Figs. 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Hydraulic structures are human-made systems interacting with surface

runoff in urban and rural environments including structures to assist
stormwater drainage, flood mitigation, coastal protection, or enhancing and
controlling flows in rivers and other water bodies. A hydraulic structure is a
structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water, which
disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or
completely stop the flow. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea,
or any body of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow
of water.
The structure may is built across a natural stream to divert, control, store,
and manage the water flow: for example, a weir across a waterway and its
upstream reservoir controlling both upstream and downstream water levels
(Figs. 1).
Figure (1): Weir structure
Hydraulic structures can be designed pro-actively to control the water flow

motion: for example, a series of drop structures along a mountain river
course built to stabilize the river bed by dissipating the flow energy along
the drops.
The construction of weirs, dams, and hydraulic structures is possibly the
oldest and most important civil engineering activity. Life on our planet is
totally dependent upon water and only two species build hydraulic
structures: humans and beavers. The latters are called “the engineers of
Nature”. Although the date and location of the most ancient hydraulic
structures (see Fig. 2) are unknown, some very famous heritage structure
includes the Sumerian irrigation canals in Mesopotamia (BC 3,000), the
Sadd-El-Kafara dam in Egypt (BC 2,500), the Marib dam and its irrigation
canals in Yemen (BC 750), the Dujianyan irrigation system in China (BC
256), and the Vichansao canal and its diversion structure in the Moche
Valley, South America (AD 200).
Marib dam-Yemen Sumerian irrigation canal-Iraq
Sadd-el-Kafara dam- Egypt The Cornalvo Dam, a Roman dam in

built in the
1st or 2nd century AD, still supplies water to
the
People of Meriden- Spain
Figure (2): Some of very famous heritage structure
The two key technical challenges in hydraulic structure design are the
conveyance of water and dissipation of kinetic energy. Conveyance implies
the transport of water, for example, into the spillway of a dam. The
conveyance of the structure is closely linked to the intake design, for
example the spillway crest, and chute design (Fig. 3). Its estimate is based
upon fundamental fluid dynamic calculations, with a range of proven
solutions. Figure 3 illustrates a rounded spillway crest designed to increase
the discharge capacity at design flow compared to a broad crest. The
dissipation of energy occurs along the chute and at its downstream end. The
available energy can be very significant and kinetic energy dissipation must
take place safely before the water rejoins the natural river course.
Figure (3): Spillway structure
1.2. Types of Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic structures are classified according to the purpose of its function

as:
1- Storage Structures: The function is to store water such as dams (see
Fig.4) and tanks.
Figure (4): Dam structure and its reservoir

2- Conveyance Structures: the function is to convey water from place to
another such as pipelines, siphons, culverts (Fig. 5), tunnels, aqueducts and
open channels.
Figure (5): Culvert structure

3- Flow Diversion Structures: the function is to regulate and divert the
quantities of flow to another structures or canals such as barrages and
regulators (Fig. 6).
(a) Barrage (b) Canal head regulator

Figures (6a, and 6b): Barrage and canal head regulator structures
4- Flow Measurement Structures: the function is to measure the flow
passing through it such as weirs, orifices, nozzles, venturi meters and
parshall flumes.
5- Energy Dissipation Structures: the function is to protect the floor of a
hydraulic structure from erosion and damage due to severe waves which
impact with the body of structure such as stilling basins, surge tanks, check
dams and vertical drop.
6- Power Stations: the function of these structure is to convert energy from a
case to another such as pumps, turbines and rams.
7- Sediment and Chemical Control Structures: the function is to control or
remove sediments and other pollutants such as sedimentation tanks, screens,
traps, filters and mixing basins.
8- River Training and Waterway Stabilization Structures: the function is to
maintain river channel and water transportation such as levees, cutoffs,
locks, piers dikes, groins, breakwaters (Fig. 7), jetties and revetments.
Figure (7): A spur dike and breakwater structure
1.3. Percolation beneath Heading up of Hydraulic Structures
The hydraulic structures such as barrages, regulators, culverts, etc…, may

either founded on an impervious solid rock foundation or a pervious
foundation. It is subjected to seepage of water beneath the structure in
addition to all other forces to which will be subjected. When founded on an
impervious rock foundation, the water seeping below the body of the
hydraulic structure, endangers the stability of the structures may cause its
failure.
1.4. Causes of Failure of Hydraulic Structures Founded on Pervious
Foundations
1.4.1. Failure by Piping or Undermining
Water starts seeping under the base of hydraulic structure. It starts from U/S
side and tries to exit at the D/S end of the impervious floor. At the point of
the exit, the exit gradient may become more than the critical gradient, in
which cause, the water starts dislodging the soil particles and carrying it
away with it causing formulation a hole in the subsoil. So, formed resulting
in the failure of the structure. Piping can have prevented by the following
methods:
a. By providing sufficiently long impervious floor
This long length will reduce the exit velocity and exit gradient. As the water
has to travel along distance beneath the floor, its head will sufficiently have
lost before it exits and its velocity will be such that it cannot wash away any
soil or sand particles.
b. By providing piles at both U/S and D/S ends:
This measure also results is increasing the path of the travel of seepage water
and hence it decreases its exit velocity and exit gradient.
1.4.2. Failure by Direct Uplift Pressure
The water seeping below the structure exerts an uplift pressure on the floor
of the structure if this pressure is not counter balance by the weight of
concrete or masonry floor. The structure will fail by a rupture of a part of the
floor. The pervious concept of the hydraulic structure due to subsurface flow
where introduce by many engineers on the bases of experiments and the
research work.

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CHAPTER 1

Hydraulic structures are human-made systems interacting with surface

Hydraulic structures can be designed pro-actively to control the water flow

Marib dam-Yemen Sumerian irrigation canal-Iraq

Sadd-el-Kafara dam- Egypt The Cornalvo Dam, a Roman dam in

Figure (3): Spillway structure

1.2. Types of Hydraulic Structures

Hydraulic structures are classified according to the purpose of its function

Figure (4): Dam structure and its reservoir

Figure (5): Culvert structure

(a) Barrage (b) Canal head regulator

Figure (7): A spur dike and breakwater structure

1.3. Percolation beneath Heading up of Hydraulic Structures

The hydraulic structures such as barrages, regulators, culverts, etc…, may

1.4.1. Failure by Piping or Undermining

a. By providing sufficiently long impervious floor

b. By providing piles at both U/S and D/S ends:

1.4.2. Failure by Direct Uplift Pressure

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