we will apply mesh analysis to planar circuits that do not contain current
sources. In the next section, we will consider circuits with current sources. In the mesh
analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take the following three steps.
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1 , i2 , · · · , in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms
of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 7.17. The first step requires that mesh
currents i1 and i2 are assigned to meshes 1 and 2. Although a mesh current may be assigned
to each mesh in an arbitrary direction, it is conventional to assume that each mesh current
flows clockwise.
As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain
−V1 + R1 i1 + R3 (i1 − i2 ) = 0
167 Mesh Analysis
or
(R1 + R3 )i1 − R3 i2 = V1 (7.32)
For mesh 2, applying KVL gives
R2 i2 +V2 + R3 (i2 − i1 ) = 0
or
iR3 i1 + (R2 + R3 )i2 = −V2 (7.33)
Note in Eq. (7.32) that the coefficient of is the sum of the resistances in the first mesh,
while the coefficient of is the negative of the resistance common to meshes 1 and 2. Now
observe that the same is true in Eq. (7.33). This can serve as a shortcut way of writing the
mesh equations.
The third step is to solve for the mesh currents. Putting Eqs. (7.32) and (7.33) in matrix
form yields
" #" # " #
R1 + R3 −R3 i1 V1
= (7.34)
−R3 R2 + R3 i2 V2
which can be solved to obtain the mesh currents i1 and i2 We are at liberty to use any
technique for solving the simultaneous equations. If a circuit has n nodes, b branches, and
l independent loops or meshes, then l = b − n + 1. Hence, l independent simultaneous
equations are required to solve the circuit using mesh analysis.
Notice that the branch currents are different from the mesh currents unless the mesh is
isolated. To distinguish between the two types of currents, we use i for a mesh current and
I for a branch current. The current elements I1 , I2 and I3 are algebraic sums of the mesh
currents. It is evident from Fig. 7.17 that
I1 = i1 , I2 = i2 , I3 = i1 − i2 (7.35)
EXAMPLE 7.5 For the circuit in Fig. 3.18, find the branch currents I2 , I2 and I3 using
mesh analysis.
Solution: We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL. For mesh 1,
−15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 10 = 0
or
3i1 − 2i2 = 1 (7.36)
For mesh 2,
6i2 + 4i2 + 10(i2 − i1 ) − 10 = 0
or
i1 = 2i2 − 1 (7.37)
METHOD 1 Using the substitution method, we substitute Eq. (7.37) into Eq. (7.36),
and write
6i2 − 3 − 2i2 = 1 ⇒ i2 = 1 A
From Eq. (7.37),

i1 = 2i2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1 A
Thus,
I1 = i1 = 1 A, I2 = i2 = 1 A, I3 = i1 − i2 = 0
METHOD 2 To use Cramer’s rule, we cast Eqs. (7.36) and (7.37) in matrix form as
" #" # " #
3 −2 i1 1
=
−1 2 i2 1
We obtain the determinants

3 −2
∆= = 6−2 = 4

−1 2

1 −2 3 1
∆1 = = 2 + 2 = 4, ∆1 = = 3 + 1 = 4,

1 2 −1 1
Thus,
∆1 ∆2
i1 = = 1 A, i2 = =1A
∆ ∆
as before.
169 Mesh Analysis
EXERCISE 7.5 Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 of the circuit of Fig. 7.19.
Answer: i1 = 2 A, i2 = 0 A.
EXAMPLE 7.6 Use mesh analysis to find the current Io in the circuit of Fig. 7.20.
Solution: We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn. For mesh 1,
−24 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 12(i1 − i3 ) = 0
or
11i1 − 5i2 − 7i3 = 12 (7.38)
For mesh 2,
24i2 + 4(i2 − i3 ) + 10(i2 − i1 ) = 0
or
− 5i1 + 19i2 − 2i3 = 0 (7.39)
For mesh 3,
4Io + 12(i3 − i1 ) + 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0
But at node A, Io − i1 − i2 so that
4(i1 − i2 ) + 12(i3 − i1 ) + 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0

or
− i1 − i2 + 2i3 = 0 (7.40)
In matrix form, Eqs. (7.38) to (7.40) become

    
11 −5 −6 i1 12
−5 19 −2 i2  =  0 
    
−1 −1 2 i3 0
We obtain the determinants as
We calculate the mesh currents using Cramer’s rule as
∆1 432 ∆2 144
i1 = = = 2.25 A, i2 = = = 0.75 A
∆ 192 ∆ 192
∆3 288
i3 = = = 1.5 A
∆ 192
Thus, io = i1 − i2 = 1.5 A
171 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
EXERCISE 7.6 Using mesh analysis, find Io in the circuit of Fig. 7.21.
Answer: −5 A.
7.4 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or independent)
may appear complicated. But it is actually much easier than what we encountered in the
previous section, because the presence of the current sources reduces the number of equa-
tions. Consider the following two possible cases.
CASE 1 When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit in Fig. 7.22,
for example. We set i2 = −5 A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual
way; that is,
−10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒ i1 = −2 A
Figure 7.22: A circuit with a current source.
CASE 2 When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider the circuit in Fig.
7.23(a), for example. We create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any
elements connected in series with it, as shown in Fig. 7.23(b). Thus,
A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source
in common.
As shown in Fig. 7.23(b), we create a supermesh as the periphery of the two meshes and
treat it differently. (If a circuit has two or more supermeshes that intersect, they should
be combined to form a larger supermesh.) Why treat the supermesh differently? Be-
cause mesh analysis applies KVL—which requires that we know the voltage across each
Figure 7.23: (a) Two meshes having a current source in common, (b) a supermesh, created
by excluding the current source.
branch—and we do not know the voltage across a current source in advance. However, a
supermesh must satisfy KVL like any other mesh. Therefore, applying KVL to the super-
mesh in Fig. 7.23(b) gives
−20 + 6i1 + 10i2 = 0
or
6i1 + 14i2 = 20 (7.41)
We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect. Applying KCL to
node 0 in Fig. 7.23(a) gives
i2 = i1 + 6 (7.42)
Solving Eqs. (7.41) and (7.42), we get
i1 = −3.2 A, i2 = 2.8 A (7.43)
Note the following properties of a supermesh:
1. The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint equation necessary to
solve for the mesh currents.
2. A supermesh has no current of its own.
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.
EXAMPLE 7.7 For the circuit in Fig. 7.24, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis
Solution: Note that meshes 1 and 2 form a supermesh since they have an independent
current source in common. Also, meshes 2 and 3 form another supermesh because they
have a dependent current source in common. The two supermeshes intersect and form a
larger supermesh as shown. Applying KVL to the larger supermesh,
2i1 + 4i3 + 8(i3 − i4 ) + 6i2 = 0

173 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
or
i1 + 3i2 + 6i3 − 4i4 = 0 (7.44)
For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P:
i2 = i1 + 5 (7.45)
For the dependent current source, we apply KCL to node Q:
i2 = i3 + 3Io
But Io = −i4 , hence,

i2 = i3 − 3i4 (7.46)
Applying KVL in mesh 4,

2i4 + 8(i4 − i3 ) + 10 = 0
or
5i4 − 4i3 = −5 (7.47)
From Eqs. (7.44) to (7.47),
i1 = −7.5 A i2 = −2.5 A, i3 = 3.93 A, i4 = 2.143 A
EXERCISE 7.7 Use mesh analysis to determine i1 , i2 and i3 in Fig. 7.25.


Circuit Theorems
8
8.1 Linearity Property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and
effect. Although the property applies to many circuit elements, we shall limit its applica-
bility to resistors in this chapter. The property is a combination of both the homogeneity
(scaling) property and the additivity property.
The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is mul-
tiplied by a constant, then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same
constant. For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the output v,
v = IR (8.1)
If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases correspondingly

by k; that is,
kiR = kv (8.2)
The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of
the responses to each input applied separately. Using the voltage-current relationship of a
resistor, if
v1 = i1 R (8.3)
175
8. Circuit Theorems 176
v2 = i2 R (8.4)
then applying (i1 + i2 ) gives
v = (i1 + i2 )R = i1 R + i2 R = v1 + v2 (8.5)
We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies
both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous. A linear circuit
consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and independent sources.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.
Throughout this book we consider only linear circuits. Note that since p = i2 R = v2 /R
(making it a quadratic function rather than a linear one), the relationship between power
and voltage (or current) is nonlinear. Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are
not applicable to power.
To illustrate the linearity principle, consider the linear circuit shown in Fig. 8.1. The
linear circuit has no independent sources inside it. It is excited by a voltage source which
serves as the input. The circuit is terminated by a load R. We may take the current i through
R as the output. Suppose vs = 10 V gives According to the linearity principle, vs = 1 V
will give i = 0.2 A. By the same token, i = 1 mA must be due to vs = 5 mV.
Figure 8.1: A linear circuit with input vs and output i.
EXAMPLE 8.1 For the circuit in Fig. 8.2, find Io when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V

177 Linearity Property
Solution: Applying KVL to the two loops, we obtain
12i1 − 4i2 + vs = 0 (8.6)
− 4i1 + 16i2 − 3vx − vs = 0 (8.7)
But vx = 2i1 . Equation (8.7) becomes
− 10i1 + 16i2 − vs = 0 (8.8)
Adding Eqs. (8.6) and (8.8) yields
2i1 + 12i2 = 0 ⇒ i1 = −6i2
Substituting this in Eq. (8.6), we get
vs
−76i2 + vs = 0 ⇒ i2 =
76
When vs = 12 V,
12
Io = i2 = A
76
When vs = 24 V,
24
Io = i2 =A
76
showing that when the source value is doubled, Io doubles.
EXERCISE 8.1 For the circuit in Fig. 8.3, find vo when is = 15 nd is = 30 A
Answer: 20 V, 40 V.
EXAMPLE 8.2 Assume Io = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual value of Io in the
circuit of Fig. 8.4.
Solution:
If Io = 1 A, then V1 = (3 + 5)Io = 8 V and I1 = V1 /4 = 2 A. Applying KCL at node 1 gives
I2 = I1 + Io = 3 A
V2
V2 = V1 + 2I2 = 8 + 6 = 14 V, I3 = =2A
7
Applying KCL at node 2 gives

I4 = I3 + I2 = 5 A
Therefore, Is = 5 A This shows that assuming Io = 1 gives Is = 5 A the actual source current
of 15 A will give Io = 3 A as the actual value.
EXERCISE 8.2 Assume that Vo = 1 V and use linearity to calculate the actual value of
vo in the circuit of Fig. 8.5.
Answer: 12 V
8.2 Superposition
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a
specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis. Another way is to
determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them
up. The latter approach is known as the superposition.
The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property.
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately.
However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:
179 Superposition
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources
are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short
circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a
simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source using the techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Analyzing a circuit using superposition has one major disadvantage: it may very likely
involve more work. If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to ana-
lyze three simpler circuits each providing the contribution due to the respective individual
source. However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler circuits
through replacement of voltage sources by short circuits and of current sources by open
circuits.
Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable
to the effect on power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends
on the square of the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current through
(or voltage across) the element must be calculated first using superposition.
EXAMPLE 8.3 Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig. 8.6.
Solution:
Since there are two sources, let
v = v1 + v2
where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current
source, respectively. To obtain v1 we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 8.7(a).
Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 8.7(a) gives
12i1 − 6 = 0 ⇒ i1 = 0.5 A
Thus,
Figure 8.7: For Example 8.3: (a) calculating v1 (b) calculating v2 .
v1 = 4i1 = 2 V
We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writin
4
v1 = (6) = 2 V
4+8
To get v2 we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 8.7(b). Using current division,
8
i3 = (3) = 2 A
4+8
Hence,
v2 = 4i3 = 8 V
And we find
v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V
EXERCISE 8.3 Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit of Fig. 8.8.
Answer: 6 V.
181 Superposition
EXAMPLE 8.4 Find io in the circuit of Fig. 8.9 using superposition.
Solution:
The circuit in Fig. 8.9 involves a dependent source, which must be left intact. We let
io = i0o + i00o (8.9)
where i0o and i00o are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage source respectively. To
obtain i0o we turn off the 20-V source so that we have the circuit in Fig. 4.10(a). We apply
mesh analysis in order to obtaini0o For loop 1,
i1 = 4 A (8.10)
For loop 2,
− 3i1 + 6i2 − 1i3 − 5i0o = 0 (8.11)
For loop 3,
Figure 8.10: For Example 8.4: Applying superposition to (a) obtain i0o , (b) obtain i00o .
− 5i1 − 1i2 + 10i3 + 5i0o = 0 (8.12)

But at node 0,
i3 = i1 − i0o = 4 − i0o (8.13)
Substituting Eqs. (8.10) and (8.13) into Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12) gives two simultaneous
equations
3i2 − 2i0o = 8 (8.14)
i2 + 5i0o = 20 (8.15)
which can be solved to get

52
i0o = A (8.16)
17
To obtain i00o we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit becomes that shown in
Fig. 8.10(b). For loop 4, KVL gives
6i4 − 5i5 − 5i00o = 0 (8.17)
and for loop 5,

− i4 + 10i5 − 20 + 5i00o = 0 (8.18)
But i5 = −i00o Substituting this in Eqs. (8.17) and (8.18) gives
60
i00o = − A (8.19)
17
Now substituting Eqs. (8.16) and (8.19) into Eq. (8.9) gives
8
io = − = −0.4706 A
17
EXERCISE 8.4 Use superposition to find vx in the circuit of Fig. 8.11.
Answer: vx = 25 V.
183 Superposition
EXAMPLE 8.5 For the circuit in Fig. 8.12, use the superposition theorem to find i.
Solution:
In this case, we have three sources. Let
i = i1 + i2 + i3
where i1 , i2 , and i3 are due to the 12-V, 24-V, and 3-A sources respectively. To get i1 ,
consider the circuit in Fig. 8.13(a). Combining (on the right-hand side) in series with 8 Ω
gives 12 Ω. The 12 Ω in parallel with 4 Ω gives 12 × 4/16 = 3 Ω. Thus,
12
i1 = =2A
6
To get i2 , consider the circuit in Fig. 8.13(b). Applying mesh analysis gives

16ia − 4ib + 24 = 0 ⇒ 4ia − ib = −6 (8.20)
7
7ib − 4ia = 0 ⇒ ia = ib (8.21)
4
Substituting Eq. (8.21) into Eq. (8.20) gives
i2 = ib = −1
To get i3 , consider the circuit in Fig. 8.13(c). Using nodal analysis gives
v2 v2 − v1
3= + ⇒ 24 = 3v2 − 2v1 (8.22)
8 4
v2 − v1 v1 v1 10
= + ⇒ v2 = v1 (8.23)
4 4 3 3
Substituting Eq. (8.23) into Eq. (8.22) leads to v1 = 3 and
v1
i3 = =1A
3
Thus,
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = 2 − 1 + 1 = 2 A
EXERCISE 8.5 Find I in the circuit of Fig. 8.14 using the superposition principle.
Answer: 0.75 A.
8.3 Source Transformation

We have noticed that series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation help sim-
plify circuits. Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic to these
tools is the concept of equivalence. We recall that an equivalent circuit is one whose v-i
characteristics are identical with the original circuit.
We saw that node-voltage (or mesh-current) equations can be obtained by mere inspec-
tion of a circuit when the sources are all independent current (or all independent voltage)
sources. It is therefore expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a voltage source
185 Source Transformation
in series with a resistor for a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa, as
shown in Fig. 8.15. Either substitution is known as a source transformation.
Figure 8.15: Transformation of independent sources.
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a

resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
The two circuits in Fig. 8.15 are equivalent—provided they have the same voltage-
current relation at terminals a-b. It is easy to show that they are indeed equivalent. If
the sources are turned off, the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b in both circuits is R.
Also, when terminals a-b are short-circuited, the short-circuit current flowing from a to b
is isc = vs /R in the circuit on the left-hand side and isc = is for the circuit on the right-hand
side. Thus, vs /R in order for the two circuits to be equivalent. Hence, source transformation
requires that
vs
vs = is R or is = (8.24)
R
Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided we carefully handle
the dependent variable. As shown in Fig. 8.16, a dependent voltage source in series with
a resistor can be transformed to a dependent current source in parallel with the resistor or
vice versa where we make sure that Eq. (8.24) is satisfied.
Figure 8.16: Transformation of dependent sources.
Like the wye-delta transformation, a source transformation does not affect the remain-
ing part of the circuit. When applicable, source transformation is a powerful tool that al-
lows circuit manipulations to ease circuit analysis. However, we should keep the following
points in mind when dealing with source transformation.
1. Note from Fig. 8.15 (or Fig. 8.16) that the arrow of the current source is directed
toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
2. Note from Eq. (8.24) that source transformation is not possible when R = 0, which
is the case with an ideal voltage source. However, for a practical, nonideal voltage
source, R 6= 0. Similarly, an ideal current source with R = ∞ cannot be replaced by a
finite voltage source.
EXAMPLE 8.6 Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit of Fig. 8.17.
Solution:
We first transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the circuit in Fig. 8.18(a).
Combining the 4-Ω and 2-Ω resistors in series and transforming the 12-V voltage source
gives us Fig. 8.18(b). We now combine the 3-Ω and 6-Ω resistors in parallel to get 2-Ω.
We also combine the 2-A and 4-A current sources to get a 2-A source. Thus, by repeatedly
applying source transformations, we obtain the circuit in Fig. 8.18(c). We use current
division in Fig. 8.18(c) to get

2
i= (2) = 0.4 A
2+8
and
vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2 V
Alternatively, since the 8-Ω and 2-Ω resistors in Fig. 8.18(c) are in parallel, they have
the same voltage vo across them. Hence
8×2
vo = (8||2)(2 A) = (2) = 3.2 V
10
187 Source Transformation
EXERCISE 8.6
Answer: 1.78 A.
EXAMPLE 8.7 Find vx in Fig. 8.20 using source transformation.
Solution:
The circuit in Fig. 8.20 involves a voltage-controlled dependent current source. We trans-
form this dependent current source as well as the 6-V independent voltage source as shown
in Fig. 8.21(a). The 18-V voltage source is not transformed because it is not connected
in series with any resistor. The two 2-Ω resistors in parallel combine to give a 1-Ω resis-
tor, which is in parallel with the 3-A current source. The current source is transformed
to a voltage source as shown in Fig. 8.21(b). Notice that the terminals for vx are intact.
Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 8.21(b) gives
− 3 + 5i + vx + 18 = 0 (8.25)
Applying KVL to the loop containing only the 3-V voltage source, the 1-Ω resistor, and
Figure 8.21: For Example 8.7: Applying source transformation to the circuit in Fig. 8.20.
vx yields
− 3 + 1i + vx = 0 ⇒ vx = 3 − i (8.26)
Substituting this into Eq. (8.25), we obtain
15 + 5i + 3 − i = 0 ⇒ i = −4.5 A
Alternatively, we may apply KVL to the loop containing vx , the 4-Ω resistor, the
voltage-controlled dependent voltage source, and the 18-V voltage source in Fig. 8.21(b).
We obtain
−vx + 4i + vx + 18 = 0 ⇒ i = −4.5 A
Thus, vx = 3 − i = 7.5 V
EXERCISE 8.7 Use source transformation to find ix in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.22.
Answer: 7.056 mA.
8.4 Thevenin’s Theorem

It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the
load) while other elements are fixed. As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may
be connected to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the variable
element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid this
problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is
replaced by an equivalent circuit.
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit in Fig. 8.23(a) can be replaced by
that in Fig. 8.23(b). (The load in Fig. 4.23 may be a single resistor or another circuit.) The
circuit to the left of the terminals a-b in Fig. 4.23(b) is known as the Thevenin equivalent
circuit; it was developed in 1883 by M. Leon Thevenin (1857–1926), a French telegraph
engineer.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equiv-
alent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh , where VTh is
189 Thevenin’s Theorem
Figure 8.23: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original
circuit, (b) the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Our major concern right now is how to find the Thevenin equivalent voltage VTh and
resistance RTh . To do so, suppose the two circuits in Fig. 8.23 are equivalent. Two circuits
are said to be equivalent if they have the same voltage-current relation at their terminals.
Let us find out what will make the two circuits in Fig. 8.23 equivalent. If the terminals a-b
are made open-circuited (by removing the load), no current flows, so that the open-circuit
voltage across the terminals a-b in Fig. 8.23(a) must be equal to the voltage source VTh
in Fig. 8.23(b), since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus VTh is the open-circuit voltage
across the terminals as shown in Fig. 8.24(a); that is,
VTh = voc (8.27)
Figure 8.24: Finding VTh and RTh .
Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b open-circuited, we turn off all
independent sources. The input resistance (or equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit
at the terminals a-b in Fig. 8.23(a) must be equal to RTh in Fig. 8.23(b) because the
two circuits are equivalent. Thus, RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off, as shown in Fig. 8.24(b); that is,
RTh = Rin (8.28)
To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance , we need to consider two cases.
CASE 1 the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is
the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig.
8.24(b).
CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As
with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled
by circuit variables. We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the
resulting current io . Then RTh = vo /io , as shown in Fig. 8.25(a). Alternatively, we may
insert a current source at terminals a-b as shown in Fig. 8.25(b) and find the terminal
voltage vo . Again RTh = vo /io . Either of the two approaches will give the same result. In
either approach we may assume any value of and . For example, we may use vo = 1 V or
io = 1 A, or even use unspecified values of vo or io .
Figure 8.25: Finding RTh when circuit has dependent sources.
It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the negative resistance
(v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying power. This is possible in a circuit with
dependent sources; Example 8.10 will illustrate this.
Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit. A
large circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage source and a single resistor.
This replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design.
As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by the
Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. The equivalent network behaves the same
way externally as the original circuit. Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL , as
shown in Fig. 8.26(a). The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load
are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load’s terminals is
obtained, as shown in Fig. 8.26(b). From Fig. 8.26(b), we obtain
VTh
IL = (8.29)
RTh + RL
RL
VL = RL IL = VTh (8.30)
RTh + RL
Note from Fig. 4.26(b) that the Thevenin equivalent is a simple voltage divider, yielding
VL by mere inspection.
Figure 8.26: A circuit with a load: (a) original circuit, (b) Thevenin equivalent.
EXAMPLE 8.8 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 8.27,
to the left of the terminals a-b Then find the current through RL = 6, 16, 36 Ω.
Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and
the 2-A current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is
shown in Fig. 8.28(a). Thus,
4 × 12
RTh = 4||12 + 1 = +1 = 4 Ω
16
Figure 8.28: For Example 8.8: (a) finding RTh , (b) finding VTh .
To find VTh consider the circuit in Fig. 8.28(b). Applying mesh analysis to the two
loops, we obtain
−32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 − i2 ) = 0, i2 = −2 A
Solving for i1 , we get i1 = 0.5 A Thus,
VTh = 12(i1 − i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30 V
Alternatively, it is even easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the 1-Ω resistor since no
current flows through it. At the top node, KCL gives
32 −VTh VTh
+2 =
4 12
or
96 − 3VTh + 24 = VTh ⇒ VTh = 30 V
as obtained before. We could also use source transformation to find VTh . The Thevenin
Figure 8.29: The Thevenin equivalent circuit for Example 8.8.
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8.29. The current through RL is
VTh 30
IL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
When RL = 6,
30
IL = =3A
10
When RL = 16,
30
IL = = 1.5 A
20
When RL = 36,
30
IL = = 0.75 A
40
EXERCISE 8.8 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals in the circuit of Fig. 8.30. Then find I. Answer:VTh = 9 V, RTh = 3 Ω, I =
2.25 A.
EXAMPLE 8.9 Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 8.31at terminals a-b.
Solution:
This circuit contains a dependent source, unlike the circuit in the previous example. To find
we set the independent source equal to zero but leave the dependent source alone. Because
of the presence of the dependent source, however, we excite the network with a voltage
source vo connected to the terminals as indicated in Fig. 8.32(a). We may set vo = 1 V to
ease calculation, since the circuit is linear. Our goal is to find the current io through the
terminals, and then obtain RTh = 1/io (Alternatively, we may insert a 1-A current source,
find the corresponding voltage vo , and obtain RTh = vo /1.)
Applying mesh analysis to loop 1 in the circuit of Fig. 8.32(a) results in
−2vx + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or vx = i1 − i2
But −4i2 = vx = i1 − i2 ; hence,

i1 = −3i2 (8.31)
Figure 8.32: Finding RTh and VTh for Example 8.9.
For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces
4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0 (8.32)
6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0 (8.33)
Solving these equations gives

1
i3 = − A
6
But io = −i3 = 1/6 A Hence,
1V
RTh = =6Ω
io
To get VTh , we find voc in the circuit of Fig. 8.32(b). Applying mesh analysis, we get
i1 = 5 (8.34)
− 2vx + 2(i3 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒ vx = i3 − i2 (8.35)
4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i3 ) + 6i2 = 0
or
12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0 (8.36)
But 4(i2 − i1 ) = vx Solving these equations leads to i2 = 10/3. Hence,
Figure 8.33: The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 8.31.

VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20 V
The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Fig. 8.33.
EXERCISE 8.9 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 8.34 to the
left of the terminals.
Answer: VTh = 5.33 V, RTh = 0.44 Ω.
EXAMPLE 8.10 Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 8.35(a) at
terminals a-b.
Solution:
1. Define. The problem is clearly defined; we are to determine the Thevenin equivalent
of the circuit shown in Fig. 8.35(a).
2. Present. The circuit contains a 2 Ω resistor in parallel with a 4 Ω resistor. These are
in turn, in parallel with a dependent current source. It is important to note that there
are no independent sources.
3. Alternative. The first thing to consider is that, since we have no independent sources
in this circuit, we must excite the circuit externally. In addition, when you have no
independent sources you will not have a value VTh : for you will only have to find
RTh .
The simplest approach is to excite the circuit with either a 1-V voltage source or a 1-
A current source. Since we will end up with an equivalent resistance (either positive
or negative), I prefer to use the current source and nodal analysis which will yield a
voltage at the output terminals equal to the resistance (with 1 A flowing in, is equal
to 1 times the equivalent resistance).
As an alternative, the circuit could also be excited by a 1-V voltage source and mesh
analysis could be used to find the equivalent resistance.
4. Attempt. We start by writing the nodal equation at a in Fig. 8.35(b) assuming io =
1A
2ix + (vo − 0)/4 + (vo − 0)/2 + (−1) = 0 (8.37)
Since we have two unknowns and only one equation, we will need a constraint equa-
tion.
ix = (0 − vo )/2 = −vo /2 (8.38)
Substituting Eq. (8.38) into Eq. (8.37) yields
2(−vo /2) + (vo − 0)/4 + (vo − 0)/2 + (−1) = 0
1 1
= (−1 = + )vo − 1 or vo = −4 V
4 2
Since vo = 1 × RTh , then RTh = vo /1 = −4 Ω The negative value of the resistance
tells us that, according to the passive sign convention, the circuit in Fig. 8.35(a)
is supplying power. Of course, the resistors in Fig. 8.35(a) cannot supply power
(they absorb power); it is the dependent source that supplies the power. This is an
example of how a dependent source and resistors could be used to simulate negative
resistance.
5. Evaluate. First of all, we note that the answer has a negative value. We know this is
not possible in a passive circuit, but in this circuit we do have an active device (the
dependent current source). Thus, the equivalent circuit is essentially an active circuit
that can supply power.

Now we must evaluate the solution. The best way to do this is to perform a check,
using a different approach, and see if we obtain the same solution. Let us try connect-
ing a 9-Ω resistor in series with a 10-V voltage source across the output terminals of
the original circuit and then the Thevenin equivalent. To make the circuit easier to
solve, we can take and change the parallel current source and 4-Ω resistor to a series
voltage source and 4-Ω resistor by using source transformation. This, with the new
load, gives us the circuit shown in Fig. 8.35(c).
We can now write two mesh equations.
8ix = 4i1 + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0
2(i2 − i1 ) + 9i2 + 10 = 0
Note, we only have two equations but have 3 unknowns, so we need a constraint
equation. We can use
ix = i2 − i1
This leads to a new equation for loop 1. Simplifying leads to
(4 + 2 − 8)i1 + (−2 + 8)i2 = 0
or
−2i1 + 6i2 = 0 or i1 = 3i2
−2i1 + 11i2 = −10
Substituting the first equation into the second gives
−6i2 = 11i2 = −10 or i2 = −10/5 = −2 A
Using the Thevenin equivalent is quite easy since we have only one loop, as shown
in Fig. 8.35(d).
−4i + 9i + 10 = 0 or i = −10/5 = −2 A
6. Satisfactory? Clearly we have found the value of the equivalent circuit as required
by the problem statement. Checking does validate that solution (we compared the
answer we obtained by using the equivalent circuit with one obtained by using the
load with the original circuit). We can present all this as a solution to the problem.
EXERCISE 8.10 Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 8.36.
Answer: VTh = 0 V, RTh = −7.5 Ω.
8.5 Norton’s Theorem

In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L. Norton, an American
engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem.
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN , where IN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Thus, the circuit in Fig. 8.37(a) can be replaced by the one in Fig. 8.37(b).
Figure 8.37: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit.
The proof of Norton’s theorem will be given in the next section. For now, we are mainly
concerned with how to get RN and IN We find RN in the same way we find RN . In fact, from
what we know about source transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal;
that is,
RN = RTh (8.39)
To find the Norton current IN , we determine the short-circuit current flowing from ter-
minal a to b in both circuits in Fig. 8.37. It is evident that the short-circuit current in
199 Norton’s Theorem
Fig. 8.37(b) is IN . This must be the same short-circuit current from terminal a to b in Fig.
8.37(a), since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus,
IN = isc (8.40)
shown in Fig. 8.38. Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in
Thevenin’s theorem.
Figure 8.38: Finding Norton current IN .
Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems: RN = RTh
as in Eq. (8.39), and
VTh
IN = (8.41)
RTh
This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source transformation is often
called Thevenin-Norton transformation.
Since VTh , IN and RTh are related according to Eq. (8.41), to determine the Thevenin or
Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.

• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all independent
sources are turned off.
We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes the least effort and
use them to get the third using Ohm’s law. Example 8.11 will illustrate this. Also, since
VTh = voc (8.42)
IN = isc (8.43)
voc
RTh = = RN (8.44)
isc
the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equiv-
alent, of a circuit which contains at least one independent source.
EXAMPLE 8.11 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 8.39 at termi-
nals a-b.
Solution:
We find RN in the same way we find RTh in the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Set the inde-
pendent sources equal to zero. This leads to the circuit in Fig. 8.40(a), from which we find
RN . Thus,
20 × 5
RN = 5||(8 + 4 + 8) = 5||20 = =4Ω
25
To find we short-circuit terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 8.40(b). We ignore the 5-Ω
Figure 8.40: For Example 8.11; finding: (a) RN , (b) IN = isc , (c) VTh = voc .
resistor because it has been short-circuited. Applying mesh analysis, we obtain
i1 = 2 A, 20i2 − 4i1 − 12 = 0
From these equations, we obtain
i2 = 1 A = isc = IN
Alternatively, we may determine IN from VTh /RTh We obtain VTh as the open-circuit
voltage across terminals a and b in Fig. 8.40(c). Using mesh analysis, we obtain
i3 = 2 A
201 Norton’s Theorem
25i4 − 4i3 − 12 = 0 ⇒ i4 = 0.8 A
and
voc = VTh = 5i4 = 4 V
Hence,
VTh 4
IN = = =1A
RTh 4
as obtained previously. This also serves to confirm Eq. (8.44) that RTh = voc /isc = 4/1 =
4 Ω. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 8.41.
Figure 8.41: Norton equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 8.39.
EXERCISE 8.11 Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. 8.42, at
terminals a-b.
Answer: RN = 3 Ω, IN = 4.5 A.
EXAMPLE 8.12 Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig. 8.43 at
terminals a-b.
Solution:
To find RN , we set the independent voltage source equal to zero and connect a voltage
source of vo = 1 V (or any unspecified voltage vo ) to the terminals. We obtain the circuit
in Fig. 8.44(a). We ignore the 4-Ω resistor because it is short-circuited. Also due to the
short circuit, the 5-Ω resistor, the voltage source, and the dependent current source are all
1V
in parallel. Hence, ix = 0 At node a, io = = 0.2 A and
5Ω
vo 1
RN = = =5Ω
io 0.2
Figure 8.44: For Example 8.12: (a) finding RN , (b) finding IN .
To find IN , we short-circuit terminals a and b and find the current isc , as indicated in
Fig. 8.44(b). Note from this figure that the 4-Ω resistor, the 10-V voltage source, the 5-Ω
resistor, and the dependent current source are all in parallel. Hence,
10
ix = = 2.5 A
4
At node a, KCL gives

10
isc = + 2ix = 2 + 2(2.5) = 7 A
5
Thus,
IN = 7 A
EXERCISE 8.12 Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 8.45 at termi-
nals a-b.
Answer: RN = 1 Ω, IN = 10 A.
203 Maximum Power Transfer
8.6 Maximum Power Transfer
In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are
applications in areas such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power
delivered to a load. We now address the problem of delivering the maximum power to
a load when given a system with known internal losses. It should be noted that this will
result in significant internal losses greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.
The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can
deliver to a load. We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL . If the entire circuit
is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig. 8.46, the power
delivered to the load is 2
2 VTh
p = i RL = RL (8.45)
RTh + RL
For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load resistance RL the power
Figure 8.46: The circuit used for maximum power transfer.
delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig. 8.47. We notice from Fig. 8.47 that the
power is small for small or large values of RL but maximum for some value of RL between
0 and ∞. We now want to show that this maximum power occurs when RL is equal to RTh .
This is known as the maximum power theorem.
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh ).
Figure 8.47: Power delivered to the load as a function of RL .
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p in Eq. (4.21) with
respect to RL and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

2
dp 2 (RTh + RL ) − 2RL (RTh + RL )
= VTh
dRL (RTh + RL )4

2 (RTh + RL − 2RL )
= VTh =0
(RTh + RL )3
This implies that

0 = (RTh + RL − 2RL ) = (RTh − RL ) (8.46)
which yields,
RL = RTh (8.47)
showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance RL equals
the Thevenin resistance RTh . We can readily confirm that Eq. (8.47) gives the maximum
power by showing that d 2 p/dR2L < 0.
The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting Eq. (8.47) into Eq. (8.45),
for
2
VTh
pmax = (8.48)
4RTh
Equation (8.48) applies only when RL = RTh . When RL 6= RTh we compute the power
delivered to the load using Eq. (8.45).
EXAMPLE 8.13 Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of
Fig. 8.48. Find the maximum power.
Solution:
We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the ter-
minals a-b. To get RTh we use the circuit in Fig. 4.51(a) and obtain
6 × 12
RTh = 2 + 3 + 6||12 = 5 + =9Ω
18
To get VTh , we consider the circuit in Fig. 8.49(b). Applying mesh analysis gives
−12 + 18i1 − 12i2 = 0, i2 = −2 A

205 Maximum Power Transfer
Figure 8.49: For Example 8.13: (a) finding RTh , (b) finding VTh .
Solving for i1 , we get i1 = −2/3. Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across
terminals a-b, we obtain
−12 + 6i1 + 3i2 + 2(0) +VTh = 0 ⇒ VTh = 22 V
For maximum power transfer,

RL = RTh = 9 Ω
and the maximum power is
2
VTh 222
pmax = = = 13.44 W
4RTh 4 × 9
EXERCISE 8.13 Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from
the rest of the circuit in Fig. 8.50. Calculate the maximum power.
Answer: 4.22 Ω, 2.901 W

Capacitors and Inductors
9
9.1 Introduction
So far we have limited our study to resistive circuits. In this chapter, we shall introduce two
new and important passive linear circuit elements: the capacitor and the inductor. Unlike
resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and inductors do not dissipate but store energy,
which can be retrieved at a later time. For this reason, capacitors and inductors are called
storage elements.
The application of resistive circuits is quite limited. With the introduction of capacitors
and inductors in this chapter, we will be able to analyze more important and practical
circuits. Be assured that the circuit analysis techniques covered in previous Chapters are
equally applicable to circuits with capacitors and inductors.
We begin by introducing capacitors and describing how to combine them in series or
in parallel. Later, we do the same for inductors. As typical applications, we explore how
capacitors are combined with op amps to form integrators, differentiators, and analog com-
puters.
9.2 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field. Besides
resistors, capacitors are the most common electrical components. Capacitors are used ex-
tensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power systems. For example,
207
9. Capacitors and Inductors 208
Figure 9.1: A typical capacitor.
Figure 9.2: A capacitor with applied voltage v.
they are used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and as dynamic memory elements in
computer systems.
A capacitor is typically constructed as depicted in Fig. 9.1.
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
In many practical applications, the plates may be aluminum foil while the dielectric may
be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 9.2, the source deposits
a positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge −q on the other. The capacitor is
said to store the electric charge. The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly
proportional to the applied voltage v so that
q = Cv (9.1)
where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.

The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), in honor of the English physicist Michael Faraday
(1791–1867). From Eq. (9.1), we may derive the following definition.
Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference
between the two plates, measured in farads (F).
Note from Eq. (9.1) that 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt.

209 Capacitors
Figure 9.3: Circuit symbols for capacitors: (a) fixed capacitor, (b) variable capacitor.
Although the capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge q per plate to the
applied voltage v, it does not depend on q or v. It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor. For example, for the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig. 9.1, the capacitance
is given by
εA
C= (9.2)
d
where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and ε is the
permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates. Although Eq. (9.2) applies to
only parallel-plate capacitors, we may infer from it that, in general, three factors determine
the value of the capacitance:
1. The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
2. The spacing between the plates—the smaller the spacing, the greater the capacitance.
3. The permittivity of the material—the higher the permittivity, the greater the capaci-
tance.
Capacitors are commercially available in different values and types. Typically, capac-
itors have values in the picofarad (pF) to microfarad (µF) range. They are described by
the dielectric material they are made of and by whether they are of fixed or variable type.
Figure 9.3 shows the circuit symbols for fixed and variable capacitors. Note that according
to the passive sign convention, if v > 0 and i > 0 or if v < 0 and i < 0, the capacitor is being
charged, and if v · i < 0 the capacitor is discharging.
Figure 9.4 shows common types of fixed-value capacitors. Polyester capacitors are light
in weight, stable, and their change with temperature is predictable. Instead of polyester,
other dielectric materials such as mica and polystyrene may be used. Film capacitors are
rolled and housed in metal or plastic films. Electrolytic capacitors produce very high capac-
itance. Figure 9.5 shows the most common types of variable capacitors. The capacitance
of a trimmer (or padder) capacitor is often placed in parallel with another capacitor so that
the equivalent capacitance can be varied slightly. The capacitance of the variable air ca-
pacitor (meshed plates) is varied by turning the shaft. Variable capacitors are used in radio
receivers allowing one to tune to various stations. In addition, capacitors are used to block
dc, pass ac, shift phase, store energy, start motors, and suppress noise.
To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take the derivative of
both sides of Eq. (9.1). Since
dq
i= (9.3)
dt
Figure 9.4: Fixed capacitors: (a) polyester capacitor, (b) ceramic capacitor, (c) electrolytic
capacitor.
Figure 9.5: Variable capacitors: (a) trimmer capacitor, (b) filmtrim capacitor.
211 Capacitors
Figure 9.6: Current-voltage relationship of a capacitor.
differentiating both sides of Eq. (9.1) gives
dv
i=C (9.4)
dt
This is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor, assuming the passive sign conven-
tion. The relationship is illustrated in Fig. 9.6 for a capacitor whose capacitance is inde-
pendent of voltage. Capacitors that satisfy Eq. (9.4) are said to be linear. For a nonlinear
capacitor, the plot of the current-voltage relationship is not a straight line. Although some
capacitors are nonlinear, most are linear. We will assume linear capacitors in this book.
The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by integrating both sides
of Eq. (9.4). We get
1 t
Z
v= idt (9.5)
C −∞
or
1 t
Z
v= idt + v(t0 ) (9.6)
C t0
where v(t0 ) = q(t0 )/C is the voltage across the capacitor at time t0 . Equation (9.6) shows
that capacitor voltage depends on the past history of the capacitor current. Hence, the
capacitor has memory—a property that is often exploited.
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
dv
p = vi = Cv (9.7)
dt
The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
1 2 v(t)
Z t Z t Z v(t)
dv
ω= pdt = C v dt = C vdv = Cv (9.8)
−∞ −∞ dt v(−∞) 2 v(−∞)
We note that v(−∞) = 0, because the capacitor was uncharged at t = −∞. Thus,
1
ω = Cv2 (9.9)
2
Figure 9.7: Voltage across a capacitor: (a) allowed, (b) not allowable; an abrupt change is
not possible.
Using Eq. (9.1), we may rewrite Eq. (9.9) as
q2
ω= (9.10)
2C
Equation (9.9) or (9.10) represents the energy stored in the electric field that exists between
the plates of the capacitor. This energy can be retrieved, since an ideal capacitor cannot
dissipate energy. In fact, the word capacitor is derived from this element’s capacity to store
energy in an electric field.
We should note the following important properties of a capacitor:
1. Note from Eq. (9.4) that when the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with
time (i.e., dc voltage), the current through the capacitor is zero. Thus,
A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
However, if a battery (dc voltage) is connected across a capacitor, the capacitor

charges.
2. The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous.
The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.
The capacitor resists an abrupt change in the voltage across it. According to Eq.
(9.4), a discontinuous change in voltage requires an infinite current, which is phys-
ically impossible. For example, the voltage across a capacitor may take the form
shown in Fig. 9.7(a), whereas it is not physically possible for the capacitor voltage
to take the form shown in Fig. 9.7(b) because of the abrupt changes. Conversely, the
current through a capacitor can change instantaneously.
3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the circuit when
storing energy in its field and returns previously stored energy when delivering power
to the circuit.
213 Capacitors
Figure 9.8: Circuit model of a nonideal capacitor.
4. A real, nonideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance, as shown in Fig.

9.8. The leakage resistance may be as high as 100 MΩ and can be neglected for most
practical applications. For this reason, we will assume ideal capacitors in this book.
EXAMPLE 9.1
(a) Calculate the charge stored on a 3-pF capacitor with 20 V across it.
(b) Find the energy stored in the capacitor.
Solution:
(a) Since q = Cv,
q = 3 × 10−12 × 20 = 60 pC
(b) The energy stored is
1 1
ω = Cv2 = × 3 × 10−12 × 400 = 600 pJ
2 2
EXERCISE 9.1 What is the voltage across a 3 µF capacitor if the charge on one plate
is 0.12 mC? How much energy is stored?
Answer: 40 V, 2.4 mJ.
EXAMPLE 9.2 The voltage across a 5 µF capacitor is
v(t) = 10 cos 6000t V
Calculate the current through it.

Solution:
By definition, the current is
dv d
i(t) = C = 5 × 10−6 (10 cos 6000t)
dt dt
−6
= −5 × 10 × 6000 × 10 sin 6000t = −0.3 sin 6000t A
EXERCISE 9.2 If a 10 µF capacitor is connected to a voltage source with
v(t) = 50 sin 2000t V
determine the current through the capacitor.

Answer: cos 2000t A.
EXAMPLE 9.3 Determine the voltage across a 2 µF capacitor if the current through it
is
i(t) = 6e−3000t mA
Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero.

Solution:
Z t
1
Since v = idt + v(0) = 0,
C 0
1
Z t
v= −6
= 6e−3000t dt · 10−3
2 × 10 0
3 × 10 −3000t t
3

−3000t
=
−3000
e = (1 − e )V
0
EXERCISE 9.3 The current through a 100 µF capacitor is i(t) = 50 sin 120πt mA.
Calculate the voltage across it at t = 1 ms and t = 5 ms. Take v(0) = 0.
Answer: 93.14 mV, 1.736 V.
EXAMPLE 9.4 Determine the current through a 200 µF capacitor whose voltage is
shown in Fig. 9.9.
Solution:
215 Capacitors
The voltage waveform can be described mathematically as




50t V, 0<t <1


100 − 50t V,

1<t <3
v(t) =
−200 + 50t V,
 3<t <4




0, otherwise
Since i = Cdv/dt and C = 200 µF, we take the derivative of v to obtain




50, 0<t <1


−50, 1 < t < 3

−6
i(t) = 200 × 10 ×


50, 3<t <4



0, otherwise



 10 mA, 0<t <1


−10 mA, 1 < t < 3

=


 10 mA, 3<t <4



0, otherwise
Thus the current waveform is as shown in Fig. 9.10.
EXERCISE 9.4 An initially uncharged 1 mF capacitor has the current shown in Fig.
9.11 across it. Calculate the voltage across it at t = 2 ms and t = 5 ms
Answer: 100 mV, 400 mV.

EXAMPLE 9.5 Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor in Fig. 9.12(a) under dc
conditions.
Solution:
Under dc conditions, we replace each capacitor with an open circuit, as shown in Fig.
9.12(b). The current through the series combination of the 2 kΩ and 4 kΩ resistors is
obtained by current division as
3
i= (6 mA) = 2 mA
3+2+4
Hence, the voltages v1 and v2 across the capacitors are
v1 = 2000i = 4 V v2 = 4000i = 8 V
and the energies stored in them are
1 1
ω1 = C1 v21 = (2 × 10−3 )(4)2 = 16 mJ
2 2
1 1
ω2 = C2 v22 = (4 × 10−3 )(8)2 = 128 mJ
2 2
EXERCISE 9.5 Under dc conditions, find the energy stored in the capacitors in Fig.
9.13. Answer: 810 µJ, 135 µJ

217 Series and Parallel Capacitors
Figure 9.14: (a) Parallel-connected N capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit for the parallel
capacitors.
9.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors

We know from resistive circuits that the series-parallel combination is a powerful tool
for reducing circuits. This technique can be extended to series-parallel connections of
capacitors, which are sometimes encountered. We desire to replace these capacitors by a
single equivalent capacitor Ceq
In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor Ceq of N capacitors in parallel, consider the
circuit in Fig. 9.14(a). The equivalent circuit is in Fig. 9.14(b). Note that the capacitors
have the same voltage v across them. Applying KCL to Fig. 9.14(a),
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + · · · + iN (9.11)
But ik = Ck dv/dt. Hence,
dv dv dv dv
i = C1 +C2 +C3 + · · · +CN
dt ! dt dt dt
N (9.12)
dv dv
= ∑ Ck dt = Ceq dt
k=1
where
Ceq = C1 +C2 +C3 + · · · +CN (9.13)
The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of the individual

capacitances.
We observe that capacitors in parallel combine in the same manner as resistors in series.
We now obtain Ceq of N capacitors connected in series by comparing the circuit in Fig.
6.15(a) with the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9.15(b). Note that the same current i flows (and
consequently the same charge) through the capacitors. Applying KVL to the loop in Fig.
9.15(a),
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + · · · + vN (9.14)
Figure 9.15: (a) Series-connected N capacitors, (b) equivalent circuit for the series capaci-
tor.
Z t
1
But vk = i(t)dt + vk (t0 ). Therefore,
Ck t0
1 t 1 t 1 t
Z Z Z
v= i(t)dt + v1 (t0 ) + i(t)dt + v2 (t0 ) + · · · + i(t)dt + vN (t0 )
C1 t0 C2 t0 CN t0
Z t
1 1 1
= + +···+ i(t)dt + v1 (t0 ) + v2 (t0 ) + · · · + vN (t0 ) (9.15)
C1 C2 CN t0
Z t
1
= i(t)dt + v(t0 )
Ceq t0
where
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +···+ (9.16)
Ceq C1 C2 C3 CN
The initial voltage v(t0 ) across Ceq is required by KVL to be the sum of the capacitor
voltages at t0 . Or according to Eq. (9.15),
v(to ) = v1 (t0 ) + v2 (t0 ) + · · · + vN (t0 )
Thus, according to Eq. (9.16),
The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of

the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
Note that capacitors in series combine in the same manner as resistors in parallel. For
N = 2 (i.e., two capacitors in series), Eq. (9.16) becomes
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2
219 Series and Parallel Capacitors
or
C1C2
Ceq = (9.17)
C1 +C2
EXAMPLE 9.6 Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a and b of the
circuit in Fig. 9.16.
Solution:
The 20 µF and 5 µF capacitors are in series; their equivalent capacitance is
20 × 5
= 4 µF
20 + 5
This 4 µF capacitor is in parallel with the 6 µF and 20 µF capacitors; their combined

capacitance is
4 + 6 + 20 = 30 µF
This 30 µF capacitor is in series with the 60 µF capacitor. Hence, the equivalent capaci-
tance for the entire circuit is
30 × 60
Ceq = = 20 µF
30 + 60
EXERCISE 9.6 Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of the circuit in
Fig. 9.17.
Answer: 40 µF
EXAMPLE 9.7 For the circuit in Fig. 9.18, find the voltage across each capacitor.
Solution:
We first find the equivalent capacitance Ceq , shown in Fig. 9.19. The two parallel capacitors
in Fig. 9.18 can be combined to get 40 + 20 = 60 mF. This 60 mF capacitor is in series
with the 20 mF and 30 mF capacitors. Thus,
Figure 9.19: Equivalent circuit for Fig. 9.18.
1
Ceq = mF = 10 mF
1 1 1
+ +
60 30 20
The total charge is

q = Ceq v = 10 × 10−3 × 30 = 0.3 C
This is the charge on the 20-mF and 30-mF capacitors, because they are in series with the
30-V source. (A crude way to see this is to imagine that charge acts like current, since
i = dq/dt.) Therefore,
q 0.3 q 0.3
v1 = = = 15 V, v2 = = = 10 V
C1 20 × 10−3 C2 30 × 10−3
Having determined v1 and v2 , we now use KVL to determine v3 by
v3 = 30 − v1 − v2 = 5 V
Alternatively, since the 40-mF and 20-mF capacitors are in parallel, they have the same
voltage and their combined capacitance is 40 + 20 = 60 mF. This combined capacitance is
in series with the 20-mF and 30-mF capacitors and consequently has the same charge on
it. Hence,
q 0.3
v3 = = =5V
60 mF 60 × 10−3
EXERCISE 9.7 Find the voltage across each of the capacitors in Fig. 9.20.
Answer: v1 = 30 V, v2 = 30 V, v3 = 10 V, v4 = 20 V
221 Inductors
9.4 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Induc-
tors find numerous applications in electronic and power systems. They are used in power
supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars, and electric motors.
Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded as an
inductor. But in order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed
into a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire, as shown in Fig. 9.21.
Figure 9.21: Typical form of an inductor.
An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.
If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the
inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current. Using the passive
sign convention,
di
v=L (9.18)
dt
where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor. The unit
of inductance is the henry (H), named in honor of the American inventor Joseph Henry
(1797–1878). It is clear from Eq. (9.18) that 1 henry equals 1 volt-second per ampere.
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).
The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction.

Formulas for calculating the inductance of inductors of different shapes are derived from
electromagnetic theory and can be found in standard electrical engineering handbooks. For
Figure 9.22: Various types of inductors: (a) solenoidal wound inductor, (b) toroidal induc-
tor, (c) chip inductor.
example, for the inductor, (solenoid) shown in Fig. 9.21,
N 2 µA
L= (9.19)
`
where N is the number of turns, ` is the length, A is the cross-sectional area, and is µ the
permeability of the core. We can see from Eq. (9.19) that inductance can be increased by
increasing the number of turns of coil, using material with higher permeability as the core,
increasing the cross-sectional area, or reducing the length of the coil.
Like capacitors, commercially available inductors come in different values and types.
Typical practical inductors have inductance values ranging from a few microhenrys (µH),
as in communication systems, to tens of henrys (H) as in power systems. Inductors may be
fixed or variable. The core may be made of iron, steel, plastic, or air. The terms coil and
choke are also used for inductors. Common inductors are shown in Fig. 9.22. The circuit
symbols for inductors are shown in Fig. 9.23, following the passive sign convention.
Equation (9.18) is the voltage-current relationship for an inductor. Figure 9.24 shows
this relationship graphically for an inductor whose inductance is independent of current.
Such an inductor is known as a linear inductor. For a nonlinear inductor, the plot of Eq.
(9.18) will not be a straight line because its inductance varies with current. We will assume
linear inductors in this book unless stated otherwise.
223 Inductors
Figure 9.23: Circuit symbols for inductors: (a) air-core, (b) iron-core, (c) variable iron-
core.
Figure 9.24: Voltage-current relationship of an inductor.
The current-voltage relationship is obtained from Eq. (9.18) as
1
di = vdt
L
Integrating gives Z t
1
i= v(t)dt (9.20)
L −∞
or Z t
1
i= v(t)dt + i(t0 ) (9.21)
L t0
where i(t0 ) is the total current for −∞ < t < t0 and i(−∞) = 0. The idea of making i(−∞) =
0 is practical and reasonable, because there must be a time in the past when there was no
current in the inductor.
The inductor is designed to store energy in its magnetic field. The energy stored can be
obtained from Eq. (9.18). The power delivered to the inductor is

di
p = vi = L i (9.22)
dt
The energy stored is Z t

di
ω= L idt
−∞ dt
Z t (9.23)
1 1
=L idi = Li2 (t) − Li2 (−∞)
−∞ 2 2
Since i(−∞) = 0,
1
ω = Li2 (9.24)
2
We should note the following important properties of an inductor.
1. Note from Eq. (9.18) that the voltage across an inductor is zero when the current is
constant. Thus,
An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
2. An important property of the inductor is its opposition to the change in current flow-
ing through it.
The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
According to Eq. (9.18), a discontinuous change in the current through an inductor

requires an infinite voltage, which is not physically possible. Thus, an inductor op-
poses an abrupt change in the current through it. For example, the current through
an inductor may take the form shown in Fig. 9.25(a), whereas the inductor current
cannot take the form shown in Fig. 9.25(b) in real-life situations due to the disconti-
nuities. However, the voltage across an inductor can change abruptly.
Figure 9.25: Current through an inductor: (a) allowed, (b) not allowable; an abrupt change
is not possible.
3. Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy
stored in it can be retrieved at a later time. The inductor takes power from the circuit
when storing energy and delivers power to the circuit when returning previously
stored energy.
4. A practical, nonideal inductor has a significant resistive component, as shown in Fig.
9.26. This is due to the fact that the inductor is made of a conducting material such as
copper, which has some resistance. This resistance is called the winding resistance
Rw , and it appears in series with the inductance of the inductor. The presence of Rw
makes it both an energy storage device and an energy dissipation device. Since Rw
is usually very small, it is ignored in most cases. The nonideal inductor also has a
winding capacitance Cw due to the capacitive coupling between the conducting coils.
Cw is very small and can be ignored in most cases, except at high frequencies. We
will assume ideal inductors in this book.
225 Inductors
Figure 9.26: Circuit model for a practical inductor.
EXAMPLE 9.8 The current through a 0.1-H inductor is i(t) = 10te−5t A. Find the
voltage across the inductor and the energy stored in it.
Solution:
Since v = Ldi/dt and L = 0.1 H
d
v = 0.1 (10te−5t ) = e−5t + t(−5)e−5t = e−5t (1 − 5t) V
dt
The energy stored is
1 1
ω = Li2 = (0.1)100t 2 e−10t = 5t 2 e−10t J
2 2
EXERCISE 9.8 If the current through a 1-mH inductor is i(t) = 20 cos 100t mA, find
the terminal voltage and the energy stored.
Answer: −2 sin 100t mV, 0.2 cos2 100t µJ.
EXAMPLE 9.9 Find the current through a 5-H inductor if the voltage across it is

30t 2 , t > 0
v(t) =
0, t <0
Also, find the energy stored at t = 5 s. Assume i(v) > 0. Solution:

1R
Since i = tt0 v(t)dt + i(t0 ) and L = 5 H,
L
t3
Z t
1
i= 30t 2 dt + 0 = 6 × = 2t 3 A
5 0 3
The power p = vi = 60t 5 , and the energy stored is then
6 5
Z 5
t
Z
ω= pdt = 60t 5 dt = 60 = 156.25 kJ
0 6 0
Alternatively, we can obtain the energy stored using Eq. (9.24), by writing
1 1 1
w|50 = Li2 (5) − Li(0) = (5)(2 × 53 )2 − 0 = 156.25 kJ
2 2 2
as obtained before.
EXERCISE 9.9 The terminal voltage of a 2-H inductor is v = 10(1 − t) V. Find the
current flowing through it at t = 4 s and the energy stored in it at t = 4 s. Assume i(0) = 2 A.
Answer: −18 A, 320 J
EXAMPLE 9.10 Consider the circuit in Fig. 9.27(a). Under dc conditions, find: (a) i,
vC , and iL , (b) the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor.
Figure 9.27: For Example cap and ind ex10.
Solution:
(a) Under dc conditions, we replace the capacitor with an open circuit and the inductor
with a short circuit, as in Fig. 6.27(b). It is evident from Fig. 6.27(b) that
12
i = iL = =2A
1+5
The voltage vC is the same as the voltage across the 5 Ω resistor. Hence,
vC = 5i = 10 V
(b) The energy in the capacitor is
1 1
ωC = CvC2 = (1)(102 ) = 50 J
2 2
and that in the inductor is

1 1
ωL = Li2L = (2)(22 ) = 4 J
2 2
EXERCISE 9.10 Determine vC , iL , and the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor
227 Series and Parallel Inductors
in the circuit of Fig. 9.28 under dc conditions.
Answer: 6 V, 3 A, 72 J, 27 J.
9.5 Series and Parallel Inductors
Now that the inductor has been added to our list of passive elements, it is necessary to
extend the powerful tool of series-parallel combination. We need to know how to find the
equivalent inductance of a series-connected or parallel-connected set of inductors found in
practical circuits.
Consider a series connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig. 9.29(a), with the equiv-
alent circuit shown in Fig. 9.29(b). The inductors have the same current through them.
Applying KVL to the loop,
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + · · · + vN (9.25)
Figure 9.29: (a) A series connection of N inductors, (b) equivalent circuit for the series
inductors.
Figure 9.30: (a) A parallel connection of N inductors, (b) equivalent circuit for the parallel
inductors.
Substituting vk = Lk di/dt results in
di di di di
v = L1 + L2 + L3 + · · · + LN
dt dt dt dt
di
= (L1 + L2 + L3 + · · · + LN ) (9.26)
! dt
N
di di
= ∑ Lk = Leq
k=1 dt dt
where
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + · · · + LN (9.27)
Thus,
The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the individual in-
ductances.
Inductors in series are combined in exactly the same way as resistors in series.
We now consider a parallel connection of N inductors, as shown in Fig. 9.30(a), with
the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9.30(b). The inductors have the same voltage across them.
Using KCL,
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + · · · + iN (9.28)
Z t
1
But ik = vdt + ik (t0 ); hence,
Lk t0
1 t 1 t 1 t
Z Z Z
i= vdt + i1 (t0 ) + vdt + i2 (t0 ) + · · · + vdt + iN (t0 )
L t L2 t0 LN t0
1 0 Z t
1 1 1
= + +···+ vdt + i1 (t0 ) + i2 (t0 ) + · · · + iN (t0 ) (9.29)
L1 L2 LN t0
!Z
N t N
1 1 t
Z
= ∑ vdt + ∑ ik (t0 ) = vdt + i(t0 )
k=1 Lk t0 k=0 Leq t0
Table 9.1: Important characteristics of the basic elements.
where
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +···+ (9.30)
Leq L1 L2 L3 LN
The initial current i(t0 ) through Leq at t = t0 is expected by KCL to be the sum of the
inductor currents at Thus, according to Eq. (9.29),
i(t0 ) = i1 (t0 ) + i2 (t0 ) + · · · + iN (t0 )
According to Eq. (9.31),
The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the recip-
rocals of the individual inductances.
Note that the inductors in parallel are combined in the same way as resistors in parallel.
For two inductors in parallel (N = 2), Eq. (9.31) becomes
1 1 1 L1 L2
= + or Leq = (9.31)
Leq L1 L2 L1 + L2
As long as all the elements are of the same type, the transformations for resistors discussed
in a previous chapter can be extended to capacitors and inductors.
It is appropriate at this point to summarize the most important characteristics of the
three basic circuit elements we have studied. The summary is given in Table 9.1.
The wye-delta transformation discussed previously for resistors can be extended to
capacitors and inductors.
EXAMPLE 9.11 Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in Fig. 9.31.
Solution:
The 10-H, 12-H, and 20-H inductors are in series; thus, combining them gives a 42-H in-
ductance. This 42-H inductor is in parallel with the 7-H inductor so that they are combined,
to give
7 × 42
=6H
7 + 42
This 6-H inductor is in series with the 4-H and 8-H inductors. Hence,
Leq = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 H
EXERCISE 9.11 Calculate the equivalent inductance for the inductive ladder network
in Fig. 9.32.
Answer: 25 mH.
EXAMPLE 9.12 For the circuit in Fig. 9.33, i(t) = 4(2 − e−10t ) mA. If i2 (0) = −1
mA. Find: (a) i1 (0); (b) v(t), v1 (t), and v2 (t); (c) i1 (t) and i2 (t)
Solution:
(a) From i(t) = 4(2 − e−10t ) mA, i(0) = 4(2 − 1) = 4 mA. Since i = i1 + i2 ,
i1 (0) = i(0) − i2 (0) = 4 − (−1) = 5 mA

(b) The equivalent inductance is
Leq = 2 + 4||12 = 2 + 3 = 5 H
Thus,
di
v(t) = Leq = 5(4)(−1)(−10)e−10t mV = 200e−10t mV
dt
and
di
v1 (t) = 2 = 2(−4)(−10)e−10t mV = 80e−10t mV
dt
Since v = v1 + v2 ,
v2 (t) = v(t) − v1 (t) = 120e−10t mV
(c) The current i1 is obtained as
1 t 120 t −10t
Z Z
i1 (t) = v2 dt + i1 (0) = e dt + 5 mA
4 0 4 0
= −3e−10t |t0 + 5 mA = −3e−10t + 3 + 5 = 8 − 3e−10t mA
Similarly,
1 t 120 t −10t
Z Z
i2 (t) = v2 dt + i2 (0) = e dt − 1 mA
12 0 12 0
= −e−10t |t0 − 1 mA = −e−10t + 1 − 1 = e−10t mA
Note that i1 (t) + i2 (t) = i(t).
EXERCISE 9.12 In the circuit of Fig. 9.34, i1 (t) = 0.6e−2t A. If i(0) = 1.4 A, find:
(a) i2 (0), (b) i2 (t) andi(t); (c) v1 (t), v2 (t), and v(t).
Answer: (a) 0.8 A, (b) (−0.4+1.2e−2t ) A, (−0.4+1.8e−2t ) A, (c) −36e−2t V, −7.2e−2t V,

−28.8e−2t V.
10
First-Order Circuits
10.1 Introduction
Now that we have considered the three passive elements (resistors, capacitors, and induc-
tors) and one active element (the op amp) individually, we are prepared to consider circuits
that contain various combinations of two or three of the passive elements. In this chapter,
we shall examine two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor
and a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits,
respectively. As simple as these circuits are, they find continual applications in electronics,
communications, and control systems, as we shall see.
We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we
did for resistive circuits. The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely
resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL
circuits produces differential equations, which are more difficult to solve than algebraic
equations. The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of
the first order. Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.
In addition to there being two types of first-order circuits (RC and RL), there are two
ways to excite the circuits. The first way is by initial conditions of the storage elements in
the circuits. In these so-called source-free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored
in the capacitive or inductive element. The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and
233
10. First-Order Circuits 234
Figure 10.1: A source-free RC circuit.
is gradually dissipated in the resistors. Although sourcefree circuits are by definition free of
independent sources, they may have dependent sources. The second way of exciting first-
order circuits is by independent sources. In this chapter, the independent sources we will
consider are dc sources. (In later chapters, we shall consider sinusoidal and exponential
sources.) The two types of first-order circuits and the two ways of exciting them add up to
the four possible situations we will study in this chapter.
Finally, we consider four typical applications of RC and RL circuits: delay and relay
circuits, a photoflash unit, and an automobile ignition circuit.
10.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy
already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as shown
in Fig. 10.1. (The resistor and capacitor may be the equivalent resistance and equivalent
capacitance of combinations of resistors and capacitors.) Our objective is to determine the
circuit response, which, for pedagogic reasons, we assume to be the voltage v(t) across the
capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0, the
initial voltage is
v(0) = V0 (10.1)
with the corresponding value of the energy stored as
1
w(0) = CV02 (10.2)
2
Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 10.1 yields
iC + iR = 0 (10.3)
By definition, iC = Cdv/dt and iR = v/R Thus,
dv v
C + =0 (10.4)
dt R
235 The Source-Free RC Circuit
Figure 10.2: The voltage response of the RC circuit.
or
dv v
+ =0 (10.5)
dt RC
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is involved. To
solve it, we rearrange the terms as
dv 1
= − dt (10.6)
v RC
Integrating both sides, we get

t
ln v = − = ln A
RC
where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,
v t
ln =− (10.7)
A RC
Taking powers of e produces

v(t) = Ae−t/RC
But from the initial conditions, v(0) = A = V0 . Hence,
v(t) = V0 e−t/RC (10.8)
This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
voltage. Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical character-
istics of the circuit and not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the
natural response of the circuit.
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents)
of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. 10.2. Note that at t = o we have the
correct initial condition as in Eq. (10.1). As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero.
The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time constant,
denoted by τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau.
The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay to a factor of
Table 10.1: Values of v(t)/V0 = e−t/τ
1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value
This implies that at t = τ Eq. (10.8) becomes
Vo e−τ/RC = Vo e−1 = 0.368Vo
or
τ = RC (10.9)
In terms of the time constant, Eq. (10.8) can be written as
v(t) = V0 e−t/τ (10.10)
With a calculator it is easy to show that the value of v(t)/V0 is as shown in Table 10.1.
It is evident from Table 10.1 that the voltage v(t) is less than percent of V0 after 5τ (five
time constants). Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor is fully discharged (or
charged) after five time constants. In other words, it takes 5τ for the circuit to reach its
final state or steady state when no changes take place with time. Notice that for every time
interval of the voltage is reduced by 36.8 percent of its previous value, v(t + τ) = v(t)/e =
0.368v(t) regardless of the value of t.
Observe from Eq. (10.10) that the smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the
voltage decreases, that is, the faster the response. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.4. A circuit
with a small time constant gives a fast response in that it reaches the steady state (or final
state) quickly due to quick dissipation of energy stored, whereas a circuit with a large time
constant gives a slow response because it takes longer to reach steady state. At any rate,
whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches steady state in five time
constants.
With the voltage v(t) in Eq. (10.10), we can find the current iR (t),
v(t) V0 −t/τ
iR (t) = = e (10.11)
R R
The power dissipated in the resistor is
V02 −2t/τ
p(t) = viR = e (10.12)
R
Figure 10.3: Plot of v/V0 = e−t/τ for various values of the time constant.
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is

Z t Z t 2
V0 −2t/τ
ωR (t) = pdt = e dt
0 0 R
τv0 −2t/τ t
2

1 2 −2t/τ
=− e = 2 CV0 (1 − e ), τ = RC
2R 0
Notice that as t → ∞, ωR → 12 CV02 which is the same as ωc (0), the energy initially stored in
the capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated
in the resistor.
In summary:
The Key to Working with a Source-free RC Circuit Is Finding:
1. The initial voltage V (0) = v0 across the capacitor.

2. The time constant τ.
With these two items, we obtain the response as the capacitor voltage vC (t) = v(t) =
v(0)e−t/τ Once the capacitor voltage is first obtained, other variables (capacitor current iC ,
resistor voltage vR , and resistor current iR ) can be determined. In finding the time constant
τ = RC, R is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor; that
is, we take out the capacitor C and find R = RTh at its terminals.
EXAMPLE 10.1 In Fig. 10.4, let vC (0) = 15 V Find vC , vx and ix for t > 0.
Solution:
We first need to make the circuit in Fig. 10.4 conform with the standard RC circuit in
Fig. 10.1. We find the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance at the capacitor
terminals. Our objective is always to first obtain capacitor voltage vC . From this, we can
determine vx and ix .
The 8 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in series can be combined to give a 20 Ω resistor. This 20 Ω
resistor in parallel with the 5 Ω resistor can be combined so that the equivalent resistance
is
20 × 5
Req = =4Ω
20 + 5
Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 10.5, which is analogous to Fig. 10.1. The
time constant is
τ = ReqC = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s
Figure 10.5: Equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. 10.4.
Thus,
v = v(0)e−t/τ = 15e−t/0.4 V, vC = v = 12e−2.5t V
From Fig. 10.4, we can use voltage division to get vx ; so
12
vx = v = 0.6(15e−2.5t ) = 9e−2.5t V
12 + 8
Finally,
vx
ix = 0.75e−2.5t A
12
EXERCISE 10.1 Refer to the circuit in Fig. 10.6. Let vC(0) = 45 V. Determine vC , vx
and i0 for t ≥ 0.
Answer: 45e−0.25t V, 15e−0.25t V, −3.75e−0.25t A.
EXAMPLE 10.2 The switch in the circuit in Fig. 10.7 has been closed for a long time,
and it is opened at t − 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the
capacitor.
Solution:
For t < 0 the switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc, as represented in Fig.
7.9(a). Using voltage division
9
vC (t) = (20) = 15 V, t <0
9+3
Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the voltage across the
capacitor at t = 0− is the same at or
vC (0) = V0 = 15 V
Figure 10.8: For Example 10.2: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0.
For t > 0 the switch is opened, and we have the RC circuit shown in Fig. 10.8(b).
[Notice that the RC circuit in Fig. 10.8(b) is source free; the independent source in Fig.
10.7 is needed to provide or the initial energy in the capacitor.] The 1 Ω and 9 Ω resistors
in series give
Req = 1 + 0 = 10 Ω
The time constant is

τ = ReqC = 10 × 20 × 10−3 = 0.2 s
Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0 is
v(t) = vC (0)e−t/τ = 15e−t/0.2 V
or
v(t) = 15e−5t V
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is
1 1
ωC (0) = CvC2 (0) = × 20 × 10−3 = 2.25 J
2 2
EXERCISE 10.2 If the switch in Fig. 10.9 opens at t = 0 find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and ωC (0)
Answer: 8e−2t V, 5.33 J.
10.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit

Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current
i(t) through the inductor. We select the inductor current as the response in order to take
advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0 we
assume that the inductor has an initial current I0 , or
i(0) = I0 (10.13)
with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as
1
ω(0) = LI02 (10.14)
2
Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 10.10,
vL + vR = 0 (10.15)
241 The Source-Free RL Circuit
Figure 10.10: A source-free RL circuit.
But vL = Ldi/dt and vR = iR. Thus,
di
L + Ri = 0
dt
or
di R
+ i=0 (10.16)
dt L
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
Z i(t) Z t
di R
=− dt
I0 i 0 L
i(t) t
R Rt
ln i = − ⇒ ln i(t) − ln I0 = − +0
I0 L 0 L
or
i(t) R
ln =− (10.17)
I0 L
Taking the powers of e, we have
i(t) = I0 e−Rt/L (10.18)
This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
current. The current response is shown in Fig. 10.11. It is evident from Eq. (10.18) that
the time constant for the RL circuit is
L
τ= (10.19)
R
with τ again having the unit of seconds. Thus, Eq. (10.18) may be written as
i(t) = I0 e−t/τ (10.20)
With the current in Eq. (10.20), we can find the voltage across the resistor as
vR (t) = iR + I0 Re−t/τ (10.21)

Figure 10.11: The current response of the RL circuit.
The power dissipated in the resistor is
p = vR i = I02 Re−2t/τ (10.22)
The energy absorbed by the resistor is
1 2 −2t/τ t
Z t Z t
L
ωR (t) = pdt = I02 Re−2t/τ dt = − τI0 Re , τ=
o o 2 0 R
or
1
ωR (t) = LI02 (1 − e−2t/τ ) (10.23)
2
Note that as t → ∞, ωR → 12 LIo2 , which is the same as ωL (o) the initial energy stored in the
inductor as in Eq. (10.14). Again, the energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually
dissipated in the resistor.
The Key to Working with a Source-free RL Circuit Is to Find:
1. The initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor.

2. The time constant τ of the circuit.
With the two items, we obtain the response as the inductor current iL (t) = i(t) =
i(0)e−t/τ . Once we determine the inductor current other variables (inductor voltage vL ,
resistor voltage vR , and resistor current iR ) can be obtained. Note that in general, R in Eq.
(10.19) is the Thevenin resistance at the terminals of the inductor.
EXAMPLE 10.3 Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix (t) in the circuit of
Fig. 10.12.
Solution:
There are two ways we can solve this problem. One way is to obtain the equivalent resis-
tance at the inductor terminals and then use Eq. (10.20). The other way is to start from
scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Whichever approach is taken, it is always better
to firstobtain the inductor current.
Method 1 The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor
terminals. Because of the dependent source, we insert a voltage source with v0 = 1 V at
the inductor terminals a-b, as in Fig. 10.13(a). (We could also insert a 1-A current source
at the terminals.) Applying KVL to the two loops results in
1
2(i1 − i2 ) + 1 = 0 ⇒ i1 − i2 = − (10.24)
2
5
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ i2 = i1 (10.25)
6
Figure 10.13: Solving the circuit in Fig. 10.12.
i1 = −3 A, i0 = −i1 = 3 A
Hence,
vo 1
Req = RTh = = Ω
io 3
1
L 3
τ= = 2 = s
Req 1 2
3
Thus, the current through the inductor is
i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ = 10e−(2/3)t A, t >0

Method 2 We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in Fig. 10.13(b). For loop 1,
1 di1
+ 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0
2 dt
or
di1
+ 4i1 − 4i2 = 0 (10.26)
dt
For loop 2,
5
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0 ⇒ i2 = i1 (10.27)
6
di1 2
+ i1 = 0
dt 3
Rearranging terms,
di1 2
= − dt
i1 3
Since i1 = i we may replace i1 with i and integrate:
i(t)
2 t

ln i = − t

i(0) 3 0
or
i(t) 2
ln =− t
i(0) 3
Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain
i(t) = i(0)e−(2/3)t = 10e−(2/3)t A, t >0
which is the same as by Method 1.

The voltage across the inductor is

di 2 −(2/3)t 10
v = L = 0.5(10) − e = − e−(2/3)t V
dt 3 3
Since the inductor and the 2 Ω resistor are in parallel,
v
ix (t) = = −1.6667e−(2/3)t A, t >0
2
EXERCISE 10.3 Find i and vx in the circuit of Fig. 10.14. Let i(0) = 5 A
Answer: 5e−4t V, −20e−4t V
EXAMPLE 10.4 The switch in the circuit of Fig. 10.15 has been closed for a long
time. At t = 0 the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0.
Solution:
When t < 0 the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The resistor
is short-circuited; the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 10.16(a). To get i1 in Fig. 10.16(a),
we combine the 4 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in parallel to get
4 × 12
=3Ω
4 + 12
Hence,
40
i1 = =8A
2+3
We obtain i(t) from i1 in Fig. 10.16(a) using current division, by writing
12
i(t) = i1 = 6 A, t <0
12 + 4
Since the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i(0) = i(0− ) = 6 A
When t > 0 the switch is open and the voltage source is disconnected. We now have
Figure 10.16: Solving the circuit of Fig. 10.15: (a) for t < 0, (b) for t > 0.
the source-free RL circuit in Fig. 10.16(b). Combining the resistors, we have
Req = (12 + 4)||16 = 8 Ω

L 2 1
τ= = = s
Req 8 4
Thus,
i(t) = i(0)e−t/τ = 6e−4t A
EXERCISE 10.4 For the circuit in Fig. 10.17, find i(t) for t > 0.
Answer: 2e−2t A, t > 0.
EXAMPLE 10.5 In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.18, find io , vo and i for all time,
assuming that the switch was open for a long time.
Solution:
It is better to first find the inductor current i and then obtain other quantities from it.
For t < 0, the switch is open. Since the inductor acts like a short circuit to dc, the 6 Ω
resistor is short-circuited, so that we have the circuit shown in Fig. 10.19(a). Hence, io = 0,
and
10
i(t) = = 2 A, t <0
2+3
vo (t) = 3i(t) = 6 V, t <0
Thus i(o) = 2.
Figure 10.19: The circuit in Fig. 7.19 for: (a) t < 0, (b) t > 0.
For t > 0 the switch is closed, so that the voltage source is short-circuited. We now
have a source-free RL circuit as shown in Fig. 10.19(b). At the inductor terminals,
RTh = 3||6 = 2 Ω
so that the time constant is

L
τ= =1s
RTh
Hence,
i(t) = i(o)e−t/τ = 2e−t A, t >0
Since the inductor is in parallel with the 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors,
di
vo (t) = −vL = −L = −2(−2e−t ) = 4e−t V, t >0
dt
and
vL 2
i(o) = = − e−t A, t >0
6 3
Thus, for all time,

 
0 A, t <0 6 V, t <0
io (t) = 2 vo (t) =
− e−t A, t > 0 4e−t V, t > 0
3

2 A, t <0
i(t) =
2e−t A, t ≥ 0
We notice that the inductor current is continuous at t = 0 while the current through the 6 Ω
resistor drops from 0 to −2/3 at t = 0, and the voltage across the 3 Ω resistor drops from
6 to 4 at t = 0. We also notice that the time constant is the same regardless of what the
output is defined to be. Figure 10.20 plots i and io
Figure 10.20: A plot of i and io .
EXERCISE 10.5 Determine i, io , and vo for all t in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.21.
Assume that the switch was closed for a long time. It should be noted that opening a
switch in series with an ideal current source creates an infinite voltage at the current source
terminals. Clearly this is impossible. For the purposes of problem solving, we can place
a shunt resistor in parallel with the source (which now makes it a voltage source in series
with a resistor). In more practical circuits, devices that act like current sources are, for
the most part, electronic circuits. These circuits will allow the source to act like an ideal
current source over its operating range but voltage-limit it when the load resistor becomes
too large (as in an open circuit).

249 Singularity Functions
Answer:  
12 A, t <0 6 A, t <0
i= io =
12e−2t A, t ≥ 0 −4e−2t A, t > 0

24 V, t <0
vo =
8−2t V, t > 0
10.4 Singularity Functions

Before going on with the second half of this chapter, we need to digress and consider
some mathematical concepts that will aid our understanding of transient analysis. A basic
understanding of singularity functions will help us make sense of the response of first-order
circuits to a sudden application of an independent dc voltage or current source.
Singularity functions (also called switching functions) are very useful in circuit analy-
sis. They serve as good approximations to the switching signals that arise in circuits with
switching operations. They are helpful in the neat, compact description of some circuit
phenomena, especially the step response of RC or RL circuits to be discussed in the next
sections. By definition,
Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or have discontinuous
derivatives
The three most widely used singularity functions in circuit analysis are the unit step,
the unit impulse, and the unit ramp functions.
The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for positive values of t.
In mathematical terms,

0, t < 0
u(t) = (10.28)
1, t > o
The unit step function is undefined at t = 0 where it changes abruptly from 0 to 1. It is
Figure 10.22: The unit step function.

Figure 10.23: (a) The unit step function delayed by t0 (b) the unit step advanced by t0 .
dimensionless, like other mathematical functions such as sine and cosine. Figure 10.22
depicts the unit step function. If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0 (where t0 > 0) instead
of t = 0, the unit step function becomes

0, t < t
0
u(t − t0 ) = (10.29)
1, t > t
o
which is the same as saying that is delayed by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig. 10.23(a). To
get Eq. (10.29) from Eq. (10.28), we simply replace every t by t − t0 . If the change is at
t = −t0 , the unit step function becomes

0, t < −t
0
u(t + t0 ) = (10.30)
1, t > −t
o
meaning that u(t) is advanced by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig. 10.23(b).

We use the step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the
changes that occur in the circuits of control systems and digital computers. For example,
the voltage 
0, t < t
0
v(t) = (10.31)
V , t > t
0 o
may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as
v(t) = V0 u(t − t0 ) (10.32)
If we let t0 = 0, then v(t) is simply the step voltage v0 u(t). A voltage source of v0 u(t) is
Figure 10.24: (a) Voltage source of v0 u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit.
Figure 10.25: (a) Current source of I0 u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit.
shown in Fig. 10.24(a); its equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 10.24(b). It is evident in Fig.
10.24(b) that terminals a-b are short-circuited (v = 0) for t < 0 and that v = V0 appears at
the terminals for t > 0. Similarly, a current source of is shown in Fig. 7.26(a), while its
equivalent circuit is in Fig. 7.26(b). Notice that for t < 0, there is an open circuit (i = 0),
and that i = I0 flows for t > 0.
The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function δ (t) which we
write as 


 0, t <0
d 
δ (t) = u(t) = Undefined, t = 0 (10.33)
dt 


0, t >0
The unit impulse function—also known as the delta function—is shown in Fig. 10.26.
Figure 10.26: The unit impulse function.
The unit impulse function δ (t) is zero everywhere except at t = 0, where it is undefined.
Impulsive currents and voltages occur in electric circuits as a result of switching operations
or impulsive sources. Although the unit impulse function is not physically realizable (just
like ideal sources, ideal resistors, etc.), it is a very useful mathematical tool.
The unit impulse may be regarded as an applied or resulting shock. It may be visualized
as a very short duration pulse of unit area. This may be expressed mathematically as
Z 0+
δ (t)dt = 1 (10.34)
0−
where t = 0− denotes the time just before t = 0 and t = 0+ is the time just after t = 0.
For this reason, it is customary to write 1 (denoting unit area) beside the arrow that is used
to symbolize the unit impulse function, as in Fig. 10.26. The unit area is known as the
strength of the impulse function. When an impulse function has a strength other than unity,
the area of the impulse is equal to its strength. For example, an impulse function 10δ (t) has
an area of 10. Figure 10.27 shows the impulse functions 5δ (t + 2), 10δ (t) and −4δ (t − 3)
Figure 10.27: Three impulse functions.
To illustrate how the impulse function affects other functions, letus evaluate the integral
Z b
f (t)δ (t − t0 )dt (10.35)
a
where a < t0 < b. Since δ (t − t0 ) = 0 except at t = t0 the integrand is zero except at t0 .

Thus,
Z b Z b
f (t)δ (t − t0 )dt = f (t0 )δ (t − t0 )dt
a a
Z b
= f (t0 ) δ (t − t0 )dt = f (t0 )
a
or
Z b
f (t)δ (t − t0 )dt = f (t0 ) (10.36)
a
This shows that when a function is integrated with the impulse function, we obtain the value
of the function at the point where the impulse occurs. This is a highly useful property of
the impulse function known as the sampling or sifting property. The special case of Eq.
(10.35) is for t0 = 0. Then Eq. (10.36 becomes
Z 0+
f (t)δ (t)dt = f (0) (10.37)
0−
Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t); we write
Z t
r(t) = u(t)dt = tu(t) (10.38)
−∞
or 
0, t ≤ 0
r(t) = (10.39)
t, t ≥ 0
The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive
values of t.
Figure 10.28 shows the unit ramp function. In general, a ramp is a function that changes at
a constant rate.
Figure 10.28: The unit ramp function.
Figure 10.29: The unit ramp function: (a) delayed by t0 (b) advanced by t0 .
The unit ramp function may be delayed or advanced as shown in Fig. 10.29. For the
delayed unit ramp function,


0, t ≤ t0
r(t − t0 ) = (10.40)
t − t , t ≥ t
0 0
and for the advanced unit ramp function,


0, t ≤ −t0
r(t + t0 ) = (10.41)
t + t , t ≥ −t
0 0
We should keep in mind that the three singularity functions (impulse, step, and ramp)
are related by differentiation as
du(t) dr(t)
δ (t) = , u(t) = (10.42)
dt dt
or by integration as Z t Z t
u(t) = δ (t)dt, r(t) = u(t)dt (10.43)
−∞ −∞
Although there are many more singularity functions, we are only interested in these three
(the impulse function, the unit step function, and the ramp function) at this point.
EXAMPLE 10.6 Express the voltage pulse in Fig. 10.30 in terms of the unit step.
Calculate its derivative and sketch it.
Solution:
The type of pulse in Fig. 10.30 is called the gate function. It may be regarded as a step
function that switches on at one value of t and switches off at another value of t. The gate
function shown in Fig. 10.30 switches on at t = 2 s and switches off at t = 5 s. It consists
of the sum of two unit step functions as shown in Fig. 7.32(a). From the figure, it is evident
that
v(t) = 10u(t − 2) − 10u(t − 5) = 10[u(t − 2) − u(t − 5)]
Taking the derivative of this gives
dv(t)
= 10[δ (t − 2) − δ (t − 5)]
dt
which is shown in Fig. 10.31(b). We can obtain Fig. 10.31(b) directly from Fig. 10.30 by
simply observing that there is a sudden increase by 10 V at t = 2 s leading to 10δ (t − 2).
At t = 5 s there is a sudden decrease by 10 V leading to 10 V δ (t − 5).
Figure 10.31: (a) Decomposition of the pulse in Fig. 10.30, (b) derivative of the pulse in
Fig. 10.30.
EXERCISE 10.6 Express the current pulse in Fig. 7.33 in terms of the unit step. Find
its integral and sketch it.
Answer: 10[u(t) − 2u(t − 2) + u(t − 4)], 10[r(t) − 2r(t − 2) + r(t − 4)]. See Fig. 10.33.
EXAMPLE 10.7 Express the sawtooth function shown in Fig. 10.34 in terms of sin-
gularity functions.
Figure 10.33: Integral of i(t) in Fig.10.32.
Solution:
There are three ways of solving this problem. The first method is by mere observation of
the given function, while the other methods involve some graphical manipulations of the
function.
METHOD 1 By looking at the sketch of in Fig. 7.35, it is not hard to notice that the
given function is a combination of singularity functions. So we let
v(t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) + · · · (10.44)
The function v1 (t) is the ramp function of slope 5, shown in Fig. 7.36(a); that is,
v1 (t) = 5r(t) (10.45)
Since v1 (t) goes to infinity, we need another function at t = 2 in order to get v(t). We let
Figure 10.35: Partial decomposition of v(t) in Fig. 10.34.
this function be v2 , which is a ramp function of slope −5, as shown in Fig. 10.35(b); that
is,
v2 (t) = −5r(t − 2) (10.46)
Adding v1 and v2 gives us the signal in Fig. 10.35(c). Obviously, this is not the same as
v(t) in Fig. 7.35. But the difference is simply a constant 10 units for t > 2 s. By adding a
third signal v3 , where
v3 = −10u(t − 2) (10.47)
we get v(t), as shown in Fig. 10.36. Substituting Eqs. (10.45) through (10.47) into Eq.
(10.44) gives
v(t) = 5r(t) − 5r(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)
Figure 10.36: Complete decomposition of v(t) in Fig. 10.34.
METHOD 2 A close observation of Fig. 10.34 reveals that v(t) is a multiplication of

two functions: a ramp function and a gate function. Thus,
v(t) = 5t[u(t) − u(t − 2)]

= 4tu(t) − 6tu(t − 2)
= 5r(t) − 5(t − 2 + 2)u(t − 2)
= 5r(t) − 5(t − 2)u(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)
= 5r(t) − 5r(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)
the same as before.

METHOD 3 This method is similar to Method 2. We observe from Fig. 10.34 that v(t)
is a multiplication of a ramp function and a unit step function, as shown in Fig. 10.37.
Thus,
v(t) = 5r(t)u(−t + 2)
If we replace u(−t) by 1 − u(t) then we can replace u(−t + 2) by 1 − u(t − 2). Hence,
v(t) = 5r(t)[1 − u(t − 2)]

which can be simplified as in Method 2 to get the same result.
Figure 10.37: Decomposition ofv(t) in Fig. 10.34.
EXERCISE 10.7 Refer to Fig. 10.38. Express i(t) in terms of singularity functions.
Answer: 2u(t) − 2r(t) + 4r(t − 2) − 2r(t − 3).
EXAMPLE 10.8
Given the signal 
3,

 t <0

g(t) = −2, 0<t <1


2t − 4, t > 1

Solution:
The signal g(t) may be regarded as the sum of three functions specified within the three
intervals t < o, 0 < t < 1 and t > 1.
For t < 0, g(t) may be regarded as 3 multiplied by u(−t), where u(−t) = 1 for t < 0
and 0 for t > 0. Within the time interval 0 < t < 1, the function may be considered as −2
multiplied by a gated function [u(t) − u(t − 1)]. For t > 1 the function may be regarded as
2t − 4 multiplied by the unit step function u(t − 1). Thus,
g(t) = 3u(−t) − 2[u(t) − u(t − 1)] + (2t − 4)u(t − 1)

= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + (2t − 4 + 2)u(t − 1)
= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + 2(t − 1)u(t − 1)
= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + 2r(t − 1)
One may avoid the trouble of using u(−t) by replacing it with 1 − u(t). Then
g(t) = 3[1 − u(t)] − 2u(t) + 2r(t − 1) = 3 − 5u(t) + 2r(t − 1)
Alternatively, we may plot g(t) and apply Method 1 from Example 10.7.
EXERCISE 10.8 If 


3, t <0



8, 0<t <2
h(t) =


2t + 4, 2 < t < 6



0, t >6
express h(t) in terms of the singularity functions.

Answer: 8u(t) + 2u(t − 2)2r(t − 2) − 18u(t − 6) − 2r(t − 6)
EXAMPLE 10.9 Evaluate the following integrals involving the impulse function:
Z 10
(t 2 + 4t − 2)δ (t − 2)dt
0
Z ∞
[δ (t − 1)r−t cost + δ (t + 1)e−t sint]dt
−∞
Solution:
For the first integral, we apply the sifting property in Eq. (10.36).
Z 10
(t 2 + 4t − 2)δ (t − 2)dt = (t 2 + 4t − 2)t=2 = 4 + 8 − 2 = 10

0
Similarly, for the second integral,

Z ∞
[δ (t − 1)r−t cost + δ (t + 1)e−t sint]dt
−∞
= e−t cost + e−t sint

t=1 t=−1
−1 1
=e cos 1 + e sin(−1) = 0.1988 − 2.2873 = −2.0885
EXERCISE 10.9 Evaluate the following integrals:

Z ∞ Z 10
3 2
(t + 5t + 10)δ (t + 3)dt, δ (t − π) cos 3tdt
−∞ 0
Answer: 28, −1.

Figure 10.39: An RC circuit with voltage step input.
10.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit
When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current source can
be modeled as a step function, and the response is known as a step response.
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which
may be a voltage or a current source.
The step response is the response of the circuit due to a sudden application of a dc voltage
or current source.
Consider the RC circuit in Fig. 10.39(a) which can be replaced by the circuit in Fig.
10.39(b), where Vs is a constant dc voltage source. Again, we select the capacitor voltage
as the circuit response to be determined. We assume an initial voltage V 0 on the capacitor,
although this is not necessary for the step response. Since the voltage of a capacitor cannot
change instantaneously,
v(o− ) = v(o+ ) = V0 (10.48)
where v(o− ) is the voltage across the capacitor just before switching and v(o+ ) is its volt-
age immediately after switching. Applying KCL, we have
dv v −Vs u(t)
C +
dt R
or
dv v Vs
+ = u(t) (10.49)
dt RC RC
where v is the voltage across the capacitor. For t > 0, Eq. (10.49) becomes
dv v Vs
+ = (10.50)
dt RC RC
261 Step Response of an RC Circuit
Figure 10.40: Response of an RC circuit with initially charged capacitor.
Rearranging terms gives

dv v −Vs
=−
dt RC
or
dv dt
=− (10.51)
v −Vs RC
Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions,
v(t)
t t

ln(v −Vs ) = −

V0 RC 0
t
ln(v(t) −Vs ) − ln(V0 −Vs ) = − +0
RC
or
v −Vs t
ln =− (10.52)
V0 −Vs RC
Taking the exponential of both sides
v −Vs
= e−t/τ , τ = RC
V0 −Vs
v −Vs = (V0 −Vs )e−t/τ
or
v(t) = Vs + (V0 −Vs )e−t/τ , t >0 (10.53)
Thus,

V , t <0
0
v(t) = (10.54)
V + (V −V )e−t/τ t >0
s 0 s
This is known as the complete response (or total response) of the RC circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor is initially charged. The reason
for the term “complete” will become evident a little later. Assuming that Vs > V0 , a plot of
v(t) is shown in Fig. 10.40.
Figure 10.41: Step response of an RC circuit with initially uncharged capacitor: (a) voltage
response, (b) current response.
If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0 = 0 in Eq. (10.54) so

that 
0, t <0
v(t) = (10.55)
V (1 − e−t/τ ) t > 0
s
which can be written alternatively as
v(t) = Vs (1 − e−t/τ )u(t) (10.56)
This is the complete step response of the RC circuit when the capacitor is initially un-
charged. The current through the capacitor is obtained from Eq. (10.55) using i(t) =
Cdv/dt. We get
dv C
i(t) = C = Vs e−t/τ , τ = RC, t >0
dt τ
or
Vs
i(t) = e−t/τ u(t) (10.57)
R
Figure 7.42 shows the plots of capacitor voltage and capacitor current i(t)
Rather than going through the derivations above, there is a systematic approach—or
rather, a short-cut method—for finding the step response of an RC or RL circuit. Let us
reexamine Eq. (10.56), which is more general than Eq. (7.48). It is evident that has two
components. Classically there are two ways of decomposing this into two components.
The first is to break it into a “natural response and a forced response” and the second is to
break it into a “transient response and a steady-state response.” Starting with the natural
response and forced response, we write the total or complete response as
or
v = vn + v f (10.58)
where
vn = V0 e−t/τ
and
v f = Vs (1 − e−t/τ )
We are familiar with the natural response vn of the circuit. v f is known as the forced
response because it is produced by the circuit when an external “force” (a voltage source
in this case) is applied. It represents what the circuit is forced to do by the input excitation.
The natural response eventually dies out along with the transient component of the forced
response, leaving only the steadystate component of the forced response.
Another way of looking at the complete response is to break into two components—one
temporary and the other permanent, i.e.,
or
v = vt + vss (10.59)
where
vt = (V0 −Vs )e−t/τ (10.60)
and
vss = Vs (10.61)
The transient response vt is temporary; it is the portion of the complete response that
decays to zero as time approaches infinity. Thus,
The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with time.
The steady-state response vss is the portion of the complete response that remains after
the transient reponse has died out. Thus,
The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after an external exci-
tation is applied.
The first decomposition of the complete response is in terms of the source of the re-
sponses, while the second decomposition is in terms of the permanency of the responses.
Under certain conditions, the natural response and transient response are the same. The
same can be said about the forced response and steady-state response.
Whichever way we look at it, the complete response in Eq. (10.53) may be written as
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e−t/τ (10.62)
where v(0) is the initial voltage at t = 0+ and v(∞) is the final or steadystate value. Thus,
to find the step response of an RC circuit requires three things:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).

2. The final capacitor voltage v(∞).
We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from the circuit for
t > 0. Once these items are determined, we obtain the response using Eq. (10.62). This
technique equally applies to RL circuits, as we shall see in the next section.
Note that if the switch changes position at time t = t0 instead of at t = 0 there is a time
delay in the response so that Eq. (10.62) becomes
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(t0 ) − v∞ ]e−(t−t0 )τ (10.63)
where v(t0 ) is the initial value at t = t0+ . Keep in mind that Eq. (10.62) or (10.63) applies
only to step responses, that is, when the input excitation is constant.
EXAMPLE 10.10 The switch in Fig. 7.43 has been in position A for a long time. At
t = 0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 s and
4 s.
Figure 10.42: For Example 10.10
Solution:
For t < 0 the switch is at position A. The capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc, but v is
the same as the voltage across the 5 kΩ resistor. Hence, the voltage across the capacitor
just before t = 0 is obtained by voltage division as
5
v(o− ) = (24) = 12 V
5+3
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v(0) = v(0− ) = v(0+ ) = 15 V
For t > 0, the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor
is RTh = 4 kΩ and the time constant is
τ = RThC = 4 × 103 × 0.5 × 10−3 = 2 s
Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, v(∞) = 30 V. Thus,
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e−t/τ

= 30 + (15 − 30)e−t/2 = (30 − 15e−0.5t ) V
At t = 1,
v(1) = 30 − 15e−0.5 = 20.9 V
At t = 4,
v(4) = 30 − 15e−2 = 27.97 V
EXERCISE 10.10 Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig. 7.44. Assume the switch
has been open for a long time and is closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.
Answer: (6.25 + 3.75e−2t ) V for all t > 0, 7.63 V
EXAMPLE 10.11 In Fig. 10.44, the switch has been closed for a long time and is
opened at t = 0. Find i and v for all time.
Solution:
The resistor current i can be discontinuous at t = 0, while the capacitor voltage v cannot.
Hence, it is always better to find v and then obtain i from v
Figure 10.45: Solution of Example 10.11: (a) for t < 0 (b) for t > 0.
By definition of the unit step function,


0, t < 0
30u(t) =
30, t > 0
For t < 0, the switch is closed and 30u(t) = 0, so that the 30u(t) voltage source is replaced
by a short circuit and should be regarded as contributing nothing to v. Since the switch has
been closed for a long time, the capacitor voltage has reached steady state and the capacitor
acts like an open circuit. Hence, the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 10.45(a) for t < 0.
From this circuit we obtain
v
v = 10 V, i=− = −1 A
10
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v(o) = v(0− ) = 10 V
For t > 0, the switch is opened and the 10-V voltage source is disconnected from the
circuit. The 30u(t) voltage source is now operative, so the circuit becomes that shown in
Fig. 10.45(b). After a long time, the circuit reaches steady state and the capacitor acts like
an open circuit again. We obtain v(∞) by using voltage division, writing
20
v(∞) = (30) = 20 V
20 + 10
The Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals is
10 × 20 20
RTh = 10||20 = = Ω
30 3
and the time constant is

20 1 5
τ = RThC = · = s
3 4 3
Thus,
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e−t/τ

= 20 + (10 − 20)e−(3/5)t = (20 − 10e−0.6t ) V
To obtain i, we notice from Fig. 10.45(b) that i is the sum of the currents through the 20 Ω
resistor and the capacitor; that is,
v dv
i= +C
20 dt
= 1 − 0.5e−0.6t + 0.25(−0.6)(−10)e−0.6t = (1 + e−0.6t ) A
Notice from Fig. 10.45(b) that v + 10i = 30 is satisfied, as expected. Hence,


10 V, t <0
v=
(20 − 10e−0.6t ) V, t ≥ 0

−1 A, t <0
i=
(1 + e−0.6t ) A, t > 0
Notice that the capacitor voltage is continuous while the resistor current is not.
EXERCISE 10.11 The switch in Fig. 10.46 is closed at t = 0. Find i(t) and v(t) for
all time. Note that u(−t) = 1 for t < 0 and 0 for t > 0. Also, u(−t) = 1 − u(t).

Answer: 
−0, t <0
i=
−2(1 + e−1.5t ) A, t > 0

20 V, t <0
v=
10(1 + 10e−1.5t ) V, t > 0
10.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit

Consider the RL circuit in Fig. 10.478(a), which may be replaced by the circuit in Fig.
10.47(b). Again, our goal is to find the inductor current i as the circuit response. Rather
than apply Kirchhoff’s laws, we will use the simple technique in Eqs. (10.58) through
(10.62). Let the response be the sum of the transient response and the steady-state response,
i = it + iss (10.64)
We know that the transient response is always a decaying exponential, that is,
Figure 10.47: An RL circuit with a step input voltage.
L
it = Ae−t/τ , τ= (10.65)
R
where A is a constant to be determined.

The steady-state response is the value of the current a long time after the switch in Fig.
10.47(a) is closed. We know that the transient response essentially dies out after five time
constants. At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit, and the voltage across it is
269 Step Response of an RL Circuit
zero. The entire source voltage Vs appears across R. Thus, the steady-state response is
Vs
iss = (10.66)
R
Substituting Eqs. (10.65) and (10.66) into Eq. (10.64) gives
Vs
i = Ae−t/τ + (10.67)
R
We now determine the constant A from the initial value of i. Let I0 be the initial cur-
rent through the inductor, which may come from a source other than Vs Since the current
through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i(0+ ) = i(0− ) = I0 (10.68)
Thus, at t = 0 Eq. (10.67) becomes
Vs
I0 = A +
R
From this, we obtain A as

Vs
A = I0 −
R
Substituting for A in Eq. (10.67), we get

Vs Vs −t/τ
i = + I0 − e (10.69)
R R
This is the complete response of the RL circuit. It is illustrated in Fig. 10.48. The response
in Eq. (10.69) may be written as
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) − i(∞)]e−t/τ (10.70)
where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i, respectively. Thus, to find the step
Figure 10.48: Total response of the RL circuit with initial inductor current I0 .
response of an RL circuit requires three things:

1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0.

2. The final inductor current i(∞).
We obtain item 1 from the given circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3 from the circuit for
t > 0. Once these items are determined, we obtain the response using Eq. (10.70). Keep in
mind that this technique applies only for step responses.
Again, if the switching takes place at time t = t0 instead oft = 0, Eq. (10.70) becomes
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(t0 ) − i(∞)]e−(t−t0 )/τ (10.71)
If I0 = 0, then 
0, t <0
i(t) = Vs (10.72)
 (1 − e−t/τ ), t > 0
R
or
Vs
(1 − e−t/τ )u(t)
i(t) = (10.73)
R
This is the step response of the RL circuit with no initial inductor current. The voltage
across the inductor is obtained from Eq. (10.73) using v = Ldi/dt. We get
di L L
v(t) = L = Vs e−t/τ , τ= , t >0
dt τR R
or
v(t) = Vs e−t/τ u(t) (10.74)
Figure 10.49 shows the step responses in Eqs. (10.73) and (10.74).
Figure 10.49: Step responses of an RL circuit with no initial inductor current: (a) current
response, (b) voltage response.
EXAMPLE 10.12 Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 10.50 for t > 0. Assume that the
switch has been closed for a long time.
Solution:
When t < 0 the 3 Ω resistor is short-circuited, and the inductor acts like a short circuit. The
current through the inductor at t = 0− (i.e., just before t = 0) is
10
i(0− ) = =5A
2
Since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,
i(0) = i(0+ ) = i(0− ) = 5 A
When t > 0, the switch is open. The 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are in series, so that
10
i(∞) = =2A
2+3
The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals is
RTh = 2 + 3 = 5 Ω
For the time constant,

1
L 1
τ= = 3 = s
RTh 5 15
Thus,
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) − i(∞)]e−t/τ

= 2 + (5 − 2)e−15t = 2 + 3e−15t A, t >0
Check: In Fig. 10.50, for t > 0 KVL must be satisfied; that is,
di
10 = 5i + L
dt

di −15t 1 −15t
5i + L = [10 + 15e ] + (3)(−15)e = 10
dt 3
This confirms the result.
EXERCISE 10.12 The switch in Fig. 10.51 has been closed for a long time. It opens
at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.
Answer: (6 + 3e−10t ) A for all t > 0.
EXAMPLE 10.13 At t = 0 switch 1 in Fig. 10.52 is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4 s

later. Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2 s and t = 5 s.
Solution:
We need to consider the three time intervals t ≤ 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 and t ≥ 4 separately. For
t < 0, switches S1 and S2 are open so that i = 0. Since the inductor current cannot change
instantly,
i(o− ) = i(0) = i(o+ ) = 0
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, S1 is closed so that the 4 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in series. (Remember, at

this time, S2 is still open.) Hence, assuming for now that S1 is closed forever,
40
i(∞) = = 4 A, RTh = 4 + 6 = 10 Ω
4+6
L 5 1
τ= = = s
RTh 10 2
Thus,
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0) − i(∞)]e−t/τ

= 4 + (0 − 4)e−2t = 4(1 − e−2t ) A 0≤t ≤4
For t ≥ 4, S2 is closed; the 10-V voltage source is connected, and the circuit changes.
This sudden change does not affect the inductor current because the current cannot change
abruptly. Thus, the initial current is
i(4) = i(4− = 4(1 − e−8 ) w 4 A
To find i(∞) let v be the voltage at node P in Fig. 10.52. Using KCL,
40 − v 10 − v v 180
+ = ⇒ v= V
4 2 6 11
v 30
i(∞) =
= = 2.727 A
6 11
The Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals is
4×2 22
RTh = 4||2 + 6 = +6 = Ω
6 3
and
L 5 15
τ= = = s
RTh 22 22
3
Hence,
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(4) − i(∞)]e−(t−4)/τ , t ≥4
We need (t − 4) in the exponential because of the time delay. Thus,
15
i(t) = 2.727 + (4 − 2.727)e−(t−4)/τ , τ=
22
= 2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667(t−4) , t ≥4
Putting all this together,




0, t ≤0

i(t) = 4(1 − e−2t ), 0≤t ≤4


2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667(t−4) , t ≥ 4

At t = 2,
i(2) = 4(1 − e−4 ) = 3.93 A
At t = 5
i(5) = 2.727 + 1.273e−1.4667 = 3.02 A
EXERCISE 10.13 Switch S1 in Fig. 10.53 is closed at t = 0, and switch S2 is closed

at t = 2 s. Calculate i(t) for all t. Find i(1) and i(3).
Answer: 


0, t <0

i(t) = 2(1 − e−9t ), 0<t <2


3.6 − 1.6e−5(t−2) , t > 2

i(1) = 1.9997 A, i(3) = 5.589 A

Bibliography
[1] R. L. Boylestad, Introductory circuit analysis. Pearson Education, 2013.
[2] C. K. Alexander, M. N. Sadiku, and M. Sadiku, Fundamentals of electric circuits.

McGraw-Hill Higher Education Boston, 2007.
[3] J. W. Nilsson and S. A. Riedel, Electric circuits. Pearson, 2020.
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Pyramids Higher Institute for

Engineering and Technology

1 Voltage and Current 1

7 Methods of Analysis 151

8 Circuit Theorems 175

9 Capacitors and Inductors 207

10 First-Order Circuits 233

Figure 1.1: Hydrogen and helium atoms.

1.2 Atoms and Their Structure

Figure 1.2: The atomic structure of copper.

Figure 1.3: Charles Augustin Coulomb.

Figure 1.4: Defining the positive ion.

Figure 1.5: Defining the voltage between two points.

Figure 1.6: Count Alessandro Volta.

electrons, both separated by a distance r. Since it would be inconsequential to talk about

The defining equation is

Through algebraic manipulations, we can define an equation to determine the energy

Finally, if we want to know how much charge was involved:

EXAMPLE 1.2 Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 µC between

W = QV = (50 × 10−6 C)(6 V) = 300 × 10−6 J = 300 µJ

Both terminals must be connected to define the applied voltage.

the potential difference between a point and ground is 12 V, and so on.

Figure 1.9: Basic electric circuit.

Figure 1.10: André Marie Ampère.

1.5 Voltage Sources

Figure 1.11: Standard symbol for a dc voltage source.

1.6 Ampere-Hour Rating

A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide a current of 1

ampere-hour (Ah) rating

1.7 Battery Life Factors

cold and very warm temperatures.

Figure 2.1: Resistance symbol and notation.

2.2 Resistance: Circular Wires

Figure 2.2: Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.

Table 2.1: Resistivity (ρ) of various materials.

Since the resistivity is in the numerator of Eq. (2.1),

the higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a conductor

as shown for two conductors of the same length in Fig. 2.3(a).

the longer the conductor, the greater the resistance

the greater the area of a conductor, the less the resistance

2.2.1 Circular Mils (CM)

a wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 CM.

as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Defining the circular mil (CM).

ACM = (dmils )2 (2.2)

Figure 2.5: Verification of Eq. (2.2): ACM = (dmils )2

Then the area is determined by

ACM = (dmils )2 = (125 mils)2 = 15, 625 CM

from which we can conclude the following:

Figure 2.6: Example 2.2.

ACM = (dmils )2 = (62.5 mils)2 = 3906.25 CM

Figure 2.7: Example 2.3.

l (10.37 CM-Ω/ft)(3 ft) 31.11

2.3 Wire Tables

EXAMPLE 2.4 Find the resistance of 650 ft of #8 copper wire (T=20°C).

Table 2.2: American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes.

Figure 2.9: Example 2.6.

EXAMPLE 2.5 What is the diameter, in inches, of a #12 copper wire?

d = 0.0808 in. (or close to 1/12 in.)

Figure 2.10: Defining ρ in ohm-centimeters.