A.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

All physical quantities are grouped into two: Basic or fundamental quantities (these are the
minimum set of units from which all the units of physics can be assembled) and derived or
non-fundamental quantities. All derived quantities are obtained by the combination of the basic
or fundamental quantities.

For quantities to be completely described, we need to state their magnitude and units. Units
could be the international system of units (S.I) or the gravitational system of units (G.I). We
would be using the international system of units which is the widely accepted system of units.

Basic Quantities Basic Units Symbols

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Derived Quantities Derived Units Symbols

Area meter square m2
Volume meter cube m3
Velocity meter per second ms-1
Acceleration meter per second square ms-2
Density Kilogram per meter cube kgm-3
Wave number per meter m-1
Current density ampere per square meter Am-2
Magnetic field strength ampere per meter Am-1
Amount of substance concent. mole per cubic meter molm-3
Luminance candela per square meter cdm-2

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For conventence prefixes are assigned to units as shown below

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefex Symbol

1024 Yotta Y 10-1 Deci d
1021 Zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 Exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 Peta P 10-6 micro μ
1012 Tera T 10-9 nano n
109 Giga G 10-12 pico p
106 Mega M 10-15 femto f
103 Kilo K 10-18 atto a
102 Hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 Deka da 10-24 yocto y

DIMENSION:

To indicate exclusively how a physical quantity is related to its basic quantities, we require the
properties of such a quantity which for convenience we call dimension. Dimension gives the
qualitative nature of a physical quantity. Usually square brackets denote the dimension or units
of a physical quantity.

Quantity Dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Electric Current A
Temperature Ө
Amount of substance N

Examples:
1.  Area  = Length × Breadth 
=  L × L = L2
Unit for area = m2

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  Velocity = 
displacement 
2. 
 time

L
= = LT −1
T
Unit for velocity = ms-1

 Acceleration  = 
change in velocity 
3. 
 time

LT −1
= = LT −2
T
Unit of acceleration = ms-2

4.  Force =  mass × acceleration 

= MLT −2

Unit of force = Newton ( kgms −2 )

5.  Work  = force × displacement 

= MLT −2 × L = ML2T −2

Unit of work = Joule ( kgm2s −2 )

6.  Electric charge = current × time

= AT

Unit of electric charge = Coulomb ( As )

 1 
7.  Frequency =  
 period 
1
= = T −1
T

Unit of frequency = Hertz ( s−1 )

 extension 
8. Strain  =  
 original length 

L
=
L

Which is non-dimensional or dimensionless

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Uses of Units and Dimensions

i. To check the homogeneity of physical equations

A physical equation is true irrespective of the system of units used for the physical quantities
mentioned in the equation. Each term in the equation has the same dimensions and units. Only
quantities with the same dimensions can be added, subtracted or equated in an equation the
dimension of an equation is said to be homogenous if all the terms in it have the same
dimensions or units.

Example 9: Check the S = ut + ½ at2, which relates the displacement s, initial velocity u, time
t, and acceleration a, in motion under uniform acceleration is dimensionally homogenous.

Solution:

Unit for S = m
Unit for ut = ms-1 x s = m
Unit for ½ at2 = ms-2 x s2 = m
Notice that all the 3 terms in the equation have the same unit, i.e m. the equation s = ut + ½ at2
is therefore dimensionally homogenous.

Suppose that a student wrote

S = ut2 + ½ at
Unit for s = m
Unit for ut2 = ms-1 x s2 = ms
Unit for ½ at = ms-2 x s = ms-1
Notice that the units for the 3 terms in the equation are not the same or homogenous. It can be
concluded that the equation is wrong.
An equation which is not homogenous must be wrong. On the other hand, if the units for the
various terms in an equation are the same, it does not imply that the equation is correct.

Cases where an equation can be homogenous and yet incorrect are;

1. Incorrect coefficient(s)

The correct equation relating s, u, t and a for motion under uniform acceleration is

S = ut + ½ at2

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Which can be written wrongly as;

S = ½ ut + 2at2

This has the same units for each in the equation; but is wrong because the coefficient of the last
term on the right is ½ instead of 1 and the coefficient of the last term is 2 instead of ½

2. Missing Terms

The relationship between s, u, t and a may be written as;

S = ½ at2

Which is incomplete and wrong; although the equation is homogenous?

3. Extra Terms

Conversely, the correct equation may be wrongly written with an extra term which has the
same dimension or unit as the other terms for example

S = ut + vt + ½ at2

The correctness of a physical equation is confirmed experimentally

ii. To derive the unit of a physical quantity

Example 10: For temperatures close to 0 k, the specific heat capacity for a particular solid is
given by c = aT3, where T is it’s thermodynamic temperature and a is a constant. What is the
unit for a, in terms of the base units in S.I?

Solution:

Unit for specific heat capacity, c = J kg −1 K −1

= N m kg −1 K −1

= kg m s −2 m kg −1 K −1

= m2 s−2 K −1

From c = aT3
c
a=
T3

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 m 2s −2 k −1
Unit for a = 3
= m 2s −2 k −4
k

Example 11: The viscous drag f between two layers of liquid with surface area of contact A in
dv
a region of velocity gradient is given by
dx

dv
F = ηA
dx

Where η is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. What is the dimension of η? Hence, write
the unit for η in terms of the base units in S.I

Solution:

dv
F = ηA
dx

F
η=
dv
A
dx

 F
 η =
 A 
dv 
 dx 

 MLT −2 
 η = = ML−1T −1
 LT 
−1
 L2   
 L 

The unit for η = kgm −1s −1

iii. To derive the exact form of a physical equation, determining a physical quantity usually
depends on a number of other physical quantities.

Example 12: By dimension, find the form of the expression for the period of vibration of a
simple pendulum.
Solution:
Suppose that the period T of oscillation depends only on the mass m of the bob, the length l of
the thread and the acceleration due to gravity g as shown in the figure below. Hence,

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T  mx

T  ly

T  gz

 T  mx lyg z
Where x, y and z are non-dimensional constants

Then, T = km x l y g z (1)

Where k is a dimensionless constant of proportionality

Since a physical equation must be dimensionally consistent; dimensions on the left side of the
equation must be the same as the dimensions on the right side of the equation.
Dimension of T = T
The dimension of k = 1, since it is a constant
The dimension of m = M
The dimension of l = L
The dimension of g = LT−2
Substitute these into equation (1)

T = 1 Mx Ly ( LT −2 )
z

T = M x Ly Lz T −2z
Equating indices of T, M and L on both sides:
1 = − 2z (2a)
0=x (2b)
0=y+z (2c)
1 1
Solving these equations simultaneously, we have x = 0, y = and z = −
2 2
Substitute these values into equation (1)
1 1
−
T = km l g
0 2 2

l
∴T = k
g

Experimental results shows that k is approximately equal to 2π.

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Example 13: The speed of sound v, in a medium depends on its wave length d, the young
modulus E, and the density P, of the medium. Use the method of base units to derive a formula
for the speed of sound v, on a medium [Unit for young modulus E: kgm-1 s-2]

Solution:
Suppose v = k λ x E y ρz
Where k, x, y and z are non – dimensional constants
Unit of v = Units of k λ x E y ρ z

ms−1 = mx ( kg m−1 s−2 ) ( kg m )

y −3 z

ms −1 = m x − y − 3z s −2y kg y + z

Equating indices of s:
−1 = − 2 y
1
y=
2
Equating indices of kg:
0=y+z
z=−y
1
z=−
2
Equating indices of m:
1 = x − y − 3z
x=0

 v = k E1 2 ρ −1 2

E
v=k
ρ
Example 14: Poiseuille assumed that the rate of flow of a liquid through a horizontal tube
under streamline flow depends on:
a. a, radius of the tube
b. ŋ, viscosity of the liquid and
p
c. , the pressure gradient along the tube, where p = pressure difference across the length of
l
the tube and l = length of tube

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Using poiseuille’s assumption, derive an expression for the rate of flow of a liquid through a
horizontal tube in terms of a, l, p and ŋ.

Solution:
y
dv p
Suppose that rate of flow, = k a x   ηz
dt l
Where k, x, y and z are dimensionless constants

 dv   x  p y z 
Units of   = units of k a   η 
 dt   l 
y
 kg m s −2 1 
   ( kg m −1 s −1 )
3 −1 z
m s = m  2
x

 m m

m3s −1 = kg y + z m x − 2y − z s −2y − z
Equating indices of kg: 0=y+z (1)
Equating indices of s: −1 = − 2y − z (2)
Equating indices of m: 3 = x − 2y − z (3)
Equating (1) + (2): −1 = − y
y =1

From equation (1): z = − y = −1

From equation (3): x = 3 + 2y + z
= 3 + 2 −1= 4

dv k a 4 p
Rate of flow, =
dt ηl
Limitation of dimensional analysis
i. The value of dimensionless constants cannot be determined
ii. It cannot be applied to an equation involving exponential and trigonometric functions
iii. It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three physical quantities
iv. A dimensionally correct equation may not always be the correct relation
v. It does not tell us whether a given physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

VECTOR ANALYSIS
Many physical quantities can be completely specified by their magnitude alone, such quantities
are called scalers. Examples include distance, time, speed, mass and temperature. Another

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physically important class of quantities is of vectors, which have direction as well as
magnitude. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum etc.
Graphically, we represent a vector by an arrow. Example in the figure 1, OP represents a vector
and the arrow defines the direction of the vector. Analytically, we represent a vector by a bold
letter, as A in the figure. Also, in working problems, you may find that a letter with an arrow

( )
drawn over it A is used as a symbol for a vector.

Figure 1: Vector representation

Magnitude of a vector

The magnitude of a vector quantity is represented by the same letter used for the vector, but in
lightface italic type instead of boldface italic. An alternative notation for the magnitude is the
vector symbol with vertical bars on both sides. Thus,
Magnitude of A = A = A

By definition, the magnitude of a vector quantity is a scaler and is always positive.

Example 15: find the magnitude of the following vectors

a. R = 3iˆ + 2jˆ - 4kˆ

b. A = 3iˆ + 2kˆ
Solution:

R = R = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 32 + 22 + ( −2 ) = 5.39
2
a.

b. A = A = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 32 + 02 + 22 = 3.6

Assignment 1:
Given that r1 = 3iˆ − 2jˆ + kˆ , r2 = 2iˆ − 4jˆ − 3kˆ and r3 = − ˆi + 2jˆ + 2kˆ , find the magnitude of

a. R = r1 + r2 + r3

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b. A = 2r1 − 3r2 − 5r3

Characteristics of vectors
1. They possess both magnitude as well as direction
2. They do not obey the ordinary laws of Algebra
3. They change if either the magnitude or direction change or both
4. Vectors are significantly represented by the boldfaced letters or letter which have an arrow
over them.
Addition of vectors
Addition of scalers use just simple arithmetic, for example 3 kg + 2 kg = 5 kg. Addition of
vectors however, must be different to take account of the directions of the quantities.
Let us consider the figure below,

The displacement represented by the sum of the two vectors A + B equals the displacement
represented by the vector C.
A+B=C

We say that vector C is the vector sum or resultant of the two vectors A and B. If the
displacement are made in the reverse order with B first and A second, the result is the same.
Thus,

C=B+A

And
A+B=B+A
(Vector addition is commutative)

Negative of a vector
The negative of a vector A is a vector of the same magnitude and parallel to A but pointing in
the opposite direction. The negative of A, represented as −A can be obtained by adding 180°

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to the angle that specifies vector A. The vector and its negative are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

Subtraction of vectors
The subtraction of one vector from another such as
A−B=C
Can be considered as the addition of the first vector to the negative of the second one
A + ( − B) = C

Example 16: Add the following vectors

a. ( 4, 1) and ( 6, − 7 )

b. ( 3, − 1, − 2) and ( −2, 3, − 5)

Solution:
a. Let P = ( 4, 1) and Q = ( 6, − 7 )

P + Q = ( 4 + 6, 1 − 7 )

= (10, − 6 )

b. Let P = ( 3, − 1, − 2 ) and Q = ( −2, 3, − 5 )

P + Q = ( 3 − 2, − 1 + 3, − 2 − 5 )

= (1, 2, − 7 )

Example 17: Subtract the following vectors

a. ( 3, 2 ) and ( −5, − 7 )
b. (1, 3, 4 ) and ( −2,1, 5)
Solution:
a. Let P = ( 3, 2 ) and Q = ( −5, − 7 )

P + Q = ( 8, 9 )

b. Let P = (1, 3, 4 ) and Q = ( −2, 1, 5 )

P + Q = ( 3, 2, − 1)

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