Topic 1: Wind Environment

Instructor: Dr. Tim K.T. Tse ([email protected])

 Terrain: Mechanical response:
wind at low height Wind pressure to structural response

Design Criteria
Wind climate: Aerodynamic response:
global wind Wind flow to pressure

Wind Load Chain (Dyrbye and Hanson, 1997)

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Wind climate:
‒ The general wind conditions in different geographical
regions.
‒ Design wind velocity at a local region is determined by the
extreme wind climatology.
‒ Topics include:
a) global wind climate
b) wind climate of Hong Kong
c) determination of design wind speed

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Terrain:
‒ The roughness of terrain exerts a major influence on wind
‒ These effects are important for the design of buildings
‒ Topics:
a) wind structures near ground (boundary layer)
b) mean speed and turbulent profiles
c) Modification of wind by topography & structures

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Aerodynamic response:
‒ Wind pressures and wind forces can be influenced by the
structural geometry
‒ Topics:
a) external & internal pressure
b) wind pressure & forces on rectangular buildings
c) wind forces & moments

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Mechanical response:
‒ Wind causes buildings to vibrate
‒ Wind-induced vibration of buildings is classified as along
wind and cross wind vibrations.
‒ Topics:
a) along wind and cross wind responses
b) gust response factor

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Design criteria:
‒ Strength design criterion and serviceability design criterion.
‒ Wind codes:
a) CPWEHK 2004
b) AS/NZS 1170:2

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1.1 Global Wind Climate
‒ Differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun.
‒ A temperature gradient  a pressure gradient  air
movement.
‒ Rotation of the earth & surface friction break down air
movement into 6 district circulations, 3 in each hemisphere:
a) Easterly trade wind;
b) Warm westerly wind; and
c) Polar easterly wind.

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1.1 Global Wind Climate

The North Pole, high pressure

Polar easterly wind
The polar front, low pressure
Warm westerly wind
Subtropical high pressure zone
The trade wind
Equator, low pressure

Global Atmospheric Circulation (Jensen, 1985)

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1.1.1 Easterly trade winds
‒ The subtropical high pressure zone initiates a flow towards
the Equator at ground level.
‒ There is a fictitious force, named Coriolis force, which is
perpendicular to the wind direction and in the Northern
Hemisphere to the right.
‒ Flow is bent westwards and forms a easterly trade wind.

1.1.2 Warm westerly wind in temperate zones

‒ Flow is directed towards the north near the ground by the
subtropical high pressure zone.
‒ Due to the Coriolis force, it bents eastwards and becomes
a westerly wind.

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1.1.4 Easterly polar winds
‒ Air flows to the south at low altitudes from the high pressure
at the North Pole.
‒ The flow is diverted to the west and becomes the cold
easterly polar wind.

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http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/climatechange/coastpol/china.html

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1.2.1 Monsoon wind
‒ The inclination of the earth’s rotation axis to the ecliptic
causes a seasonal oscillation of the trade wind, referred to
as monsoon wind.
‒ In Hong Kong, the north-easterly monsoon wind prevails in
the winter and spring months (i.e. November to April) and
usually last for several days.
‒ There are odd cases where south or westerly monsoon
wind.
‒ The highest hourly mean and gust wind speed recorded by
the Hong Kong Royal Observatory was 22.7 m/s in 1891 and
29.9 m/s in 1934, respectively

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Terminology:
a) Typhoons in Far East (e.g. HK, China, Japan,
Taiwan,…);
b) Cyclones in Australia;
c) Hurricanes in the United States, including Hawaii.
‒ The full scale typhoons usually develop initially from
cyclone eddies.
‒ The prerequisite conditions to the formation:
a) Sea surface temperature must be > 26oC;
b) Converging flow towards the center at low level; and
c) Diverging flow away from the center at high levels.

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Mechanisms:
a) Typhoon sucks up from the ocean large quantities of
water vapor which condense at higher altitudes.
b) This latent heat of condensation is the prime source of
energy supply, which intensifies the typhoon as it
moves across the ocean.
c) Typhoon winds are strong over the ocean and in
adjacent coastal areas (~100km from coastlines).
d) Lifespan: ~1 – 3 weeks
‒ Rotation (due to the Coriolis force): counter-clockwise in
Northern Hemisphere; clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

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 1.2.2 Typhoon
Eye Wall
‒ Structure of Typhoon • high winds & intensive rain
• rain falls in the inner region
Eye • warm humid air rises in the outer
Secondary
• ~ 30km diameter Circulation of eye
part
• clear to partly
cloudy skies Funnel - shape
• absent of rain & Tropause
strong wind
Outflow
Height (km)

Main circulation

Secondary circulation ~10 -15km

of inflow

Inflow

Heat Friction Heat Friction Heat

Radial distance from centre(km)

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Structure of Typhoon MOTION OF STORM
(~10-50 km/hr)
Annulus of primary convection
• intense rain
• strongest winds

Streamlines

~500km ~1000km
Wind speed (m/s)

Spiral cloud bands from

secondary convection
• moderate rain

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Rankine Vortex Model

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Typhoon tracks near HK (Signal No.10 since 1956, after HKO)

http://www.hko.gov.hk/informtc/historical_tc/no10trackc.htm

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1.2.2 Typhoon
‒ Typhoon wind speed
a) Probability of having typhoon signal No.8 (i.e. mean
speed = 17.5 m/s at 10m high) is once a year; signal
No.10 (i.e. 32.9 m/s) is once in 10 years.
b) The highest recorded hourly mean and gust speed of
typhoon is 46 m/s and 72 m/s.

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1.2.3 Wind measuring stations in Hong Kong
‒ Locations of anemometer stations in HK

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1.2.3 Wind measuring stations in Hong Kong
‒ Hong Kong Observatory Headquarter

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1.2.3 Wind measuring stations in Hong Kong
‒ Waglan Island

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1.2.3 Wind measuring stations in Hong Kong
‒ Topography around anemometer stations
a) Comparing the topography, the WagLan data are
superior to those of RO Headquarter.
b) The velocity at WL is the unobstructed wind while
those at RO are affected by the surrounding
topography.
c) WL data have been chosen as the basis for the design
wind speed estimation in HK Code of Practice on
Wind Effects.

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 ‒ Wind is a random process and its velocity fluctuates in a
random manner.
‒ The determination of design wind velocity is based on the
concept of probability.

1.3.1 Exceedance probability and return period

‒ The exceedance probability, PE(V), is the probability that a
given wind speed will be exceeded within a one-year
period.
‒ The reciprocal of exceedance probability is the return
period, TR(V).
1
TR (V)= (1.1) Where N and r are the total number of
PE (V)
measured years and rank number of
r
PE (V)= (1.2) the given wind speed
N+1

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Example 1.3.1
‒ Annual maximum hourly mean wind speed and the
maximum gust wind speed recorded at the Hong Kong
Royal Observatory Station. Determine PE(V) & TR(V).
Year Hourly Gust Year Hourly Gust Year Hourly Gust
mean mean mean
1930 46 72 1931 66 118 1932 38 69
1933 30 58 1934 33 58 1935 31 55
1936 70 115 1937 65 130 1938 28 55
1939 35 64 1940 45 72 1941 55 94
1947 32 53 1948 60 75 1949 56 81
1950 34 59 1951 44 76 1952 33 66
1953 42 75 1954 47 87 1955 32 61
1956 32 47 1957 59 101 1958 33 62
1959 24 -- 1960 35 82 1967 32 80
1962 68 140 1963 27 70 1964 58 122
1965 27 61 1966 35 82 1967 32 80
1968 34 72 1969 27 67 1970 26 69
1971 53 121 1972 25 59 1973 34 77
1974 24 70 1975 31 76 1976 31 67
1977 30 55 1978 33 81 1979 40 94
1980 29 58 1981 36 60

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1.3.2 Probability density function and probability
distribution function
‒ High wind data are limited.
‒ Probability law of high wind makes prediction more realistic,
especially for large values of wind speeds.
‒ Probability density function, f(V)
dF V
f V = 1.3
dV
‒ Probability distribution function, F(V)
V
F V = f V dV (1.4)
0

‒ Exceedance probability, PE(V)

V
PE (V) = 1 − F V = 1 − f V dV (1.5)
0

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1.3.3 Extreme wind analysis
‒ The extreme wind data for typhoons can be adequately
represented by the Fisher-Tippett Type I distribution function.

F(V) = exp[−exp(−y)]
y=α V−U (1.6)
Where V is the annual
maximum wind velocity; U is
the mode; α is the dispersion;
y is reduced variate.

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1.3.3 Extreme wind analysis
‒ Combine with exceedance probability, PE(V), to obtain
r
1 − N+1 =F(V) = exp[ − exp( − yi )] (1.7)

‒ Therefore,
ri
yi = − ln −ln 1− = α Vi − U (1.8)
N+1
‒ Example 1.3.3
a) Determine the mode, U, and dispersion, , of the
wind data set of example 1.3.1. What are the hourly
mean and gust wind speeds of 50 years and 100 year
return period wind?

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1.3.4 Extreme wind distribution of HK:
‒ mean wind speed at RO Headquarter

• Lun, 1970 • Chen, 1975

• Data: 1884 – 1969 • Data: 1947 – 1974
• ~41 m/s @ 50 yrs • ~38 m/s @ 50 yrs
• ~8% difference

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‒ Gust wind speed at RO Headquarter

• Lun, 1970
• ~77.2 m/s @ 50 yrs

• Chen, 1975
• ~70.5 m/s @ 50 yrs
• ~3% difference

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1.3.5 Design life span of structure and risk in HK
‒ Relationships between design wind velocity, return period,
design life span of structure, and potential risk are
described using probability.
‒ The probability a velocity, Vo, will not be exceeded in N
years:
N
N 1
1−P𝐸 (Vo ) = 1 − (1.9)
T𝑅 (Vo )

‒ The risk of having a velocity higher than Vo in the N years:

N
N 1
R Vo =1 − 1−P𝐸 (Vo ) =1 − 1 − (1.10)
T𝑅 (Vo )

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1.3.5 Design life span of structure and risk in HK
‒ Say, TR = 50 years; Vo = 70.5 m/s (determined using extreme
wind analysis) and design life span of structure, N = 50 years.
‒ The associated risk of the structure is 63%, implying there
are 63% of chance that design wind load being exceeded
within the lifetime of the structure.
‒ The actual risk of building suffering damage is indeed
smaller because:
a) The use of required safety factors such as load factors
in structural design.
b) Worse case scenario is assumed in design: wind
perpendicular to the building side having maximum
surface area. Wind speed at such direction may not
be that high.

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Example 1.3.5
‒ The expected life of a structure is 50 years and the
acceptable risk is limited to 40% with special considerations
as specified by the developer.
a) Determine the return period and the gust wind speed
based on the wind data of Example 1.3.1 & 1.3.3.

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