Current Systems (AC/DC)

And Voltage Levels

Basics You Must Never
Forget
By Edvard   | November, 29th 2017 | 8 comments | Save to PDF
Share!    

Home / Technical Articles / Current Systems (AC/DC) And Voltage Levels Basics You Must Never

Forget

Electrical Engineering Basics

There are many electrical engineering basics you really must know at
any time, even in the middle of the night! The basics we will discuss
here are current systems and voltage levels in transmission and
distribution systems.
Current Systems (AC/DC) And Voltage Levels Basics You Must
Never Forget
Contents:
 Current Systems
 Direct currents (d.c.)
 Alternating current (a.c.)
 Advantage of a.c. for distribution
 Voltage Values
 Standard line voltages
 Voltage between live conductors and voltage to neutral
 Voltage Systems
 High voltage overhead systems
 High voltage single-phase system
 High voltage three-phase system
 Phase sequence
 Low voltage single-phase 2-wire overhead system
  Low voltage single-phase 3-wire system
 Low voltage three-phase 4-wire system
 High voltage single-wire earth return (SWER) system

Current Systems
Electric currents are of three classes:

 Direct (d.c.)
 Alternating (a.c.), and
 Pulsating
Distribution and Transmission electrical workers are mainly
concerned with alternating currents. Pulsating currents will not be
discussed in this article.

Direct currents (d.c.)

A direct current (d.c.) system is one in which current flows in one
direction in the conductors of that system. An everyday example is
the car battery, which has two terminals, one positive (+) and the
other negative (-).

The accepted convention is that the current flows from the

positive terminal to the external circuit and returns to the
negative terminal.

High voltage transmission of electricity by direct current has been

developed over recent years. In general, however, d.c. distribution
is limited to use in:

a. Tramway and traction systems with a voltage of usually 600V;

 b. Railway d.c. traction systems with a voltage of 1.5kV between rail
and overhead collector wire;
c. Lifts, printing presses and various machines where smooth speed
control is desirable;
d. Electroplating; and
e. Battery charging.
Usually d.c. systems are of 2-wire or 3-wire types. In a 2-wire
system one wire is positive and the other negative. The difference in
potential for tramways is 500V with the rail negative and in the d.c.
railway system the difference in potential is 1.5kV, again with the rail
negative.
In a 3-wire system the standard voltages are 460 and 230V. There
are three wires, one being at 230V positive (or + 230 volts potential),
the second 230V negative (or – 230 volts potential), with the third
called the “common” or neutral being at zero potential (see
Figure 1).

Supply at 230V is taken from the “outer” (or positive) and the
common conductors, or from “inner” (or negative) and the common
conductors.

Figure 1 – Potential in a 3-wire system

Energy for motors at 480V is taken from the outer and the inner
conductors.
Go back to contents ↑

Alternating current (a.c.)

An alternating current (a.c.) flows in an electrical circuit that is
energized with an alternating voltage. This voltage is one that
reverses its sense of direction in a regular manner, and this is
caused by the method by which it is generated.

In simple terms, the generator is a copper coil, which is mounted on a

shaft between opposite poles of a magnet. When the shaft spins, the
copper cuts the magnetic field and a voltage appears at the ends of
the coil.
The generator (or alternator) is shown in Figure 2 (left).
Figure 2 (left) – Simple a.c. generator; Figure 3 (right) – a.c. voltage
wave form
As the coil rotates one revolution the voltage follows the variation
shown in Figure 3 (right). When the coil is at right angles to
the magnetic field, it is not cutting the field and the voltage is zero.
The maximum rate of cutting occurs when the coil is in line with the
magnetic field and there is a maximum voltage output.
From zero to maximum and beyond maximum back to zero occurs in
one half revolution and the voltage rises and falls. In the next half
revolution, the generated voltage is opposite to the first half. One full
revolution of the coil produces one “cycle” of variation.

The number of voltage cycles in one second of time is called the

frequency of the supply, and is given the name Hertz (Hz). The
standard frequency in Australia and most of the countries is 50Hz.

Go back to contents ↑

Advantage of a.c. for distribution

Alternating current has an important advantage over direct current in
that the voltage can be changed by transformers to a high value for
transmission over long distances and then reduced at the customer’s
point of supply to a lower level suitable for operating lights, motors
and other appliances.

As power = volts × amps, for the same power level to transmitted, a

high voltage can be used so that the current can be kept to a low
level thereby minimizing the voltage drop.
Transmission of high power levels therefore requires:

1. Resistance of the transmission line to be as small as possible

2. The transmission line current to be as low as possible
The first condition cannot always be met, as it needs conductors of
large cross-sectional area. Large conductors are expensive and their
great weight would require strong and costly supports.

On the other hand, the second condition can be met by raising the
transmission line voltage so that high power levels can be
transmitted with relatively small currents. The small currents in
turn require relatively small cross-sectional area, lightweight
conductors with correspondingly lighter supports.
Therefore, when high amounts of power levels are involved, it is
general practice to use high transmission voltages and relatively
small currents with correspondingly small voltage drops.

This condition is much more efficient than if an equivalent power

level were transmitted at low voltage and high current with a
relatively high voltage drop.

Transformers are used to provide the high voltages necessary for

the transmission of high power levels over long distances. In
keeping with the value of the transmission line voltage employed, it is
necessary to insulate the conductors against leakage to earth.

Go back to contents ↑

Voltage Values
In the following, “voltage” means the voltage between the conductors.
The standard voltage values used are:

1. Extra low voltage (ELV) – means any voltage not exceeding 50V
a.c. or 120V ripple free d.c.
2. Low voltage – means any voltage exceeding 50V a.c. or 120V
ripple free d.c. but not exceeding 1kV a.c. or 1.5kV d.c.
Thus the normal voltages of 240V and 415V delivered to most
customers are “low voltage”.
3. High voltage (HV) – means and voltage exceeding 1kV a.c. or
1.5kV d.c.
4. Extra high voltage (EHV) means any voltage exceeding 220kV.
Go back to contents ↑

Standard line voltages

The standard line voltages in use are:

Line Voltages Usage

240/415V (3 phase)
Used to supply customers installations
240/480V (1 phase)
6.6kV
11kV
22kV Used for urban and rural HV distribution
12.7kV (SWER)
22kV
33kV
Used for sub-transmission of larger power levels in distribution over m
66kV
110kV
220V
Used for transmission of large power levels over long distance
330kV
500kV
Go back to contents ↑

Voltage between live conductors and

voltage to neutral
The voltage between any two live conductors is often referred to as
the “line voltage”. The voltage to neutral, often referred to as
the “phase voltage”, is the voltage between any live conductor and
the neutral point or earth of the system.

Figure 4 – Three-
phase system with earthed neutral
Figure 4 shows the line and phase voltages in a three-phase system.
The neutral point is usually earthed at the supply end (for protection
and safety reasons) and each live conductor is then at a definite
potential to earth.
For instance, in an 11kV three-phase system, the voltage
between any two live conductors gives a line voltage of 11kV
while the voltage between any live conductor and neutral (or
earth) gives a phase voltage of 6.35kV.

Go back to contents ↑

Voltage Systems
High voltage overhead systems
The two systems most commonly used for transmission and
distribution are:

1. Single-phase
2. Three-phase
Go back to contents ↑

High voltage single-phase system

This system is generally associated with the distribution of low power
levels over relatively short distances. Single-phase systems are
generally fed from a three-phase line.

The single-phase line consists of two conductors, neither directly

earthed to the general mass of earth. In this system there is no
neutral conductor (see Figure 5).
It is usual to have the three-phase system earthed (at the neutral
point of the transformer or generator supplying the system) either
solidly or through some current limiting resistance (for safety and
protection purposes). As the single-phase HV system is part of the
three-phase HV system, each phase of the single-phase system has
a definite voltage to earth.

For safety reasons alone, it is important to remember that each

phase is alive to earth and that a definite voltage exists between
each phase and the equipment connected to the ground.

Figure 5 – Three-phase
high voltage system with single-phase spur

Go back to contents ↑

High voltage three-phase system

This system is widely used for the transmission of high power levels
and is also the standard system used in distribution and reticulation.
It consists of three conductors, each called a “phase”. To
standardize the identification of the phases, they are known as A, B
and C phases or red, white and blue phases respectively.
The voltage in each phase alternates, in a similar manner to the
alternating voltage shown in Figure 3 but one follows the other in
regular order (see Figure 6).

F
igure 6 – Representation of the three sine waves in a three-phase
system
Brie y, phase A reaches its maximum positive value first, then is
followed by phase B, then by phase C and so on. The order in which
the phases reach their peak is called the phase sequence.

Go back to contents ↑

Phase sequence
It is essential that the order of phase sequences and the identity
of the A, B and C be known. In the case just cited, the order of
phase sequence was from A to B to C because the voltage in phase
B reached its maximum value after that in phase A and the voltage in
phase C reached its maximum value after that in phase B.
Phase sequence has an important bearing on the direction of
rotation of three-phase a.c. motors, which depend on the phase
sequence and the relative position of the three-phases connected to
the motor terminals.
A reversal in the order of the phase sequence (eg. by interchanging
any two of the three wires connected to its main terminals) will cause
the motor to run in the reverse direction of rotation.

For this reason alone, it is important that electrical workers know

what happens if there is an inadvertent change in the position of
the phases supplying a factory in which motors are installed.

Go back to contents ↑

Low voltage single-phase 2-wire

overhead system
In this system there are two conductors, one generally solidly earthed
at the transformer and known as the “neutral”, while the other is
known as the “live”, “active” or “phase” conductor.

The voltage between phase and neutral is nominally 240V and the
voltage of the phase or active conductor to earth is therefore also
240V (see Figure 7).
 Fig
ure 7 – Single-phase 2-wire system

Go back to contents ↑

Low voltage single-phase 3-wire

system
In certain rural areas, it is often more economical to install a single-
phase high voltage line, saving the cost of the third high voltage
phase and to supply the load by stepping down through a
transformer to a 3-wire system. One conductor is earthed and known
as the neutral while the other conductors are both “actives”. (see
Figure 8).
Figure 8 – Single-phase 3-wire system
The voltage between either of the actives and the neutral is 240V
while the voltage between the two active conductors is 480V. It is the
a.c. equivalent of the three-wire d.c. system. It facilitates the supply
of larger loads or loads at greater distances from the transformer
than the single-phase 2-wire system.

Half of a domestic 240V load is connected between one active and

the neutral and the other half between the other active and the
neutral. This balances the load on each phase and reduces, if not
eliminates, the residual current in the neutral.
Go back to contents ↑

Low voltage three-phase 4-wire

system
This system employs four conductors and is widely used in all areas
where it is considered economical to supply large amounts of energy
for industrial and domestic purposes.
The system is shown in Figure 9 – a, b and c are the active
conductors and n is the neutral which is connected to the “star
point” of the transformer. It is usual for the “star point” to be
earthed as shown.

Fig
ure 9 – Three-phase system with earthed neutral
The standard voltage between actives is 415V, while the voltage
between any one of the actives, (a, b and c respectively) and the
neutral is 240V.
The same phase relationship of “phase sequence” exists on the LV
as on the HV side of the transformer, so care must be taken when
renewing mains to avoid upsetting the phase sequence to the
supply of motor loads.

Go back to contents ↑

High voltage single-wire earth return

(SWER) system
The power system known as the SWER system uses only one HV
conductor with the earth being used as the return conductor, (see
Figure 10).

This system was first developed in New Zealand and is now used in
Australia, South Africa and many other countries. It can have great
economic advantages in hilly areas where the loading is relatively
light, where long distances are involved and where the line can be
strung from ridge top to ridge top.

Because of the generally lower impedance of the line to earth

circuit, it usually has better voltage regulation than a
conventional single-phase 2-wire circuit.

To restrict noise interference in telecommunications systems, the

amount of earth current allowed to ow in the earth return circuit is
limited. Furthermore, there must be a minimum separation between
SWER lines and any telecommunication lines.
A special transformer is used to isolate the SWER line from the main
distribution line. The SWER line voltage is 12.7kV to earth. The
distribution transformers tted to the SWER line can be either single-
phase 2-wire 240V supply or single-phase 3-wire 240/480V supply.

Particular attention must be paid to the good earthing of the

transformers on a single-wire line and to the protection of these
earth wires from physical damage.

Figure 10 – Single wire earth return system

Go back to contents ↑

Reference // VESI Fieldworker Handbook

Guide To Medium Voltage
Capacitor Bank
Switching And Impact Of
Overvoltage On The
System
Share!    

Home / Download Center / Electrical Engineering Books and Technical Guides / Power substation

guides / Guide To Medium Voltage Capacitor Bank Switching And Impact Of Overvoltage On The

System

Capacitor bank switching

The energy associated with re-striking due to capacitor bank
switching must be assessed with the greatest care. Although rare,
restriking can be a challenging task, especially for surge arresters
installed near the capacitor banks.
Medium Voltage Capacitor Switching Guide
In actual fact, surge arresters installed even further away, including
low voltage ones, can be affected in the case of multiple restriking
events. The energy that affects the surge arrester depends on the
capacitance of the capacitor bank owing to the charge stored in the
bank itself.

The effect of this is to increase overvoltage oscillation amplitude the

instant restriking occurs. Annex G.2, standard IEEE Std C62.22-2009
“IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
Alternating-Current Systems”, provides a method for calculating
the energy dissipated by the surge arrester in this situation.
Suppos that the transient overvoltage due to circuit breaker restriking
during the opening operation of a capacitor bank reaches 3 p.u. and
that the discharge voltage of a typical surge arrester installed on the
bank or in its immediate vicinity is about 2 p.u..
The suggestion provided by the Standard is to estimate the energy
discharged by a surge arrester (energy in surge arrester in kJ) as
depending on the size of the capacitor bank, as described below:

Esa (kJ) = 13.3 × MVAr per phase at 60 Hz = 16.0 × MVAr per phase

at 50 Hz

For example, considering the previously described 60 Hz system

at Us = 13.8 kV with 6 MVAr three-phase capacitor bank, the
result is:

Energy in surge arrester (kJ) = 13.3 · 6/3 = 26.6 kJ

thus, if the maximum continuous operating voltage Uc (according to

IEC, MCOV or IEEE) that can be applied to the terminals of the surge
arrester without impairing its characteristics in any way is:

The result is:

This means that there will be no problems from an energy aspect if

an ABB MWD surge arrester is installed, since its energy has been
tested in accordance with Standard IEC 60099-4 and is 5.5 kJ/kV.

Table 1 – Limiting inductor positions and relative benefits /

disadvantages
Table 1 – Limiting inductor positions and relative
benefits/disadvantages
Surge arresters can be installed in different positions depending on
the switching device and limiting inductor. These positions are
listed below:

a. On the supply side of the switching device

b. On the supply side of the limiting inductor
c. Between the limiting inductor and capacitor
d. At the ends of the limiting inductor
The benefits and disadvantages of each installation, which must be
preceded by research for the purpose of coordinating the insulation
of the system, are outlined in above table.

Title: Medium Voltage Capacitor Switching Guide – ABB

Format: PDF
Size: 2.2 MB
Pages: 52
Download: Right here | Get Download Updates  | Get Premium Membership