FeasabilityStudy BurkinaFaso Report-Web

Project funded by
European Union
Burkina faso
Feasibility Study on the use

of Sustainable Aviation Fuels
ICAO-EUROPEAN UNION ASSISTANCE PROJECT:
CAPACITY BUILDING FOR CO2 MITIGATION FROM INTERNATIONAL AVIATION
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

2 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO
Author: Dr. Christoph Weber, LL.M.
Technical Consultant / Sustainable Aviation Fuels
Project funded by the European Union

EuropeAid/Development Cooperation Instrument
DCI-ENV/2013/322-049
This document was produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no
way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union.
© ICAO 2018. All rights reserved.
This document was produced within the framework of the ICAO and European Union assistance project Capacity building
for CO2 mitigation from international Aviation. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the
individual or collective opinions or official positions of these organizations or their Member States.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted and dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may
not yet be full agreement.
The mention of specific companies or products does not imply endorsement in preference to others of a similar nature that
are not mentioned.
All reasonable precautions have been taken to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the material
is published without warranties of any kind, either expressed or implied, as to the accuracy, completeness and currency of
the information. ICAO and its partners expressly disclaim all liability arising in connection with any interpretation or use of
the material in this report.
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a United Nations specialized agency working
together with its 191 Member States and industry groups to reach consensus on international civil
aviation Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) and policies in support of a safe, efficient,
secure, economically sustainable and environmentally responsible international civil aviation sector.
In its efforts to help reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the International Civil Aviation Organization has
developed partnerships with international organizations and states to develop assistance projects
and promote a basket of measures designed to support Member States as they work to achieve the
global aspirational goals. These goals, adopted by the 37th Session of the Assembly in 2010, seek to
improve fuel efficiency by 2 per cent per year from 2020 and to keep net carbon dioxide emissions at
the same levels (i.e. carbon neutral growth from 2020).
The 39th Session of the ICAO Assembly, held from 27 September to 7 October 2016, adopted
Resolution A39-2: Consolidated statement of continuing ICAO policies and practices related to
environmental protection — Climate change, which reflects the determination of ICAO’s Member
States to provide continuous leadership in the efforts of the international civil aviation sector to limit or
reduce its emissions that contribute to global climate change.The 39th Session of the ICAO Assembly
also reiterated the global aspirational goals for the international aviation sector adopted in 2010.
A central element of Resolution A39-2 is for States to voluntarily prepare and submit Action Plans on
CO2 emissions reductions activities for international aviation to ICAO. It also lays out an ambitious work
programme for capacity building and assistance to States in the development and implementation of
their State Action Plans to reduce emissions. ICAO State Action Plans provide an opportunity for States
to showcase policies and actions and are intended to be individualized and reflect the specific national
circumstances of each ICAO Member State and the opportunities available to them in implementing
measures to mitigate CO2 emissions from international aviation activities.1 As of November 2018, 111
Member States, representing 92.3 per cent of global RTK had voluntarily submitted their action plan
to ICAO, including Burkina Faso.
The ICAO-European Union (EU) assistance project on Capacity Building for CO2 Mitigation from
International Aviation aims to support the 14 selected Member States in Africa and the Caribbean in
their efforts to develop and implement their State Action Plans; improve their aviation environmental
systems; and identify, evaluate and implement mitigation measures in the selected States. Burkina
Faso is among the beneficiary States of this project.
To contribute to the achievement of the ICAO global aspirational goals for the international aviation
sector, Burkina Faso has defined an Action Plan for CO2 Emissions Reduction (APER), wherein one
promising measure that has been identified is the development and use of sustainable aviation fuels
(SAF), that can reduce life-cycle CO2 emissions compared to current aviation fuel.
Sustainability is a crucial element in the development of SAF, such that during their production and
use, the fuels do not produce negative environmental or social impacts, and should deliver a reduction
in carbon emissions (greenhouse gases).
The close interaction of global climate policy and national mitigation measures is an important driver
for the production and gradual implementation of SAF.
Political incentives, enabling policies, new international regulatory frameworks and ambitious efforts
aimed at reducing aviation emissions provide a basis for the implementation of a SAF supply chain.
1
ICAO has prepared ICAO Doc 9988, Guidance on the Development of States’ Action Plans on CO2 Emissions Reduction Activities to describe the process of developing
or updating an action plan.

Following years of promotion, engine tests and demonstration flight programmes, SAF has become
a key element in reducing the environmental impact of international civil aviation. Independent of
the underlying SAF production pathway, industries are currently working on developing optimal
processes that utilize sustainable feedstocks and that can be produced economically. The ever-
increasing number of available SAF conversion technologies expands the range of potentially suitable
feedstock sources.
Over the course of the last decade multiple initiatives engaging in the cultivation of various feedstocks
and the production of SAF have been established. The scale and scope of these initiatives range from
small-scale trial plantations, to full-scale farmer mobilization exercises covering tens of thousands
of hectares.
In sub-Saharan Africa climate change has had a significant impact on the region. Given the substantial
challenges to addressing climate change, and that the available resources to do so are limited,
successful adaptation to the adverse impacts of climate change will require careful planning and the
involvement of all national stakeholders, from the government, to local communities. It will also require
adequate assistance from the international community to support the States’ efforts in this regard.
While Africa provides ample opportunities for the domestic production of biomass-based biofuels,
experience has already shown that the production of biofuels can potentially have adverse socio-
economic and environmental impacts. With reference to commercial scale initiatives in Mozambique,
Madagascar, Rwanda, Tanzania and Burkina Faso, low yields, unsolved economic viability gaps,
underestimated labour costs and other unintended consequences ultimately resulted in value chain
disruptions, lay-offs, abandoned plantations and costly project failure. The early abandonment and
collapse of these projects has had negative consequences for local rural communities, due to loss of
land tenure, access to natural resources and missed income opportunities.
Bearing the potential risks in mind, there is now a real need for reframing this sector to identify and
utilize suitable biomass resources in a responsible and sustainable way.
Considering the economic, social, environmental and strategic interests at stake, this reframing
requires a solid evaluation of the underlying assumptions and key supply chain parameters, as well
as the societal and environmental impacts. This cannot be done without taking the specific regional
context into account. As circumstances for project implementation differ with location, agro-climatic
conditions and stakeholders involved, a timely and pragmatic prioritization may therefore prove
particularly valuable, thus safeguarding capital, trust and reputation. This puts the focus on sorting,
categorizing and eventually rating the major underlying assumptions.
The portfolio of available international reference cases and aviation biofuel initiatives and the rise
and fall of the jatropha industry serve as a reminder of the risks involved; recent history particularly
offers valuable insight into the challenges, obstacles and pitfalls that need to be closely monitored,
constantly adjusted and professionally mastered along the way.
In the end, the close collaboration among stakeholders from the aviation industry, the oil-refining
industry, government, biofuel companies, agricultural organizations, and academia is required to
meet environmental objectives and properly balance costs and risks.
On the other side of the supply chain, innovative fuel conversion technology solutions come with
their own set of challenges. However, it is outside the scope of this study to analyse the details of all

chemical, biological and thermal routes (either in use or under development) that lead to the conversion
of a specific type of biomass to SAF. While an increasing number of conversion technologies qualify
to produce SAF, it is more likely that some parameters early on in the value chain will constitute the
key limiting factors. In particular, feedstock type, price and availability are some of the most important
parameters when considering the commercial feasibility of alternative aviation fuel projects.
In addition to feedstock productivity, the production cost of SAF ultimately depends on synergistic
efforts in all areas, including labour cost, extraction yield, process energy conservation, and balance
between jet fuel product and value-added co-products.
As there are still many challenges to overcome and solve, this feasibility study aims to provide a
decision tree for the implementation of feedstock and SAF production in Burkina Faso. It categorizes
the major stumbling blocks such as biogenic resources, biomass supply, infrastructure, political
framework, investment-risk, social challenges, greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, sustainability
assessment, and provides guidelines, benchmarks and decision support for government agencies,
policy makers and project developers.
Evaluating each step of the decision tree and applying a rating scale will enable the development of
an “SAF Implementation-Index”; this index may serve as a tool for governments and authorities to:
a) identify the right action items;
b) prioritize implementation measures; and
c) define a conducive policy framework under a given set of agro-climatic and ecological circumstances
in a specific region.
Lessons learnt from unsuccessful biofuel projects in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere should
provide additional practical guidance for bioenergy feedstock production and bioenergy policy design
in Burkina Faso, including the need for:
a) a cautious approach before authorizing the cultivation of any new bioenergy feedstock; and
b) prioritized research of the specific bioenergy potential of plants and crops indigenous to
Burkina Faso.
A diversified, home grown, and renewable feedstock-based fuel system is crucial in the country’s
strategy to:
a) achieve energy security;
b) replace a significant portion of aviation fuel required to meet commercial demand;
c) facilitate compliance with environmental regulation and aspirational goals; and
d) increase environmental stewardship.
This study provides an analysis of the implementation of a SAF supply chain, as well as a break
down and prioritization of the key parameters and deliverables that will facilitate the successful
implementation of priority mitigation measures and the definition of an appropriate policy framework
for SAF in Burkina Faso. Above all, this study intends to raise awareness in order to mobilize financial
and industrial support, as well as vital political support from the Burkinabe authorities.
Summarizing the key results, the major domestic biomass resources suitable for conversion into SAF
include:
• tropical grasses, such as elephant grass;
• agricultural residues (sorghum);
• high yielding oil bearing crops, such as improved jatropha accessions;
• municipal solid waste (MSW);

• cashew and shea nutshell oil; and
• waste animal fats (tallow)
Cashew and shea nutshells represent a Burkinabe specialty. As by-products with no assigned value,
decent quantities of feedstock are available for processing and energy conversion with immediate
effect.
The cumulative energetic potential of available domestic feedstock sources exceeds the country’s oil
imports by at least nine times and could easily outweigh Burkina Faso’s annual fossil fuel imports.
The wide range of potential raw materials available in Burkina Faso entails an equally diverse range
of matching fuel processing solutions to produce SAF.
Arguably, the largest potential for alternative fuels is routed in the Fischer-Tropsch hydroprocessed
synthesized paraffinic kerosene (FT-SPK) process which relies on low-cost lignocellulosic feedstock
that can be derived from waste or from dedicated energy crops.
Regarding the gasification/FT pathway, further research and development (R&D) could potentially
enable modular, small-scale reactors that can convert bio-derived synthesis gas into SAF.
For the time being, the nonexistence of a basic petrochemical or refining infrastructure does not
seem to permit an autonomous aviation fuel production capacity in Burkina Faso. Infrastructural and
logistical constraints, however, do not exclude the interim export of feedstock and conversion into SAF
at overseas processing facilities.
Indeed, Burkina Faso is well positioned to initially focus on feedstock production and biomass
processing (e.g. transesterification) which requires less capital-intensive infrastructural facilities.
While any domestically produced alternative transport fuels, such as biodiesel from animal waste
fats, jatropha or cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) cannot replace SAF, they nevertheless can help to
raise awareness and attract investors, and thus, represent viable and pragmatic first steps towards
the gradual implementation of a future SAF value chain.
Resulting fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel-blends could be used, for example, by the ground
support handling agency of Ouagadougou Airport which operates the truck and trailer fleet of diesel
powered ground support equipment (GSE).
The results and recommendations could be used as a scalable and widely replicable model in sub-
Saharan Africa. Ideally, they can help pave the way for neighbouring States to follow the Burkinabe
example and create a regional movement towards environmentally conscious development in the
future, that is at the same time economically sound and socially acceptable.

CONTENTS
p4 Executive Summary
p10 Abbreviations & Acronyms
p12 List of Figures & Tables
p14 1. Introduction
p14 1.1 ICAO and Environment
p15 1.2 ICAO – European Union (EU) Project
p16 1.3 Aviation Fuel Methodology and ICAO Mandate
p17 1.4 Defining the Challenge
p17 1.5 Focus on Feedstock
p18 1.6 Feedstock Classification
p19 1.7 Domestic Biomass Potential
p21 1.8 Fuel Conversion Processes
p23 2. Country-Specific Production Parameters
p23 2.1 Geography
p23 2.2 Trade and Government
p24 2.3 Demographics
p25 2.4 Climate/Soil
p27 2.5 Vulnerability to Climate Change
p27 2.6 Land Degradation
p28 2.7 Agriculture
p29 2.8 Energy
p31 2.9 Transport Infrastructure
p34 3. Evaluation of Feedstock Sources for Biofuel Production
p34 3.1 Starch and Sugar Crops (sucrose)
p34 3.1.1 Sugarcane
p39 3.1.2 Sorghum
p42 3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
p42 3.2.1 Agricultural Residues
p48 3.2.2 Forest Residues
p50 3.2.3 Dedicated Energy Crops (Elephant Grass)
p52 3.2.4 Lignocellulosic Conversion Pathways
p54 3.3 Wastes
p54 3.3.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
p57 3.3.2 Animal Waste Fats
p62 3.4 Jatropha
p62 3.4.1 Plant Physiology and Ecology
p62 3.4.2 Crude Jatropha Oil (CJO)
p63 3.4.3 Burkina Faso Context: Key Players and Initiatives
p65 3.4.4 Lessons Learnt
p66 3.4.5 Capitalizing on Experience/Major Challenges
p73 3.4.6 Fuel Conversion Pathways
p76 3.4.7 Feasibility Matrix

p77 3.5 Other Oil-Bearing Feedstocks (Crops)
p77 3.5.1 Cottonseed Oil
p79 3.5.2 Cashew Nuts (CNSL)
p81 3.5.3 Shea Nuts (Karité)
p82 3.5.4 Neem
p82 3.5.6 Balanite
p83 4. Feedstock Expansion and Market Potentia
p83 4.1 Sugarcane
p84 4.2 Sorghum
p84 4.3 Rice Husks & Straw
p86 4.4 Elephant Grass
p86 4.5 Jatropha
p88 4.6 Cashew Nuts
p89 4.7 Strategic and Financial Considerations
p90 5. Critical Success Factors
p90 5.1 Farmer Mobilization
p90 5.2 Seed Selection and Plant Breeding
p91 5.3 Agronomic Trials
p92 5.4 Government Intervention and Participation
p93 5.5 Intragovernmental Cooperation
p94 5.6 Market Demand and Off-take Commitments
p95 5.7 Supply Chain Optimization
p96 5.8 Technology Transfer
p98 6. Sources of Financing
p98 6.1 Public-private Partnerships
p98 6.2 Gold Revenues: Reallocating Natural Wealth
p99 6.3 Capitalizing on Reforestation and Agroforestry
p101 6.4 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+)
p102 6.5 Managing the Cost Premium of SAF
p105 6.6 Valuing Co-Benefits of Climate Change Mitigation
p107 7. Conclusions
p107 7.1 Feedstock Prioritization
p108 7.2 Fuel Conversion Technologies
p111 7.3 Land Use Change and GHG Life-cycle
p112 7.4 Aviation Alternative Fuel Implementation-Index
p115 8. Roadmap Going Forward
p115 A. Structural Organization
p117 B. Business Plan & Implementation
p119 C. Funding
p122 D. Feedstock
p123 E. Processing & Technology
p124 F. Market Structure & Logistics
p125 G. Regulatory Framework & Support Policies
p128 Bibliography

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AfDB - African Development Bank CNS - Communication, navigation and surveillance
AES - Aviation Environmental Systems CNSL - Cashew Nut Shell Liquid
AFTF - Alternative Fuels Task Force CO2eq - Carbon dioxide equivalent
ANADEB - Agence Nationale pour le Développement des CORSIA - Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for
Biocarburants (National Agency for the Promotion of Biofuels) International Aviation
ANEREE - Agence Nationale des Energies Renouvelables CPP - Programme National de Partenariat pour la Gestion
et de l’Efficacité Energétique (National Agency for Renewable Durable des Terres (National Partnership Program for
Energies and Energy Efficiency) Sustainable Land Management)
ANAC - Agence Nationale de l’Aviation Civile CTFT - Centre Technique Forestier Tropical
ANOC - African National Oil Corporation Def Stan - UK Defence Standard 91-091, Issue 09 (Turbine
APROJER - Association pour la Promotion du Jatropha et Fuel, Aviation Kerosene Type, JET A-1)
des Énergies Renouvelables (Association for the Promotion of DDO - Distillate diesel oil
Jatropha and Renewable Energies) DLR - German Aerospace Center
AtJ - Alcohol-to-Jet DOA - US Department of Agriculture
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials DOD - US Department of Defense
ATM - Air Transport Management DOE - US Department of Energy
APER - Action Plan for CO2 Emissions Reduction DSCH - Direct sugars-to-hydrocarbon
AU - African Union ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States
BMZ - German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and EE - Energy efficiency
Development EIF - Environmental Intervention Fund
Boe - Barrel of oil equivalent EFPRA - European Fat Processors and Renderers Association
Bpd - Barrel per day ESTs - Environmentally sound technologies
CAAFI - Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative EU - European Union
CAEP - ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection EUEI - European Union Energy Initiative
CAAF/1 - First Conference on Aviation and Alternative Fuels FAME - Fatty acid methyl ester
CAAF/2 - Second Conference on Aviation and Alternative FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fuels FCFA - Franc de la Communauté Financière d’Afrique
CCD - UN Convention to Combat Desertification FIP - Programme d’Investissement Forestier (Forest
CCO - Coordination & Cooperation Office Investment Program)
CE - Conseil de l’Entente FRL - Fuel Readiness Level
CEN-SAD - Community of Sahelo-Saharan States FSRL - Feedstock Readiness Level
CHP - Combined heat and power plant FT - Fischer-Tropsch
CICAFIB - Comité interministériel chargé de la coordination GCF - Governors’ Climate and Forest Task Force
des activités de développement des filières biocarburants GGGI - Global Green Growth Institute
(Interministerial Committee for the coordination of the domestic GHG - Greenhouse gas
biofuel sector) GJ - Gigajoule
CIF-FIP - Climate Investment Funds’ Forest Investment GPC - Cotton producer groups
Program GWS - Genomic wide selection
CIRAD - Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche H - Hydrogen
Agronomique pour le Développement (Agricultural Research Ha - Hectares
Centre for International Development) HEFA - Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids
CJO - Crude jatropha oil HRJ - Hydro-treated renewable jet fuel
CNRST - Centre national de la recherche scientifique et HVO - Heavy fuel oil
technologique (National Research Centre for Science and ICAO - The International Civil Aviation Organization
Technology) IEO - Project Implementation & Execution Office

ILUC - Indirect land use change RTK - Revenue Tonne Kilometres
INERA - Institut Nationale de l’Environnement et de SAF - Sustainable aviation fuels
Recherches Agricoles (Environmental Institute for Agricultural SARPs - Standards and Recommended Practices
Research) SCADD - Stratégie de Croissance Accélérée et de
IFSET - ICAO Fuel Savings Estimation Tool Développement Durable (Poverty Reduction Strategy)
IPS - Industrial Promotion Services SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations)
IRAM - Institut de Recherches et d’Applications des Méthodes SDR - Rural Development Strategy
de Développement (Research and Development Institute) SEFA - Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa
IRSAT - Institut de Recherche en Sciences Appliquées et SIP - Synthetic iso-paraffins
Technologies (Research Institute for Applied Science and SIP-HFS - Synthesized iso-paraffins produced from
Technology) hydroprocessed fermented sugars
ISFL - BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest SN-Sosuco - Nouvelle Société Sucrière de la Comoé
Landscapes SP/CONEDD - Secrétariat Permanent du Conseil National
JMI - Jatropha Mali Initiative pour l’Environnement et le Développement Durable (National
Kg - Kilogram Council for Sustainable Development)
Km2 - Square kilometres (National Council for Environment and Sustainable
LAE - Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment Development)
LCA - Life-cycle assessment T - Tons
LFO - Light Fuel Oil T1 - Technology level #1
LICs - Low-income African countries T2 - Technology level #2
MBMs - Market-based measures TSE - Treated sewage effluents
MICs - Middle-income African countries UEMOA - West African Economic and Monetary Union
MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology UNAPROFIJA - Union Nationale pour la Promotion de la
MJ - Megajoule filière Jatropha Curcas (National Union for the promotion of the
Mt - Megatonne Jatropha value chain)
MW - Megawatts UNDP - United Nations Development Programme
MRV - Measurement, reporting, and verification UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
MSW - Municipal solid waste UNPA - Union National des Producteurs d’Anacarde
N-P-K - Nitrogen-Phosphorous-Potassium UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
NSC - National Steering Committee Change
OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and UN-REDD - United Nations Collaborative Programme on
Development Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
PNDES - Plan National de Développement Économique et in Developing Countries
Social VCS - Verified Carbon Standard
PPM - Parts per million WASCAL - West African Science Service Center on Climate
PPO - Pure Plant Oil Change and Adapted Land Use
PPP - Public-private partnership
RACGAE - Regie Administrative Chargee de la Gestion de
l’Assistance en Escale
RE - Renewable energy
REM - REDD Early Movers Programme
REDD+ - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation
REEEP - Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership
ROPPA - Réseau des organisations paysannes et des
producteurs agricoles (Network of farmers’ organizations and
agricultural producers)

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Contribution of measures for reducing international aviation net CO2 emissions p14
Figure 2 Actual Biomass Availability in Burkina Faso p19
Figure 3 Potential Biomass Availability in Burkina Faso p20
Figure 4 Burkina Faso, a landlocked country in the Sahel region of Africa p23
Figure 5 European Union, Trade with Burkina Faso p24
Figure 6 Agro-ecological zones p25
Figure 7 Isohyet migration patterns p26
Figure 8 Steady rise in temperatures in Ouagadougou p26
Figure 9 Breakdown of feedstock sources for electricity production p30
Figure 10 Road corridors to international seaports p32
Figure 11 Main sugarcane production areas p35
Figure 12 Bioethanol production from sugarcane and molasses p36
Figure 13 Main sorghum production areas p39
Figure 14 Main rice production areas p43
Figure 15 Rice husk energy conversion process p45
Figure 16 Main maize production areas p46
Figure 17 Agro-ecological zones p50
Figure 18 Exclusion zones p50
Figure 19 Thermochemical conversion process p52
Figure 20 Biochemical conversion pathways p53
Figure 21 Process diagram of MSW conversion into alternative aviation fuel p55
Figure 22 Potential use of animal waste fats according to the European Fat Processors and Renderers Association (EFPRA) p57
Figure 23 Proportion of animal rendered p57
Figure 24 UOP Green jet fuel process diagram p58
Figure 25 Schematic diagram for multi-feedstock biodiesel plant p60
Figure 26 Jatropha fruit/seed weight ratios and by product commercialization p69
Figure 27 Breakdown of energy value of jatropha fruit components p70
Figure 28 Multi-feedstock biodiesel plant (schematic) p75
Figure 29 Main cotton production areas p77
Figure 30 Cashew nut inside a nut shell p79
Figure 31 Main cashew nut production areas p79
Figure 32 Sugarcane expansion and market potential p83
Figure 33 Sorghum expansion and market potential p84
Figure 34 Rice residues expansion and market potential p85
Figure 35 Rice production and irrigation potential in the Sourou valley p85
Figure 36 Elephant grass expansion and market potential p86
Figure 37 Jatropha expansion and market potential p86
Figure 38 Jatropha belt p87
Figure 39 Main jatropha cultivation areas p87
Figure 40 Ecoregions of Burkina Faso p87
Figure 41 Cashew expansion and market potential p88
Figure 42 Heterosis effect p91
Figure 43 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Supply Chain p97
Figure 44 Bridging the gap: alterntive fuel price/ cost components p103
Figure 45 Potential biomass availability p107
Figure 46 Enabling SAF production by de-risking investment p109
Figure 47 Select processing technologies: complexity and cost overview p110
Figure 48 Aviation Alternative Fuel Implementation Index p113-114
Figure 49 Enabling Environment and Structural Organization p116

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Biomass Inventory p20
Table 2 Synopsis of underlying energy conversion ratios p21
Table 3 Conversion processes approved as annexes to ASTM D7566 p21
Table 4 Barriers to trade p32
Table 5 Rice Straw and Husk: Grain-to-Residue-Ratio p44
Table 6 Slaughterhouse statistics for Bobo-Dioulasso p57
Table 7 Comparison of key soybean and jatropha properties p70
Table 8 Intercropping scenarios and value composition p72
Table 9 Alternative fuel conversion processes currently within the ASTM approval process p110
Table 10 Operational or Planned U.S. Aviation Jet Fuel and Green Diesel Production Facilities (2017) p110
LIST OF PICTURES
Picture 1 Water scarcity affects food security p27
Picture 2 Recurrent droughts, spreading desertification and deforestation severely affect agricultural activities p28
and contribute to land degradation
Picture 3 National Farmers Day 2017, Kaya, Burkina Faso p29
Picture 4 Traditional wood fuel collection method p29
Picture 5 Road Infrastructure p33
Picture 6 Burkinabe sugarcane plantation p34
Picture 7 Burkinabe women collecting wood fuel p48
Picture 8 Waste collection and sorting pose a logistics challenge p54
Picture 9 Alternative fuel conversion and refining facilities p58
Picture 10 Jatropha fruit bunch p62
Picture 11 Energy-rich jatropha seeds p62
Picture 12 Belwet Biocarburant biofuel crushing and biodiesel processing facilities, Kossodo p64
Picture 13 Large scale jatropha nursery 30km outside of Ouagadougou p67
Picture 14 Intercropping samples p68
Picture 15 Tarmac at Ouagadougou Airport p72
Picture 16 SN CITEC in Bobo-Dioulasso p78
Picture 17-18 Manual decortication of cashew nuts at Anatrans cashew plant located outside Bobo-Dioulasso p80
Picture 19 Shea nuts p81
Picture 20 Multipurpose balanite and baobab trees near Yako, Burkina Faso p82
Picture 21 Artisanal gold mining in Burkina Faso p98
Picture 22 Bioenergy and food crop harvest p108

1. INTRODUCTION
International aviation emissions currently account for 1.3 per Beyond CO2 emissions reductions, there could also be
cent of total global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and this additional benefits, such as promoting new domestic industries
is projected to increase as a result of the continued growth and production systems, improving the competitiveness of the
of air transport. ICAO and its Member States recognize the aviation and tourism sectors in the State over the long-term,
critical importance of providing continuous leadership in order and improving the local air quality by decreasing the particulate
to limit or reduce the aviation emissions that contribute to matter (PM)2 emitted by aircraft3.
global climate change. The ICAO 39th Assembly reiterated the
global aspirational goals for the international aviation sector of With the interconnection between energy and sustainable
improving fuel efficiency by 2 per cent per annum and keeping development, bioenergy3 is a prime example of how energy can
the net carbon emissions from 2020 onward at the same level, link with other areas, including water quality and availability,
as established at the 37th Assembly in 2010. The Assembly ecosystems, public health, food security, and education and
also recognized the work being undertaken to explore a long- livelihoods, and can harness multiple benefits, insofar as the
term global aspirational goal for international aviation in light development is properly planned and managed. Through the
of the 2°C and 1.5°C temperature goals of the Paris Agreement use of alternative fuels for transportation and bioelectricity,
and more ambitious goals are needed to deliver a sustainable the development of sustainable and modern bioenergy can be
path for aviation as the aspirational goal of 2 per cent annual promoted both on a small-scale for local use in stand-alone
fuel efficiency improvement is unlikely to deliver the level of applications or micro-grids, as well as on a large-scale for
reduction necessary to stabilize and then reduce aviation’s production and commoditization of bioenergy. At the same time,
emissions contribution to climate change. modern bioenergy can replace inefficient and less sustainable
bioenergy systems4.
To achieve international aviation’s global aspirational goals,
as shown in Figure 1 below, a comprehensive approach is
necessary, consisting of a basket of measures including
1.1 ICAO AND ENVIRONMENT
ICAO is a UN specialized agency, established by States in 1944
technology and standards, SAF, operational improvements and
to manage the administration and governance of the Convention
market-based measures (MBMs) to reduce emissions.
on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
ICAO works with the Convention’s 191 Member States and

industry groups to reach consensus on international civil
aviation SARPs and policies in support of a safe, efficient, secure,
economically sustainable and environmentally responsible civil
aviation sector. These SARPs and policies are used by ICAO
Member States to ensure that their local civil aviation operations
and regulations conform to global norms, which in turn permits
more than 100,000 daily flights in aviation’s global network to
FIGURE 1 operate safely and reliably in every region of the world5.
Contribution of measures for reducing international aviation net
CO2 emissions The 39th Session of the ICAO Assembly reiterated the global
Source: ICAO Environment: GFAAF - Aviation Alternative Fuel Live Feed. Retrieved from https://www. aspirational goals for the international aviation sector of
icao.int/environmental-protection/GFAAF/Pages/default.aspx
improving fuel efficiency by 2 per cent per annum and keeping
Mitigating the release of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere the net carbon emissions from 2020 at the same level, as
is the main incentive for promoting the use and deployment established at the 37th Assembly in 2010, and recognized
of SAFs in aviation. CO2 is emitted from the combustion of the work being undertaken to explore a long-term global
SAFs; however, this carbon came from plants and then will be aspirational goal for international aviation in light of the 2°C and
absorbed by newly-growing plants in a closed loop. Since that 1.5°C temperature goals of the Paris Agreement.
CO2 is re-absorbed, SAF provides an environmental benefit
over the full product life-cycle, as compared to the production The 39th Assembly also recognized that the aspirational goal
and combustion of conventional jet fuel. Depending on the SAF of 2 per cent annual fuel efficiency improvement is unlikely to
pathway, SAF can provide up to an 80 per cent reduction in deliver the level of reduction necessary to stabilize and then
emissions compared to conventional jet fuel. reduce aviation’s absolute emissions contribution to climate
2
At the engine exhaust, particulate emissions mainly consist of ultrafine soot or black carbon emissions. Ultrafine particulate matter (PM) emissions are known to adversely
impact both health and climate (ICAO. Environmental Report: Aviation and Climate Change. Retrieved from https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Documents/ICAO%20
Environmental%20Report%202016.pdf
3
S. Christie, 2016. Emissions report and database of systems key performance parameters. s.l.: D4.9 ITAKA project. 3 Bioenergy refers to the energetic use out of a material of biological origin,
such as biomass or biofuels.
4
Nogueira, L. et al., 2015. Sustainable development and Innovation. In: Bioenergy & Sustainability: Bridging the Gaps. Paris: Cedex, pp. 184-217.
5
ICAO: About ICAO. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/about-icao/Pages/default.aspx

change, and that goals of more ambition are needed to deliver a The ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP),
sustainable path for aviation. To achieve international aviation’s a technical committee of the ICAO Council, is undertaking most
global aspirational goals, a comprehensive approach, consisting of this work, assisting the ICAO Council in formulating new
of a basket of measures has been identified, namely: policies and adopting new SARPs related to aircraft noise and
• Aircraft-related technology development – purchase of new emissions, and more generally to aviation environmental impact9.
aircraft and new equipment to retrofit existing aircraft with This technical committee is constituted by 24 Member States
more fuel-efficient technology. and 16 Observers from States and international organizations
• Alternative fuels – investments in the development and representing the environmental interests of the aviation sector.
deployment of aviation alternative fuels.
• Improved air traffic management and infrastructure In addition ICAO has developed tools and guidance material
use – improved use of communication, navigation and to assist Member States address emissions from international
surveillance/air transport management (CNS/ATM) to reduce aviation10, including:
fuel burn. i. ICAO Doc 9988, Guidance on the Development of States’
• MBMs – researching and building awareness of low cost Action Plans on CO2 Emissions Reduction Activities -
MBMs to reducing emissions such as emission trading, Includes step-by-step guidance on the baseline scenario
levies, and offsetting. calculation, the basket of mitigation measures and the
quantification of selected measures.
All of these measures, in addition to contributing to carbon ii. Environmental Benefits Tool - Provides a framework to
neutral growth, advance the social and economic development automate the calculation of the baseline CO2 emissions from
associated with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). international aviation, and the estimation of expected results
obtained through the implementation of mitigation measures
ICAO launched a voluntary programme inviting States to develop selected from ICAO’s basket of measures.
a State Action Plan on CO2 emissions reduction from international iii. ICAO Carbon Emissions Calculator - Allows States to
aviation incorporating the above mitigation measures through estimate the CO2 emissions attributed to air travel, using
its implementation. This programme encourages States to report only a limited amount of input information.
their CO2 mitigation activities to ICAO and promotes improved iv. ICAO Fuel Savings Estimation Tool (IFSET) - Can be used to
communication on environmental matters within the aviation estimate fuel savings obtained through operational measures
industry. SAF was identified as an important mitigation measure in a manner consistent with approved models.
to help States achieve ICAO’s aspirational goals including v. ICAO Green Meetings Calculator - Can be used to support
carbon neutral growth6. The specific focus of SAF is on “drop-in decision-making in selecting meeting location with minimum
fuels”, which are fuels fully compatible with fuel certification CO2 footprint from air travel.
requirements, existing fuel transport, distribution and storing vi. Action Plan on Emissions Reduction (APER) website -
infrastructure, as well as current aircraft engines. They are Interactive website reserved to States’ action plan focal
handled in exactly the same way as current aviation fuel. ICAO points to assist them prepare and submit their Action Plans
is actively engaged in activities to promote and facilitate the to ICAO.
emergence of drop-in SAF by exchanging and disseminating vii. Aviation Environmental Systems (AES) - An efficient CO2
information, fostering dialogue among States and stakeholders, emissions monitoring system for international aviation,
and carrying out dedicated work as requested by ICAO Member developed in each beneficiary State of the ICAO-EU
States to inform decision-making7. assistance project.
ICAO also provides support to Member States in their efforts to 1.2 ICAO – EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
improve the environmental performance of aviation. ICAO has
developed a “range of Standards and Recommended Practices PROJECT: CAPACITY BUILDING
(SARPs), policies and guidance material for the application of FOR CO2 MITIGATION FROM
integrated measures”8 to achieve the following three main INTERNATIONAL AVIATION
objectives adopted by ICAO in 2004:
a) limit or reduce the number of people affected by significant On 17 December 2013, ICAO and the EU signed an agreement
aircraft noise; to implement the Capacity Building for CO2 Mitigation from
b) limit or reduce the impact of aviation emissions on local air International Aviation assistance project. This project aimed to
quality; and assist 14 selected States in Africa and the Caribbean to reduce
c) limit or reduce the impact of aviation greenhouse gas CO2 emissions from the aviation sector. Burkina Faso is among
emissions on the global climate. the beneficiary States of this assistance project.
6
For more information on ICAO’s Aspirational Goals, refer to http://www.icao.int/annual-report-2013/Pages/progress-on-icaos-strategic-objectives-strategic-objective-c1-
environmental-protection-global-aspirational-goals.aspx
7
ICAO Environment: Alternative Fuels: Questions and Answers. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/AltFuel-IcaoAction.aspx
8
ICAO Environment: Environmental Protection. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/default.aspx
9
ICAO Environment: Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP). Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/ENVIRONMENTAL-PROTECTION/Pages/CAEP.aspx
10
ICAO Environment: Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/default.aspx

The ICAO-EU Capacity Building for CO2 Mitigation from International changes). However, current technology allows the production
Aviation assistance project, is a four-year programme to support of fuels from non-biogenic sources, such as municipal wastes,
14 selected Member States in Africa and the Caribbean. It offers used cooking oil, and agricultural residues, which raise fewer
guidance, resources to prepare feasibility studies, and access sustainability issues. This diversification of feedstocks facilitates
to financial resources through partnerships with interested the production of SAF with less dependence on specific natural
parties in support of the implementation of mitigation measures resources, allowing the establishment of SAF industries in a
described in their Action Plans. The overarching objective is to variety of States, including developing and developed countries.
contribute to the mitigation of CO2 emissions from international It can also allow the production of SAF closer to airports, which
aviation by implementing capacity building activities that will reduce costs associated with fuel transportation. This
will support the development of low carbon air transport and flexibility is expected to help the scale-up of SAF production.
environmental sustainability. The ICAO-EU assistance project
focuses on the following three areas of activity: The Assembly also requested the ICAO Council to “adopt
a) improve capacity of the national civil aviation authorities to measures to ensure the sustainability of alternative fuels for
develop their Action Plan on CO2 emissions reduction from aviation, building on existing approaches or combination of
international aviation; approaches, and monitor, at a national level, the sustainability of
b) develop an efficient CO2 emissions monitoring system for the production of alternative fuels for aviation”.
international aviation in each selected Member State; and
c) identify, evaluate, and partly implement priority mitigation To fulfil these Assembly requests, in 2013 the ICAO CAEP
measures, specifically those measures included within the established an expert group, the Alternative Fuels Task Force
States’ Action Plans that can be replicated by other States. (AFTF), to provide technical input regarding the replacement of
current aviation fuel with SAF. During the CAEP/10 cycle (2013
The model can be replicated and adapted to additional countries, to 2016), AFTF was tasked with providing information related
creating a global system of cooperation to take action to reduce to alternative fuels for inclusion in the ICAO environmental
CO2 emissions. trends projections. This involved the definition of a methodology
for assessing fuels’ life cycle emissions, and projections of
1.3 AVIATION FUEL METHODOLOGY scenarios for alternative fuel production up to 2050, with the
final objective of assessing the possible range of emissions
AND ICAO MANDATE reductions from the use of aviation alternative fuels). The final
The 38th Session of the ICAO Assembly in 2013 recognized results of this analysis were presented during the 39th Session
the many actions that ICAO Member States have undertaken of the ICAO Assembly in 2016.
and intend to take in support of the achievement of the global
aspirational goals, including the development and deployment of In addition, the CAEP has ongoing work in regard to calculating
SAF, and encouraged further such efforts. the land-use change emissions attributable to alternative
fuels developed from various feedstocks, calculating their
The Assembly also requested states to recognize existing default life cycle emissions values, developing guidance on
approaches to assess the sustainability of all alternative fuels in potential policies, and developing a set of sustainability criteria
general, including those for use in aviation which should: that alternative fuels must meet in order to be considered
a) achieve net GHG emissions reduction on a life cycle basis; sustainable by ICAO. These sustainability criteria are currently
b) respect the areas of high importance for biodiversity, under consideration by ICAO.
conservation and benefits for people from ecosystems, in
accordance with international and national regulations; and In October 2017, ICAO convened its second Conference on
c) contribute to local social and economic development, and Aviation and Alternative Fuels (CAAF/2) in Mexico City, Mexico.
competition with food and water should be avoided. Building on the first such ICAO Conference (CAAF/1) held in
2009, the CAAF/2 agreed to a Declaration, endorsing the 2050
An alternative fuel is not necessarily sustainable. In order for an ICAO Vision for Sustainable Aviation Fuels as a living inspirational
alternative fuel to be considered a sustainable, it will need to path and calling on States, industry and other stakeholders, for
meet sustainability requirements. ICAO is currently developing a significant proportion of aviation fuel to be substituted with
sustainability criteria as part of the work on the Carbon Offsetting SAF by 2050, and for international civil aviation to reduce
and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA). carbon emissions significantly while pursuing all opportunities
in the basket of mitigation measures to reduce emissions as
The first generation of alternative fuels, generally referred to as necessary. The Conference further agreed that the Vision would
“biofuels”, are produced from biogenic sources, such as crops, be reviewed periodically through a stocktaking process, and
which can be subject to additional sustainability concerns beyond elaborated at the next Conference on Aviation and Alternative
carbon reduction (e.g. competition with food and water, land-use Fuels, to be held no later than 2025.

1.4 DEFINING THE CHALLENGE SAF can and will play a critical role in reducing air transport
Burning 1 kilogram (kg) of jet fuel generates around 3.16 CO2 emissions. The anticipated continuous strong growth in
kg of CO2, the most abundant GHG. Since the beginning of air transportation demand of around 5 per cent per year over
industrialization, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has the next decades cannot be compensated by fuel efficiency
increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) in 1850 to around improvements alone. Technological and operational advances
400 ppm in 201511. Today, aviation generates around 2.5 per cannot reduce aviation emissions enough to meet ICAO’s target
cent of energy use-related CO2 emissions. The aviation industry of carbon neutral growth. Independent of technology, flight path
produces just about 800 million tonnes of carbon dioxide and infrastructure improvements, there is still no alternative
equivalents (CO2eq), and is responsible for about 12 per cent of to the gradual introduction of SAF if the environmental impact
global transport emissions12. of aviation is to be reduced over time. Thus, the single largest
opportunity to decarbonize air travel is to replace aviation
Burkina Faso’s, and more generally Africa’s global share of fuel with SAF. ICAO’s findings indicate that before factoring in
emissions, is low. Based on all international flights to and from the contribution of carbon offsets, the bulk of the emissions
Burkina Faso, the country only contributes 0.02 per cent of reductions needed for international aviation would have to
international civil aviation CO2 emissions. Taken together, the come from a transition to SAF. ICAO Resolution A39-3 affirms
whole African continent is responsible for less than 4 per cent of the preference for the use of alternative fuels that provide
all aviation associated emissions13. However, mitigating climate environmental benefits over market-based measures.
change is neither a question of national responsibility nor
causality or liability. Millions of people are already at risk of severe During the second Conference on Aviation and Alternative Fuels
weather conditions (heat waves, droughts, erratic flooding) and (CAAF/2) held in Mexico City in October 2017, ICAO sought an
food insecurity, without infrastructure protection. The hazards of explicit mandate to develop and implement a mechanism to
climate change are taking a heavy toll on lives and livelihoods in guarantee a smooth transition from the use of global MBMs to
Burkina Faso, in that aspects of daily economic and agricultural the use of SAF as a means to ensure the long-term feasibility of
life are significantly affected. Should living conditions, poverty- the aspirational goal of keeping the global net CO2 emissions
related vulnerability and environmental integrity further from international aviation from 2020 at the same level.
deteriorate because of accelerated climate change, this may
also negatively affect large-scale migration flows. The impact of However, SAF commercialization is still at an early stage, due to
climate change as a driver of human migration in the near future a variety of economic and market challenges. The challenges of
is expected by many to dwarf all others. Currently, the largest developing an effective fuel are significant, as critical aviation
migration corridor within sub-Saharan Africa stretches from fuel requirements are not met by traditional biofuels such as
Burkina Faso to Côte d’Ivoire. Migration to Europe for economic biodiesel and bioethanol. In addition to technical certification
reasons is increasing rapidly. standards, the availability of suitable feedstock or biomass at
the right location, for the right price and in the right volume
In view of the severe consequences of climate change, which poses an additional challenge.
are real and pervasive in Burkina Faso, urgent action is required.
It is therefore necessary to identify effective measures and 1.5 FOCUS ON FEEDSTOCK
policies that can contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions. Alternative fuels generally refer to drop-in fuels derived from
No matter how small individual mitigation measures may appear feedstock sources that can replace aviation fuel without the need
in a global context, all efforts that serve to reduce or avoid GHG to modify aircraft engines or the fuel distribution infrastructure.
emissions are valid contributions, whether they are undertaken As a result, alternative fuels have become a key element in the
for the purposes of environmental protection, food security, aviation industry’s strategy to reduce environmental impacts.
sustainable development, green growth or carbon neutral growth
of international aviation. Taking account of local conditions and To comply with the industry guidelines and legal requirements,
limitations in Burkina Faso, the cultivation of energy crops and aviation stakeholders including governments, researchers,
the production of biofuels present an effective opportunity to biofuel companies, agricultural organizations, academia and the
actively address the negative consequences of climate change, oil-refining industry have been teaming up to develop alternative
while implementing accompanying measures that may halt, if technology solutions that can produce alternative fuels with
not reverse, the process of soil degradation, desertification and lower GHG emissions.
deforestation. In this regard, ICAO’s aspirational goal of carbon
neutral growth from 2020, which is at the core of the rationale Primarily, alternative fuels must meet international physical
for CORSIA, offers an opportunity for Burkina Faso to prioritize and chemical specifications (for example ASTM and Def Stan)
and implement effective mitigation measures. in order to potentially be a drop-in replacement for the current
11
Martin Kaltschmitt/ Ulf Neuling (ed.), Biokerosene, Status and Prospects, Hamburg 2018; Christopher J. Chuck (ed.), Biofuels for Aviation, Feedstocks, Technology and
Implementation, 2016; International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), BIOFUELS FOR AVIATION - TECHNOLOGY BRIEF, Jan. 2017
12
Cf. ICAO, Onboard a Sustainable Future, ICAO ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2016, Aviation and Climate Change, Chapter 4, p.97-176.
13
Cf. for example Scott Fields, Continental Divide: Why Africa’s Climate Change Burden Is Greater, Environmental Health Perspectives 2005 Aug; 113(8): A534–A537

aviation fuel. While overall commercial viability remains a major The empirical data in this report was largely obtained during
concern for large-scale deployment and commercialization, extensive field trips in April, May and November 2017 through
the ability of the aviation sector to meet SAF production and key informant interviews with farmers, agronomists, village
GHG reduction targets ultimately depends on the amount of chiefs, government representatives and local stakeholders.
sustainable feedstock that will be available for the sector. The
availability of feedstock is one of the main cost drivers and one The assessment of any feedstock is not restricted to its
of the most significant hurdles to be overcome in the scale-up of identification and compliance with basic environmental
SAF production. Feedstock availability and cost are crucial for the requirements. It also includes the evaluation of potential yields,
feasibility and economic viability of every biomass processing input requirements, logistics and a first quantitative analysis.
activity, irrespective of the final product. Representing one of The quantification of alternative fuels is influenced by a large
the largest cost components in the production of SAF, feedstock variety of factors such as land availability and quality, land
supply is further compounded by the fact that there are tenure, climatic conditions, available infrastructure, logistics,
competing uses for biomass e.g. heat, electricity and chemicals. storage facilities, competitive uses and existing demands for
Each feedstock has benefits and drawbacks in terms of costs, other established purposes (e.g. food and feed production),
availability, yields, etc. as well as the development of local, regional, national and
international markets.
Before engaging in any discussion about SAF production,
available and suitable feedstock resources will have to be While individual sources of biomass may, prima facie, appear
thoroughly explored and identified. Evaluating feedstock to be suitable, an estimation of the true potential will require an
potential and developing aviation fuels cannot be considered in integrated understanding of the entire supply chain. Chances are
isolation. It is not a stand-alone operation, but rather an integral that constraints on infrastructure, mechanization, storage and
component of a more complex, multifaceted process that also transportation may hamper or even prevent the establishment
includes socio-economic, climatic and political components. This of a functional supply chain capable of utilizing locally available
applies all the more to developing countries like Burkina Faso, sources of biomass. Instead of aiming directly for ambitious
where challenges related to food security, poverty alleviation, SAF production, identified constraints may rather suggest a
rural economic development, population growth, desertification, phased approach, allowing for the gradual implementation of
soil degradation and severe climate constraints need to be a supply chain that can initially also include rural electrification
addressed simultaneously in order to win social acceptance, and biodiesel options as tangible first steps towards future SAF
stimulate public commitment and mobilize critical domestic production.
support. The more positive side effects and co-benefits that
can be associated to the development of a SAF value chain, the To better reflect the prevailing domestic conditions of a home
better the chances of successful implementation. As a result of grown renewable feedstock base, a high-level quantification will
this interdependence, a feasibility study will necessarily have differentiate between (a) biomass that is theoretically available
to include agronomic, economic, social and ecological aspects. if conditions are met and (b) biomass that is already usable.
Any delta will indicate the additional potential of future biomass
Therefore, sustainable policy guidelines and successful bioenergy sources.
project implementation call for an integrated strategy. To better
reflect local conditions in Burkina Faso, such a strategy will
1.6 FEEDSTOCK CLASSIFICATION
require a balance between the interests of the aviation industry,
The feedstocks identified in Burkina Faso are separated into four
the increasing demand for energy and the need for food security
main groups according to the nature of the compounds that can
and food production.
be used for energy recovery and fuel production:
I. Sucrose/starch (sugarcane, sweet sorghum);
Burkina Faso has enormous potential in terms of biomass suitable
II. Lignocellulosic biomass (agricultural residues, forestry wood
for the production of biofuels. A range of different feedstocks
residues, energy crops and tropical grasses);
can be identified. Some are based on oil crops and other non-
III. Wastes (MSW, animal fat); and
food feedstock, while others are based on waste sources such
IV. Oil-bearing feedstocks (cotton, jatropha, other native trees);
as cashew nutshells, MSW and animal fats. In this study, the
major biomass resources available for fuel production in Burkina
Fuels produced from lignocellulosic biomass and agricultural
Faso are highlighted, including geographical distribution and
waste feedstocks generally provide the highest emission
key challenges in delivering minimum quantities of biomass. All
reductions on a life cycle basis14. Additionally, there is potential to
types of regionally appropriate feedstocks are included, provided
boost food production simultaneously with fuel production. This
that the feedstock has the potential to be:
is because as food production expands to meet the nutritional
• delivered at requisite quantity, quality, and cost for existent
needs of the country, there is also increased production of
or emerging conversion platforms; and
• converted to drop-in aviation alternative fuels while
concurrently providing environmental and social benefits.

agricultural residues which largely remain unutilized. Typically, for every tonne of crop produced,
a certain amount of residue is available in the field after harvest. With efficient collection systems
in place, waste from agricultural production can be utilized as fuel for power, heat and alternative
fuel production. However, the conversion of agricultural residues may be hampered by the need to
maintain soil fertility and as feed for animals in the dry season. Thus, in some cases, only a fraction
can be collected without undue adverse impacts on the environment, in particular, soil quality, or
on existing or competitive uses.
Dedicated energy crops and tropical grasses, like elephant grass, have significant potential to
produce cellulosic material when grown on marginal lands not appropriate for traditional agriculture
production, with low carbon stocks and low biodiversity, which can be converted with minimal
environmental costs.
In addition to classic oil-bearing crops, wastes can also play an important role in expanding
the portfolio of potential SAF feedstocks. Wastes, such as MSW or animal fats are a convenient
alternative source for SAF because the benefits are two-fold: they do not compete with food
production for land or other resources, and their use can avoid or decrease the cost and impact of
their disposal into the environment. In addition, wastes are typically point sourced so there is no
requirement to develop a dedicated feedstock collection and production infrastructure. However,
wastes are heterogeneous material; the cost of separation and processing are normally high and
there may be environmental legislation constraints that must be addressed.
1.7 DOMESTIC BIOMASS POTENTIAL

As the result of a thorough exploration and identification of feedstock resources summarized in
Figure 2 below, the major existing biomass resources in Burkina Faso include, inter alia:
• biomass for ethanol production (sweet sorghum, sugarcane, etc.);
• agricultural residues (corn stover, rice straw and husks, bagasse, etc.); and
• woody biomass residues from forest plantations.
FIGURE 2
Actual Biomass Availability
in Burkina Faso
Source: Author
In addition, and as highlighted in Figure 3 below, the major future biomass resources suitable for
conversion into SAF may be identified among:
• MSW and sewage;
• cashew and shea nutshell oil; and
• waste animal fats (tallow).
14
Cf. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Seamus J. Bann, A Stochastic Techno-Economic Comparison of Alternative
Jet Fuel Production Pathways, June 2017; Patricia Thornley et al. Maximizing the greenhouse gas reductions from biomass: The role of life cycle assessment, Biomass and
Bioenergy, Volume 81, October 2015, Pages 35-43; Jitendra Kumar Saini et al., Lignocellulosic agriculture wastes as biomass feedstocks for second-generation bioethanol
production: concepts and recent developments, 3 Biotech. 2015 Aug; 5(4): 337–353.

FIGURE 3
Potential Biomass Availability
in Burkina Faso
Source: Author
Table 1 below provides an inventory of the various types of biomass that qualify as energy source
for the conversion into liquid fuels in general and SAF in particular. The focus of this summary
overview has deliberately been restricted to a high-level synopsis of select parameters. In order
to enhance the informative value of this synopsis, the main emphasis is put on the comparison
of calculated energetic values. The specific calorific value of fuel, measured in Megajoule per
kilogram (MJ/kg) is the quantity of energy (heat) produced during combustion of a unit mass of
fuel, at constant pressure and under “normal” (standard) conditions (i.e. 0oC and under a pressure
of 1.013 mbar). It forms the basis for determining the performance of an energy system.
TABLE 1
Biomass inventory

To ensure better comparability and to allow inter-fuel comparison in a common energy unit, the barrel
of oil equivalent (boe) has been chosen as a joint unit of energy and as the common denominator
for all feedstocks. Depending on the characteristics of the individual feedstock, multiple conversion
ratios may apply to arrive at the computed results (see overview and synopsis of energy conversion
ratios in Table 2 ). Further details on scientific derivations, product specification, average yields
and underlying conversion ratios will be dealt with in the specific feedstock sections.
TABLE 2
Synopsis of underlying energy
conversion ratios
1.8 FUEL CONVERSION PROCESSES

Aviation fuels are produced by taking a given feedstock and converting it via industrial processes
into a fuel. From a technical perspective and with regard to fuel characteristics, aviation’s focus is
on so-called “drop-in” fuels, a substitute for current aviation fuel that is completely interchangeable
and compatible with current aviation fuel. A drop-in fuel does not require adaptation of the aircraft/
engine fuel system or the fuel distribution network, and can be used “as is” on currently flying
turbine-powered aircraft in pure/neat form and/or blended in any amount with other drop-in neat,
drop-in blend, or current aviation fuels15. In recent years, significant technical progress has been
made towards the transformation of biomass into drop-in fuels and the commercialization of
sustainable aviation fuels.
As of November 2017, five alternative fuel production conversion processes were certified under
the standard ASTM D7566, together with specific blending limits with current aviation fuel (as
shown in Table 3 below).
TABLE 3
Conversion processes
approved as annexes to
ASTM D7566
15
Cf. CAAF/2-WP/03 available to download from: https://www.icao.int/Meetings/CAAF2/Documents/CAAF.2.WP.003.1.en.pdf

Thousands of commercial flights have already used “drop-in” aviation alternative fuels and,
as of November 2017, four airports have been distributing alternative fuels on a regular basis.
Many additional conversion processes are being developed and are at various stages within
the ASTM approval process. In order to identify and evaluate the potential and viability of any
given combination between a specific source of domestic biomass and a proven technological
conversion pathway, a Feasibility Matrix of select evaluation criteria illustrated opportunities and
major constraints with regard to the maturity of a potential domestic feedstock supply chain as
well as the feasibility of the entire supply chain, including available technology options (at the end
of each feedstock section). While unfeasible options are sorted out, remaining pathway scenarios
for Burkina Faso are prioritized based on the most feasible candidates of feedstock and potentially
matching conversion technologies. Evaluation criteria against which the feasibility of any pathway
scenario can be gauged include, inter alia, feedstock readiness and availability (including both,
current and potential future biomass production volume), transportation distances, storage and
logistics, fertilizer and water requirements, market readiness and market pricing, maturity and
complexity of conversion technology as well as available strategic and financial support.
Technology readiness differentiates between two technology levels. Technology level 1 (T1) relates
to biomass processing and includes basic feedstock processing facilities, pre-treatment activities,
feedstock to fuel conversion and oil expelling. In comparison, technology level 2 (T2) refers to
advanced fuel processing facilities and relevant fuel conversion pathways, including, inter alia,
refining, hydrotreatment and crude fractionation.
Given the low level of agricultural mechanization in Burkina Faso, the installation of technology
solutions at the first level (T1) is a major challenge before alternative fuel conversion scenarios
can be considered.
The above parameters somewhat resemble the Fuel Readiness Level (FRL) and the Feedstock
Readiness Level (FSRL) guidance tools developed by the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels
Initiative (CAAFI) to communicate technical development and progress from laboratory to
commercial use. It is outside the scope of this study to analyse the ultimate economic viability
of any specific feedstock/conversion pathway pairing, as this will depend on a variety of factors
and a large set of heterogeneous parameters that are continuously in flux and require in-depth
investigation. In addition, reliable data is limited and cannot simply be extrapolated as long as
technologies are still in the demonstration or pre-commercial stage. However, where relevant and
to the extent possible, pragmatic pairing suggestions will be made that best reflect the portfolio of
parameters found.
In general, vegetable oils and fats require less processing than the other feedstocks (lignocellulose,
sugar, and starch) because the molecules of triglycerides and fatty acids are more similar to the
final hydrocarbons in jet fuel. Sugar and starch need to be fermented into intermediate products,
and lignocellulose feedstocks require additional steps because they must be hydrolysed to simple
sugars, or turned into intermediate syngas or bio-oil. MSW requires the highest processing because
of the nature of the feedstock and the complexity of processing involved. Ethanol production from
crops containing sugar is a mainstream technology, and has been employed in States such as
Brazil for decades.

2. COUNTRY-SPECIFIC
PRODUCTION PARAMETERS
2.1 GEOGRAPHY
FIGURE 4
Burkina Faso, a landlocked
country in the Sahel region
of Africa
Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa with a surface area of 274,000 km2. Located
between the Sahara Desert to the north and coastal rainforests to the south, Burkina Faso shares
its borders with six States, namely Ghana, Togo and Benin to the south, Côte d’Ivoire to the west,
Mali to the North and Niger to the East. Three river basins drain the country: the Volta basin (63 per
cent of the total area), the Niger basin (30 per cent), and the Comoé basin (7 per cent). Located
in the heart of West Africa at about one hour thirty minutes flying distance from capital cities of
neighbouring States, Burkina Faso offers an ideal regional base to reach out to the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS). This regional economic union of 15 countries located
in West Africa occupies an area of about 5,300,000 km² which represents one-fifth of the African
continent. The ECOWAS population is estimated at 350 million with at least 65 per cent of its
population living in rural areas. The vegetation of the sub-region makes subsistence agriculture
the dominant preoccupation.
2.2 TRADE AND GOVERNMENT

Based on statistics from the International Monetary Fund’s World Economic Outlook Database,
Burkina Faso’s total Gross Domestic Product amounted to USD 33 billion in 2016 (on a purchasing
power parity basis). Exports accounted for about 7.6 per cent of total Burkinabe economic output.
Main trading partners are China, France and Côte d’Ivoire (imports) and Switzerland, Singapore and
Côte d’Ivoire (exports). The single largest export destination of Burkina Faso is Switzerland with
an export value of roughly USD 2 billion which represents 59 per cent of all exports and reveals
the staggering rise of the country’s gold trade. The single biggest trading block partner is the EU,
with a total trade value of USD 810 million (₂ 711 million) in 2016. 85 per cent of all exports from
Burkina Faso to the EU are dominated by mineral products (gold) and vegetable products (cotton).

The economy of Burkina Faso experienced high levels of growth over the last few years and the
country has seen an upswing in gold exploration, production, and exports. Economic growth is
expected to reach 5.9 per cent in 2017 due to the recovery of mining. Urban growth rate has
increased in the past decade and the urban population could reach 35 per cent of the total by 2026,
but towns and cities are still poorly equipped to sustainably manage this growth.
FIGURE 5
European Union,
Trade with Burkina Faso
Source: EU Commission,
Directorate General for Trade
Burkina Faso’s administrative organization is structured around 13 regions, 45 provinces and 351
communes, including 302 rural communes and 49 urban communes.
At the regional and sub-regional levels, Burkina Faso participates in efforts to consolidate the
existing major geopolitical and geo-economic groupings, namely the African Union (AU), ECOWAS,
the Western African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), the Conseil de l’Entente (CE) and the
Community of Sahelo-Saharan States (CEN-SAD).
In July 2016, Burkina Faso adopted its national economic and social development plan, Plan
National de Développement Économique et Social (PNDES), as the main instrument defining the
strategic guidelines for economic and social development for the period 2016-20. The PNDES
identifies strategic objectives and implementation measures to support growth and resilience, and
improve, inter alia, economic and environmental governance effectiveness.
2.3 DEMOGRAPHICS
Burkina Faso ranges amongst the fastest growing countries in the world with an annual population
growth rate of more than 3 per cent. Since the year 2000, the population grew by about 65 per
cent. As of today (September 2017), the country counts a population of 19.4 million, and given the
underlying growth rate, the population is projected to double by 2040. This will put severe pressure
on natural resources and on public and social services. This demographic trend has particularly
negative consequences for food security since the country’s arable land is limited and agricultural
productivity is still on a comparatively low level. To compensate for the low productivity, agricultural
areas are expanding quickly.
The agricultural population makes up 16 million people, representing slightly more than 80 per
cent of the total population.

Only about a third of the population is literate and unemployment is widespread. Burkina Faso has
a young age structure, the result of declining mortality combined with steady high birth rates. More
than 65 per cent of the population is under the age of 25. 47 per cent of the population is under
15 years of age.
Migration has traditionally been a way of life for Burkinabe, with seasonal migration being replaced
by stints of up to two years abroad. Under French colonization, Burkina Faso became a main
labour source for agricultural and factory work in Cote d’Ivoire. Despite its food shortages and high
poverty rate16, Burkina Faso has become a destination for refugees in recent years.
2.4 CLIMATE/SOIL
With an average altitude of 400 m, Burkina Faso enjoys a Sudano-Sahelian dry tropical climate
with two contrasting seasons: a short rainy season from late May to October and a long dry season
from November to May. Length and intensity of the distinct seasons vary and are increasingly
unpredictable.
On average, the annual rainfall ranges from less than 300 mm in the North to more than 1 200 mm
in the South. The climate is characterized by a North-South moisture gradient and mainly influenced
by the interaction between the West African monsoon system bringing rainfalls from the Southwest
during the rainy season and the north-easterly Harmattan winds blowing hot air and dust from
the Sahara during the dry season. The monsoonal rainfall is a key element of the regional climate,
especially in the semiarid Sahel, where vegetation is highly sensitive to precipitation variability.
On the basis of its annual average distribution of rainfall, the country can be divided into three
eco-climatic zones: (1) the Sahelian zone in the north, which experiences rainfall of less than 600
mm over a period of three to four months; (2) the Sudano-Sahelian zone on the Mossi Plateau,
where the total annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 900 mm during four to five months of the year;
and (3) the southern, more humid Sudanian zone, where the annual average rainfall is more than
1 000 mm and occurs over a period of five to six months of the year (see Figure 6). Over the
last decades, the 600 mm and 900 mm isohyets have migrated more than 200 km to the south,
a sign of desertification. The former 1 400 mm isohyets in the south of the country have totally
disappeared (see Figure 7).
FIGURE 6
Agro-ecological zones
16
CAs of 2014, more than 40 per cent of the population in all parts of the country lived below the poverty line on less than 153,530 FCFA (i.e. USD 260 per year) or USD 2 per
day. Despite an estimated GDP per capita of around USD 660 for 2017 and sustained economic growth of +/- 6 per cent in recent years Burkina Faso is ranking No. 185 out of
188 countries on the 2011 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Index (HDI), which is lower than the average for countries within the same
category in sub-Saharan Africa.

FIGURE 7
Isohyet migration patterns
Consistent with the eco-climatic zones, several types of vegetation can be observed from
north to south: shrubland steppe and tiger bush (brousse tigrée) in the north, shrub savannah
and annual grasses (Piliostigma reticulatum, Guiera senegalensis, Acacia seyal, Acacia radiana,
Balanites aegyptiaca) in the centre, and savannah trees (Khaya senegalensis/“Dryzone Mahagoni”,
Tamarindus indica, Lanea microcarpa, Parkia Biglobosa, Butyrospermum parkii, Adansonia
digitate/“Baobab”, Vitellaria paradoxa/“Shea butter tree” and Pterocarpus) and perennial grasses
(Andropogongayanus, Cymbopogon/“lemongrass”) in the south and southwest. The southern part
of the country is located in the West Sudanian savannah; its natural vegetation is characterized
by a denser deciduous shrubland and woodland and is known for its high agricultural potential.
Comparatively fertile, non-cultivated arable land with limited market access represents potential
areas of expansion only if transportation infrastructure is in place.
In the southwest of Burkina Faso, especially around the city of Banfora, plantations of fruit trees
such as mango and citrus fruits as well as nut trees (e.g. cashew and shea nuts) are cultivated. In
recent years, these plantation products experienced a considerable rise in production and export
value. The length of the growing season varies from less than 60 days in the north to 160 days in
the south, with large inter-annual variations.
Observations since 1902 indicate that the country’s dry region has expanded southwards over the
20th century. During the same period, average monthly temperatures have increased. The mean
monthly temperatures range between 24°C and 36°C. Highs in April and May can reach 43°C and
more. Since the 1970s, the country has experienced frequent droughts and a gradual increase in
average temperatures (see Figure 8 on the inter-annual evolution of the maximum temperature in
Ouagadougou).
FIGURE 8
Steady rise in temperatures
in Ouagadougou

In addition, all parts of the country have experienced an increase and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character,
in the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events, magnitude, and rate of climate change and variation to which
such as flash flooding during the rainy season, and a general a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.”
decline in rainfall, making life more difficult for the majority of With its geographical position, its tropical climate with extensive
farmers, as there is little access to irrigated water supplies. drought periods, heatwaves and heavy rainfall, and the recurrent
flooding of the major rivers (Niger, Comoé and Volta), Burkina
Faso is characterized by a strong structural vulnerability. This
vulnerability is further accentuated by unpredictable climate
variability, increasingly erratic weather patterns and high
reliance on rain-fed agriculture. As a result, Burkina Faso is
particularly vulnerable to climate change. Widespread poverty
further increases the vulnerability to climate change impacts,
which regularly affect all areas of Burkina Faso. Severe droughts,
excessive rainfall and frequent floods are the most serious
constraints. The negative impacts of climate change constrain
households in many parts of the country to earn part of their
living off the farm. Faced with massive rural poverty and food
insecurity, socio-economic vulnerability of the rural population
in Burkina Faso is high. Climatic hazards repeatedly destroy
dams and water reservoirs and result in low agricultural yields,
a severe loss of agricultural production and harvest failures.
In the Central Plateau region, three-quarters of the 85 dams
and reservoirs are silted and require rehabilitation. In addition,
invasions of migratory locusts and many episodes of epidemic
diseases have been recorded.
As a consequence, Burkina Faso is repeatedly facing water

scarcity and recurrent food crises, directly disrupting the
livelihoods of local communities and thousands of farmers.
Burkina Faso is also affected by under-nutrition and infectious
PICTURE 1 diseases. Climate change will likely cause shifts in the timing,
Water scarcity affects food security seasonality, and geographic range of disease epidemics,
particularly malaria and meningitis (e.g., pushing the meningitis
belt southward). Limited access to water supply and sanitation
Burkina Faso is repeatedly facing water scarcity and systems, and frequent floods and droughts aggravate health
recurrent food crises, directly disrupting the livelihoods conditions and disrupt the livelihoods of rural and urban
of local communities and thousands of farmers. populations.
2.6 LAND DEGRADATION

Climate variability is already a major constraint on food security, Close to 90 per cent of the Burkinabe population depend on
health, environment, and poverty reduction due to the high agriculture for their livelihood. The functioning of the agricultural
dependence on the primary agricultural sector, which contributes sector thus becomes a precondition for the overall economic
roughly 30 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP). development of the country. However, the agricultural sector is
Exogenous shocks like droughts, floods, heat waves, locusts,
characterized by low productivity, soil erosion and declining soil
and dust storms are the major climate-related hazards in Burkina
fertility. The lack of basic minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and
Faso, which contribute to problems such as desertification,
phosphorus is aggravated by the practice of extensive agriculture
land degradation, epidemics (e.g. meningitis, cholera), food
using very little organic matter for conservation and restoration.
insecurity, increased poverty incidents, migration away from the
Extensive farming in combination with recurrent droughts,
central area of the country, and overall development.
floods, spreading desertification and deforestation severely affect
agricultural activities and contribute to land degradation.
2.5 VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE
CHANGE Land degradation is defined as the long-term loss of ecosystem
From a climate change perspective, the Intergovernmental Panel function and productivity caused by disturbances from which
on Climate Change (IPCC) defines vulnerability as the “degree the land cannot recover unaided. Land degradation occurs
to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, slowly and cumulatively and has long lasting impacts on rural
adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability people who become increasingly vulnerable. The UN Convention

to Combat Desertification (CCD), of which Burkina Faso is a for the definition and implementation of REDD+ projects,
signatory, recognizes land degradation as a global development and in particular (b) the National Partnership Programme
and environment issue. Environmental degradation and soil for Sustainable Land Management (Programme National de
erosion continue to threaten the availability of arable land in Partenariat pour la Gestion Durable des Terres, CPP) which
Burkina Faso. has been implemented by the National Council for Sustainable
Development (Secrétariat Permanent du Conseil National pour
At present, 9 234 500 ha of land, or one third of the national l’Environnement et le Développement Durable, SP/CONEDD).
territory, have been degraded due to anthropogenic causes and
to the effects of climate change. The above initiatives are in line with strategic objective No. 3.5
of the PNDES. Accordingly, the government intends to reverse
Extensive land utilization for agriculture by the ever-growing the trend of environmental degradation and pursue the transition
number of agricultural and livestock producers and non- towards a green economy.
sustainable wood cutting (the main source of energy for all
rural households) are considered the main direct causes of
land degradation and deforestation in Burkina Faso. The lack
of personal capital and access to credits results in extensive
farming as characterized by (a) a low level of agricultural inputs;
(b) poor mechanization; and (c) minimal (almost negligible)
fertilizer application. With a rapidly increasing population and little
improvement in agricultural productivity, farmers compensate
by expanding cultivated area. Between 2001 and 2014 the
agricultural area was expanded by more than 60 per cent.
Therefore, it is estimated that the country will soon reach its limit
of arable land. Furthermore, this expansion also threatens natural
resources, and the pressure on the last remnants of natural
vegetation is increasing. In addition, desertification and degraded PICTURE 2
land constrain villagers to clear forests or let their cattle graze Recurrent droughts, spreading desertification and
freely to be able to feed their families and earn a living. deforestation severely affect agricultural activities and
contribute to land degradation
One way to contain agricultural expansion and deforestation is to
increase the efficient and sustainable use of existing agricultural 2.7 AGRICULTURE
areas and improve agricultural productivity per hectare, Out of the total area of 27 400 000 ha, 22 per cent is arable land,
for example by controlled fertilizer usage. The highlighted
i.e. 6 million ha. Arable land includes land defined by the UN Food
parameters and constraints must also be considered when
and Agriculture Organization of (FAO) as land under temporary
analysing potential feedstock sources for SAF production.
crops (double-cropped areas are counted once), temporary
meadows for mowing or for pasture, land under market or
ICAO is currently considering the sustainability requirements
kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fallow. Land abandoned
for SAF. With regard to the specific agro-climatic conditions
as a result of shifting cultivation is excluded. 60 per cent of the
in Burkina Faso, the perfect feedstock would ideally have to
arable land is used for cereal production, representing about 13
accomplish several goals at once, namely:
per cent of the country’s total area.
• qualify as a sustainable source for conversion into SAF;
• preserve biodiversity and sustain eco-balance;
The amount of farmland per person is low, and declining. The
• stop land degradation and soil erosion;
sector is dominated by small-scale farms with an average
• regenerate degraded soils; and
agricultural area per rural inhabitant of less than 1.5 ha. In
• provide a relatively cheap organic fertilizer.
comparison, the average farm size in sub-Saharan Africa is 2.4
ha, compared to 178.4 ha in the United States and 111.7 ha in
Given the scale and impact of the consequences of land
Latin America.
degradation and deforestation, implementing the right policies
and mitigation measures becomes an issue of national strategic
Women account for over 70 per cent of the agricultural labour
importance. Some of the many challenges of sustainable
force, but own hardly any land. Traditionally, women are
land management are addressed inter alia by (a) the Forest
responsible for cultivating the family fields and the collective
Investment Programme (FIP) which provides the framework
perimeters of women’s farming associations.

Rain-fed agriculture dominates in Burkina Faso, with largely Biomass (wood fuel, charcoal) constitutes 85 per cent of the
rudimentary agricultural techniques prevailing among small- primary energy consumption, with 14 per cent derived from
scale farmers. With only a few exceptions, farmers have no hydrocarbons (oil products) and 1 per cent from hydro-electricity.
access to tractors or agricultural machinery. Donkeys have
traditionally been the main draft animals and primary working 2.8.1 WOOD FUEL
partners of farming families in Burkina Faso. Wood Fuel (or firewood/fuelwood) is the main commercial
product of Burkinabe forests. As only 17 per cent of the
The challenge in coming years is to accelerate growth in population, including 3 per cent of rural households, have
production and productivity, by controlling its impact on the access to electricity, wood fuel provides over 85 per cent of total
environment and natural resources such as land, water and primary energy consumption in Burkina Faso.
energy, and to foster the adaptability of farming systems to
climate change. Increasing agricultural production can only be In rural areas, nearly all energy consumed is biomass based.
achieved through sustainable agricultural intensification. This Over 90 per cent of all households in Burkina Faso use wood as
means fostering access to inputs — including the use of fertilizer their primary source of cooking fuel. In comparison, butane gas
and seed subsidy policies and securing access to financing and only accounts for 7.8 per cent of domestic energy consumption.
resources for women in particular. Unfortunately, the factors As per FAO statistics, Burkina Faso produced some 13 million
that drive transformation in agriculture — the adoption of m3 of wood fuel and 0.6 million tonnes of charcoal in 2012. It is
technology and access to finance and skills training — are often estimated that a family will use at least 3 tonnes of wood each
difficult to deliver economically to smallholder farmers, who are year with a traditional cook stove composed of a few stones on
geographically dispersed and poorly connected to markets. the ground.
PICTURE 3
National Farmers Day 2017, Kaya, Burkina Faso
The President of Burkina Faso, Roch Marc Kaboré,

PICTURE 4
Traditional wood fuel collection method
addressing thousands of farmers at the ”Journée
Nationale du paysan” in Kaya on 12 May 2017.
For lack of available and affordable alternatives, the dependency
on wood fuel and the corresponding depletion of forest
2.8 ENERGY resources is expected to continue and even increase in the next
Burkina Faso is simultaneously facing challenges of energy decades. While the collection of wood fuel may provide short-
access, energy security and climate change mitigation. With term ad hoc relief, it exacerbates energy crises and contributes
very few energy resources of its own, the country is relentlessly to the deterioration of natural resources, thus further increasing
confronted with an insufficient supply of energy in the face of an vulnerability to climate change. Due to poor agricultural yields,
ever-evolving demand due notably to increased economic and wood fuel exploitation is increasingly becoming an additional
mining activities, population growth and galloping urbanization. source of income. Facing poverty and food insecurity, more
Over the last decade, local demand for electricity has increased and more rural women are dependent on the collection,
by about 13 per cent per annum on average, against an 8 per transportation and sale of wood fuel.
cent increase in supply. Consequently, Burkina Faso is highly
dependent on energy imports.

Considering the challenges and costs of logistics and transportation, wood collectors receive only
10 per cent of this amount. It is estimated that only 20 per cent of wood fuel is collected from
managed forests, while up to 70 per cent is sourced illegally. The widespread uncontrolled practice
of cutting trees without any permit is a serious environmental concern. In addition to agricultural
expansion and mining, wood fuel exploitation has become one of the main drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation. To slow deforestation and reduce pollution from wood fuel, the Government
of Burkina Faso has been trying to promote energy-efficient butane stoves.
2.8.2 HYDROCARBONS/ FOSSIL FUELS

Africa is the continent with the least number of oil refineries in the world. The continent’s oil
producers rely on fuel imports to supplement their own production, as the refinery capacity is
unable to keep up with demand. While Burkina Faso itself lacks any petrochemical facilities, the
closest oil refineries can be found in Ghana (Tema Oil Refinery/ Tullow Oil) and Côte d’Ivoire (Societe
Ivoirienne de Raffinage). Benin only has a fuel storage depot in Cotonou. Nigeria, the largest
economy in Africa, is the region’s dominant oil producer, with a daily output of 2.4 million barrels
per day in 2015, and four oil refineries, at Kaduna, Warri and two at Port Harcourt.
Without its own oil supplies and domestic refining capacity, Burkina Faso is completely reliant
on imported refined products. Hydrocarbon import and storage activities are the monopoly of the
Burkina Faso National Hydrocarbons Company (SONABHY), while transportation and distribution
activities are open to competition (e.g. Total Burkina, Shell). Lacking its own fossil fuel reserves,
annual hydrocarbon imports in 2016 amounted to 180 000 tonnes (mainly by truck from three
maritime ports: Lomé in Togo, Cotonou in Benin, and Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire). These imports
consisted of 83 per cent (i.e. 150 000 tonnes) distillate diesel oil (DDO) and 17 per cent (i.e. 30
000 tonnes) heavy fuel oil (HVO). Refined petroleum products represent roughly 20 per cent of the
total imports of Burkina Faso. As a state-owned enterprise, SONABHY is the exclusive fuel supplier
to SONABEL, the national electricity company responsible for power generation, transmission and
distribution of electricity in Burkina Faso.
In terms of electricity, Burkina Faso also relies heavily on thermal-fossil fuel. In 2016, domestic
thermal production supplied 60 per cent of the total power generation capacity in the country (50
per cent hydrocarbon thermal and 10 per cent hydroelectric thermal) while 35 per cent of electricity
was imported from neighbouring Ivory Coast. Nevertheless, electricity access in Burkina Faso is
one of the lowest in the world. Merely 15 per cent of the population has access to electricity,
compared to the African average of 40 per cent. The share of renewable energies (mainly solar)
currently amounts to only 5 per cent.
FIGURE 9
Breakdown of feedstock
sources for electricity
production

To facilitate access to energy, hydrocarbons are highly subsidized. State subsidies are intended to
maintain the artificially low prices of fuel supplied to SONABEL for electricity generation at FCFA 300
(USD 0.52) per litre of DDO and FCFA 200 (USD 0.34) per litre of HFO. In 2016, total state subsidies
to SONABHY reached FCFA 39.5 billion (or nearly USD 70 million). While government oil subsidies
may seem beneficial on the surface, the long-term effects are highly damaging, and the Burkinabe
government routinely spends millions of dollars a year on subsidy payments, export charges and
import charges. The mechanism for adjusting hydrocarbon prices is defined by ministerial orders.
The energy crisis in Burkina Faso is exacerbated with the recurrent breakdown of thermal power
generation equipment, delays in the rehabilitation of generators, interruption to the supply of fuel
to power plants, lack of adequate investments in the rehabilitation of electrical facilities and the
decline in imported power from Côte d’Ivoire. Starting in 2017, the government plans to import 100
MW of electricity from Ghana and 300 MW from Nigeria.
2.8.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK

Improving energy supply and access to energy are key components of the government’s strategic
development plan. According to the goals laid down in the PNDES, the Government intends to,
inter alia: (a) increase the share of renewables and imported energy in the national energy mix; (b)
promote energy autonomy nationwide; and (c) reduce the use of diesel fuel for heavy fuel oil, which
should help to lower SONABEL’s production costs. To that end, the Government decided to create
the National Agency for Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency (Agence Nationale des Energies
Renouvelables et de l’Efficacité Energétique (ANEREE)), which has the following roles:
• monitoring, supervising and promoting the renewable energy (RE) and energy efficiency (EE)
market;
• establishing a National Strategy for the Promotion of Energy Efficiency;
• supporting, enhancing and piloting projects of national scope;
• bringing together the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and technical and
financial partners;
• performing commercial services and other public service missions in the RE and EE field; and
• supporting research, innovation and training in the RE and EE field.
To foster the transition towards a green economy, to reduce GHG emissions and to build capacity
for climate change resilience, strategic objective No.3.5.1. of the PNDES also foresees the creation
of 2 000 eco-villages by 2020 (at a cost estimated by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable
Development of USD 144 million). Simultaneously, the Government aims to increase the contribution
of renewable energies to total energy production from 5 per cent to 30 per cent.
Scaling-up renewable energy in the country’s current energy mix would not only improve access
to electricity but also reduce the country’s expensive dependence on imported fossil fuels for
electricity generation.
2.9 TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

The transport sector, and especially road infrastructure, constitute an important asset for the socio-
economic development of any country. As the following Figure 10 illustrates, Burkina Faso’s greatest
infrastructure challenge lies in the transport sector. Due to its landlocked nature, Burkina Faso is
wholly dependent on functioning road corridors to access the seaports in neighbouring States Côte
d’Ivoire (Abidjan), Ghana (Accra/Tema), Togo (Lomé), Benin (Cotonou) and Nigeria (Lagos).
While its geographic location positions Burkina Faso as a natural transit hub for West Africa, its
landlocked condition imposes a large mark-up on import and export costs. Connecting surface road
corridors and distances from the main domestic business hubs (Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso)
to available seaports are all around 1 000 kilometres or more. Average transit time on the road
corridor between Ouagadougou and the port of Tema (Ghana) takes 12 to 15 days. Consequently,
transport costs are compounded by and very sensitive to any inefficiency in the transit chain, for
instance, in customs administration, cross-border waiting times, and logistic costs. In case of crude
vegetable oil transport by tank truck, time and challenging climate conditions may furthermore lead
to product deterioration as free fatty acids risk building up during lengthy overland transit times.

FIGURE 10
Road corridors to
international seaports
Burkina Faso is completely dependent on overland road corridors to access refining,

loading and handling facilities at international seaports.
Despite the good condition of the main transit roads, the sheer distance to be covered puts the
country at a competitive disadvantage. World Bank and International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD) data from 2011 reveals that time and costs to export are not only much
higher than those faced by Member States of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) but also than those in other African States. These impediments will certainly
affect the economic viability of low value biomass transportation and biofuel production.
TABLE 4
Barriers to Trade
Source: World Bank, Doing Business 2011, and
The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), Burkina Faso’s Infrastructure: A
Continental Perspective, 2011
A necessary precursor to the development, production, and use of economically viable SAF is the
identification of a functional domestic supply chain. This will depend, inter alia, on the existing road
infrastructure and the accessibility of feedstock cultivation areas.
While the main roads running through Burkina Faso are usually paved and in relatively good
condition, connectivity and accessibility decrease outside the main trunk network, particularly in
rural and agricultural production areas where roads are made of dirt or sand. In addition, at least 50
per cent of the classified tertiary road network is impassable during the rainy season. As a result,
some of the zones with high agricultural potential (such as the Bagré Zone in the south of the
country) are underexploited, as farmers have difficulty getting products to markets. This situation
is further aggravated by the fact that Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso account for over 70 per
cent of the country’s urban population and that regional capitals lack the economic infrastructure
and connectivity with these larger urban centres and their hinterlands.

PICTURE 5
Road infrastructure
Road conditions pose a serious challenge for the

collection and transport of biomass and biofuels.
The disconnect between urban centres and the countryside is

especially relevant for the collection of high-volume, low-value
biomass and its transportation to centrally located conversion
facilities. The huge quantities of biomass necessary to support
domestic fuel processing operations on a commercial scale
make transport and logistics very challenging. Due to their
low energy density, large amounts of biomass are required to
feed potential production facilities. Handling this bulky material
can be expensive and uneconomical outside of a given radius.
According to the above referenced IBRD report, less than one-
fourth of Burkina Faso’s population lives within 2 km of an all-
weather road. Benchmarked against other African States, rural
accessibility in Burkina Faso is 27 per cent lower than in low-
income African countries (LICs) and even 60 per cent lower
than in middle-income African countries (MICs). However, basic
road access to agricultural production areas and rural farms is
a precondition for the organization of a functioning market and
biofuel supply chain. Otherwise, even the most promising yield
potential and high-value crops will not be sufficient to overcome
inadequate rural transport connectivity and compensate for
disproportionally high logistics costs. As large-scale feedstock
cultivation and biofuel production are directly dependent on the
underlying infrastructural conditions, continuous investments
into the road network and road maintenance are necessary.
Any such investment does not only favour the transport sector
per se, but simultaneously contributes to higher level rural
and regional development objectives and potentially secures
agricultural production worth millions of dollars. The Government
has a specific programme to upgrade 5 000 km of rural roads,
yearly. The country’s Poverty Reduction Strategy (Stratégie de
Croissance Accélérée et de Développement Durable (SCADD))
also highlights transport services and infrastructure development
as a central element for improving the internal and external
connectivity and improving trade and economic activities.

3. EVALUATION OF FEEDSTOCK
SOURCES FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
3.1 STARCH AND SUGAR CROPS study further concluded that sugarcane qualified as the most
cost competitive feedstock. The availability of qualified labour
(SUCROSE) and efficient irrigation systems in combination with Brazilian
production technologies were considered as the main underlying
3.1.1 SUGARCANE
factors for a successful business model implementation in
3.1.1.1 Feedstock Suitability ECOWAS Member States.
One of the dominant global feedstock for biofuel production
includes sugars derived from agricultural starches and from Three macro-regions were identified for sugarcane-to-ethanol
sugarcane. Sugarcane is one of the most photosynthetically biofuel production in Burkina Faso, due to their natural water
efficient crops, cultured mainly in warm and tropical regions. The sources and irrigation access, agricultural capability of soils,
stalks of the cane constitute over 7 per cent of the mature plant and proximity of critical transportation, storage and logistics
and contain up to 20 per cent sucrose by weight. infrastructure. They are:
a) the province of Comoé, in the administrative region of
Sugarcane can be used as a feedstock to produce fuels. For Cascades near the border of Côte d’Ivoire,
example, Brazilian-produced sucrose is currently the main b) the provinces of Moun Houn, Nayala and Kossi, on the banks
feedstock for fermentation technologies in the aviation field, of the Black Volta river and north of the town of Dédougou,
such as farnesene production by Amyris. However, sugarcane and
production is dependent on the specific climate, and despite c) the province of Boulgou, to the south-east of Ouagadougou
its high photosynthetic efficiency, the land area needed for (see Figure 11).
significant cultivation is still substantial and potentially in direct
competition with other food crops. In addition, any SAF produced Sugarcane requires prime agricultural land, fertilizer and large
from sugarcane would be in direct competition with bioethanol quantities of water (1 500 to 2 500 mm per year). In Burkina
as a gasoline substitute. Faso’s drylands, sugarcane, therefore, cannot be grown without
irrigation. As of June 2017, only 3 per cent of the agricultural
In 2014, the Brazilian Development Bank funded an international land in Burkina Faso was irrigated. Due to climatic reasons
study analysing the feasibility of biofuel production in sub- and severe water constraints, the suitable area for sugarcane
Saharan African ECOWAS Member States (Étude de Viabilité is limited to a relatively small area in the southern part of the
de la Production de Biocarburants dans l’UEMOA). All ECOWAS country. Natural constraints are reflected in the actual size of
States are challenged by low agricultural productivity and food the cultivation area.
insecurity. Sustained energy deprivation provides additional
obstacles. In this context, biofuel production cannot be pursued
in isolation but should ideally be an integral part of a more
comprehensive agro-energy plan within and across sectors
that also ensures food self-sufficiency and energy access at the
same time.
In search of the most suitable feedstock for biofuel production

in the ECOWAS States, a total of 12 crops were analysed with
regard to their respective energetic potential. Main selection
criteria included agricultural suitability, productivity and yield, PICTURE 6
water requirements, land use and financial viability. Burkinabe sugarcane plantation
The study came to the conclusion that, among all feedstock

sources, only sugarcane-based fuels promise appropriate 4 000 ha irrigated sugar cane plantation near Banfora/
business perspectives, not only for Burkina Faso, but also for Cascades in the south-sudanian agro-ecological zone.
other ECOWAS States. Due to its perfect adaptation to local agro-
climatic conditions and its positive socio-economic impacts, the

Between 2000 and 2014, the irrigated area for sugarcane cultivation in Burkina Faso increased
from 4 000 ha to 4 728 ha. According to most recent estimates, the total cultivation area in 2017
slightly exceeded 5 000 hectares.
Based on a production yield of +/- 100 tonnes/ha, the country’s annual sugarcane harvest amounts
to 500 000 tonnes. Assuming a conservative average yield of 4 000 litres of ethanol per ha, Burkina
Faso has currently a theoretical production capacity of 20 000 m3 or 20 million litres of sugarcane-
based bioethanol. Considering the energy density of 0.789 kg/m3 and a specific energy content of
29.6 MJ/kg, this converts to 15 800 tonnes and the equivalent calorific value of 468 000 Gigajoule
(GJ) or 79 850 boe respectively.
FIGURE 11
MAIN SUGARCANE PRODUCTION AREAS Main Sugarcane Production
Areas
Former state-owned sugar company SN Sosuco (Nouvelle Société Sucrière de la Comoé) produces
35 000 tonnes of sugar and 12 000 tonnes of molasses. SN Sosuco is Burkina Faso’s largest private
employer, and it is 52 per cent controlled by the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development acting
through its affiliate Industrial Promotion Services (IPS) West Africa. It is based outside of Banfora
right at the centre of the Comoé province in the Cascade region. Profiting from the availability of
natural water resources (Comoé river, Cascades) and an automated sprinkler irrigation system,
SN Sosuco cultivates 4 000 ha of sugarcane. The plant, which dates from 1968, has a processing
capacity of 2 400 tonnes of sugarcane per day. Pending the installation of additional irrigation
facilities, an extension of the cultivation area to 6 000 ha is under consideration. The production
capacity of SN Sosuco is limited by access to water for irrigation.
By adding the cultivation area in the province of Boulgou, which offers access to water resources
for irrigation from the Bagré hydroelectric dam on the White Volta river, the total favourable area for
irrigated sugarcane cultivation in Burkina Faso could potentially amount to a maximum of 8 000 ha.
Applying the same conversion ratios as above, this equals a theoretic future production capacity of
32 000 m3 or 32 million litres of sugarcane-based bioethanol with a calorific value (energy content)
of 747 000 GJ which equals 122 460 boe.

3.1.1.2 Feedstock Conversion and Upgrading juice as feedstock. However, the diversion of cane juice from
In the process of producing crystallised sugar, several by- sugar production to biofuels would directly interfere with food
products are generated. The most important ones include production and consequently result in a shortage of sugar.
molasses, bagasse and cane juice.
Even though domestic production capacity has been significantly
The main source of ethanol in Burkina Faso is sugarcane increased since 2012, the annual sugar production of 35 000
molasses, a by-product of food-grade sugar production. The tonnes does not even meet 40 per cent of domestic demand.
yield of molasses from crushed cane ranges from 2 to 4 per cent; The chronic sugar shortage of at least 90 000 tonnes per year
given a current theoretical annual sugarcane yield of +/- 500 000 is encouraging sugar trafficking from Brazil. Additionally, illegal
tonnes, this amounts to 10 000 to 20 000 tonnes of molasses. The imports from Brazil and the EU usually profit from government
feedstock can be fermented using yeast or other organisms and subsidies. For example, the “Regional Producer Subsidy” is a
distilled into alcohols which can then be chemically processed direct subsidy paid by the Government of Brazil to provide
further into SAF. As of today, sugarcane molasses in Burkina sugarcane producers from the north-north eastern states to
Faso is primarily used for pharmaceutical-grade alcohol. Given balance their cost of production with that of the most developed
the weak demand for pharmaceutical alcohol, there is currently growing areas in centre-south Brazil. While a tonne of domestic
an oversupply of molasses. SN Sosuco’s integrated distillery sugar produced in Burkina Faso fetches FCFA 500 000 (USD
has a limited processing capacity of 7 000 litres of bioethanol 874), Brazilian imports transiting trough the seaports of Lomé,
per day, or roughly 2 million litres per year. During the ethanol Abidjan or Tamalé are selling for FCFA 420 000 per tonne (USD
fermentation process a rich biological waste is produced; it is 734), all freights included. With a price differential of at least
usually put back on the fields as a fertilizer for sugarcane crops. FCFA 80 000 (USD 140) per tonne, the Burkinabe sugar industry
is internationally not competitive. Government subsidies put
Bagasse is the fibrous residue that remains after sugarcane even more pressure on the domestic sugar industry. In addition,
stalks are crushed to extract their juice. For every 10 tonnes unregulated sugar imports may even pose a public health risk as
of sugarcane crushed and processed, a sugar factory produces imported agricultural products have usually undergone chemical
nearly three tonnes of wet bagasse. The bagasse is typically treatment. So far, the annulment of import permits has not
burned to provide energy for the sugar mill and distillery. While shielded the domestic market from foreign competition.
the high moisture content of bagasse, typically 40 to 50 per cent,
is detrimental to its use as a fuel, the cellulose-rich bagasse As sugar demand in Burkina Faso already outweighs available
is being widely investigated for its potential for producing supply from domestic production by four times, any diversion of
commercial quantities of cellulosic ethanol. In comparison to sugarcane juice for the benefit of increased ethanol production
other agricultural residues, bagasse has the advantage of being seems to be unattractive and should most certainly be discarded.
available at the mill, meaning that the cost of collection and
transportation is generally allocated to sugar or ethanol costs. The individual steps of the conversion process leading to the
production of bioethanol as a precursor of SAF are illustrated in
In addition to the molasses and bagasse available from sugar Figure 12 below.
production, it might also be possible to utilize sugarcane
FIGURE 12
Bioethanol production from sugarcane and molasses

Once the sugarcane biomass feedstock has been converted into alcohol, the resulting bioethanol
can then be further processed to SAF. For that, ethanol needs to be upgraded to high-grade, long-
chain kerosene. Two biochemical processes that convert sugars to hydrocarbons are being used
by the industry:

3.1.1.2.1 Alcohol-to-Jet
The alcohol-to-jet (AtJ) process involves the fermentation of sugars to alcohols, such as ethanol
or butanol. These are subsequently upgraded to a final product stream that includes not only
SAF, but also other hydrocarbons, chemicals and additional by-products. The conversion process
typically consists of alcohol dehydration, catalytic oligomerization to jet range alkenes, and
finally hydrogenation, as demonstrated by companies such as Swedish Biofuels and Gevo, the
first commercial producer of AtJ fuel. Accordingly, any sugar containing bio-based feedstock is
first processed into isobutanol by fermentation, prior to being refined into synthetic iso-paraffinic
kerosene. Gevo’s AtJ fuel based on isobutanol was ASTM approved in April 2016, eligible for up to
30 per cent blending in commercial flight.

3.1.1.2.2 Synthesized iso-paraffins produced from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP-HFS)
Synthesized iso-paraffinic (SIP) SAF can be produced biologically through the aerobic fermentation
of sugars by microorganisms to create a hydrocarbon molecule called farnesene. The French-
US joint venture between Total and Amyris converts sugars directly into hydrocarbons (such as
farnesene) by fermentation with genetically engineered yeasts. Farnesene is then upgraded by
hydro-processing into a molecule called farnesane, which can be blended with current aviation
fuel. The SIP-HFS production pathway, formerly known as the direct sugars-to-hydrocarbon
(DSHC) route, was approved by ASTM International in 2014. Due to the homogenous hydrocarbon
composition of this fuel (only one carbon chain length), the maximum certified blending ratio with
current aviation fuel is currently limited to 10 per cent.

Direct enzymatic conversion of sugars to hydrocarbons is more challenging and complex from
a process technology point of view than the hydrogenation of vegetable oil, which is why the
production costs are expected to be significantly higher than for HEFA products according to
current knowledge.

A key aspect of SAF production is the requirement for hydrogen (H2) to upgrade oxygen-rich
carbohydrate, lignin or lipid feedstocks to hydrogen-rich hydrocarbons that are functionally
equivalent to current aviation fuel. Thus, some type of costly hydro-processing step will likely be
required for most SAF technology platforms, with external sources of hydrogen used to remove
oxygen in the form of water from the starting material, or to saturate double bonds in a final
polishing step.

3.1.1.3 Challenges and Constraints
The analysis of potential commercial ethanol feedstocks in Burkina Faso reveals that sugar cane
is a leading contender. However, the commercial viability of an ethanol production unit requires a
regular and secure supply of raw material and presupposes large-scale agro-industrial production.
Challenges may involve having a large enough supply of molasses at a given location to minimize
transportation costs to justify construction and operation of an economically efficient ethanol
production facility. The volume of sugar-derived feedstock available today does not yet seem to
be sufficient to justify an autonomous regional supply chain with a comprehensive production
infrastructure. Assuming sufficient supply, the use of sugarcane as feedstock still incurs more than
twice the production cost of converting corn into ethanol. As long as it is more profitable to produce
ethanol from corn in the United States, it remains rather unlikely that existing distilleries in Burkina
Faso will be upgraded or that new commercial ethanol facilities will be set up.

3.1.1.4 Feasibility Matrix
To better evaluate the potential and viability of any given combination between a specific source
of domestic biomass (such as sugar cane) and a proven technological conversion pathway, a
Feasibility Matrix of select evaluation criteria illustrates opportunities and major constraints with
regard to the maturity of a potential domestic feedstock supply chain, as well as the feasibility of
the entire supply chain, including available technology options.

To facilitate a quick overview, evaluation criteria against which the feasibility of any pathway
scenario can be gauged are narrowed down to two major categories: Feedstock Availability and
Technology Readiness.
The analysis of Feedstock Availability takes into account not only the current and potential future
biomass production volume, but also land, fertilizer and water requirements, as well as market
The Technology Readiness category differentiates between two technology levels. Technology
level 1 (T1) relates to biomass processing and includes basic feedstock processing facilities, pre-
treatment activities, feedstock to fuel conversion and oil expelling. In comparison, technology
level 2 (T2) refers to advanced fuel processing facilities and relevant fuel conversion pathways,
including, inter alia, refining, hydro treatment and crude fractionation.
Given the very low level of agricultural mechanization in Burkina Faso, the installation of technology
solutions at the first level is already a major challenge before more advanced and technologically
SAF conversion scenarios can be considered.

3.1.2 SORGHUM
3.1.2.1 Feedstock Suitability
Sorghum, together with millets (a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses), is the most
important cereal crop in Burkina Faso, followed by maize and rice. The primary demand for
sorghum and millets is for food, especially in the dryland regions of sub-Saharan Africa where
these are the principal cereal crops.
The environments in which sorghum and millets are cultivated face the toughest environmental
challenges, including low and irregular rainfalls, high temperatures, poor soils and inappropriate
agronomic practices. Sorghum and millets are well suited to the harsh environmental and climate
conditions of Burkina Faso, including areas where other crops either yield poorly or do not grow at
all. They are typically cultivated by small-holder farmers in almost all parts of the country, except
the southwest, with limited water resources and without application of any fertilizers or other
inputs. Main sorghum production areas include the provinces of Yatenga (Nord), Mouhoun (Boucle
du Mouhoun), Houet (Hauts-Bassins), Kouritenga (Centre-Est), Sanmatenga (Centre-Nord), Sanguié
(Centre-Ouest), Ioba (Sud-Ouest) and Zoundweogo (Centre-Sud) (see Figure 13).
FIGURE 13
Main sorghum production
areas
Valued as a multipurpose crop, sweet sorghum is as also called the “camel among crops” as it is
well adapted to the semi-arid tropics, resists drought, tolerates high salinity soil and is very water-
use efficient. Given its short growing period, high biomass and bio-product potential, tolerance
to drought, water-logging, salinity and acidity, and low water requirement, sweet sorghum is the
preferred crop for cultivation on drylands in the semi-arid tropics. Dealing with the challenges
of climate change and land degradation, dryland cereals will become increasingly suited for
production in unfavourable farmland where other crops cannot thrive. In Burkina Faso and across
sub-Saharan Africa, sorghum and millets have already become the major suppliers of micronutrients,
especially for low-income rural communities. This explains why sorghum and millets make up 75
to 90 per cent of the staple diet of the rural population in Burkina Faso.
Sweet sorghum not only provides grain for human consumption and stover (stalks and leaves)
for fodder, but the plant residues are also increasingly being used as feedstock for industrial
alternative fuel production. Cultivated varieties of sorghum are commonly grouped according to
their end uses, for example, grain sorghum (food and feed), forage sorghum, sweet sorghum (for
sugar production) and bioenergy sorghum. There are notable differences in the relative carbon
partitioning and morphology between these groups: grain varieties produce large heads of grain

rich in starch; sweet sorghums produce a tall, sugar-rich stem; impacting food supply.
and bioenergy and forage sorghums produce a large amount of
vegetative biomass. The composition of the sorghum plant thus The sorghum juice can be directly fermented to produce ethanol
seems ideal: while grains can be used for food, other parts of the fuel. Plant size is the main trait influencing bioenergy yield. In
plant can simultaneously be used to produce fuel. In comparison addition, ethanol yields are dependent not only on the amount of
to maize, rice and wheat, sorghum and millets offer a relatively fermentable sugar in the plant, but also on the presence, amount
cheap source of energy without any food-fuel trade-offs. As a and types of inhibitory molecules, such as lignin and ash, and the
dryland crop for biofuel production, sorghum is highly favoured total amount of biomass produced per plant. Notwithstanding
for its effective conversion of atmospheric CO2 into sugar, making variation in biomass traits in diverse sorghum genotypes, the
it a viable alternative to sugarcane or maize for the production average ethanol productivity can be estimated at approximately
of ethanol. 200 g ethanol per kg of original stem. Considering the energy
density of ethanol (0.789 kg/m3), 1 tonne of sorghum dry stalk
Sorghum has been considered as a potential ethanol production theoretically produces about 254 litres of ethanol, equivalent to
feedstock because it accumulates fermentable sugar in the stalk. roughly 560 litres of ethanol per ha.
The juice extracted from sweet sorghum stalks (sorghum juice)
usually contains approximately 16 to 18 per cent fermentable Based on the above parameters, Burkina Faso has a theoretical
sugars which are mainly comprised of sucrose, glucose and production capacity of 440 000 m3 or 4.4 x 108 million litres
fructose and which can be crushed to extract the sorghum juice of sorghum-based ethanol. This converts to approximately 347
as raw material for ethanol production. While fuels produced 000 tonnes of ethanol and the equivalent calorific value of 107
from sugarcane are limited to the molasses as feedstock, a by- gigajoule (GJ) or 1 750 000 boe.
product of food-grade sugar production, fuel production from
3.1.2.2 Feedstock Conversion and Upgrading
sorghum can make full use of the sugar hydrolysate from the
Several methods have been explored for processing sweet
sorghum juice.
sorghum stalks to extract as much juice as possible and to
In direct comparison to sugarcane, sweet sorghum is much more provide timely conversion of the collected sugar into ethanol
water-efficient as it extracts only one seventh of the water. While via fermentation and distillation. Once the sorghum biomass
sugarcane consumes two and a half units of water to produce feedstock has been converted into a clean burning fuel with
one unit of ethanol, sweet sorghum only uses one unit of water a high-octane rating, the resulting ethanol can then be further
to produce one unit of ethanol. processed into aviation fuel. To be considered an aviation
fuel, ethanol needs to be upgraded to high-grade, long-chain
To evaluate the theoretical energy and potential of fuel produced kerosene. The two main sugar-to-jet conversion pathways that
from sorghum residues, the available amount of feedstock needs are being investigated by the industry involve the AtJ route and
to be calculated. Quantification depends on the annual production the Synthetic Iso-Paraffin (SIP) route. However, both processes
of sorghum crops and the underlying grain-to-residue (stalk) are still in their pre-commercial stage. To support the ASTM SIP-
ratio. The co-existence of more than 250 varieties allows only an certification process, only a small-scale demonstration plant,
approximate but nevertheless realistic estimate. Therefore, the producing approximately 24 000 tonnes per annum of farnesene
grain-to-residue ratio is estimated at 1:2, i.e. one tonne of grain has been operated in Brotas/Brazil. A more detailed overview
harvested produces 2 tonnes of stalk. According to the Ministry of lignocellulosic biomass conversion pathways is provided in
of Agriculture, sorghum production in Burkina Faso totalled 1 730 Section 3.2.4.
000 tonnes in 2016/2017. Considering a harvest area of 1 620
000 ha, this represents an average yield of 1.1 tonnes of grains 3.1.2.3 Challenges and Constraints
per hectare. Based on the specific grain-to-residue ratio, total Burkina Faso enjoys ample availability of low cost biomass
sorghum residue production thus amounts to 3 460 000 tonnes. resources. While the potential of sweet sorghum makes it
attractive, sorghum stalks and plant residues represent a high
However, the fraction of the total biomass production ultimately volume, low value feedstock. As a result, logistics, infrastructure
available for bioenergy will depend upon its competitive uses and mechanization are of major concern. The huge quantities
as well as harvesting, storage and logistics constraints. While of biomass required to support commercial scale operations
production of sweet sorghum for biofuels undoubtedly provides make transport and logistics very challenging. Due to their low
important income to dryland farmers, selling sorghum stover to energy density, large amounts of biomass are required to feed
distilleries, instead of keeping it on-farm and using it to feed potential production facilities. Handling this bulky material can
livestock may add to problems of fodder scarcity. However, once be expensive and uneconomical outside of a given radius. Poor
the sorghum juice for ethanol production has been extracted from road infrastructure and the lack of adequate storage facilities
the stalks, the bagasse (stalk residue) provides an alternative further complicate the establishment of an efficient supply
nutritious animal feed rich in micronutrients and minerals in lieu chain. Finally, the low level of mechanization in Burkina Faso
of the original crop residues. Therefore, a markdown of 50 per is a important impediment towards advancing the agricultural
cent is be applied. As a result, only 50 per cent of the calculated sector in general and promoting the cultivation, harvesting and
feedstock potential, i.e. 1 730 000 tonnes, are assumed to be processing of bulk biomass in particular.
available for transport fuel production without significantly Farm power in West Africa relies to an overwhelming extent

on manual labour, based on operations that depend on the hoe and other manual tools. Such
tools have implicit limitations in terms of energy and operational output, particularly in a tropical
environment. These methods place severe limitations on the amount of land that can be cultivated
per family. They reduce the efficiency of farm operations and limit the efficacy of essential activities
such as land preparation, cultivation, weeding harvesting and post-harvest operations, thereby
reducing crop yields.
Use of tractors is particularly limited in Western Africa. According to the FAO, less than 8 per cent
of cultivated areas in Western Africa are cultivated by tractor. The availability and use of tractors
is concentrated in relatively few States (Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Nigeria). Pursuant to census data
collected by the French agricultural research and international cooperation organization CIRAD, the
total number of tractors operating in Burkina Faso in 2006 was 8 600 which represents only 14
tractors per 100 km2 of arable land, used on only 0.4 per cent of all farms (cf. Side, Stratégie de
mécanisation de l’Agriculture familiale en Afrique sub-saharienne). This compares to 130 tractors in
Brazil, 200 in India, 257 in the U.S. and 728 in the UK. Before examining biomass and alternative fuel
production potential in Burkina Faso, the question must be asked whether long-term sustainable
growth of the agricultural sector is possible replying largely on hand tool technology.

3.2 LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS
Due to the limited availability of sugarcane, second-generation lignocellulosic fuels may offer a
viable alternative as regionally appropriate feedstock. Lignocellulose can be derived from one of
four main sources: (1) agricultural residues; (2) wood residues; (3) food waste; and (4) specific
energy crops. With regard to local agro-economic and climate conditions as well as traditional
cultivation practices in Burkina Faso, agricultural residues suggest further analysis.
3.2.1 AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES

Agricultural residues and more specifically agricultural crop residues constitute a large biomass
resource and are potential raw materials for producing several high-value products like fuel
ethanol, biodiesel and bioelectricity. Agricultural residues consist of the lignocellulosic material,
including the stalks and leaves, left over once the edible portion of the plant, such as the grain,
has been extracted. Agricultural crop residues include a wide range of plant parts and biomass
materials such as corn stover, straw, husks, stalks and leaves produced during the cultivation and
harvesting of crops that are typically not removed from the fields with the primary food or fibre
product. Cereal crop farming activity generates very significant quantities of straw residues (over
60 per cent of the total crop, dependent on water and nitrogen availability) that are usually left on
the cropland to retain soil nutrients, or incinerated to prevent the spread of pests and uncontrolled
fires. A certain fraction of the straw can be sustainably collected (leaving sufficient nutrients in
the soil) and used for energy conversion at a biorefinery. The biomass residues contain varying
amounts of cellulose (glucose polymers), hemicellulose (polymers consisting of different sugar
monomers with both, five and six carbon atoms), lignin and small amounts of lipids, proteins,
simple sugars and starches. The combination of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin comprises
around half of the plant matter produced by photosynthesis and represents the most abundant
renewable organic resource on earth.
Lignocellulosic biomass resources represent an important future source of renewable energy.

Arguably, the largest potential for alternative fuels is routed in a process that makes use of abundant
low-cost cellulosic feedstocks. However, the effective utilization of lignocellulosic feedstock is
not always practical because of its seasonal availability, variable quality and the high costs of
transportation and storage. In addition, the lignin fraction increases the rigidness of the feedstock
and might complicate the conversion to biofuels. Depending on the properties of the specific
feedstock, lignin can contain as much as 50 per cent of the original biomass energy content. This
would most likely lower the overall conversion efficiency. The lignin fraction can, however, be used
for other purposes, such as co-firing for heat and energy.
Several factors are important in assessing the suitability of agricultural residues as a feedstock for
biofuels. These include the total crop yield, the amount of residue produced, the composition of the
crop, and the inherent energy content.
3.2.1.1 Rice Residues

3.2.1.1.1 Feedstock Suitability
After sorghum/millet, maize and cotton, rice is ranked number four in terms of production and
consumption. Rice production in Burkina Faso is promising. It employs more than 150 000
smallholder rice farmers and yields are comparatively good. However, the actual national rice
production of roughly 270 000 tonnes barely covers 45 per cent of the current consumption needs.
As a result, the country has had to resort to rice imports for more than 330 000 tonnes per year
over the last six years to meet local demand.
Rice production in Burkina Faso is either fully irrigated, irrigated by water containment (lowland),
or strictly rain fed. Yields vary accordingly and can range from 1 tonne/ha (rain fed), to 4 out 7
tonnes/ha (fully-irrigated) as a result of the double cropping season made possible by having full
water control. While irrigated rice growing accounts for less than 20 per cent of the rice land area,
it provides around 55 per cent of national rice production. In comparison, lowland rice production
accounts for about 70 per cent of the rice land area and supplies 40 per cent of national rice
production, while strictly rain fed rice growing takes up about 10 per cent of the rice land area and
provides 5 per cent of national rice production. Lowland rice growing is the most widely practiced

traditional form of production throughout all regions of Burkina Faso, whether on sites with water
control (traditional non-developed lowlands) or with partial-control (simple developed lowland or
improved lowland). The figures for rice growing potential show 500 000 ha of workable land area
of which less than 15 per cent has been developed. The production of rice is still based on a high
level of manual labour input. The rice is usually harvested by sickle, and left in the field for drying.
The stubble is partly burned, and partly incorporated into the soil to improve the organic matter.
FIGURE 14
Main rice production areas
The main rice producing areas include Boulgou (Centre-Est), Houet (Hauts-Bassins), Kénédougou
(Hauts-Bassins), Tapoa (Est) and Sourou (Boucle de Mouhon). Profiting from irrigation opportunities
offered by the Bagré dam on the White Volta river in the Centre-East in the province of Boulgou, rice
production in Centre-East alone accounts for 23 per cent of the country’s rice production. Bagré
is a priority region because of its proximity to market, good transport links to Ouagadougou, the
recent expansion of irrigated land from 1 800 ha to over 20 000 ha in 2016 and the importance of
rice for local smallholders as a cash and staple crop.
To evaluate the theoretical energy and biofuel potential of rice residues in Burkina Faso, the available
amount of feedstock needs to be calculated. Quantification depends on the annual production of
rice and the underlying grain-to-residue ratio. The cultivation of rice results in two major types of
residues, straw and husk, having attractive potential in terms of energy.
Rice straw is the vegetative part of the rice plant (Oryza sativa L.), cut at grain harvest. It is
one of the abundant and unused lignocellulosic waste materials in Burkina Faso. Rice straw
predominantly contains cellulose (32 to 47 per cent), hemicelluloses (19 to 27 per cent), lignin (5 to
24 per cent) and ashes (18.8 per cent). Rice straw is separated from the grains after the plants are
threshed manually. Reflecting the low degree of mechanization, most farmers do not have access
to threshing machines.
Rice husks are the most prolific agricultural residue in rice producing countries around the world.
Rice husks, the main by-product from the rice milling process, are the hard coating that are
protecting the edible grains of rice; they constitute about 25 per cent of paddy weight. Rice husks
which consist mainly of lignocellulose and silica are currently not utilized to any significant extent
in Burkina Faso. Nevertheless, they have potential as an alternative source of energy. A rough
analysis of the underlying calorific values illustrates the importance of rice husk and rice straw
as viable sources of energy. Assuming an average grain-to-husk ratio of 0.25, one tonne of rice

produces 250 kg of rice husk with an average energy content sustainable. In addition, logistics, poor mechanization, poor
of 15 MJ/kg at 5 to 12 per cent moisture content and a calorific road infrastructure and the lack of adequate storage facilities
value equivalent of 3 600 kcal/kg. are major hurdles for the organization of an efficient and cost-
conscious residue supply chain. Assuming that 25 per cent of
In comparison to the husks, it is more difficult to calculate plant residues are required for soil enhancement and another
the potentially available volume of rice straw. Depending on 25 per cent are currently used for fodder, relevant availability
plant varieties, cutting-height of the stubbles, soil quality and discounts would be applied. As a result, only 50 per cent of total
moisture content during harvest, straw biomass is subject to rice straw production (102 250 tonnes) would be considered as
large fluctuations. Considering an average grain-to-straw ratio potentially available for energy conversion and fuel production.
of 0.75, one tonne of milled white rice approximately produces
750 kg of straw with an energy content of 12.5 MJ/kg at 10 per Considering specific energy density and calorific value
cent moisture content and a calorific value equivalent of 3 000 parameters of husk and straw, 34 250 tonnes of rice husk have
kcal/kg. Rice production in Burkina Faso is estimated at 274 000 an energy content of 514 000 GJ which equals 87 650 boe. In
tonnes in 2016/2017. Considering a harvest area of 172 000 ha, addition, 102 250 tonnes of husk convert to 1 280 000 GJ and
this represents an average yield of 1.6 tonnes of milled rice/ha. 218 400 boe respectively (see Table 5).
Based on the specific grain-to-residue ratio, as further outlined 3.2.1.1.2 Energy Recovery and Conversion Processes
in Table 5, the theoretical residue potential thus amounts to 68 Rice husk
500 tonnes per year for rice husk and to 205 500 tonnes per Although technology solutions for rice husk utilization are well-
year for rice straw. The availability factor of rice straw and rice proven, processing and conversion technologies have not yet
husk largely depends on the region, collection practices and been introduced to Western Africa. Rice husk can produce fuels,
potential competitive uses. heat, or electricity through either thermal, chemical, or biological
processes. For example, rice husk can be used for power and
With regard to rice husk, about half of the husk produced from electricity generation or as feedstock in the rice mills to generate
rice mills is usually burned for the generation of steam to drive steam for the parboiling process. In Asia, about half of the rice
mechanical milling equipment. Thus, on average only 50 per cent husk generated during milling is usually burned for the generation
of the total feedstock potential (34 250 tonnes), will ultimately of steam to drive mechanical milling equipment. Thermal energy
be available for energy conversion. Given its high cellulose and recovery processes which may include combustion, gasification,
hemicellulose contents, the remaining husk can be processed and pyrolysis, typically lead to alternative energy products, such
into ethanol. as heat, bioelectricity and syngas.
Concerning rice straw, removing the entire straw remaining on a Alternatively, rice husk could also be transformed into ethanol
field after harvest is not feasible because residues are important which serves as a precursor for the upgrading into liquid
to maintain soil nutrients, moisture, and erosion control. The hydrocarbons, such as alternative fuels. As this process basically
amount of residue that can be sustainably removed from a relates to the conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose, process
field depends, inter alia, on soil organic carbon, wind and water details will be analysed collectively for all agricultural residues
erosion and plant nutrient balance. In the present context, using and energy crops that contain lignocellulosic components
the amount of straw for energy, which is currently used as fodder suitable for conversion into renewable hydrocarbons (Section
for cattle, is not considered to be socially and economically 3.2.4 refers in more detail).
TABLE 5
Rice Straw and Husk:
Grain-to-Residue-Ratio

FIGURE 15
Rice husk energy conversion
process
Rice Straw
Rice straw can either be processed alone or mixed with other biomass materials in direct combustion, whereby combustion boilers may
be used in combination with steam turbines to produce electricity and heat in straw fired cogeneration plants or combined heat and
power plants (CHP). For example, the surplus straw from cereal grains plays a large role in the renewable energy strategy of Denmark.
Given its cellulose and hemicellulose components, rice straw equally qualifies as feedstock for ethanol and fuel production (Section
3.1.1.2 refers in more detail).
3.2.1.1.3 Feasibility Matrix

3.2.1.2 Corn/ Maize
3.2.1.2.1 Feedstock Suitability
According to FAO data, maize is the most widely-grown staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa,
occupying more than 33 million ha of land and providing a source of food and livelihood for more
than 300 million people. Maize accounts for one-fifth of the calories and protein consumed in
West Africa. Over the past decades, maize has become the most marketed and exported cereal in
Burkina Faso. It now accounts for 30 per cent of total grain production. In addition to its nutritional
values maize also represents a substantial source of stored energy.
While corn starch has been a highly-contested feedstock for ethanol production because of its
obvious competition with food production, particularly in the U.S., this section addresses the
potential of cellulosic ethanol production not from corn grains, but rather from the utilization of
the agricultural residues from maize cultivation, i.e., the cellulosic (non-food) portions of maize.
These other parts of the corn plant include primarily corn stover, which is a by-product of corn
grain production. Corn stover is a broad term which describes almost all of the above-ground
biomass from the corn crop except the grain. This biomass is comprised of structural components
including stalks, cobs and leaves. When maize is harvested in the field, the corn grain is separated
from the cobs, stalks, and leaves. While the grain is transported for storing and processing, the
stover is currently not widely collected or used for alternative purposes. Unlike the corn grains,
of which the major component is starch, the main components of corn stover are cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are potential sources of fermentable sugars
for ethanol production. Cellulose conversion technology consists of pre-treatment, hydrolysis
and fermentation using yeast or other microorganisms. In contrast to grain-based feedstocks,
cellulose-based ethanol production requires microorganisms that are capable of producing ethanol
from both glucose and xylose.
For further process details, refer to the analysis of lignocellulosic conversion pathways.
According to the Ministry of Agriculture, annual maize production in Burkina Faso averages 1.5
million tonnes. In line with plant specific water requirements, main production areas cover 790
000 ha and are concentrated in the provinces of Kénédougou, Houet, Tuy and Comoé in the south-
western regions of Hauts-Bassins and Cascades (Figure 16). While the average yield in Burkina
Faso of 1.9 tonnes per ha is about 20 per cent higher than the regional average yield in East Africa,
it is still far below the global average yield of maize (~ 5 tonnes/ha).
FIGURE 16
Main maize production areas

Assuming an estimated grain-to-stover ratio of 7:6, one tonne of grain harvested will produce
0.86 tonnes of corn stover with an average energy content of 16.5 MJ/kg. Applying this ratio to
the annual maize production will theoretically result in 1 286 000 tonnes of stover. However, as
corn stover contains vital fertilizer nutrients, its complete removal could lead to lower soil organic
matter or carbon levels. Since costly commercial fertilizers are no replacement option, a significant
amount of stover therefore needs to remain on the field to maintain soil quality and fertility. For
those reasons, only about 50 per cent of corn stover shall be considered available for collection
and energy conversion. As a result of assumed collection and storage inefficiencies, another 15
per cent needs to be deducted. This still leaves 450 000 tonnes of crop residue feedstock for
cellulosic ethanol production. Considering specific energy density and calorific value parameters,
450 000 tonnes of corn stover have an energy content of 7 425 000 gigajoule (GJ) which equals
1.27 million boe. If sustainable, low cost, and environmentally compatible agricultural practices
and supply chains can be developed and coupled to cellulose conversion technology, the non-food
components of maize production in Burkina Faso have the potential to provide 1.27 million boe
per year.
3.2.1.2.2 Feasibility Matrix

3.2.2 FOREST RESIDUES Not only in Burkina Faso but throughout Western Africa, forests
3.2.2.1 Feedstock Suitability play an important role in the social, cultural and economic life of
In addition to agricultural biomass, woody biomass or forest- people. Fuelwood and charcoal production are the predominant
derived biomass represents one of the largest sources of use of woody biomass. In Burkina Faso, forest-derived biomass
feedstock for renewable energy today. Examples include small and especially fuelwood account for 90 per cent of total energy
size stems, branches, forestry thinning and tree stumps as well consumption. No matter how inefficient traditional heating and
as sawdust, wood fuels and by-products of managed forest cooking methods may be, this dependency on fuelwood for daily
plantations. Wood fuels, in general, include all fuels consisting of basic energy needs and the related depletion of forest resources is
wood matter, such as wood pellets, wood briquettes and wood expected to continue and even accelerate over the next few years.
chips, but also manually collected forest-derived biomass, such
as branches, twigs and other forest residues. Forest plantations
are not restricted to produce wood for industrial purposes, but
can also deliver large amounts of wood for energy generation
and fossil fuel replacement. So-called short rotation forestry
plantations with fast-growing tree species and rotations shorter
than 20 to 25 years are increasingly being established as a
source of renewable energy.
The energy content of wood has little variation in calorific value

between species when tested at the same moisture content. The
calorific heating value of dry matter varies slightly from one tree
species to another (~ 18 to 22 MJ/kg), being slightly higher in
coniferous than in deciduous tree species. This is caused by the
higher lignin and resin contents in coniferous species. According
to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the calorific
value of woody biomass equals 8 400 Btu/lb. This converts to
19.5 MJ/kg. PICTURE 7
Burkinabe women collecting wood fuel
From a technical perspective, various pathways have been
developed and are being commercialized to convert woody As it has become harder to find wood in many zones
biomass into energy. Woody biomass can be used indirectly where forest resources have deteriorated, women and
by transforming it first into various other forms of solid, liquid children are required to walk for hours, searching for
or gaseous fuels. As has been practiced throughout history, wood across wider areas.
wood can, for example, be converted into charcoal via partial
pyrolysis. Converting forest-derived biomass into SAF would
require a combination consisting of gasification and Fischer- On average, Burkina Faso produces some 15 million m3 of fuelwood
Tropsch (FT) conversion of the synthesis gas into aviation fuel. annually. Depending on the specific density, this translates into
Many Scandinavian countries are demonstrating how biofuels roughly 10 million tonnes. Assuming an average calorific value of
can be an important part of the forestry industry value chain. 20 MJ/kg, the energy potential equals 2 x 108 GJ or 34 million boe.
Major players in the Norwegian power and forestry industries Nevertheless, fuelwood consumption needs still exceed supply by
are exploring the possibility of forest-based large-scale SAF 40 per cent. The average per capita consumption of fuelwood
production . is two times greater in cities than in rural areas, leading to an
over-exploitation of wood resources and a gradual exhaustion of
3.2.2.2 Challenges and Constraints these resources in a large radius around the cities. The process
While woody biomass and forest residues seem well-suited for has progressed so far that the supply range for wood to the city
conversion into SAF, competing utilizations, logistic constraints of Ouagadougou is approximately 200 km, reaching as far as the
and capital requirements may still limit the total energy recovery Southwest, Centre-West and Eastern regions.
potential. In the case of Burkina Faso, competitive uses may be
particularly relevant. It is estimated that around 110 000 ha of forest are lost each year.
Demographic trends, as well as economic and environmental
Forests are the main natural resources of Burkina Faso. They changes have put pressure on almost all of the region’s forests,
cover roughly 5.5 million ha, equalling 20 per cent of the leaving a degraded landscape stricken with erosion, drought
national territory. However, this does not automatically indicate and infertile soils. With poverty, population growth and climate
the availability of forestry biomass as a potential domestic hazards as the underlying drivers, agricultural expansion and
source for aviation fuel production. Independent of sustainability, fuelwood consumption are considered as the major causes. The
transportation and economic viability considerations, biomass rate of deforestation and traditional fuelwood utilization preclude
availability greatly depends on traditional practices and customs. any competing use for biofuel production. As long as fuelwood

from conventional forests remains the single largest source of domestic energy for the majority
of the population, a potential diversion towards biofuel production would risk aggravating living
conditions. Even the introduction of improved fuel-efficient cook stoves or alternative sources of
energy like solar or biogas are not expected to free up bioenergy potential for alternative uses in
the near future.
As a result, potential woody biomass may only become available through reforestation and/or
afforestation17 efforts. In this context, managed forest plantations of fast growing trees on degraded
and otherwise unproductive land may offer an alternative solution. Achieving a conversion of non-
managed, degraded land into managed forest plantations that combine land restoration with
sustainable bioenergy production, while maintaining ecosystem services and traditional community
needs is a challenge. Even if afforestation initiatives focused on fast-growing tree species like
acacia, eucalyptus, Calliandra calothyrsus or Gliricidia sepium; involved local communities; and
were in line with the country’s development of a national REDD+ programme and the World Bank
funded “Forest and Woodland Management Project”, it is unlikely that such initiatives could free up
sufficient bioenergy potential for the production of SAF. Independent of the actual afforestation rate
and the average forest plantation productivity, the supply shortage of fuelwood is simply too large
to meet the needs of the population. This will exclude alternative uses for the foreseeable future.
17
Afforestation is the establishment of trees on barren land that once supported natural forest cover but has been cleared for other
land uses, typically agriculture, generally a long time ago.

3.2.3 DEDICATED ENERGY CROPS (ELEPHANT GRASS)
3.2.3.1 Feedstock Suitability In Burkina Faso, the South-Sahelian zone which expe-
Beyond wastes and agricultural residues there are also dedicated riences rainfall of less than 600 mm per year and the
energy crops that can be cultivated specifically to use their North-Sudanian zone with an average annual precipitation
between 600 and 900 mm, are of particular interest. Land
lignocellulose as potential renewable feedstock for alternative
covers in these agro-climatic zones include scrubland
fuel production. Dedicated energy crops that can convert solar
steppe and tiger bush in the north, and shrub savannah
energy into biomass at a high efficiency ratio include herbaceous and annual grasses further south. While unsuitable for
woody crops, short rotation forestry crops such as willow or cultivation of traditional food crops such as cereal, these
poplar and perennial grasses such as miscanthus or switchgrass. tropical and subtropical marginal areas with poor fertility
Key characteristics of these energy crops are their low fertilizer- still provide acceptable growing conditions for high yield-
input requirements, low energy cultivation, and ability to grow ing and drought tolerant tropical energy grasses and pe-
on marginal land. rennial energy crops, such as elephant grass (Pennisetum
purpureum), also known as napier grass.
In theory, large areas of either marginal, degraded or otherwise
non-arable land are available in Western Africa. Confining the
cultivation of bioenergy crops to arid and semi-arid regions Elephant grass is a species of perennial tropical grasses native
(such as the South-Sahelian and North-Sudanian climate to the African steppe. It is an abundant, fast growing herbaceous
zones, as indicated in Figures 17 and 18 below) that are plant with significant potential as a renewable energy source
unsuitable for food production because of severe soil, terrain or and as a feedstock for biofuel processing. Elephant grass has
water constraints, seems an attractive option. The systematic low water and nutrient requirements, and therefore can thrive on
and targeted identification of areas considered degraded or non-arable and marginal lands. Independent of its energetic and
“marginal” would not only prevent any potential food-vs.- carbon sequestration potential, elephant grass provides a valuable
fuel conflict, but may actually improve food security and self- upgrade to Burkinabe landscapes as it prevents and reduces
sufficiency of Burkinabe farmers as some crops could help to soil erosion. In addition, elephant grass can restore biodiversity
mitigate erosion processes, restore degraded soils and improve of degraded soils and improve overall soil condition. It can also
soil organic matter. serve as a fire and wind break. While causing lower environmental
impacts, lignocellulosic energy crops such as elephant grass
typically yield more biomass per hectare than conventional crops.
Given its unique characteristics, elephant grass is being promoted,
for example, by the Government of Thailand. The National Energy
Policy Council has raised the target of power production from this
energy crop to 3 000 MW under a 10-year alternative energy
development plan (2012 to 2021).
However, the limited experience with growing energy crops

on a larger scale in Burkina Faso makes it difficult to predict
their future potential as a biomass source for sustainable
fuel production. One of the key factors determining whether
dedicated energy crops grown in Burkina Faso can be utilized
for SAF production will be the yield per hectare.
FIGURE 17
Agro-ecological zones
Elephant grass typically has a higher energy output/input ratio
in comparison to most other energy crops. It is more adapted to
hot seasonal conditions under dry environments and converts
solar radiation more effectively during photosynthesis, implying
a higher yield potential. The reported biomass productivity of
elephant grass ranges from 5 to 43 tonnes/ha annually which
corresponds to 100 boe equivalent per hectare.
Cultivation of elephant grass follows conventional farming

practices. It out-competes weeds and needs no supplementary
nutrients, which in return translates into comparatively low
establishment costs. Elephant grass has a very positive energy
balance with a ratio of energy output to energy input of up to
25:1, hence making it one of the best potential energy crops for
FIGURE 18 development of efficient and economic bioenergy systems.
Exclusion zones

While large-scale biomass production seems feasible in Burkina Faso and dedicated energy crops
like elephant grass may appear to be an attractive fuel source, expected collection and handling
costs must be taken into consideration. The low level of mechanization in Burkina Faso is a huge
impediment towards advancing the agricultural sector in general, and promoting the cultivation
of energy crops, in particular. The major challenges relate to the processing infrastructure and
the establishment of a low-cost biomass supply chain. With a ratio of less than 15 agricultural
tractors per 100 km2 of arable land in Burkina Faso, the envisaged renewable energy supply chain
will primarily depend on manual labour. However, tropical grasses are a high-volume, low density
business that require at least some basic machinery and motorized farm equipment for harvesting,
feedstock collection, and storage. As most biomass resources have a low density, they can only be
processed economically if they are made more dense. This will require some degree of compaction
into a more manageable form, which means that investments in pelleting facilities may be needed.
Transportation is also a critical factor in the use of bulky tropical grasses, and as a result, distances
are to be kept short so as not to incur any unnecessary expense if the feedstock is to remain
economically attractive as a fuel source.

3.2.4 LIGNOCELLULOSIC CONVERSION PATHWAYS
In general, lignocellulosic feedstocks such as agricultural residues and dedicated energy crops
can be converted into energy (e.g. heat or electricity) or energy carriers (e.g. oil or gas) using
both, thermochemical and biochemical conversion technologies. In the biochemical process, the
cellulose and hemicellulose are enzymatically hydrolysed into soluble sugars and then fermented
by yeast or bacteria to produce ethanol. Conversely, the thermochemical process produces ethanol
via gasification and mixed alcohol synthesis.
3.2.4.1 Thermochemical Process (Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis)

The thermochemical process first transforms lignocellulosic feedstocks into a synthesis gas via
gasification under high temperature and pressure. The purified and conditioned syngas which
consists of carbon monoxide and hydrogen can then be converted into numerous gaseous and liquid
chemicals and liquid hydrocarbon fuels using FT synthesis and catalysts. Final upgrading steps during
the refining process include hydrotreatment and hydrocracking. Typically, cellulosic biomass-derived
syngas needs to be enriched in hydrogen and cleaned of impurities such as tars, nitrogen and other
atoms comprised of anything other than carbon or hydrogen. FT fuels are typically free of sulphur
and contain very few aromatics compared to gasoline and diesel, which leads to lower emissions
when used in jet engines. Fuels produced by FT synthesis were first certified as alternative aviation
fuels in 2009. A generic FT fuel certification was approved by ASTM for up to 50 per cent blending
into current aviation fuel. While the biomass-based FT process is proven at a demonstration plant
size, scaling up the capital-intensive process remains challenging. Technical challenges and the
difficulty of raising finance for capital intensive projects have led to a lack of biomass gasification
and catalytic synthesis projects at commercial or large demonstration scale. Few operational or
planned projects currently exist globally for methane and mixed-alcohol synthesis.
FIGURE 19
Thermochemical
conversion process
3.2.4.2 Biochemical Process

The cellulose-to-ethanol process may also follow a biochemical pathway using enzymatic hydrolysis.
Enzymatic hydrolysis first transforms lignocellulosic biomass to fermentable C5 and C6 sugars
including glucose and/or oligomers that can then be further converted into valuable intermediate
products through biological or chemical approaches. The biochemical conversion of cellulosic
biomass to fuels and chemicals through enzymatic hydrolysis of hemicellulose and cellulose offers
the potential for higher yields, higher selectivity, lower energy costs and milder operating conditions
than thermochemical processes. However, lignocellulosic feedstocks typically require an extensive
biomass pre-treatment to free cellulose and hemicellulose fractions from the lignin. During pre-
treatment, the cellulose structure is disrupted, the lignin seal is broken, and the hemicellulose is
partially removed. This increases the specific surface area that is accessible to enzymes.
Alcohol-to-Jet
Enzymatic hydrolysis may be followed by subsequent fermentation of the sugar molecules into
alcohols using either yeast or bacteria. The intermediate products are then upgraded to alternative
fuels through a number of conversion steps including catalytic oligomerization, distillation and
hydrotreatment. This process is referred to as “Alcohol-to-Jet” (AtJ).

Synthetic Iso-Paraffin
Alternatively, the sugar molecules may also be converted directly to hydrocarbons without an alcohol
intermediate product. While the microorganisms carrying out the fermentation can be genetically
modified to optimize a highly-specialized fuel production, aerobic fermentation requires continuous
supply of oxygen which increases operating costs. This process is referred to as “Synthetic Iso-
Paraffin” (SIP).
FIGURE 20
Biochemical conversion
pathways
Figure 20 shows a simplified process sequence for ethanol production from lignocellulosic
feedstocks. The main steps include preparation (size reduction) of biomass, pre-treatment to soften
up and disrupt the structure of the cellulose, hydrolysis to break the cellulose down into sugars,
and then fermentation of the sugar molecules. The final upgrading to aviation fuel differentiates
the AtJ and the SIP processes.
Concerning biochemical conversion pathways, several companies are working on the

commercialization of jet fuel from fermentation of biomass. However, for the time being, technology
solutions that can convert and upgrade lignocellulosic feedstocks into alternative fuels are still in
the pilot or demonstration phase, and not yet commercially available.
As for the thermochemical route, the first commercial biomass-gasification facilities are under
construction in the U.S. and Finland. However, gasification technologies will entail high capital
costs to both gasify the biomass and convert the resulting syngas to FT liquids. Production costs
for SAF from lignocellulosic pathways are estimated to be USD 1 000 to 8 000/tonne, whereas
current aviation fuel costs around USD 470 to 860/tonne. The actual purchase prices of agricultural
residue-derived SAF for the U.S. Department of Defense ranged from USD 3 091 to 8 983/tonne18.
It has been demonstrated that Burkina Faso offers a tremendous supply potential of low-cost
cellulosic feedstock. Nevertheless, the inherent complexity and costs for the establishment of a
seamless supply chain from the raw material resource base to a certified SAF still poses major
challenges. A new conversion technology typically follows a risk- and cost-conscious development
pathway from the initial lab-scale via small pilot and demonstration facilities to a commercial-scale
processing plant. The large risk associated with scaling up fuel production from demonstration to
commercial scale of capital-intensive synthetic fuel plants requires coordinated, predictable, and
long-term government policies to ensure investor confidence. Depending on financial and political
support, strategic industry partners and market developments, this process may take years. As
available feedstock is not the limiting factor, chances are that a joint and well-coordinated initiative
among ECOWAS States may improve time to market and positively impact commercial viability.
18
Cf. International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Sammy El Takriti et al., Mitigating International Aviation Emissions - Risks
and Opportunities for Alternative Jet Fuels, March 2017; Erik C. Wormslev et al., Nordic Council of Ministers, Sustainable jet fuel for
aviation, Nordic perspectives on the use of advanced sustainable jet fuel for aviation, 2016

3.3 WASTES
3.3.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)
3.3.1.1 Feedstock Qualification
MSW, comprising food waste, residential rubbish and commercial
waste, has long been identified as a potential feedstock for
conversion into alternative fuels. The organic material found in
household garbage is rich in hydrogen and carbon, the building
blocks for aviation fuel and diesel. Contrary to traditional crop-
based feedstocks, waste-based feedstocks have no competing
uses, do not require additional land and resolve waste disposal
problems. Conversion of MSW to fuel could not only displace
petroleum-derived fuels and thus mitigate GHG emissions
from transportation, but could also avoid methane and other
the GHG emissions conventionally associated with MSW waste PICTURE 8
management and landfilling. Waste collection and sorting pose a logistics challenge
Landfilling waste of biogenic origin typically releases biogenic per cent and 36 per cent respectively, resulting in 87 000 tonnes
CO2, as well as anthropogenic methane, which would not have of plastics and 210 000 tonnes of organic waste, annually. This
otherwise been released. However, depending on the material is a potential source of energy worth considering for alternative
considered, between 12 and 95 per cent of the carbon in the fuel production, especially since the feedstock is free and the
landfilled waste is sequestered in the soil, which is foregone available quantity is poised to grow quickly, in line with the
if MSW is used for alternative fuel production. By avoiding the projected high population growth. All organic waste fractions
GHG emissions associated with existing waste management can in theory be used in SAF production.
strategies, MSW could offer a significant environmental
advantage. Thus, energy recovery from waste can play a role 3.3.1.2 Conversion of MSW into SAF
in minimizing the impact of MSW on the environment with the Depending on the type of MSW used as feedstock, different
additional benefit of providing a local source of energy. technologies exist that can convert MSW into liquid fuels. Waste-
to-Energy systems typically employ a combination of mechanical,
MSW landfills represent the dominant option for waste disposal biological or thermo-chemical processes to recover the energy
in many parts of the world. In general, the comparatively high stored in waste. These technologies include gasification, plasma
costs of treatment and disposal alternatives are a major reason gasification, plasma arc gasification, torrefaction, pyrolysis,
for the reliance on MSW landfills, particularly in developing thermal depolymerization, anaerobic digestion, mechanical
countries. Most of the time, the waste issues in urban areas biological treatment, and fermentation19.
of developing countries result from a lacking/limited/failing
collection and disposal system for MSW. As a consequence, While several types of commercially viable technologies
solid and liquid wastes are dumped on streets and open converting MSW into low-carbon renewable transportation fuels
spaces. The indiscriminate and improper dumping of MSW in are currently in various stages of testing and piloting, a relatively
developing countries is increasing. Therefore, governments and mature conversion technology includes the gasification of
municipalities in several sub-Saharan States are challenged on a biomass or MSW into a synthesis gas followed by FT conversion
regular basis with how to properly manage continuously growing of the synthesis gas into jet fuel (see Figure 22). One of the most
quantities of municipal and industrial waste streams. In Burkina advanced processes has been developed by Fulcrum BioEnergy,
Faso, only Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso have controlled a U.S.-based sustainable fuel developer; the proprietary
waste filling sites. According to the Mayor of Ouagadougou and thermo-chemical process is centred on the gasification at
the Head of the Sustainable Development Department of the high temperatures (750oC to 1 500oC) of the organic material
Municipality of Ouagadougou, the city collects 1 600 tonnes of recovered from the MSW feedstock and consists of three
MSW per day, equalling 580 000 tonnes of household waste per successive steps:
year. While this amount has doubled between 2000 and 2017, 1. Material processing facility prepares MSW for fuels process;
hardly 3 per cent of it has been valorised or recycled. (includes extraction of commercially recyclable material and
inorganic waste before delivering a sorted and processed
The underlying calorific value of municipal waste and landfill gas MSW feedstock to the biorefinery);
generation largely depends on waste composition and ranges 2. Steam reforming gasification system converts MSW to
from 6 to 20 MJ/kg. As of June 2017, 6 per cent of the municipal synthesis gas (“syngas”);
waste collected in Ouagadougou consists of paper and carton, 3. FT process converts synthesis gas to syncrude, which is then
while plastics and biodegradable organic matter account for 15 upgraded to aviation fuel or diesel.
19
Cf. Maura Farver and Christopher Frantz, Garbage to Gasoline: Converting Municipal Solid Waste to Liquid Fuels Technologies, Commercialization, and Policy, Duke University,
April 2013; Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Pooja Suresh, Environmental and economic assessment of
transportation fuels from municipal solid waste, June 2016 and LAE, Gonca Seber, Robert Malina et al., Environmental and economic assessment of producing hydroprocessed
jet and diesel fuel from waste oils and tallow, Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol. 67, 108-118, Aug. 2014.

FIGURE 21
Process diagram of MSW
conversion into aviation
alternative fuel
The Sierra Biofuels plant outside Reno, Nevada is expected to be one of the United States’ first
fully operational, commercial-scale MSW-to-renewable fuels production plants. The concrete
specifications of the plant provide a good reference for an analysis of the comparable situation
in Burkina Faso as both cases are using similar feedstock assumptions. Facilitating a direct
comparison with the availability of organic municipal waste in Ouagadougou, the Sierra biorefinery
has been designed to produce roughly 40 000 tonnes per year of renewable FT syncrude from
approximately 200 000 tonnes of prepared MSW feedstock, about the same amount that is
available in Ouagadougou.
However, as only organic waste qualifies for conversion into SAF, a feedstock processing facility
will first need to size, sort, shred and process the mixed and potentially contaminated MSW into a
prepared MSW feedstock for use at the biorefinery. Sorting is a key step in the recovery of energy
from municipal waste. Depending on the homogeneity of the waste, substantial sorting costs might
thus be incurred. In Ouagadougou, all kinds of household rubbish are typically mixed.

For MSW, the primary challenges are associated with logistics (materials handling) and not with
feedstock supply specifically. To bring waste preparation costs down and facilitate the operation
of gasifier technologies in the neighbourhood of municipal landfills, the separation at source by
residents is ideally required. It appears that upstream waste sorting is the key to ensuring the
required feedstock quality for optimal operation of gasifiers and minimal environmental impact of
these facilities. However, in order to encourage residents to start sorting at source, i.e. at home,
the municipality of Ouagadougou first needs to set up the appropriate infrastructure and modified
facilities for waste management in Burkina Faso. This will include, inter alia, the establishment of
separate waste disposal, collection and sorting systems for different waste streams, as well as the
accompanying measures for environmental education of residents.
In the long-term, it may be possible that the organic fraction of MSW will become available for
SAF production in the wake of cheap and efficient waste sorting processes and mature gasification
technologies. However, independent of feedstock and technology readiness, significant funding
challenges remain. Given the expected capital expenditure requirements and high maintenance and
operation costs, the large-scale application of organic waste gasification does not yet seem to be an
attractive option for Burkina Faso. Insights into the project and funding structure of the Sierra Biofuel
Plant in the U.S. may prove revealing in this regard. Feedstock availability and proven technology
were far from sufficient to launch the USD 270 million project. It took significant government (military)
and industry commitments, both financially and strategically, to move forward. This included federal
bioenergy incentives from multiple agencies (DOE, FAA, USDA, DoD) as well as aviation fuel forward
sales and long-term fuel off-take agreements from international airlines.
Regardless of how promising the individual feedstock candidate may be, project size and
complexity require unequivocal support, risk sharing and close coordination among a multitude
of stakeholders. Recent developments in the U.S. have confirmed that public financial incentives,
loan guarantees and funding for commercial production facilities can make the difference between
a viable and a failed project. The maintenance and growth of these federal programmes have
proven critical for the development of SAF production facilities. Demonstrating its commitment
for the development of alternative aviation fuels, the U.K. government announced in August 2017
to provide up to USD 28 million matching funds for projects focusing on the commercialization of
advanced low carbon, waste-based aviation fuels.

The U.K. Department for Transport (DFT) is supporting the demonstration and production of low-carbon fuels in general, and SAF in
particular, through an Advanced Biofuels Demonstration Competition (ABDC) to encourage significant private sector investment in the
development of these waste-treatment and conversion facilities in the U.K.
GOVERNMENT & MILITARY INTERVENTION

In June 2011, the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Energy (DOE) and the United States Navy signed a
memorandum of understanding that initiated a cooperative effort:
(1) to create a strong demand signal;
(2) to equally contribute significant funding from each agency; and
(3) to assist in the development of sustainable drop-in biofuel substitutes for diesel and jet fuel.
In January 2017, the U.S. Secretary of Defense announced a USD 55 million funding opportunity for a 10 million-gallon
biorefinery capable of producing advanced drop-in bio-equivalent fuels suitable for military use. The so-called “Advanced
Drop-In Biofuel Production” project aims to establish a complete domestic value chain including feedstock production,
chemical conversion and processing (integrated biorefineries), fuel blending, transportation and logistics.
Over the past ten years, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) has repeatedly used financial incentives to help facilitate
the development of commercially viable plants for producing biofuels for the military and commercial sectors. The federal
government’s cost share for targeted investments into alternative fuels production capacity (including the ongoing “Bio-
Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene” project and the “Advanced Drop-In Biofuels Production” project) was about USD 234.1 million.

3.3.2 ANIMAL WASTE FATS Proper rendering and processing may not only reduce potential
3.3.2.1 Feedstock Qualification health hazards but also provide an attractive opportunity for
Not only can alternative fuels be refined from many types of energy recovery. Tallow has a high energy value. Its physical
flowering plants, agricultural residues and sugars, but also and combustion properties are very close to fuel oils, such as
from feedstocks such as animal waste fats and oils. So-called Diesel, Light Fuel Oil or Heavy Fuel Oil. The average calorific
lipid-based biofuel feedstocks such as animal fats (beef tallow, value equals 36 to 40 MJ/kg. According to the U.S. EPA, the
chicken fat, lamb fat, pork lard, yellow grease and the greasy energy content of tallow or fat has been calculated at 16 200
by-product from omega-3 fatty acid production) can play an Btu/lb. This compares to 17 000 Btu/lb for vegetable oil.
important role in expanding the portfolio of SAF feedstocks. As
a matter of fact, the majority of alterntive fuel available today
is derived from oleochemical feedstocks such as vegetable oil,
animal fats, and used cooking oil.
If not managed properly, animal carcasses can present a serious

health and environmental risk to livestock and humans. The
rendering of animal by-products from slaughterhouses makes
the material safe and suitable for reuse in several applications.
FIGURE 23
Rendering is a heating process for meat industry waste products Proportion of animal rendered
that converts waste animal fatty tissue into value-added,
purified fats, known as tallow and lard. The solids are usually As of June 2017, Burkina Faso has two major slaughterhouses,
passed through a screw press to complete the removal of the located in Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. As announced by
fat from the solid residue. The rendering process also separates the Ministry of Livestock and Aquaculture, and in line with the
fats from water. The removed water is the single largest output strategic objectives of the PNDES, an additional five modern
of the process, up to 65 per cent by weight. slaughterhouses are being planned or are already under
construction.
The quantity of tallow produced by a plant depends on the type of

animals processed and the extent of processing. By multiplying
the average proportion of the animal rendered with actual meat
consumption data for the city of Bobo-Dioulasso, approximate
values for the calculation of available feedstock potential can
be derived.
With regard to the underlying parameters as identified in

Table 6 below, total annual feedstock from animal waste fats
equals roughly 7 500 tonnes. The Government of Burkina Faso
intends to build another modern slaughterhouse in Banfora.
With a population size of one fifth of Bobo-Dioulasso, it may be
reasonable that this slaughterhouse would add another 1 500
tonnes of available animal fat, totalling an annual feedstock
FIGURE 22 volume of 9 000 tonnes with an aggregate calorific value of
Potential use of animal waste fats according to the 360 000 GJ or 61 400 boe.
European Fat Processors and Renderers Association
(EFPRA)
In Europe, the U.S. and South America, meat-processing and

rendering industries annually produce a large amount of animal
fats with different degrees of quality. Depending on the specific
risk classification, waste fats may be used as animal feed or
for soap, fertilizer, oleochemicals, pharmaceuticals and fuel
production. At present, beef tallow makes up 17 per cent of
feedstock applied in Brazilian biodiesel production.
In comparison, animal carcasses and waste fat in the meat

processing industry in Burkina Faso have no further, let alone
competing use, and are typically disposed of, with potentially TABLE 6
serious health risks and other negative environmental Slaughterhouse statistics for Bobo-Dioulasso
consequences. (key parameters as of June 2017)

Considering the population size of Ouagadougou (≈ 2.5 million), i.e. at least three times the size of
Bobo-Dioulasso, and assuming the same livestock consumption ratio, the feedstock numbers for
Bobo-Dioulasso may be tripled, resulting in a total of 22 700 tonnes of rendered animal fat per year
for the city of Ouagadougou. Animal waste fats from additional future slaughterhouse locations in
Pouytenga, Kaya and Fada N’Gourma may potentially be added to scale-up production of usable
feedstock and thus improve economies of scale. Based on the above conversion parameters, the
specific energy value of 22,700 tonnes of tallow equals 908 000 GJ or 155 000 boe.
3.3.2.2 Fuel Conversion Process

Lipid-based feedstocks from animal waste qualify for hydro-processed renewable diesel and
alternative fuels (HVO/HEFA), as well as biodiesel (FAME) production, which can be used for
airport vehicles.
PICTURE 9
Alternative fuel conversion
and refining facilities
Many different fuel production and conversion processes are being developed
at various scales (pilot, demonstration, and pre-commercial) to convert biomass
feedstocks into aviation fuel.
3.3.2.2.1 HEFA/HVO
The oleochemical reaction pathway, hydro-processing of lipid feedstocks uses heat and pressure
over a solid-state catalyst to break down the long double carbon chains (C₂C bonds) in the fatty
molecules of the feedstock, replacing oxygen bonds with hydrogen to convert the unsaturated
triglyceride molecules that compose waste fat and fatty acids (such as vegetable oil) into fully
saturated synthetic paraffinic hydrocarbons (Alkanes) with a lower molecular weight. Impurities
are initially removed by catalytic processes. The fatty acids are then hydrotreated and cracked to
achieve the desired hydrocarbon length of 9-16 carbon atoms, depending on the fatty acid profile
of the feedstock. Hydroprocessed bio-oils can be sent to fractionation, a process that separates
the various fractions of hydrocarbons based on their differences in boiling point temperatures,
including jet fuel, diesel, kerosene, gasoline and naphtha (see Figure 24).
FIGURE 24
UOP Green jet fuel
process diagram

The “fat-derived” or “oleochemical-derived” fuels are often referred to as HEFA, but are also called
hydrotreated vegetable oil biofuels (HVO). HEFA-diesel is also known as green diesel or hydrotreated
renewable diesel. The process, which can be performed with existing refinery infrastructure, was
ASTM-certified in 2011. The conversion technology is mature and currently operates at commercial
scale. The two main technologies used to produce HEFA are Neste’s NEXBTL, and Honeywell UOP
and Eni’s EcofiningTM processes.
The EcofiningTM technology has been licensed by several companies and is used in a number
of facilities. Profiting from significant and longstanding U.S. military financial support, including
grants from the military’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and a 77-million-
gallon purchase order from the US navy for its “Great Green Fleet” project, the California-based
refiner AltAir is one of the pioneer companies using animal waste fats for SAF production. AltAir’s
primary source of feedstock consists of inedible waste oils and fats, mostly animal fats such as
tallow and lard. These waste materials are cheaper than virgin vegetable oils yet have similar
physical properties for conversion into aviation fuel. Rather than taking on the capital expense
of building a new refinery, the company has retrofitted an existing but idle asphalt plant with
HEFA-based process technology developed by Honeywell UOP. The company’s agreement in
2014 with United Airlines was the first multi-year fuel supply contract with a commercial carrier.
As of October 2017, United is the only airline in North America purchasing SAF for day-to-day
operations, and AltAir is the first and only SAF producer in operation on a commercial scale.
Despite having the largest SAF purchase agreement, United is covering only 0.16 per cent of its
total fuel use with SAF from AltAir.
Although the HEFA technology is commercially mature, costs will remain a significant challenge.
Even if waste animal fats were available for free, a stand-alone HEFA processing plant remains
unrealistic for the time being. Without basic petrochemical or refining infrastructure in place,
there is no opportunity for cost savings through co-location, co-processing or the use of existing
infrastructure. Thus, a HEFA plant is neither technically feasible nor commercially viable in Burkina
Faso. The estimated high capital and processing cost and in particular, the need for expensive
hydrogen, renders the HEFA pathway uncompetitive.
Therefore, waste fat-based feedstocks are more likely to be converted to conventional FAME
biodiesel. FAME biodiesel is notably distinct from HEFA aviation fuel; because it retains an oxygen
ester, FAME biodiesel is too oxygenated to be used as a drop-in biofuel. According to the jet fuel
standards ASTM-D1655 12 and ASTM D7566 14a, a FAME contamination of only 5 ppm will already
render jet fuel out-of-spec.
3.3.2.2.2 FAME Biodiesel

In general, biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines, to be used either 100 per cent neat,
or in any blend with fossil-based diesel. While biodiesel cannot replace aviation fuel, it can be used
by any airport’s diesel-powered ground fleet, such as aircraft tugs, buses and fire-fighting vehicles.
For example, Hamburg Airport is one of the first major international airports in the world that has
replaced all fossil fuels with renewables in its entire diesel-powered ground fleet.
With regard to the alternative fuel requirements of diesel-powered GSE operating at Ouagadougou
airport, refer to Section 3.4.6.2.

The chemical process used to convert waste fats to biodiesel is called transesterification. It is a
chemical process that converts the long-chain fatty acids (triglycerides) of raw materials (oils and
fats) to methyl esters and glycerine. In the course of the transesterification process, the glycerine
back-bone of the fat molecule is substituted by a lower alcohol (e.g. methanol). The resulting
biodiesel typically fulfils quality standard EN14214. It can either be used in directly diesel engines
or blended with petro-diesel. The fatty acid profile of tallow is fairly similar to palm oil and is well
saturated. Therefore, B100 (pure biodiesel) made from animal fat should preferably be used in
a very warm climate. One of the important attributes of biodiesel is that it lowers the levels of
harmful pollutants in the exhaust of diesel engines. In the case of animal waste fats, this also
includes nitrous oxide emissions (NOx). The primary reason for this is probably that animal fat
biodiesel has a high cetane number (>60) compared with vegetable oil biodiesel (48 to 55). A
higher cetane number is known to lower NOx by lowering temperatures during the critical early
part of the combustion process.
FIGURE 25
Schematic diagram for multi-
feedstock biodiesel plant

Assuming a 1:1 conversion ratio from lipid to biodiesel (measured by the mass ratio biodiesel/
fat), total tallow and waste-lipid can produce around 7 500 to 9 000 tonnes of biodiesel in Bobo-
Dioulasso and around 23 000 tonnes in Ouagadougou. The feedstock volume would justify a
commercial facility in the form of a Multi-Feedstock Biodiesel Plant, as illustrated in Figure 25.
Process economics can be improved by recovering methanol and glycerine. In order to enlarge the
feedstock input from waste oils and fats to “organic waste” in general, and to facilitate a perfect
combination of mass- and energy flows, the Multi-Feedstock Biodiesel plant may be combined
with a Biogas plant. Given the proximity of the MSW landfill and slaughterhouse locations in
Ouagadougou within the same district, the potential of biogas (methane) production and electricity
generation from MSW in Ouagadougou may offer an opportunity to lower production costs and
achieve economies of scale.

3.4 JATROPHA root structure, it forms an effective barrier to run-off water
3.4.1 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY after heavy rains. Soil erosion could be effectively reduced or
Jatropha is a perennial crop that is cultivated for its high-quality completely prevented, and the water-holding capacity of the soil
vegetable oil and the conversion of its biomass into multiple can be utilized to a much greater extent. This is of overriding
renewable energy applications. The plant grows widely across advantage, especially towards the end of the dry season. The
Burkina Faso and in neighbouring West African States. increase in soil fertility would quickly lead to much better
vegetation growth on the former barren land.
Crude jatropha oil (CJO) is a non-food type of biofuel made from
the inedible nuts of the jatropha tree. The multiple derivatives of The requirements for nutrients potassium, nitrogen and calcium
CJO and seed cake can be used for many non-food products, are similar to those for growth of other crops, but when the
such as pharmaceuticals, industrial lubricants, cosmetics, animal available supply of these nutrients is limited, growth is reduced
feed, bio-electricity and biofuels, including biodiesel and SAF. less than in most other crops. Therefore, jatropha is usually
suitable for growing in arid regions of Burkina Faso. Typically,
planting, pruning and harvesting of jatropha does not interfere with
growing cycles of food crops, such as rice, maize and sorghum.
Long-term cultivation usually results in an increase in soil

fertility, especially if stems and leaves from pruning activities are
turned into mulch and re-incorporated into the soil. The same
applies for a significant part of the seedcake after oil extraction.
Depending on the topography, soil profile and prevailing agro-

climatic conditions, jatropha can be combined with other
suitable species, comprising agricultural, horticultural, herbal,
pastoral and/or silvicultural plants to result in an ecologically
viable and socially acceptable agroforestry system.
PICTURE 10
Jatropha fruit bunch By evolving, promoting and adopting jatropha-based intercrop-
ping systems it is possible to improve the socio-economic con-
Jatropha has long been considered the feedstock of choice ditions in impoverished rural areas and to transform the rural
for the production of SAF. This is primarily because of its fuel energy scenario, as well as the ecological landscape.
properties and cold flow characteristics. It also does not compete
in the food supply chain due to its slight toxicity, which makes In addition, jatropha plantations can play an important role in
the oil unsuitable for human consumption. rehabilitating degraded lands and supporting reforestation efforts.
As with the cultivation of most biofuel feedstocks, jatropha 3.4.2 CRUDE JATROPHA OIL (CJO)
cultivation has led to concerns that jatropha might displace Jatropha crops are ready for harvest when the fruits reach a
food crops. Unlike some biofuel feedstocks, such as corn and yellow colour and a size of 2 to 3 inches in length. In a centralized
soybeans, most jatropha varieties are inedible and therefore oil mill, harvested fruits will be de-hulled before seeds can be
do not create a direct conflict between food and fuel. To the dried and crushed. The basic jatropha oil expelling process
contrary, a well-balanced intercropping scheme may even entails several steps. To facilitate oil milling on an industrial
enhance a symbiotic plant relationship for the benefit of both, scale, seeds are typically pre-treated whereby they are de-
food and fuel crops. hulled by mechanically removing the outer shell, and then may
be cracked, ground and boiled to favour oil recovery.
Most importantly, the jatropha plant can survive on marginal
unproductive land, thus reducing the potential for land use
conflicts. Jatropha adapts to poor soil conditions and is known
for its tolerance to drought. It can grow in areas with as little as
750 mm rainfall per year and it survives in areas with dry periods
longer than 6 months.
Areas where jatropha is propagated are among the most

production-insecure regions. Because of the plant’s proven
adaptation to a large variety of soil and climatic conditions, it
seems to be ideal on land that is otherwise unusable. If the
soil is penetrable, the jatropha tap roots provide deep-reaching
opening avenues for water infiltration and nutrients from layers
that annual crops or weeds do not reach. Besides its intensive PICTURE 11
Energy-rich jatropha seeds

The kernel (white portion after removal of shells) contains about 3.4.3.1 Faso Biocarburant
50 to 60 per cent oil, which can be used as energy feedstock Unlike in Zambia, Madagascar, Ghana, Tanzania and Mozambique,
or can be converted into biodiesel and SAF. CJO makes up 28 the initial contract farming model in Burkina Faso did not depend
to 30 per cent of total seed weight or 46 per cent of de-shelled on large-scale plantations and complex land agreements, but
seed kernel weight. The current extraction technology in place rather relied on the mobilization efforts of hired promoters to
can recover about 78 per cent of the oil contained in the jatropha engage as many farmers and out-growers as possible. Instead of
seeds equalling an extraction ratio of 28 per cent as compared acquiring land and investing in large scale plantation operations
to the total weight. Next generation conversion technology will of its own, Faso Biocarburant opted for a low-cost solution by
increase the extraction ratio from 28 to 36 per cent, translating leveraging exclusively the skills of the promoters to overcome
into a substantial mark-up regarding the recoverable volume of logistical challenges and set up a network of individual small-
CJO (up to 95 per cent oil recovery). scale producers. Besides the compensation for the promoters and
the seed buyback costs, the otherwise significant expenses for
CJO has less than 5 per cent of the sulphur content of alternative land lease, land preparation and fertilization did not play any role.
biofuels, resulting in significant reductions in sulphur dioxide
emissions, a major contributor to acid rain-related environmental Nevertheless, a functioning market and market pricing never
impacts. materialized. Seed buyback prices were not negotiated, but
fixed arbitrarily.
Jatropha-derived biofuel and aviation fuel was tested by
international corporations for all major engine applications At its peak in 2014, 3 000 farmers participated in Faso
including aircraft jet engines. Jatropha feedstock was used, Biocarburant’s jatropha out-grower scheme in the province
inter alia, for 1 200 Lufthansa biofuel flights in 2011 to 2012. of Sissili. More than 10 million jatropha trees were planted in
None of the aircraft components (A 321) such as the tanks, fuel south-central Burkina Faso. However, crop yields fell short of
lines or engines showed any unusual signs of stress. Since then, expectations and operations had to stop. The whole value chain
a multitude of international airlines have successfully tested collapsed. As of June 2017, the site of the crushing plant remains
CJO-derived fuel in scheduled commercial flights. deserted. Meanwhile, the farmers union has been dissolved and
replaced by the non-governmental organization FNZ (Fédération
So-called bio-synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) derived from Nian Zwé), meaning in the local language, “hunger is over”.
jatropha has routinely performed as well as, or better than, JP-8
or Jet-A1 fuel. As a drop-in biofuel, it is fully compatible with 3.4.3.2 Agritech Faso
current aviation fuel and can be used within aircraft engine fuel As one of the first jatropha companies in Burkina Faso, Agritech
systems or fuel distribution networks without any adaptation. Faso promoted intercropping with select vegetable and staple
Jatropha-based alterntive fuel has been certified in accordance crops to strengthen food security for the local population.
with the ASTM International standards (ASTM D 7566) and the Growers were advised to use jatropha as hedging, fencing
U.K. Defense Standardization (DStan) which are binding for the and reforestation of degraded land, thus not competing with
application of a fuel within the international civil aviation sector. agricultural uses. Unlike Faso Biocarburant, the company did
Bio-SPK can be blended up to 50 per cent with current aviation not exclusively rely on independent out-growers and farming
fuel. cooperatives, but also hired hundreds of their own rural and
seasonal employees to work on their own leased land in the
Jatropha-based alternative fuel has demonstrated in numerous firm’s nurseries and plantations. Agritech Faso combined
flight operations that hydro-treated renewable jet fuel reduces elements of a contract farming model with an estate farming
carbon emissions (CO2) by up to 85 per cent compared to current model, which required larger upfront investments.
aviation fuel. The decrease in CO2 emissions for jatropha-based
bio-kerosene is attributed to the high cetane number and the In March 2013, Agritech Faso signed a Memorandum of
presence of oxygen in the molecular structure of the fuel. Understanding with Singapore based JOil to get access to
hybrid, high-productivity jatropha seeds and to develop 250
3.4.3 BURKINA FASO CONTEXT: KEY PLAYERS 000 ha of intercropped jatropha plantations in West Africa.
AND INITIATIVES JOil is a joint venture company incorporated by Temasek Life
At the same time that activities began in Tanzania, Kenya, Sciences Laboratory Limited, Tata Chemicals Asia Pacific Pte
Mozambique, Ethiopia and Mali, jatropha arrived in Burkina Faso Ltd) and Toyota Tsusho Corporation. Temasek Life Sciences
in early 2007. Burkina Faso quickly took the lead as producer of is ultimately controlled by Temasek Holdings Private Ltd., the
the newly popular biofuel plant jatropha. Burkina Faso did not sovereign wealth fund owned by the Government of Singapore.
experience significant challenges with respect to land use rights JOil has only been granted 300 ha for field trials in Burkina
and large-scale plantations, as most domestic projects promoted Faso, of which only 35 ha were ever planted with jatropha.
out-grower farming models and aimed at contracting small- Several months later, the joint venture was over. JOil left Burkina
scale farmers. Initially, cultivation activities were dominated by Faso, cutting their remaining plants and destroying all planting
three entities that each pursued a distinct approach: (1) Faso materials. Facing significant financial constraints, Agritech Faso
Biocarburant; (2) Agritech Faso; and (3) Belwet. ceased all operations by the end of 2013.

3.4.3.3 Belem Wend Tiga (Belwet) To counter logistical challenges, seed purchase centres and
Established in 2008 by the Mossi tribal chief le Larlé Naba Tigré, warehouse facilities were installed at 10 locations throughout
Belwet Biocarburant is the only remaining jatropha pioneer Burkina Faso. In 2012, a reported 114 tonnes of jatropha seeds
still active today (November 2017) in Burkina Faso. Belwet is were collected. In the same year, Belwet produced 23 360 litres
pursuing business opportunities in all sectors of sustainable of CJO and 824 litres of biodiesel. CJO is consumed domestically
agroforestry. While the main focus is centred on the cultivation to power corn and grain mills, as well as water pumps.
of jatropha and the production of biofuels, Belwet has also
established a functioning model for various jatropha by-products. While several thousand hectares of jatropha shrubs were ultimately
This includes the commercialization of jatropha soap, which is planted, the initiative lacked a functioning market and reliable off-
offered and sold in TOTAL gas stations; jatropha seedcake, which take commitments for CJO and biodiesel. Even though average
is marketed and sold throughout the country as organic fertilizer; yield stayed significantly behind expectations, the relatively low
and jatropha husks, which are sold as compost. In addition to output per hectare and commercial viability challenges were not
biofuel production, Belwet is also engaged in providing micro considered the most critical stumbling blocks.
credits, schooling and education, and basic health care.
3.4.3.4 Government Initiative(s)
With regard to jatropha cultivation, Belwet is practicing a balanced Various parties in Burkina Faso still support a vigorous re-launch
contract farming model in central Burkina Faso, promoting and are demonstrating significant efforts to promote jatropha as
intercropping with corn, cashew nuts, mango trees and mung a source of SAF. In Burkina Faso, the term “jatropha” is widely
beans. With the support of select donor funding, crushing used as a synonym for the term “biofuels”. As a result, jatropha
facilities using technology from India were installed in 2010 in remains at the centre of the country’s biofuel strategy and related
Kossodo, outside of Ouagadougou. Daily crude oil production energy policy considerations. Instead of limiting the plant’s role to
capacity reached 4 200 litres and biodiesel production capacity a mere “cash crop”, jatropha is increasingly perceived as a tool of
was designed for 1 440 litres. agroforestry, reforestation and land rehabilitation. In addition, the
perspective of sustainable rural electrification contributes to the
Initially, Belwet offered to buy back jatropha seeds for 70 FCFA renewed interest and confidence in the envisaged revitalization
(i.e. USD 0.13). This price was later raised to 100 FCFA (i.e. USD of the jatropha value chain.
0.18). Countrywide farmer mobilization efforts proved largely
successful. In 2008, Belwet managed to activate and engage Among the key political promoters is the country’s Renewable
jatropha farmers nationwide in 71 distinct rural communities Energy Directorate (Direction Générale des Energies
and more than 1 200 villages. At its peak, more than 60 000 Renouvelables) inside the Ministry of Energy. According to a
farmers (mostly women) were organized in ad-hoc producer ministerial report published in January 2017, it was considered
cooperatives and participated in the buyback scheme. Seed necessary to encourage a legal and regulatory framework which
purchase offers were also extended to producers in neighbouring provides a favourable environment for the promotion of the
Benin, Mali, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire. However, huge variations of jatropha sector as a source of sustainable biofuels in Burkina
intercropping schemes and plant density (160 to 1 250 plants/ Faso. Concrete measures to include the identification and
ha) made it almost impossible to arrive at scientifically sound dissemination of more productive varieties; the simultaneous
statements as to yield and plant performance, as well as plant promotion of agro-forestry production systems; the introduction
survival rates under various agro-climatic conditions. of basic market structures; reliable and consistent seed purchase
prices; and the increased use of jatropha seed cake as organic
fertilizer. In parallel, private investment shall be encouraged
while access for smallholders to credit and finance shall be
facilitated. A special governmental institution, Agence nationale
des énergies renouvelables et de l’efficacité énergétique
(ANEREE), has been assigned as the main implementing
agency. ANEREE was set up in October 2016 to, inter alia:
formulate and implement renewable energy policies; reactivate
(“relance”, fr.) and promote the jatropha sector; and mobilize the
necessary funding. With regard to domestic biofuel production,
any implementing measures will have to assure food security,
promote rural development and contribute to the alleviation of
poverty in rural areas.
To support the re-launch of the jatropha value chain, the Government

proposes to:
PICTURE 12 • take into account the specific requirements and opportunities
Belwet Biocarburant biofuel crushing and biodiesel of the carbon market and carbon pricing schemes in
processing facilities, Kossodo connection with jatropha plantation projects in Burkina Faso;

• subsidize production factors (such as fertilizers, seeds and However, yield expectations were typically overestimated and
pesticides) to increase seed and oil yield; unrealistic. Jatropha performs poorly in areas with low rainfall
• provide incentives for seed production by setting a price or low nutrient soil. While jatropha is able to grow on degraded/
floor to ensure a minimum revenue stream for smallholder marginal land or in a water-limited environment, this takes
producers and sellers; and to a toll on its ability to produce high yields. Large variations in
• encourage investments through customs duty reduction for performance should be expected if a “wild” species is to be used.
processing equipment. Baseline productivity predictions should be based on the mean
performance of the species in the relevant agro-ecological zone,
3.4.3.5 UNDP initiative and not on the performance of a few high performing plants.
With regard to the intended re-launch of the jatropha value chain Overestimations of jatropha yields, incorrect assumptions and
and the production of sustainable biofuels the Government of insufficient background research, coupled with an overall poor
Burkina Faso is supported by the United Nations Development knowledge of jatropha and its agronomy, have been the prime
Programme (UNDP). As of July 2017, Belwet has become the contributors to the collapse of most jatropha projects.
main point of reference for the UNDP in Burkina Faso as far as
jatropha cultivation is concerned. In cooperation with the Ministry Long-term financial viability will likely require yields above those
of Energy, the Ministry of Development (Secrétariat Permanant currently obtained. It remains unknown whether sufficiently high
du Conseil National pour l’Environnement et le Développement yields from mature trees will be achieved in the long-term. However,
Durable (SP/CONEDD)) and the Ministry of Agriculture, UNDP for small-scale farmers, even low yielding jatropha can supplement
is conducting a large-scale jatropha study entitled “Promotion and diversify farm income, rather than becoming a high-value cash
du jatropha curcas comme source d‘agrocarburants durable crop in its own right. According to reports from former jatropha
au Burkina Faso”. Drawing upon the financial support of the out-growers in Burkina Faso’s Sissili province, approximately one
Global Environment Facility (GEF), the project under the same day of picking and preparing 8 kg of jatropha seeds could offer
name as the study was officially re-launched by the Ministry enough income to purchase 9 kg of maize/corn which could feed an
of Energy and UNDP in June 2017. By consolidating available average household for 3.4 days. As such, jatropha could add to the
data, cultivation experiences and prevalent domestic agronomic overall diversity and resilience of household livelihood strategies.
parameters, the UNDP’s project objective is to develop and Data from Burkina Faso suggest that the salaries of plantation
promote an economically viable jatropha production model in workers represented a substantive increase in cash income for local
order to deploy jatropha as feedstock for biofuels at the national households and were a safety net in times of drought when there
level. The project also aims to make a significant contribution was a reduction in food crop yields.
to rural development by encouraging decentralized production
of CJO as a basis for biodiesel, without interfering with food 3.4.4.2 R&D Deficiencies
production. Independent of remaining challenges, UNDP is In most cases, the lack of sound research prior to the wide-scale
estimating a total cultivation potential of 500 000 ha without promotion of jatropha did not allow for the correct understanding
jeopardizing food security. This would represent roughly 5 of the plant’s local climatic and agro-ecological constraints. At the
per cent of the available arable land in Burkina Faso. Project time when initial investments in large-scale commercialization
implementation and jatropha commercialization are primarily of jatropha were being made, little was known about jatropha’s
based on the mobilization efforts of Belwet. Belwet is expected to basic agronomy. The failure of many jatropha projects confirmed
provide millions of jatropha seedlings towards UNDP’s estimated the concerns of those who recognized the economic risk of
project goal. However, the project has not yet internalized the cultivating an undomesticated plant. It became apparent that
scientific, agronomic and commercial minimum requirements cultivation outpaced both scientific understanding of the crop’s
in order to mitigate known risks and optimize the envisaged potential, as well as an understanding of how the crop fits into
jatropha cultivation. existing rural economies and the degree to which it can thrive
on marginal lands.
3.4.4 LESSONS LEARNT
3.4.4.1 Yield Expectations 3.4.4.3 Information Asymmetries
A key feature of the jatropha experience was the large-scale Ideally, all market participants, whether they be producers,
promotion of jatropha based on unproven claims and selective buyers, sellers or consumers, need adequate information to
use of available data. This led to the rapid uptake of jatropha, that make appropriate decisions and operate efficiently. With regard
was facilitated further by an environment that was receptive to to farmers and out-growers, soil preparation, water and nutrient
the concept of a new biofuel crop. Accepting overestimated yields management, spatial models, plant density and intercropping
and unsubstantiated claims at face value, even local authorities and crop rotation practices are vital parameters in order to
embarked on initiatives related to jatropha. Many governments optimize jatropha cultivation under given circumstances.
were eager to capitalize on jatropha’s perceived social and However, internationally available research information had not
environmental co-benefits and to reap the promised development been extrapolated in time by promoters, investors, government
benefits that jatropha was claimed to offer. For that matter, hastily authorities and out-growers. Without central coordination, critical
drafted national biofuels policies further encouraged private information and best practices were not passed on. Lacking
sector investment and widespread jatropha cultivation. national or international data banks, most plantation initiatives

were instead pursued in an isolated manner which ultimately usually promise better efficiency ratios and product quality.
proved costly and misleading. Plant cultivation by trial and
error left farmers exposed to maximum risk. Even worse, they 3.4.4.5 Transport Costs
were deliberately shielded from critical information about plant Many jatropha projects are located in remote areas making
performance, yield, pricing and related income opportunities. transportation of the feedstock from project sites expensive.
Given the asymmetry of information, farmers often had no Furthermore, the cost (transport and personnel) of collecting
means to evaluate/validate underlying agronomic parameters small quantities of seeds from scattered smallholder farmers
by themselves. Deliberate information asymmetry can ultimately ended up higher than was anticipated.
lead to market failure.
3.4.4.6 Clash of Competing Interests
3.4.4.4 Market Inefficiencies & Fragmentation The complexity of the biofuel value chain was largely
Independent of the global attention and the opportunity to underestimated by market participants and collective efforts
introduce a new product that meets the aviation industry’s were not synchronized. This structural discrepancy led to
surging demand for alternative fuels, there was neither an competing demands that were increasingly difficult to balance
organized market nor a proper price setting mechanism. between stakeholders:
Even though farmers and farmer associations were offered • Governments and jatropha promoters were seeking to attract
seed purchase contracts, production and demand was not donor and foreign investor funding;
coordinated. Producers had little to no certainty that seeds could • Airlines and product off-takers were focusing on price parity
be sold to the market at a sufficiently high price. with conventional fuels; and
• Refiners were trying to protect their traditional refining
While the formalization of the relationship between producing margins and cracking spreads.
smallholders and seed purchasers is a prerequisite for ensuring
the sustainability of feedstock supply while preserving family In addition, an overly narrow emphasis on sustainability concerns
agriculture, promoters and trade intermediaries did not manage in the critical early phase of project origination often blurred
to set up a reliable and consistent supply chain. Inefficient the view for the importance of other key launch parameters,
markets give rise to arbitrage opportunities to the detriment of such as technical feasibility, economic viability, economies of
producers and buyers. scale, logistics, storage, poverty alleviation and other financial,
economic and social aspects.
Early jatropha cultivation initiatives in Burkina Faso were largely
isolated and implemented on a case by case basis, usually without 3.4.5 CAPITALIZING ON EXPERIENCE/
considering available agronomic knowledge and international MAJOR CHALLENGES
experience from failed jatropha projects. As a result, process Keeping the significant economic fallout of the global jatropha
efficiency was low, and manual labour was proportionally high. initiatives and the largely disappointing domestic experience in
Where a consolidation of parallel initiatives could have created mind, jatropha may still qualify as a viable energy crop option,
economies of scale, in particular with regard to logistics, provided key conditions are met.
collective storage and warehousing facilities, mechanization
and central seed processing installations, jatropha promoters 3.4.5.1 Farming (Plantation) Model
in Burkina Faso and neighbouring States typically opted for The failure of large estate farming plantation models does
the implementation of stand-alone projects. The ensuing not necessarily lead to a total failure of jatropha cultivation in
market fragmentation led to low production volumes which Burkina Faso. Cash crops including tea, coffee, tobacco and
only allowed for low-tech oil mills, seed crushing facilities and cotton have also gone through a number of boom-and-bust
biodiesel processing plants. While simple machines and basic cycles. Domestic and international experience confirms that
hand-operated devices for the removal of jatropha fruit shells alternative jatropha production models that involve smallholder
(decortication) exist, fruit shells are separated from the seeds farmers as out-growers or independent producers might indeed
manually. Traditionally, women crack the fruit using brick or wood prove successful. This so-called contract farming model relates
and the loosened shells are then removed by hand. However, to a mutually beneficial partnership between agribusiness and
manual decortication is a time consuming and tedious operation independent out-growers. Contract farming defines a reciprocal
that doesn’t permit economically viable scale-up. Similarly, de- arrangement between multiple producers and a known buyer on
husking has not been mechanized. Even semi-automated de- the basis of a forward agreement which establishes conditions
husking could greatly reduce labour requirements and improve for the production and supply of certain farm products at
process economics. Process automation and mechanization predetermined prices. To identify a fair forward pricing for the
will ultimately require a larger production capacity and hourly products to be delivered, realistic yields need to be calculated
throughput. This, in turn, requires cooperation and coordination in order to forecast whether production by out-growers can be
among individual producers and farming cooperatives. In order profitable at prices the central buyer can afford to pay.
to optimize the oil extraction process (e.g. by use of innovative
aqueous oil extraction methods) and improve overall performance Contract farming is used as a supply chain governance strategy in
parameters, extraction facilities with a larger seed throughput response to market and institutional failures that characterize the

agricultural sector in different stages of development. Contract Contract farming significantly reduces production costs as it
farming also contributes to poverty reduction as it provides a tool binds less capital and avoids large upfront investments for land
for transforming subsistence farmers to commercial farmers. lease and land preparation. The same observation applies for
To balance the risk resulting from information asymmetries labour costs. However, its comparatively small scale by nature
between farmers/out-growers and seed processing companies, (e.g. 1 ha/out-grower) may raise efficiency issues. Prima facie,
it is recommended that contracts not be limited to seed the relevance of scale seems to argue in favour of an estate
purchase provisions but also include clauses on additional input farming model to be more economical and efficient. However,
supplies by the contracting firm, such as high yielding hybrid yield and profits per unit of land may not necessarily decline
seeds, organic fertilizer, technical advice and training services in line with diminishing farm or cultivation size. This is largely
with regard to basic agronomic practices. The potential positive due to the fact that independent out-growers are typically more
socio-economic impact of this scheme depends on a number incentivized to maximize yield and output since their pay is
of issues including the quality of provided farming inputs and directly linked to the harvest and not to the time (working hours)
support services, the quality and performance of the planting spent in the field. In order to calculate additional bioenergy crop
material itself and the fairness of the terms of contract. The revenues of contracted out-growers, the seed purchase price to
majority of outgrowing schemes are found to provide planting be offered will have to factor in reasonable yield expectations, the
material to their farmers either free of cost or at reduced price. applied intercropping scheme and plant density. Careful design
However, the procurement and distribution of farm inputs may of incentives, paired with a fair allocation of risk (especially yield
prove particularly costly where tissue culture propagation is risk) will help ensure that long term production contracts are
used to replicate high yielding jatropha cultivars. Small-scale acceptable and commercially attractive to farmers.
subsistence farmers in Burkina Faso typically sell their crops
right after harvest to meet their immediate financial needs Overall production efficiency may be further increased by
(e.g. school fees, medical expenses). Therefore, they lack the arranging participating farmers in a satellite-like scheme around
financial means to invest in agricultural inputs for the following central seedling nurseries and pilot breeding stations that are
season. Without collateral, farmers also have difficulty accessing equipped with relevant hardware and basic technology support
rural finance. Existing microcredit models have shown limited (e.g. de-husking machines).
capacity to increase profitability for these farmers. An inventory
credit system, or “warrantage”, which allows producers to stock 3.4.5.2 Intercropping: Food plus Fuel
part of their harvest in a warehouse for several months, and Jatropha is never to replace any other crop, and in particular,
use the bags as collateral for a loan if they choose, may give not any food crop. To the contrary, the plant only qualifies to
smallholders the means to buy essential farm inputs and high complement existing agronomic practices. Negative monoculture
yielding cultivars for the next planting season. In addition, the experience has shown that farmers cannot be expected to rely
necessary funding and crop establishment finance will have to on uncertain jatropha yield alone. Unsatisfactory seed production
be obtained from alternative sources, such as the Government rates pose a substantial economic risk for outgrowers. Owing to
of Burkina Faso, dedicated agrobanks and development banks. the stress of limited water availability, nutrient demand, disease
infestation, biodiversity loss and poor yield risk, any jatropha
contract farming model will therefore have to be based on
practicing inter- or multi-cropping with fruits, vegetables, herbs,
spices and select tree species.
Taking into account the competition for physical space, nutrients,

water, and sunlight, the rationale behind intercropping is to
produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making
use of available limited resources that would otherwise not
be utilized by a single crop. When applied to contract farming,
intercropping ensures normal farming activities can continue
as before whilst an additional, though admittedly small, income
source is generated without any negative impact on traditional
subsistence farming and food security. As long as jatropha-
derived fuels and the income they generate are additional to
PICTURE 13 that from intercropped food production, and do not hinder it
Large scale jatropha nursery 30 km outside
or increase pressure for land use change, jatropha does not
of Ouagadougou
compete with food production. If fuels are produced carefully
using alternative feedstocks that do not compete with food crops
and if incorporated in the agricultural landscape in such a way
The nursery has a production capacity of several
hundred thousand jatropha seedlings. that they do not contribute to land use changes, jatropha can
demonstrate a considerable potential.

PICTURE 14
Intercropping samples
Intercropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops

simultaneously on the same field at the same time while improving utilization of
scarce growth resources.
A somewhat symbiotic relationship between the jatropha plants and carefully selected rotating
food crops may even enhance the built-in paradigm for land-use optimization, land rehabilitation,
long term food security and eco-balance. Intercropping has the additional benefit of enhancing
biodiversity, which is important for the control of diseases and insects. Outbreaks of pests and
diseases are generally less serious in mixed cropping systems.
Intercropped legumes with their adaptability to different cropping patterns and their ability to fix
nitrogen may also offer opportunities to sustain increased productivity. Legumes as intercrops have
been advocated not only for yield augmentation, but also for maintenance of soil health, particularly
in degraded soil. Thus, inter-cropping jatropha with select leguminous plants is a suitable means to
improve soil fertility and decrease topsoil erosion.
Grain legumes include both herbaceous plants like beans, lentils, lupins, peas, cashew nuts and
trees such as carob, mesquite and tamarind. Other rotational crops that might also be planted in
symbiotic relationship with jatropha include green beans, broccoli, eggplant, okra, lemon grass,
elephant grass, onions, sweet corn, and mixed melons.
Intercropping of jatropha with maize and green beans (mung beans) on rehabilitated land shows
even greater agronomic benefit compared with sole cultivation of maize or beans. Maize and bean
yields will be more stable and will not only increase, but will lead to other ecosystem services like
soil stability, water storage capacity and overall fertility.
In addition to staple crops such as maize and soybeans, the most suitable crops for intercropping
include leafy and root vegetables, fruits (such as mango), cashew nuts, beans, eggplant, lemon
grass, elephant grass, tea, spices, herbs and vanilla.
The ideal choice and composition of intercrops ultimately depends on a multitude of parameters,
ranging from soil type (physical and chemical soil characteristics) and nutrient composition, to
water availability, plant characteristics (including physiological growth characteristics and canopy
architecture of the crops), plant spacing, social structures, basic infrastructure and market demand
for organically grown food crops, both locally and internationally.
3.4.5.3 By-Product Commercialization

Instead of commercializing all components of the jatropha fruit, the basic contract farming model
practiced in Burkina Faso was mostly limited to an overly simplistic seed buy-back scenario. The
intrinsic problem of an out-grower plantation model that only focuses on purchasing seeds from
participating farmers is that components of significant value are left aside. However, jatropha
seeds and their oil content represent only a percentage of the overall value chain.
The economics of the production of biofuel can be significantly influenced if all plant components,
other than the oil which goes for direct conversion into biodiesel and/or aviation fuel, can be
appropriately utilized and commercialized.

FIGURE 26
Jatropha fruit/seed weight
ratios and by product
commercialization
During the process of expelling oil from jatropha seeds, only 30 per cent of the seed weight (equalling
46 per cent of the de-shelled seed kernels) is processed into CJO. The remaining seed shells and
seed cake contain minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, fibrous material (lignin), oil and various other
molecules. The separation and/or extraction of these components and their subsequent treatments
through thermal, chemical, catalytic, bio-chemical (enzymatic) and other methods yield highly
desirable value-added products.
To exploit the full potential and to increase the chances of achieving economic viability, all by-
products will have to be considered and introduced into the market at their own proper value. This
includes fruit husks and seed shells. Each jatropha fruit consists of 60 to 65 per cent seeds and 35
to 40 per cent husks by mass, while seeds typically consist of 35 per cent shells (coating) and 65
per cent kernels (nucleus) by mass (see Figure 26).
Without even considering sophisticated medicinal or nutraceutical applications the combined value
of the most basic by-products, namely: de-oiled seedcake; fruit husks; and seed shells, can easily
make up 50 per cent in value of total crude oil.
3.4.5.4 Organic Fertilizer

The most promising value-added by-product is the revenue generated from the commercialization
of jatropha kernel meal. After oil extraction from seeds, the de-oiled jatropha seed cake (JSC) is a
rich organic source that can be applied as bio fertilizer and soil conditioner. Due to the presence
of nitrogen (N/ 5.0 to 6.5 per cent), phosphorous (P/ 2.0 to 3.0 per cent), and potassium (K/ 1.0
to 1.5 per cent) the organic nutrient sources in JSC are even higher than that of chicken or cow
manure. Moreover, JSC still contains the compositions of primary and secondary elements required
for plant growth. These qualities significantly reduce the need for otherwise chemical inputs, which
in return will lower the carbon footprint for growers and reduce negative impacts on surrounding
ecosystems. The use of seedcake can actually replace much higher valued chemical fertilizer.
Further benefits of jatropha seed cake as organic fertilizer include increased soil organic matter
content and improved water-holding capacity of the soil. It improves the physical structure of
the soil thus allowing more air to get to the plant roots. Beneficial bacterial and fungal activity
increases in the soil; mycorrhizal fungi which make other nutrients more available to plants thrive
in soil where the organic matter content is high. Instead of using the residual jatropha seed cake
as an organic fertilizer (green manure) it can also be fermented in a biogas plant and subsequently

used for electric energy and heat generation. Under the right on an equal-weight basis without compromising health, growth
heat and moisture conditions the fermentation of the press-cake performance and nutrient utilization, jatropha kernel meal could
will produce a biogas which can feed a gas-powered generator. reasonably be valued and priced in line with soybean meal.
Assuming an average plantation density of 888 plants per Soybean meal futures are currently trading at around USD 310/
hectare and an individual plant performance of 2.4 kg of seeds, tonne (June 2017). Given that non-toxic jatropha kernel meal
one hectare can generate around 750 kg of jatropha kernel is still in the early stage of market introduction, it is probably
meal. Processing is likely to result in a weight loss of 15 per reasonable to apply a temporary price discount/markdown of 50
cent. This leaves a potential of 640 kg/ha or just about 30 per per cent. This would fix the jatropha meal market value at about
cent of seeds harvested. USD 155/tonne with a mid-term upwards tendency directly
proportional to the increasing market acceptance as alternative
While monthly international prices for NPK-fertilizers in Africa source of protein feed.
hoover around USD 250/tonne, chemical fertilizer in Burkina
Faso is currently sold for USD 600/tonne (FCFA ••350,000). Given Item
Soybean Jatropha Kernel
Meal Meal (JKM)
its validated nutrient qualities, a conservative cash value of at
Crude Protein ≥43.0% ≥60%
least USD 200/tonne of jatropha-based organic fertilizer can
Crude Fiber ≤7.0% 9%
be considered economically justifiable. Applied to the above
Ash Content ≤7.0% 9.6%
example, this translates into a commercialization potential of
USD 150/ha. Digestible Organic
87.9% 78%
Matter
Metabolizable energy
3.4.5.5 Animal Feed (Non-toxic variety) 13.3 10.9
(MJ kg-1 DM)
Apart from the oil, jatropha kernel meal has gained interest
Gross Energy (MJ/Kg) 18
for utilization in animal feed formulations. However, the seed
cake contains anti-nutrients and several toxins, such as curcin,
phorbol esters, saponins, protease inhibitors and phytates. Meal TABLE 7
Comparison of key soybean and jatropha propertie
produced by the commonly cultivated toxic varieties would thus
need to be processed for the complete removal of the toxic
phorbol ester fraction prior to incorporation in animal feed. Depending on market acceptance/resistance, individual price
This is where the cultivation and processing of non-toxic hybrid development, plantation model design, plant density, yield
varieties and edible jatropha accessions from Central America performance and yield consistency, among others, the alternative
may offer an attractive advantage. commercialization of bio-fertilizer and animal feed offers an
additional revenue potential inside a range of at least USD 150
The nutritional value of jatropha kernel meal is largely determined to 200/tonne.
by the content of available nutrients, in particular protein content,
protein quality and the specific composition of essential amino 3.4.5.6 Fruit Husks
acids. Among the essential amino acids, the most important are
lysine, methionine/cystine and threonine. Others include glycine,
valine, isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine. With a superior
amino acid composition, jatropha kernel meal has been found
to have at least a 40 per cent higher crude protein content than
soybean meal. Key findings concluded by the UN FAO have
proven that the protein quality and the nutritional value of non-
toxic jatropha kernel meal may even be considered as equivalent
to fishmeal protein and that both these protein sources result
in similar growth performance, energy expenditure and energy
retention.
Under the assumptions that the protein quality of jatropha kernel

meal is better or at least equivalent to soybean meal protein, and FIGURE 27
that jatropha meal can potentially substitute for soybean meal Breakdown of energy value of jatropha fruit components

The fruit husks (dried fruit encapsulate) of jatropha have a high- of jatropha shells suggests that it is a good feedstock for
energy content (15 MJ/kg) and heating value. The chemical energetic conversion. Several conversion technologies have
composition of the husk (3.97 per cent ash, 71.04 per cent been studied using jatropha seed shells as an energy feedstock.
volatile matter, and 24.99 per cent fixed carbon) is similar to These include briquetting and direct combustion, pyrolysis
that of other biomass energy sources. The energetic value can and bio-methanation. The combustion of jatropha shells is
best be leveraged through direct combustion or co-firing. The possible without previous processing (e.g. pelletizing). However,
fruit husks could also be sold along with the seed cake as an pelletizing or briquetting will achieve a reduction of volume and
additional substrate for the production of biogas. In order to a further increase of energy density. Furthermore, the ash that
commercialize the intrinsic value of the husks, volume and remains after shell combustion is high in sodium and potassium,
scale are important. However, as long as fruits are decorticated making it suitable for soil enrichment and fertilizer use.
manually by individual farmers, critical mass is unlikely to
be reached. The contract farming model also provides extra Instead of direct combustion or fertilization, shells and husks
challenges for coordinated logistics, transportation and storage may equally be brought into a bio-digester where microbes
which would need to be addressed. However, in this case, fruit break down the biomass in an anaerobic digestion process.
husks can still be returned to the fields and used as bio-fertilizer The biomass material discharges a bio-methane gas that is
to improve soil condition. captured in a micro turbine and used to generate electricity in a
combustion engine.
In order to determine the approximate commercial value of
the fruit husks, the specific energy content first needs to be Applying the same underlying assumptions as in the example
converted into boe/ha. In a second step, the interim result can above, a sample production volume of 2 131 kg of seeds will
then be multiplied with the prevalent oil price per barrel. To reflect generate 746 kg of shells. Multiplied with the specific energy
processing (conversion) and handling cost (e.g. transportation, content of 19.5 MJ/kg, this will translate into 2.38 boe,
storage), it is suggested to apply a discount of at least 40 per cent. representing a potential value of USD 119. As processing will
take place at the fuel conversion site, this will facilitate handling
and reduce related costs. Reflecting this comparative advantage
Sample calculation: over husks, it might thus be fair to subtract a discount for
Assuming a seed yield to fruit husk ratio of 1:0.67, logistics in the range of 30 per cent instead of 40 per cent. All
a plantation density of 888 plants/ha and a plant other conditions remaining the same, the commercial value of
performance of 2.4 kg, a seed yield of 2 131 kg/hectare seed shells per ha can therefore be calculated with USD 83,
of will also generate 1 421 kg of fruit husks/ha of equalling USD 111/tonne.
intercropped jatropha cultivation. The multiplication
of this number with the specific energy content of 3.4.5.8 Yield Matrix (per hectare)
15 MJ/kg will translate into a 3.51 boe. Depending
To illustrate the value creation potential per hectare in addition
on the current market price of oil, this represents a
to the commercialization of the crude jatropha oil itself, the
potential value of USD 104.70/ha. In other words, the
proven calorific value of jatropha fruit husks may following yield matrix in Table 8 identifies some reference
justify a market value of USD 70/tonne. scenarios with regard to plant density and yield performance.
To reflect local conditions in Burkina Faso, all variations pursue
an intercropping model. The particular choice of intercropped
Conversion steps: plant species will determine the spacing requirements between
1. 1 421 kg husks/ha x 15 MJ/kg = 21 315 MJ = 21 31 GJ individual plants and plant rows. Realistic plant/row spacing
2. 21.31 GJ / 6.1 boe/GJ = 3.49 boe alternatives include 4m x 2m, 5m x 3m and 4.50m x 2.50m.
3. 3.49 boe x [50] USD/boe = USD 174.50 Accordingly, underlying assumptions for plant density per hectare
4. USD 174.50 - [40]% processing cost = USD 104.70 fluctuates between 660 and 1 250 plants. To better reflect the
impact of plant density on the overall performance per hectare,
seed yield data is broken down into production per plant. This
3.4.5.7 Seed Shells will also facilitate better comparison between the different
Jatropha seed shells have an even higher heating value (19.5 MJ/ intercropping models. Individual plant production performance
kg) and greater bulk density which makes them more valuable is assumed to span a range from 1.6 kg of seeds per plant (for
than the fruit husks as a combustible fuel. The seed shells domestic jatropha accessions) to 3.2 kg of seeds per plant (for
contain 45 to 47% lignin and their calorific value is comparable first generation non-toxic hybrid jatropha accessions). Further
to wood fuel (Prosopis juliflora). The chemical composition impact on yield performance through use of fertilizer or irrigation
shall not be considered.

TABLE 8
Intercropping scenarios and
value composition
3.4.5.9 Breeding & Domestication

Despite the attention that jatropha has received as a source of renewable oil for the production
of sustainable and affordable biofuels, jatropha still has to be considered an undomesticated wild
species that has not yet benefitted from crop improvement programmes. Even though essential
questions around jatropha crop growth, crop management and production have not been addressed
adequately, wild jatropha accessions were used to setup large plantations, often not well adapted
to local environments and local production systems. Maladaptation of jatropha accessions to the
new use has often led to inadequate seed and oil yields per hectare.
The challenge is to develop well adapted, robust, high yielding jatropha varieties for a range of
climates and agrosystems, as only high seed and oil yields per hectare will guarantee profitability
and a high GHG emission reduction. The main bottleneck to elevate jatropha from a wild species to
a profitable biodiesel crop is the low genetic and phenotypic variation found in different regions of
the world, hampering efficient plant breeding for productivity traits.
Given the low domestication status of jatropha, genomics offers numerous technologies for
collecting genetic information that could be potentially integrated into jatropha breeding to aid in
the development of cultivars with outstanding performance based on genetic data alone.
However, wide genetic variation is required in breeding for major agronomically important traits
like seed and oil yield, seed and oil composition, flowering behaviour, tree morphology, disease
resistance and the absence of anti-nutritional factors that currently prevent the use of jatropha
seed meal in animal feed. Plant breeding programmes need such genetic variation to be able
to combine positive traits from different plant parents to provide the required profitable and
sustainable jatropha varieties of the future.

To increase and stabilize oil yield performance, it is therefore However, plant growth regulators and vegetative cloning come
suggested that new genetic variations be identified and used at a cost. Enabling tissue culture propagation of elite planting
in jatropha breeding programmes. Food crops have been material on a large scale will require a high-tech laboratory set
improved in this manner for centuries. Scientific results indicate up. The extra costs for setting up a tissue culture lab facility
that outside Central America there is no significant genetic need to be carefully offset against the expected yield gains and
biodiversity in Jatropha curcas. In comparison to accessions related economic returns.
found in Africa, the pool of Central American accessions shows
very large molecular diversity as assessed by DNA-marker 3.4.5.11 Waste Water Irrigation
variation. This makes Central America an important source In Burkina Faso water is a scarce resource and conditions all
of new genetic variations in jatropha that will prove useful in agricultural activities. To optimize the availability of water and
widening the pool of germplasm available for jatropha breeding related land-use applications, changes and developments to
programmes. Not only do accessions differ in their genetic consider include the potential irrigation of jatropha cultivation
constitution, but also show a wide disparity in phenotypic traits sites with wastewater. Instead of intensifying the pressure on
like flowering type, tree architecture, oil concentration and fatty water resources, leading to conflicts among users and excessive
acid composition. For example, the average oil content varies pressure on land and environment, sewage effluents, after
between 19 and 40 per cent of the whole seed (seed kernel pre-treatment, provide an alternative nutrient-rich water source
and seed hull). Depending on provenance, jatropha seed weight for salinity tolerant agriculture in the vicinity of cities. Treated
varies from 0.48 g (Rwanda) to 0.57 g (Burkina Faso) to 0.76 sewage effluents (TSE) contain relatively large amounts of
g (Guatemala, Mexico). Central American accessions also show nutrients that are potentially available for plant production, while
significantly higher early growth rates, resulting in higher total at the same time, the nutrients will be removed from the effluent,
leaf areas, dry weights, and plant heights. These traits that thus increasing the quality of the remaining water. The water
lead to larger and stronger plants are important for surviving supply from wastewater treatment plants in Ouagadougou could
the first stages in the field after transplanting, especially theoretically allow commercial scale jatropha production or at
under dry and arid conditions (low precipitation <1 000 mm/ least efficient plant nursery operations. Using unconventional
year), and for taking advantage of short precipitation periods. water sources, such as TSE, represents a potential alternative for
Fast, early growth is very beneficial as it is one of the factors irrigation, since TSE contain considerable amounts of nutrients
positively influencing the yield of seed and oil in the first year (N-P-K).
of establishment. Central American accessions should thus be
considered as the most important source for plant breeding. 3.4.6 FUEL CONVERSION PATHWAYS
Jatropha feedstock based alternative fuel will have to meet
3.4.5.10 Tissue Culture Propagation stringent manufacturing specifications. Given the requirements
Jatropha cultivation will only be commercially viable when best for the production of aviation fuel, available options for the
quality planting material from selected clones or varieties are used processing of non-edible CJO into alternative fuel that meets all
and made available to farmers in large quantities within a short critical specifications are limited.
time-frame. The supply of elite planting material on a large scale
requires massive production of phenotypically homogeneous 3.4.6.1 HEFA
cultivars that are adapted to the growth conditions of the HEFA is the most realistic oleochemical reaction pathway, which
selected plantation areas. This puts the focus on nurseries and has reached market maturity (see Section 3.3.2.2 for a more
dedicated breeding centres. Conventional plant multiplication is detailed description).
typically carried out by sowing seeds or planting cuttings directly
in the field or after a first period of growth in nurseries. However, HEFA technology is based on the hydro-processing of natural
this method is time-consuming and entails the disadvantage of oils and fats (broadly a triglyceride mixture). To transform
producing heterogeneous plants with inconsistent seed yields. biofuels into the “drop-in” replacement fuels that are fully
In comparison, in-vitro regeneration and micro-propagation compatible with existing fuel infrastructure and aircraft engines,
techniques may offer a powerful tool for mass-multiplication their alcohols, lipids and molecules must be transformed into
of uniform high yielding hybrids. Clonal mass propagation true hydrocarbons by a complex series of processes collectively
through genetic engineering techniques has the advantage of known as “hydro-treatment”. These chemical manipulations
reproducing elite plants that are morphologically homogenous, increase the ratio of hydrogen to carbon, remove all oxygen, and
with a high production capacity and identical yield trajectory. In change the structure and blend of the constituent molecules
addition to in-vitro tissue culture techniques for a rapid build- to give the fuel its necessary characteristics. The biomass
up of large plant quantities, the complementary application and vegetable oils that can be hydro-treated are not limited to
of plant growth regulators may be suitable to induce uniform crude jatropha oil but also include animal waste fats (tallow),
flowering and thus facilitate the synchronization of ripening and cotton seed oil, used cooking oil, cashew nutshell liquid or shea
harvesting, a pre-condition for commercial production scale-up. nutshells.

Hydrogenation offers an energy-efficient alternative of producing synthetic biofuels. Hydrogenation
removes oxygen and other impurities from feedstocks with high oil content, such as jatropha, and
produces hydro-treated renewable jet fuels (HRJ). The resultant fuels are pure hydrocarbon fuels
and have indistinguishable physical properties from fossil-based fuels. HRJ fuels tend to have
better combustion performance and higher energy content and, most importantly, have good low-
temperature stability, making them ideal as a renewable source of SAF.
Currently, the majority of SAFs are derived from oleochemical feedstocks and use the HEFA pathway.
This will likely remain the main conversion route over the next five to 10 years, while other bio-jet
technologies are still maturing.
One of the main advantages of the HEFA route is that it is possible to integrate this process into an
oil refinery, avoiding the need to develop a dedicated production facility. Unfortunately, this option
does not exist in Burkina Faso.
Independent of the significant feedstock supply potential, a stand-alone HEFA processing plant
remains unrealistic for the time being. The lack of refining capacity will inevitably thwart all efforts.
Without even basic petrochemical or refining infrastructure in place, there is no chance for cost
savings through co-location, co-processing or the use of existing infrastructure. Thus, a HEFA plant
is neither technically feasible nor commercially viable, be it in Burkina Faso or elsewhere in sub-
Saharan Africa. The estimated high capital and processing costs, and in particular the need for
expensive hydrogen, renders the HEFA pathway uncompetitive.
3.4.6.2 FAME Biodiesel

Unless domestically produced CJO is shipped overseas and upgraded to SAF at existing facilities
in Europe, the feedstock is more likely to be converted to conventional biodiesel, chemically also
known as FAME. FAME biodiesel is notably distinct from HEFA aviation fuel; because it retains an
oxygen ester, FAME biodiesel is too oxygenated to be used as a drop-in SAF. While biodiesel cannot
replace aviation fuel, it can nevertheless be used by any airport’s diesel-powered ground fleet, such
as aircraft tugs, buses and fire-fighting vehicles.
PICTURE 15
Tarmac at Ouagadougou
Airport
The diesel-powered fleet of ground support equipment (GSE) is managed by Régie

Administrative Chargée de la Gestion de l’Assistance en Escale (RACGAE). Limited
monthly consumption needs could easily be provided by domestically produced
alternative transport fuels, such as biodiesel from animal waste fats or jatropha.

According to the fuel consumption data provided by the ground support handling agency of
Ouagadougou airport, the Régie Administrative Chargée de la Gestion de l’Assistance en Escale
(RACGAE), the truck and trailer fleet of diesel powered GSE (including refuelers, pushback tugs,
tractors, belt loaders, transporters, passenger boarding steps) consumes on average about 5 000
litres/month. Assuming a specific density of 885 kg/m3, this amounts to 4.4 tonnes/month or just
53 tonnes/year. All truck engine manufacturers have confirmed engine compliance with biodiesel
up to a blend of 100 per cent (B100).
The conversion of CJO into biodiesel requires refining. In general, the feedstock and methanol
are combined in a reactor in the presence of a catalyst (usually potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide) to form methyl ester (biodiesel) and glycerine (co-product). The refining process turns
the triglycerides (oils and fats) into esters, separating out the glycerine. The glycerine sinks to the
bottom and the biodiesel floats on top and can be siphoned off. This process which substitutes
alcohol for the glycerine in a chemical reaction is also called transesterification. Thus, biodiesel is
derived from triglycerides by transesterification with short chain alcohols. Figure 28 illustrates the
refining process in a multi-feedstock biodiesel plant.
FIGURE 28
Multi-feedstock biodiesel
plant (schematic)

Biodiesel emits significantly fewer greenhouse gases, particularly nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide
and sulphur dioxide, than traditional mineral oil-based diesel fuel. Jatropha based biodiesel emits
about two-thirds less in unburned hydrocarbons and almost half as much carbon monoxide and
particulate matter as conventional fuel. In particular, it:
• reduces emission of carbon dioxide by 80 per cent;
• reduces emissions of carbon monoxide by 50 per cent;
• reduces emission of aromatic hydrocarbons by 50 to 70 per cent;
• contains almost no sulphur; and
• is biodegradable and non-toxic.
3.4.6.3 Pure Plant Oil (PPO)

Alternatively, filtered and purified CJO may also be used directly without being refined as pure
plant oil (PPO or B100) in micro heat and power plants and various types of combustion engines in
the marine, construction and agricultural sectors. In this case, virtually no engine or infrastructure
modifications are needed.
3.4.7 Feasibility Matrix

3.5 OTHER OIL-BEARING FEEDSTOCKS Monoculture cotton is cultivated on 800 000 ha, mainly in
four cotton zones by farmers organized in more than 8 500
(CROPS)
cotton producer groups (GPC) with the support of three cotton
3.5.1 COTTONSEED OIL
companies. Main production areas are Kénédougou (Hauts-
3.5.1.1 Feedstock Qualification
Bassins), Mouhoun (Boucle du Mouhoun), Tuy (Hauts-Bassins)
Burkina Faso is the largest cotton producer in Africa. Cotton is
and Houet (Hauts-Bassins) (see Figure 29).
the single most important cash crop in Burkina Faso and its
production is constantly growing. Cotton production represents
SOFITEX is the largest cotton company. Being primarily state-
around 4 per cent of Burkina Faso’s GDP and is the second-
owned, it controls over 80 per cent of Burkina Faso’s total cotton
biggest source of State revenue after gold. In 2016, the export
production. While SOFITEX is responsible for the collection and
trade value of cotton reached USD 420 million, representing
ginning of cotton, the main seed processing company is SN-
roughly 20 per cent of all exports. Cotton is mainly cultivated
CITEC.
to meet the basic requirement for cotton fabrics, and around 4
million people depend on cotton cultivation as a source of income.
While most of the small and medium-sized cottonseed
However, the cotton plant does not only provide the cotton lint
processing facilities and oil mills in the vicinity of the cotton
which is used in the textile industry but also offers secondary
ginning workshops use traditional expeller pressing technology,
by-products in the form of cottonseeds. Cotton has a variety of
SN Citec uses the more technologically advanced solvent-based
uses: fibre for textiles, cottonseed oil as a food ingredient, and
technology. The solvent extraction process allows the recovery of
meal and hulls from crushed cottonseeds as animal feed for
up to 96 per cent of the oil content contained in the cottonseeds.
livestock and poultry. Cotton thus qualifies concurrently as both
Solvent extraction is the commonly used commercial technique
a fibre and a food crop.
to recover oil from oilseeds. Presently, n-hexane is the preferred
solvent throughout the world due to its extraction efficiency
As of June 2017, one tonne of cotton seeds is valued at USD 138
and ease of availability, yet hexane has been categorized as a
(FCFA 80 000), while one litre of cottonseed oil fetches 1 USD
hazardous air pollutant by the US EPA and is included in the list
(FCFA 560). Cottonseeds are therefore a valuable by-product of
of toxic chemicals.
the cotton plant as they contribute to the overall profitability of
the whole production chain. Harvesting 100 kg of cottonseeds
Given the specific fuel properties and combustion characteristics,
produces approximately 30 to 45 kg of fibre (accounting for
the methyl esters obtained from cottonseed oil can potentially be
approximately 85 per cent of the commercial value of the
considered as a good alternative fuel and a feasible oil source for
harvest) and approximately 55 to 70 kg of cottonseeds which
FAME-biodiesel production. However, cottonseed oil is the main
contain 9 to 12 kg of pure vegetable oil.
source of vegetable oils in the country.
The production of cotton in Burkina Faso has grown from around
With a seed oil content ranging between 14 and 26 per cent,
200 000 tonnes in the early 1990s to reach a peak of 895
cottonseeds are primarily used to extract edible oil. Originally
000 tonnes in 2014. The country produced 683 000 tonnes of
regarded as a waste by-product, cottonseed oil has been
seeds and 230 000 tonnes of fibres during the harvest season
consumed as vegetable oil and food ingredient in Burkina Faso
2016/2017. The harvest in 2017/2018 is expected to reach
since 1973.
800 000 tonnes again.
Being the largest and oldest oil mill in the country, SN-CITEC
has a maximum production capacity of 15 to 20 000 tonnes of
cottonseed oil per year.
SN-CITEC temporarily also operated a biodiesel pilot plant

with a production capacity of 12 000 tonnes by processing
seeds unfit for human consumption. With a conversion ratio of
5.9 and a fat content of 17 per cent, one tonne of Burkinabe
cottonseeds provide about 170 kg of pure vegetable oil and
830 kg of seed meal.
While the 2016/2017 seed production harvest of 683 000

tonnes translates into a potential oil production volume of
116 000 tonnes, oil mills in Burkina Faso produce on average
35 000 tonnes of edible oils per year. Even though the whole
FIGURE 29 production is marketed locally, the country cannot satisfy the
Main cotton production areas actual demand for edible oils. The market requires about 75 000
tonnes of vegetable oil per year, indicating a shortage of 40 000
tonnes. This deficit has to be compensated for largely by palm

The production of biofuels based on cottonseed oil would lead to
a shortage of edible oil and should not be encouraged. Despite
its comparatively low oil productivity (i.e. 327 to 420 litres/ha
per annum) and independent of nutritional concerns, cottonseed
oil will continue to fulfil a strategic role as the prime source of
vegetable oil supply earmarked for local consumption. Given the
forecasted rising demand for edible oils in Burkina Faso and in
many other West African States, it is unlikely that alternative
PICTURE 16 crops, such as soybean or sunflower will be replacements to
SN-CITEC in Bobo-Dioulasso enable cotton to be used as a source of bioenergy.
oil imports from Malaysia and Côte d’Ivoire. The gap between
Therefore, justifiable sustainability concerns will prevent the
domestic supply and demand will deteriorate even further as
alternative energetic use of cottonseed oil for years to come. Any
demand is expected to increase to 164 000 tonnes by 2030.
kind of commercially and technically feasible biofuel application
Neighbouring Benin, Niger, Togo and Mali will be confronted with
will consequently have to be disregarded.
similar food constraints.

3.5.2 CASHEW NUTS (CNSL) Cashew nut shells have a net calorific value of 19 to 22 MJ/kg,
3.5.2.1 Feedstock Suitability placing them in the middle of the biomass fuel mean range (14 to
Cashew nuts are currently the third largest agricultural export 21 MJ/kg). The nutshells with a thickness of up to 3 millimetres
product of Burkina Faso, after cotton and sesame. Though at first contain a dark reddish brown viscous liquid, the so-called
glance it may not appear obvious, the cultivation and processing cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) which is situated inside a soft
of cashew nuts serves as an ideal example of pursing several honeycomb structure in between the outer shell and the testa, a
economic, energetic, environmental and social objectives at once, thin coating surrounding the kernel. CNSL has a similar quality
particularly with regard to optimizing food and fuel production. and heat content as light fuel oil (LFO) with an average calorific
value of 39 to 42 MJ/kg. The major components of CNSL are
The cashew tree is an evergreen tropical crop. It is a fast anacardic acid, cardanol, and cardol. The physical and chemical
growing, hardy and drought resistant multipurpose tree that can properties of CNSL are within an acceptable range to qualify as
be cultivated in many tropical climatic conditions. feedstock for biofuel production. Structurally, CNSL is different
from other vegetable oils due to the presence of a benzene ring.
In addition to the production of cashew nuts, the cashew The usual C:H:O ratio for vegetable oils is 78:12:10, whereas
tree is recognized by the FAO as a reforestation tree that also the comparable ratio for CNSL is 80:12:08. This may explain the
contributes to preserving the environment and improving relatively high calorific value. CNSL has a higher density than
soil fertility. Their extensive root system makes cashew trees diesel. It can be reduced by degumming and transesterification.
adaptable to a wide range of soil types. As cashew trees have the Regarding CNSL commercialization, market prices in China are
capacity to rehabilitate degraded soils, preserve water quality about USD 250/Mt delivered.
and sequester carbon (estimated at 0.33 tonne CO2e/ha), the
development of cashew tree plantations contributes directly to In addition to the cashew kernels and the CNSL, another by-
climate change mitigation while providing income opportunities product are the so-called cashew apples. The apples, which are
for rural communities. about 10 cm in length and largely exceed the externally attached
nut itself in weight, constitute a huge quantity of biomass which
Cashews were originally introduced to Burkina Faso in the 1960s might also qualify as feedstock for potential energy recovery.
by the Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT). The initial aim The cashew apples are highly perishable and are typically left to
was to restore degraded soils in the savannah area and to stop rot in the orchards. It is estimated that 12 to 14 kilos of apples
desertification. Large-scale cashew cultivation was only initiated could be converted into one litre of bioethanol.
by the government in 1980 (project “Anacarde”) as a means
to improve soil fertility and increase rural incomes, especially CNSL converted into biodiesel provides an innovative source for
for women. It is only since the 1990s that cashews have been alternative energy generation. The performance of CNSL-based
grown as an important cash crop. As of today, the cashew sector biodiesel blends has been successfully tested and validated in
has gained significant economic importance for Burkina Faso. compression ignition engines. Confirming the feasibility of CNSL
Cashews are the third most important agricultural export product as a source of biodiesel, blends of CNSL could be substituted for
after cotton and sesame. In less than 10 years the underlying petroleum diesel fuel without major modifications. According to
trade value of exported Burkinabe cashews increased from USD tests conducted in India with CNSL blends in internal combustion
1.5 million to over USD 120 million as of 2017. diesel engines, the optimum performance of regular diesel
engines with CNSL suggests a blend of 75 (diesel):25 (CNSL),
The main product of the cashew plant is the curved seed or with optimized ignition timing and injection pressure of 19°
kernels. While the edible seeds have a high nutritional value, BTDC and 22 MPa (220 bar) respectively.
the nutshells are largely considered waste and are commonly
discarded. The raw cashew nut consists of approximately 25 to
30 per cent seed and 70 to 75 per cent shell.
FIGURE 30 FIGURE 31
Cashew nut inside a nutshell Main cashew nut production areas

Quantification of feedstock availability for energy conversion purposes depends on the annual
production volume of cashew nuts, the typical weight ratio between shell and CNSL, and the actual
volume of nuts processed domestically.
West Africa is one of the main cashew producing areas of the world. In 2016, West African
States generated an estimated 1.4 million tonnes, i.e. about 45 per cent of the world’s cashew
production. At least 70 per cent of the annual production volume consists of cashew nut shells with
an approximate energy content of 20 GJ per tonne. Thus, the rough potential for alternative energy
production from cashew shells in Africa is 19.6 million GJ or 3.3 million boe. However, scarcely 10
per cent of the energy recovery potential from cashew nut shells is generated domestically as the
majority of production is shipped to Asia in raw unprocessed format.
In comparison, cashew plantations in Burkina Faso cover around 90 000 ha with an estimated
production volume of 70 000 tonnes of raw cashew nuts (RCN) in 2017. Over 90 per cent of
the production areas are concentrated in the regions of Cascades, Sud-Ouest and Hauts Bassins
(provinces of Comoé, Léraba, Kénédougou, Poni and Noumbiel), in the South-West of the country
(see Figure 31). The cashew nut sector employs more than 50 000 farmers of which 80 per cent
are women. Most of the producers are organized in cooperatives. The Wouol Farmers’ Association,
for example, is a regional level organization uniting 69 farmers’ cooperatives with more than 2
500 farmers, of whom more than 70 per cent are women. Wouol operates in 20 communes in the
plantation regions bordering Mali, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana.
Considering a seed-to-shell weight ratio of 30:70 and a CNSL oil content range between 15 and
30 per cent, a rather conservative production volume of 50 000 tonnes of RCN will produce 35
000 tonnes of shells with an energy content of 700 000 GJ or 120 000 boe. Assuming an average
oil content of 20 per cent, the amount of CNSL that can theoretically be recovered from the nut
shells equals 7 000 tonnes with a calorific value of around 290 000 GJ or 49 500 boe. While this
constitutes an attractive feedstock base for a start, only about 15 per cent of the total production
volume of RCN is processed locally. Based on the above ratios, this reduces the recoverable CNSL
oil to only 1 050 tonnes.
While the Wouol Farmers’ Association processes 1 250 tonnes of RCN per year at five processing
units, the largest cashew processing company in Burkina Faso is Anatrans, located in Bobo-
Dioulasso. In 2016, about 6 000 tonnes of RCN were processed by Anatrans. This is still well below
the installed capacity of 10 000 tonnes. However, the processed volume provides 840 tonnes of
immediately available CNSL.
Anatrans is one of the biggest employers in the country. Of the 1 500, 85 per cent of its employees
are women. In addition, the company directly supports over 4 000 farmers organized in 300 farmer
groups that are growing and harvesting the cashew nuts for the processing plant. To secure a steady
supply of RCN, Anatrans has built up a strong partnership between farmers’ cooperatives and the
processing unit. Based on the guaranteed take-off, many farmers even qualify for micro credits.
PICTURE 17-18
Manual decortication of
cashew nuts at Anatrans
cashew plant
ANATRANS, the largest cashew nut processing plant in the country employs 1 300
women and provides support to over 4 000 farmers organized in 300 farmer groups that
are growing and harvesting the cashew nuts for the processing plant in Banfora.

3.5.2.2 Challenges and Constraints transesterified biofuels. The benzene ring and the absence of
Independent of these successful initiatives, market distortions triglycerides could thus potentially eliminate the need for costly
and irregularities force the Burkinabe cashew sector to forego transesterification. While this fuel would not yet meet aviation
the largest part of the inherent alternative energy potential. As fuel standards, CNSL-derived biodiesel blends may well qualify
a result, Burkina Faso cannot fully profit from the cashew nut ad hoc to power the trucking ground-fleet of the Ouagadougou
value chain. Despite the cashew sector’s recognized potential airport as well as public buses. The potential of a readily
and multiple benefits, and despite repeated calls for basic available cheap domestic feedstock certainly warrants further
market regulation, a significant proportion of the value chain in-depth analysis.
has gradually been relocated abroad. A handful of foreign States
are actively subsidizing their own cashew processing industries 3.5.3 SHEA NUTS (KARITÉ)
and provide incentives to buy all available stock. Independent of Occupying the next place in the export earnings of agricultural
transportation costs and logistics, the underlying policy explicitly products after cotton, sesame and cashew nuts is the shea nut.
includes unshelled cashew nuts from overseas. The decline in The shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa, also Butyrospermum parkii)
margins is a direct result of strong demand from processing which grows on marginal land is indigenous to Burkina Faso and
units in India and Vietnam. Indian processors are benefiting from a traditional food plant. The karité or shea nut is the fruit of the
the subsidies of their government which enable them to offer shea tree. The trees which grow wild in the wooded savannah
high prices for cashew supplies from Burkina Faso, bypassing zone can reach 20 meters in height and produce nuts for 200
the domestic processing industry. The result is a transfer of years. Maximum production capacity is only reached after 45
added value and jobs from Burkina Faso to India. Accordingly, to 50 years. Shea trees are widespread throughout Burkina
significant revenue opportunities are lost to foreign buyers and Faso. The total cultivation area stretches over 65 000 km2,
processing companies which are dominating the Burkinabe which equals 28 per cent of the country. Prime locations are the
market, while local processing companies have trouble southwestern part of the country and the Plateau-Central region
accessing funding and maintaining operations. Idle processing in the provinces of Ganzourgou, Kourwéogo, and Oubritenga.
facilities inevitably restrict the opportunity to benefit from CNSL
as a high-quality biofuel feedstock.
3.5.2.3 Biomass Processing and Fuel Conversion

Several methods are available to extract CNSL oil from the
cashew nut shells, namely mechanical, thermal and solvent
extraction. The mechanical oil extraction process only requires
a simple screw press which can handle even small quantities
efficiently. Alternatively, the oil could also be recovered by
heating in the absence of oxygen. Oil extraction efficiency
slightly varies with the method adopted.
After expelling the oil, the remaining residue, i.e. the de-oiled
cashew shell press cake, could be used as a cost-effective
PICTURE 19
source of alternative energy to supply a combined heat and Shea nuts
power plant (CHP). Also known as cogeneration, CHP refers to
industrial processes in which waste heat from the production The shea nut consists of a thin, nutritious pulp that surrounds a
of electricity is also used for process energy in the renewable relatively large, oil-rich seed. These seeds are manually grinded
fuel production facility. The cogeneration plant would not only to extract organic shea butter which is used for cosmetics and
generate sufficient electricity to run all the facilities’ operations skin care products. Shea butter and shea oil are renowned
(e.g. expelling machines and decorticators), but coulv also for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, moisturizing and skin
provide the steam required for various steps of the industrial healing dermatological properties. In addition, shea is a rich
process. In this case, the steam produced by the boiler would source of essential fatty acids, anti-oxidants and vitamins E
weaken the shells from the seeds and provide an efficient and A. Annual production of nuts varies between 450 000 and
source of heat in the drying phase of the cashew kernels. 600 000 tonnes. This makes Burkina Faso the second largest
producer in the world after Nigeria. In comparison, total shea
Physical and chemical properties of CNSL encourage the use of nut harvest volume exceeds the production of cashew nuts by a
this alternative energy source as biofuel. The specific chemical factor of 10 to 12.
structure should ensure the complete combustion and reduce
the formation of polluting hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and Shea butter is one of the most important agricultural export
sulphur oxides during combustion. Depending on the intended products, with the European Union being the major export market.
ultimate usage, CNSL and particularly decarboxylated cardanol It is estimated that the sector provides substantial income
may not even require further conversion processes. Key opportunities for up to 3 million women in rural and urban areas.
properties of cardanol are already very close to diesel and The sector’s strategic value as a tool for job creation, additional

sources of income and poverty alleviation has earned shea nuts substitute for diesel. Pharmacological constituents offer proven
a reputation as “the women of Burkina Faso’s gold”. therapeutic qualities. Neem oil has demonstrated remarkable
effects, including antibacterial, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-
Reflecting the sector’s importance for the socio-economic inflammatory and anti-allergic properties. Neem boosts
development of the country, the Government of Burkina Faso the immune system on all levels. Most importantly, neem
has adopted a National Sustainable Development Strategy oil qualifies as a natural insecticide. The oil is reported to be
for the shea industry, from 2015 to 2019. It includes a rolling effective against at least 200 insects without requiring any
triennial action plan, consisting of 129 activities ranging from sophisticated extraction or preparation equipment. Medicinal,
the protection of the shea tree to the coordinated marketing of pharmaceutical and insecticidal benefits naturally impact the
its products. value of neem oil which sells for USD 20 or more per litre. Being
aware of its multi-purpose properties, the Burkinabe Fédération
Both shea butter and oil, the two main by-products of the shea Nationale des Groupements Naam, for example, a large farmer
nut seed, are edible. The qualification of shea seeds and their cooperative present in 30 provinces, sells smaller quantities of
derivative products as food automatically excludes the alternative cold-pressed neem oil to the European pharmaceutical industry.
use of shea nut seed oil as a potential source of biofuels. Demonstrated benefits might outweigh potential competitive
uses of neem oil as an alternative biofuel. This precludes further
However, the nut shells which are considered an agricultural quantitative analysis of the theoretical energy and biofuel
waste product are still an unexploited source of biomass that may potential of neem in Burkina Faso.
be used as an alternative source of energy, thus complementing
the nutritional and dermatological benefits of the nut kernels. 3.5.6 BALANITE
Assuming a conservative weight ratio between raw shea nuts Balanite (Balanites aegyptiaca) is well adapted to tropical arid
and nut shells of 5:2, 500 ,000 tonnes of nuts will generate at lands and can be found everywhere in Burkina Faso. Just like
least 200 000 tonnes of nut shell biomass waste. Considering an neem, balanite is an evergreen multipurpose plant native to the
energy density of 18.7 MJ/kg for pelletized shea nut shells and Sudano-Sahelian region of Africa. Commonly known as “desert
an estimated densification related weight loss of 25 per cent, the date”, it is a spiny shrub or small, deep-rooted tree that tolerates
compacted 150 000 tonnes of shea nut pellets have an energy heat, drought, sunlight and degraded soils so well that it thrives
content of 2 800 000 GJ, which equals 478 000 boe. in the heart of the Sahel. Due to its heartiness, the species has
deliberately been chosen for the restoration of the Sahelian
Generating large quantities of shea shells would first require ecosystems in the context of the pan-African reforestation
at least a basic mechanization of the production process to project, the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and Sahel Initiative.
facilitate economies of scale. For the time being, traditional
practices remain largely based on manual labour. Furthermore, The endocarp tissue of the edible fruit encloses a 2 to 3 cm long
the ultimate availability of nut shells will also depend on potential fibrous seed/ stone (pyrene) which contains 35 to 55 per cent
alternative uses. In this regard, it must be considered that a oil which is rich in saturated fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, stearic
significant part of the shell biomass waste could potentially be and palmitic acid). Mature trees are estimated to yield up to 100
used to generate necessary process energy, thus limiting its kg of stones, which produce 30 to 60 litres of oil. Independent
availability for biofuel purposes. of its validated calorific and energetic properties as well as
tested combustion parameters, balanite oil simultaneously
3.5.4 NEEM qualifies as an edible vegetable oil which is traditionally used for
Neem (Azadirachta indicta A. Juss.) is a member of the mahogany cooking and multiple cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications,
family and is a hardy, fast growing evergreen tree reaching 12 including treatment against intestinal worm infections, malaria,
to 18 meters in height with a girth of up to 1.8 to 2.4 meters. It epilepsy, asthma and fever. Hence, it should not be considred as
thrives in poor soil and has deep roots that allow it to withstand a potential source for biodiesel.
long periods of drought. Its ability to survive in drought-prone
areas makes it very adaptable to the arid and semi-arid zones
PICTURE 20
of Burkina Faso. Reforestation efforts in the Sahel zone have
Multipurpose
been greatly assisted by the cultivation of neem trees. A mature balanite and
tree yields up to 50 kg of fruits and 30 kg of seeds. Seed oil baobab trees
content ranges from 25 to 40 per cent. Neem oil consists mainly near Yako,
of triglycerides and large amounts of triterpenoid compounds. Burkina Faso
It contains four significant saturated fatty acids, of which two
are palmitic acid and two are stearic acid. It also contains
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid and linoleic acids.
Because of its physicochemical properties neem oil qualifies
as an alternative feedstock for the production of biodiesel.
However, while neem oil is not suitable for human consumption,
exceptional oil compounds still prohibit its usage as a potential

4. FEEDSTOCK EXPANSION AND
MARKET POTENTIAL
4.1 SUGARCANE
FIGURE 32
Sugarcane expansion and
market potential
Plant specific water requirements necessarily limit the potential expansion area as alternative
regions with sufficient rainfall do not exist. If the amount of land devoted to sugarcane cultivation
were to be expanded to increase the available feedstock for the production of biofuels, this might
lead to several environmental concerns over deforestation, land degradation, water pollution (as
a result of fertilizer applications) and water scarcity, as well as competition for agricultural inputs.
If food insecurity and the chronic shortage of sugar in Burkina Faso were not sufficient to incite a
significant expansion of the production area, it is even less probable that biofuel considerations and
the anticipated environmental dividend associated with lower GHG emissions would do so.
Given the need for irrigation, the potential expansion of the sugarcane cultivation area for the
benefit of increased biofuel production risks interfering directly with food production. As the
expansion of sugarcane production would likely reduce land available for rice and cereal crops, it
will contravene basic principles of sustainability. Thus, the overall future potential for sugarcane
as an energy crop in Burkina Faso is almost exclusively limited to existing cultivated areas. The
highlighted limitations and constraints disqualify the use of sugarcane as a feasible option for the
development of an alternative fuel industry in Burkina Faso.
Other than that, the limited total volume of available ethanol, poor infrastructure and logistics
remain challenging. Given the estimated high production costs due to poor infrastructure, high
operating costs, outdated technology, and the requirement to irrigate, small-scale sugarcane-based
ethanol production can hardly be profitable in Burkina Faso without major process modifications,
incentives and policy support. Even if costs for bioethanol production were assumed competitive,
the necessary upgrading to bio-jet cannot be properly calculated at this early stage as most R&D
initiatives are still in their pre-commercial stage.
Independent of estimated capital costs, the SIP and ATJ pathways are expensive and process
intermediates, such as butanol and farnesene, are potentially more valuable as chemical feedstocks
or for applications in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.
In addition, the economics of the fuel upgrading process steps, such as dehydration, oligomerization
and hydrogenation, also have to be considered. In comparison to oils and fats, sugars and
lignocellulosic biomass require siginifcant amounts of costly hydrogen. Most hydrogen is typically
produced by the reforming of natural gas, making fossil-fuel consumption a part of the process.
Without even a basic petrochemical infrastructure in Burkina Faso, the lack of hydrogen forfeits the
domestic upgrading of sugar-based feedstock to bio-jet.

Independent of the specific underlying conversion route, none of the sugar-to-jet or AtJ pathways
are commercially viable yet. Technologies are still at the demonstration or small-scale commercial
stage. As a result, most companies involved in ongoing commercialization efforts have received
significant financial and strategic support. However, even with generous financial assistance from
the U.S. Air Force or the U.S. DoD, final alternative fuel costs are not yet competitive.
4.2 SORGHUM
FIGURE 33
Sorghum expansion and
market potential
Aside from mechanization and logistica challenges, reliable biomass production volumes are
essential to balance supply-demand risks and establish basic market structures. Continuous
genetic development through plant breeding is an important tool to improve sorghum production
yield, increase drought tolerance and resistance to pests and diseases, and adapt plants to different
climatic environments.
The development of successful new breeding methods and improved plant varieties introduced
over the last 20 years in the Centre-Nord and the Boucle du Mouhoun regions has already resulted
in sorghum yield increases between 10 and 30 per cent compared to traditional varieties. If
the current trajectory of genetic improvements in bioenergy sorghum continues, the potentially
available feedstock, and in turn bioethanol yields, are likely to increase further.
Many improved sweet sorghum female hybrid parents have already been developed and new hybrid
combinations have been identified to exploit heterosis for sugar yield. Selecting the right cultivars
and crop production technology may ultimately enhance on-farm yields by 50 to 140 per cent.
A well-coordinated plant breeding programme with improved sorghum varieties will thus have a
dual positive effect on food and biofuel production. It provides a vital and reliable source of nutrition
for millions of people living in Burkina Faso while simultaneously increasing bioethanol yields.
Furthermore, the introduction of high performing sorghum varieties in more marginal regions of
Burkina Faso would take advantage of the plant’s greater tolerance to irregular or inadequate
rainfall, in comparison to cotton and maize.
4.3 RICE HUSKS & STRAW

Burkina Faso has strong unexploited potential for rice growing. It is estimated that less than 15 per
cent of the 500 000 ha that could be available for production has been developed. Equally, only a
small percentage of the land potentially suitable for irrigation has been developed.

Among the large rice producing areas in Burkina Faso, the cultivation expansion potential in the
Sourou valley in Sourou province seems particularly attractive (see Figure 35). As of June 2017,
there were 12 000 farmers organized in 25 cooperatives cultivating rice and cereal crops on 6 500
ha of land of which 50 per cent is irrigated. The Sourou river offers a reliable source of irrigation.
However, if only the water of the river could be tapped and pumped into primitive canals, irrigated
rice cultivation could be expanded to cover a total area of over 30 000 ha. Lack of energy still
prevents the installation of pumps needed to elevate the river water by about 4 to 5 meters. With
the proper infrastructure and mechanization in place, rice yields of at least 4 tonnes/ha could be
realized on irrigated land in the Sourou valley.
FIGURE 34
Rice residues expansion and
market potential
FIGURE 35
Rice production and irrigation
potential in the Sourou valley
Based on the above grain-to-residue ratios (Section 3.2.1.1), 20 000 ha of additional rice cropping
area could produce 20 000 tonnes of rice husk (20 000 ha x 4 tonnes of rice/ha x ¼) and 60 000
tonnes of rice straw (20 000 x 4 tonnes rice/ha x ¾). If only a fraction of this feedstock was used
for the generation of bioelectricity to power the water pumps, the Sourou valley could provide a
country-wide reference example for an efficient use of agricultural residues.
Biomass-based electrification projects can be the best practical and cost-effective approach to
provide affordable access to electricity even in remote regions of the country, thereby improving
the production of both food and fuel through integration and efficiency gains.

4.4 ELEPHANT GRASS
FIGURE 36
Elephant grass expansion
and market potential
To quantify the theoretical biomass potential in Burkina Faso, the specific energy content of elephant
grass and the availability of suitable land need to be evaluated. Without further geo-spatial analysis
and detailed simulation models, it is difficult to calculate the accurate resource potential for energy
crop cultivation in Burkina Faso. Based on the conservative assumption that, on average, 10 per
cent of the total agricultural area is available, this would translate into a potential cultivation area
of 1 million ha.
Furthermore, assuming an average energy density of 14.6 MJ/kg at 10 per cent moisture content and
a rather conservative yield of 20 tonnes/ha, and without considering any conversion inefficiencies
and losses, 250 000 ha of elephant grass cultivation could generate the equivalent calorific value
of 7.3 x 107 GJ or 12.5 million boe. Even with a 50 per cent markdown, the calculated potential
would still be enormous in comparison to all other alternative bioenergetic sources. Conservative
assessments show that a realistic amount of lignocellulosic biofuel that could be available for the
aviation sector is around 3.6 x 107 GJ or 6.25 million boe. The demonstrated energetic potential
of elephant grass alone is equivalent to the collective energetic potential of all identified sources
of feedstock together. With regard to potential delivery at requisite quantity and quality, elephant
grass thus qualifies as one of the most promising sources of biomass.
4.5 JATROPHA
FIGURE 37
Jatropha expansion and
market potential
Considering the above observations, findings, constraints and recommendations (Sections 3.4.4.6,
3.4.5.1, 3.4.5.2, 3.4.5.3, 3.4.5.9 and 3.4.5.10, refer), it is to be determined whether jatropha will
find a niche as a biofuel crop in Burkina Faso. This will depend on the strict adherence to proven
principles of agronomic science and the rigorous application of a methodology that incorporates
all critical elements of the biofuel value chain from feedstock production, to combustion engine.
While major challenges persist, agro-climatic conditions suggest reconsidering the feedstock’s
economic and energetic potential. The following assumptions related to the jatropha production
potential in Burkina Faso are based on field visits, on-site validation and verification, interviews
with government representatives, farmers, agronomists, leading scientists, village chiefs and
jatropha entrepreneurs as well as soil and climate data and spatial analysis.

FIGURE 38 FIGURE 39
Jatropha belt Main jatropha cultivation areas
Based on the data collected, the area potentially available for jatropha cultivation extends across
the whole country below a virtual line drawn between the cities of Dédougou, Ziniaré, Koupèla
and Fada-Ngourma. With the exception of protected areas (national parks, wildlife and cynegetic
reserves), rainfed and irrigated croplands, classified forests and water reservoirs, the area covers
the major part of the North-Sudanian and South-Sudanian agro-ecological zones.
The boundary indicated in Figure 39 represents the rainfall threshold isohyet for jatropha. The
identified cultivation area is in line with the southern ecoregions, from the Plaine Kompienga-
Singou in the east, to the Bwa Plateau and Comoé Poni Basin in the southwest, covering a wide
bioclimatic gradient (for a top-level compatibility analysis of the jatropha belt with the specific
ecoregions of Burkina Faso, see Figure 40). With rainfall varying from 650 mm to over 1 000 mm,
the marked ecoregions extend over the more humid Sudanian zone. The more favourable climate
conditions make them quite suitable for jatropha cultivation, land rehabilitation and reforestation
projects. In comparison, no large-scale jatropha cultivation is possible in the northern part of the
country. In the arid Sahelian zone the annual rainfall is too little to support cultivation without any
irrigation or water management.
Allowing for margins of error and the reservations stipulated above, this qualifies in theory at least
20 per cent of the country’s land area, equalling
5.5 million ha.
FIGURE 40
Ecoregions of Burkina Faso

However, while land availability per se is a necessary criterion, area of 100 000 ha may seem realistic, yet ambitious. Assuming
it is insufficient to either justify or enable the establishment an average plant density of 1 250 plants per ha, an improved
of a regional feedstock supply chain. Independent of the land seed yield of 4 tonnes per ha (for first generation non-toxic
compatibility in principle, major limiting factors relate to hybrid jatropha accessions) and a specific calorific value of CJO
inadequacies of the production infrastructure, transportation and of 40 MJ/kg, this translates into an energetic recovery potential
logistics. In addition to a transparent price finding mechanism of 120 000 tonnes of CJO equalling 4 800 000 GJ or 821 000
and a consistent and reliable market demand, this requires boe. This amount represents approximately 60 per cent of the
collection, storage and mechanized de-shelling, expelling and country’s fossil fuel imports in 2016.
processing facilities as well as subsidized access to essential
inputs such as improved seed, fertilizer, and know-how. 4.6 CASHEW NUTS
Otherwise, well-intentioned mobilization efforts to engage rural The main development constraints on the cashew nut sector
communities and scale-up jatropha production on suitable land are the low yield of plantation, the low capacity of existing
risk to be counterproductive. To prevent unintended negative processing units (about 10 per cent of production), limited
socio-economic impacts, conducive market structures are a access to credit, and poor organization of the stakeholders. Most
must. Their implementation calls for capital investments that of the cashews currently produced come from poorly managed
are not affordable to most smallholders. This, in return, calls for cashew tree plantations or hedges, using non-selected planting
public support and government intervention. The challenge lies material. As a consequence, yields and quality of cashew nuts
in ensuring a fair balance of risks related to economic interests, are comparatively low. Average productivity in Burkina Faso is
social and rural development and environmental responsibility. only around 300 to 450 kg/ha. This compares to a yield of 800
Without the basic elements of a potential jatropha value chain to 1 000 kg in neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire. Improving agronomic
in place, focus on land availability and suitability alone will practices could potentially double the current production volume
not be sufficient to calculate production potential. Therefore, per hectare. In addition, high-yielding seedling production
it is suggested to apply a further markdown of 90 per cent, from improved planting material and select intercropping with
still leaving a potential cultivation are of around 500 000 ha, sesame, beans, peanuts and jatropha could increase yields up
corresponding to 5.6 per cent of the arable land in Burkina Faso. to 1 200 kg/ha.
This number is in line with recent estimates of the Ministry of
Energy. While this figure has not been formally endorsed by To ensure that a fair share of the value-added chain of cashew
the Government of Burkina Faso, it nevertheless reappears in a
nut production and processing remains in the country, Burkina
series of recent biofuel and renewable energy policy documents.
Faso needs to take effective steps and provide active policy
support to facilitate a competitive cashew processing sector.
However, reasonable seed yields cannot be achieved under
Key challenges are to ease market and price distortions; raise
poor agro-climatic conditions with undomesticated species.
the domestic value-added; and increase the processing rate of
Appropriate breeding and seed selection need time and
agricultural products in the country. Currently, 90 per cent of
preparation. This turns the supply of elite planting material
raw cashew nuts are processed abroad. If domestic cashew
into a serious bottleneck. Consequently, cultivation and
nut processing operations could be reactivated and overall
production scale-up depend on plant multiplication efficiencies.
processing capacity increased, this would simultaneously free
Conventional plant multiplication entails the disadvantage of
up a significant volume of available nut shells and related
producing heterogeneous plants with inconsistent seed yields.
CNSL as feedstock for transesterification and transport biofuel
Lacking high-tech breeding centres and specialized nurseries
production. A single CNSL production unit in western Burkina
that can produce uniform, high-yielding hybrids requires an
Faso, in close cooperation with the national union of cashew
additional downward adjustment of the potential jatropha
producers (Union National des Producteurs d’Anacarde (UNPA)),
cultivation area. Bearing these caveats in mind, an estimated
could help resolve the shell problem of cashew processors in
Burkina Faso.
FIGURE 41
Cashew expansion and
market potential

The growth potential for cashew cultivation and CNSL production scale biofuel operations make transport, infrastructure and
in Burkina Faso is significant. In this respect, reference is made logistics particularly challenging. Constraints on infrastructure,
to Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire. Within only a decade, both States mechanization, storage, scalability, cost and process complexity,
have managed to increase their annual cashew nut production risk to prevent the establishment of a functional supply chain
more than tenfold, ranking today among the top 10 cashew nut capable of exploiting locally available agricultural residues
producing countries in the world. and energy sources. For example, a variety of tropical grasses
are suitable for bioenergy production. However, despite the
Just like shea nut production, the cultivation of cashews in promising yield potential of elephant grass, the costs of
Burkina Faso has received governmental recognition as a collection, transportation and storage limit its use as biofuel
strategic agricultural sub-sector. In2010, the Government of without further investment into the supply chain.
Burkina Faso adopted a Strategy for Accelerated Growth and
Sustainable Development (SCADD) that explicitly recognized the In many cases, low energy density also requires some form
advantages of a domestic cashew nut value chain as a means to of mechanical densification and pre-treatment to prepare the
effectively contribute to the alleviation of poverty. biomass for further processing and energy conversion.
In addition to a USD 4 million loan from the Climate Investment Another important aspect of agricultural crop residues relates to
Funds’ FIP (, Burkina Faso has recently been awarded a USD the question of how much plant biomass is to be left on the soil.
5.4 million loan from the African Development Bank (AfDB) to Since soil organic matter reposition is essential for long term soil
finance a major cashew development project in Comoé basin. quality preservation as well as nutrient recycling, not all plant
Based on an innovative public-private-partnership between residues should be collected for fuel production.
the national union of farmers’ cooperatives and the Burkinabe
government, the project is explicitly designed as a reforestation To summarize, each of the analysed feedstocks present different
program (REDD+) aiming to revive the national cashew nut characteristics that make them unique as far as logistics,
industry and mitigating climate change while reducing rural transportation and storage are concerned. Bulk density, harvest
poverty and GHG emissions. Accordingly, Burkina Faso will be seasonality and storage capacity are critical factors affecting not
supported to enhance cashew production through plantations only feedstock supply, but also alternative fuel manufacturing
with selected varieties and improved management practices; plant size and the entire economics of biofuel production and
improve cashew processing capacities; and strengthen the scale-up. In addition, logistics directly impact CO2 emissions,
capacities of the national-level Wouol Farmers’ Association and specific carbon footprint and ultimate conversion efficiency.
its 2 500 members. The plantation area is estimated to grow by
25 000 ha. Of all the energetic recovery options, the production of biofuels
and SAF is probably one of the most complex scenarios
From an environmental sustainability perspective, the project is that require additional public and private investment into
designed to mitigate climate change by restoring degraded soils, infrastructure and mechanization. Preconditions for minimum
reversing deforestation and sequestering carbon in cashew tree investments are reliable market structures and predictable prices
plantations. for agricultural waste products. Otherwise, the mobilization of
necessary resources will remain a challenge.
The African Cashew Alliance is forecasting a production increase
for West Africa of 34 per cent between 2010 and 2020. Burkina To raise awareness, particularly among the farming population,
Faso is expected to grow production over the next five years of the enormous energy potential of agricultural residues and
by at least 12 000 tonnes annually. If processed domestically, biomass waste, it would be advisable to pursue a phased
this could add around 8 400 tonnes of shells or 1 680 tonnes of approach and to begin with a less complex energy conversion
CNSL every year. process. This could imply, for example, the interim set-up of a
small-scale distributed power-generation platform that uses
4.7 STRATEGIC AND FINANCIAL limited amounts of biomass to produce electricity and thermal
energy supplies. By deliberately limiting the energy conversion
CONSIDERATIONS process to smaller size biomass plants for CHP and decentralized
While a number of conversion technologies are potentially energy solutions, farmers would directly benefit from their land’s
available to produce drop-in SAF, it is more likely that the resources hitherto left unexploited, for example, by operating
availability and logistical considerations around the underlying
water pumps. At the same time, farmers and stakeholders will
feedstocks will actually be the key factors in determining the
gradually become familiar with logistics and process economics,
validity of a given biofuel value chain. Similar to the difficulties
a necessary precondition for large-scale integration of renewable
facing the establishment of a sorghum-derived feedstock supply energy sources into the biofuel value chain.
chain (refer to Section 3.1.2.3 for details), the large quantities
of agricultural residues required to support commercial

5. CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
5.1 FARMER MOBILIZATION
Setting up a biofuel value chain is a complex undertaking which requires coordination of multiple
interdependent parameters and cooperation among all stakeholders. Independent of feedstock
related challenges (e.g. agronomics, sustainability, yield and production costs), chances are that
(at one point) work force mobilization and training will play a major role. In this context, the notion
of ‘mobilization’ is not restricted to agricultural workforce engagement, but also encompasses
capacity-building and training of human resources for mechanization, including technicians and
engineers, as well as commercial farmers and agribusiness managers.
For reasons of practicality, scale, time to market and administrative workload, farmer reactivation
is highly dependent on aggregators that are positioned, qualified and trusted to pool and represent
the interests of hundreds or even thousands of individual farmers. The challenge is to find the right
domestic partner/aggregator. Sub-Saharan Africa is among the most ethnically and linguistically
diverse regions of the world, with these identities greatly influencing the social, economic and
political milieu. For example, in Burkina Faso, traditional chiefs exert an important influence in
rural areas and on rural society. The strong influence on the agricultural community results from
a unique combination of ancient feudal system, ethnic heritage and constitutional monarchy. As a
result, local ethnic authorities have considerable de facto power in allocating land rights, mostly in
rural communities that are quite often subject to customary, rather than national law. Tribal leaders
and local chiefs also settle disputes and act as formal or ad-hoc arbitrators and judges. Moreover,
these leaders typically enjoy significant popular support, and are often more trusted than elected
members of the parliament, national courts, and police officers.
The Mossi society constitutes about 40 per cent of the country’s population, the largest ethnic group
in Burkina Faso. Over the years, their leaders have not only complemented government action,
especially in regions where government presence is weak, but have also played a critical role in
delivering social services, reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development, thus acting
as intermediaries between the central government and the local economy. Their undisputable role
in the governance sector and their continuous involvement in active politics and day-to-day affairs
have created an atmosphere of trust, responsibility and accountability.
In the interest of mobilizing and facilitating the widest and deepest possible participation of the
domestic farming population, tribal leaders and representatives of Burkinabe civil society should
be encouraged to assume a mediating role and get engaged in the nationwide re-launch of the
envisaged biofuel value chain. Deliberate integration of the civil society and respected tribal leaders
may thus help trigger significant mobilization capacity among the farming population.
5.2 SEED SELECTION AND PLANT BREEDING

Independent of the biofuel feedstock identified, seeds are typically the starting material for
successful cultivation. During the first months of cultivation, early growth depends strongly on
seed quality. Seed quality and genetic purity are fundamental requirements towards successful
crop establishment and are a critical component in the profitability of perennial crops. The
negative experience with jatropha has demonstrated that proper seed selection and plant breeding
programmes are required to maximize major agronomical important traits such as seed and oil
yield, seed and oil composition, flowering behaviour, tree morphology and disease resistance.
Genomic wide selection (GWS) is a promising approach to obtain suitable phenotypic evaluations
for improving the selection accuracy in plant breeding, particularly in species with long life cycles,

such as jatropha. GWS has become an important tool to help Heterosis (or hybrid vigour) refers to the phenomenon that
breeders in plant and animal breeding due to its performance as progeny of diverse varieties of a species or crosses between
a prediction model by associating molecular marker information species exhibit greater biomass, speed of development,
with phenotypic information, without the need for conducting and increased productivity or superiority than both parents.
laborious and expensive phenotyping trials at the beginning Accordingly, F1 hybrid yields of non-toxic elite jatropha cultivars
of the breeding cycle. By significantly shortening the length of are significantly higher than comparable yield data for wild plants.
the breeding cycle, GWS improves the efficiency of breeding In short, an F1 hybrid is the result of crossing two pure lines to
programmes, allowing breeders to maximize grain yield and achieve the desired result. Scientific breeding programmes have
seed oil content in jatropha. made it possible not only to bring out the outstanding qualities
of the parent plants, but in most cases, these qualities have
Appropriate breeding and germplasm selection should be been enhanced and new desirable characteristics added to the
undertaken early on in the process so that jatropha farmers can resultant hybrid plants. As a result of systematic breeding trials
benefit from genetically improved planting material. It is very in Madagascar, India, Cameroon and Paraguay, first generation
likely that proper plant breeding may partly resolve the problem jatropha hybrids are generating 4 tonnes/ha (planting density
of unsatisfactory yields and result in high-yielding jatropha of 1 250 plants/ha). Second generation jatropha hybrids are
varieties. Results from jatropha breeding programmes have only expected to perform even better, generating a seed yield of up to
just started to become available and were not used at all in the 6 tonnes/ha in comparison to wild species with only 0.5 tonnes/
early African projects. However, a breeding and development ha. In addition to seed and oil yield optimization, the value of the
cycle for the introduction of a new commercial cultivar may protein-rich kernel meal also increases significantly, as the high
take several years. Only a long period of monitoring the plant yielding cultivars do not need to be detoxified for animal feeding.
will provide the fullest understanding of its yield profile, its
resistance to cropping induced biotic stress, climate variability With regards to sorghum, the development of successful new
and disease and pest predation. Nevertheless, it should also be breeding methods and improved plant varieties introduced over
noted that the main cash crops in the region have gone through the last 20 years in the Centre-Nord and the Boucle du Mouhoun
hundreds of years of genetic improvement, something that was regions has already resulted in sorghum yield increases
never the case with jatropha anywhere in the world. between 10 and 30 per cent compared to traditional varieties.
If the current trajectory of genetic improvements in bioenergy
While the necessary breeding process may take many years, sorghum continues, the potentially available feedstock, and thus
selective plant breeding has already produced energy crops that bioethanol yields, are likely to increase further.
are far higher yielding than the original cultivars. The German
company JatroSolutions claims to have measured heterosis in 5.3 AGRONOMIC TRIALS
jatropha hybrids. Agronomic trials should be obligatory before scaling up any
energy crop production. Painful experience has shown that
alleged “miracle crops” have been widely promoted without
sufficient evidence about their true potential. Lacking a sound
scientific grounding, jatropha cultivation in the early years
resembled more of a “gold rush” (new oil rush) than a quest
for sustainable green energy. With land use rights secured
and thousands of farmers mobilized, cultivation and plantation
activities took off everywhere, particularly in Mexico, Brazil,
India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and Madagascar.
Jatropha was, for a time, the number one cause of land grabs
in Asia and Africa. Madagascar, Tanzania, Mozambique and
Rwanda actually experienced some of the most extensive large-
scale land allocations for jatropha in Africa, at least on paper. To
prevent such symptoms of failure, full and scientifically rigorous
FIGURE 42 trials must be undertaken in the expansion region prior to large-
Heterosis effect scale promotion of the crop. Extended local field trials conducted

under plantation conditions would provide an important first 5.4.1 PRICE FLOORS & SEED PURCHASE
step to build a solid knowledge basis to guide the subsequent Recent history in Burkina Faso has shown that farmers
expansion of the crop. Any claim that a particular crop can participating in bioenergy crop cultivation schemes were often
perform far better under certain conditions than competing crops left stranded without a buyer, a market and an acceptable price
would require sound scientific support before being accepted for their product. The result was widespread economic and
and implemented on a large scale. social disenchantment, which needs to be avoided.
5.4 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION The government could be called on to intervene on behalf of

their farmers/producers and offer agricultural price floors if
AND PARTICIPATION the national market for jatropha seeds does not find its own
The imbalance of imperfect market structures (conditions) leads equilibrium price. With a price floor, the government forbids a
to price volatility and the recurrent inability to provide stable price below the crop’s agreed target price. In order to qualify,
and sufficient remuneration for production resources over the producers may be asked to comply with certain sustainability
long term. To provide agricultural producers with a safety net practices and plantation model provisions.
and create a more stable and more predictable environment,
the government may adopt select intervention measures Burkina Faso already has ample experience in providing price
in the agricultural sector to stimulate production and foster
support to cotton farmers in order to sustain production and
commercialization of a given crop.
farmers’ income. While the production of cotton was introduced
at the beginning of the colonial era, large-scale production started
If biofuel crops are deemed beneficial, then governments,
after the creation of the French Textile Company (CFDT) in 1949,
through appropriate policies, should regulate their introduction
which set up a stabilization fund that guaranteed remunerative
and support the development of markets and infrastructure.
and stable prices for farmers. At the time of independence (1960),
cotton production was considered to be the primary source of
However, agricultural policies need to be well-coordinated and
revenue for financing the country’s development.
synchronized. Otherwise, mistakes during the conception phase
could hamper achieving the underlying objectives, jeopardise
5.4.2 (PUBLIC) MARKET INTERMEDIARY -
proper implementation, or result in unexpected costs. For CLEARING HOUSE FUNCTION
example, despite the support that jatropha received in Zambia, To mitigate risks related to buyer-seller agreements, the
the Government still subsidized imported fossil fuels and delayed government may consider the role of a market intermediary
mandating a standard price for biodiesel. This basically made it by providing services similar or comparable to those provided
uneconomical for jatropha ventures to operate. by a clearing house. “Clearing” is the procedure by which an
entity (in this case an authorized government agency) acts as
In addition to dedicated support policies, the portfolio of direct an intermediary and assumes the role of a buyer and seller in
and indirect subsidies includes: a transaction to reconcile orders between transacting parties.
1) direct payments to farmers;
2) price supports implemented with government purchases and Clearing ensures risk management services. It also increases
storage; price transparency and provides smoother and more efficient
3) regulations that set minimum prices by location, end use, or markets as parties can make transfers to a central counterparty
some other characteristic; (the clearing house) rather than to each individual party with
4) crop insurance; whom they have transacted.
5) micro-credits; and
6) free distribution of essential farm inputs (e.g. fertilizers, quality To improve overall market functionality for agricultural products,
planting material such as high yielding jatropha hybrids). the PNDES explicitly foresees several concrete measures that
would help balance and reduce market risks for farmers. These
Throughout the past decade, around 10 per cent of the national measures include, inter alia:
budget has been typically allocated to agriculture. In line with • the establishment of a central purchasing counterparty
the Rural Development Strategy (SDR), staple crop production (Centrale d’achat des intrants et du matériel agricoles,
was supported by subsidies on fertilizer, by distributing improved No. 186);
seeds and by supporting the improvement of irrigation systems. • the establishment of an agricultural seed production
company (Société de production de semences agricoles,
No.197);
• a dedicated mechanism for agricultural risk management
(No.258); and
• a dedicated bank for agricultural finance (No.250).

5.4.3 CROP INSURANCE between ministries ultimately endanger the coordination of
Agricultural insurance is an important instrument to help farmers public action to support the biofuel sector. Instead, the lack of
manage financial impacts of production risks, principally those coordination between public actors generates an institutional
caused by (i) weather, (ii) uncontrollable pest and disease and vacuum which leads to unnecessary conflicts between
(iii) yield fluctuations. Rationale for government intervention stakeholders and prevents necessary investments into the
includes the catastrophic nature of climate change related risks, biofuel sector.
poor yields and market failure. Crop insurance has potential
social, developmental, and poverty reduction benefits, as well Seamless coordination, alignment of strategic goals, information
as fulfilling a role of income stabilization for farmers, financial sharing, and consolidated long-term government support
protection against climate and weather risks, and as a form of are needed, especially given the scarcity of resources and
collateral to facilitate access to agricultural finance. the complexity of the challenges involved. Commitment to
intragovernmental cooperation can facilitate cooperation in
Whilst an agricultural insurance premium subsidy is the most areas of common interest, promote a common operational
common intervention, other enabling measures are equally picture, and enable sharing of critical information and resources.
important, such as technical and administrative assistance. Intragovernmental cooperation is especially important when
there are several separate ministries and other governmental
5.4.4 FARM INPUTS agencies that ultimately pursue similar goals and compete for
Input subsidies account for a large share of agricultural public the same resources.
expenditure. For example, the 2007/2008 food crisis pushed the
Government of Burkina Faso to support staple crop production The prevailing alternative energy landscape in Burkina Faso
by distributing improved seeds and subsidizing half the cost provides an example of scattered and dispersed initiatives,
of fertilizers. As of today, the Government continues to provide duplication of efforts, multiple lines of authority and competing
subsidies to cotton farmers. claims for donor funding and project sovereignty. Instead of
increasing the chances of joint success and capitalizing on
Select government subsidies for select farm inputs, such as organizational diversity towards a common goal, stakeholders
high-quality planting material, mechanic decorticators or central remain rooted in their own culture, authorities, philosophy and
breeding labs, would also be in line with the strategic objectives practices, which are sometimes conflicting.
of the PNDES. Accordingly, the Government is committed to
facilitate access to inputs, equipment and financing and provide The following list highlights the main actors and promoters
market incentives. that officially share responsibility and oversight of renewable
energy issues in general, and biofuel supply chain projects in
With regard to supporting select farm inputs, the Government of particular. While a large number of public bodies seems to be
Malawi for example has successfully done this by subsidizing involved, their roles are not well defined, which renders policy
fertilizers to maize producers, enabling the country to turn into a implementation, resource allocation and project implementation
net exporter of maize in the region. difficult. In addition to the Ministry of Energy (in particular the
Renewable Energy Directorate), the Ministry of Agriculture and
5.5 INTRAGOVERNMENTAL Food Security, the Ministry of Environment, Green Economy and
Climate Change, and the Ministry of Finance, these key actors
COOPERATION are involved in Burkina Faso:
Establishing a biofuel value chain in a developing country
• ANADEB Agence Nationale pour le Développement
requires not only close collaboration across multiple industry
des Biocarburants (National Agency for the
sectors, but among relevant government bodies as well.
Promotion of Biofuels)
• ANEREE Agence Nationale des Énergies Renouvelables et
In terms of the multi-sectoral specificity of biofuels, coordination
de l’Efficacité Énergétique (National Agency for
and concerted action is particularly critical when federal
Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency)
government ministries are deciding which entity will assume
• APROJER Association pour la Promotion du Jatropha et
leadership on the issue. When government departments and
des Énergies Renouvelables (Association for the
agencies do not coordinate effectively, they may interpret
Promotion of Jatropha and Renewable Energies)
national policy guidance differently, develop different objectives
• CICAFIB Comité interministériel chargé de la coordination
20
and strategies, and set different priorities, and therefore, not
des activités de développement des filières
act in concert toward national objectives. Information and
biocarburants (Interministerial Committee for the
transparency constitute important elements in the framework of
coordination of the domestic biofuel sector)
governance and accountability. Equal and timely dissemination
• CIRAD Centre de coopération Internationale en
of information is essential for the effective functioning of market
Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement
forces and the balancing of risks. A robust information exchange
(Agricultural Research Centre for International
among government departments would facilitate the formulation
Development)
of viable options. Power struggles and ideological conflicts
20
The interministerial committee responsible for the coordination of development activities of the biofuel sector was set up in 2008 to promote consultation among institutional
actors, define relevant biofuel policies and set up a framework for concerted action involving multiple public and private actors. However, this group is not currently active.

• CNRST Centre national de la recherche scientifique et all willing project partners into joint planning as early as possible,
technologique (National Research Centre for so an integrated, comprehensive and achievable execution plan
Science and Technology) can be developed. Initial requirements for integration include clear
• INERA Institut Nationale de l’Environnement et de definition of roles, responsibilities and accountability as well as
Recherches Agricole (Environmental Institute for clarification of objectives.
Agricultural Research)
• IRAM Institut de Recherches et d’Applications des A precondition for this integrated and concerted effort is common
Méthodes de Développement (Research and understanding. Common understanding will assist in mitigating
Development Institute) unnecessary conflict and unintended misconceptions. In this
• IRSAT Institut de Recherche en Sciences Appliquées regard, the State, the private sector, and civil society, in their
et Technologies (Research Institute for Applied respective roles, must act in a complementary manner, rather
Science and Technology) than substituting one another. The State will help the market
• ROPPA Réseau des organisations paysannes et des work better by creating the necessary institutions, which will
producteurs agricoles (Network of farmers’ help increase investor confidence and reduce transaction costs.
organizations and agricultural producers) This will take place through the implementation of coherent
• SP/CONEDD Secrétariat Permanent du Conseil National and effective sector policies with efficient modes of governance
pour l’Environnement et le Développement and attention to issues of equity and accountability for all
Durable (National Council for Environment and development actors.
Sustainable Development)
• UEMOA Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africain The main conclusions can be summarised as follows:
(West African Economic and Monetary Union) i. Intragovernmental cooperation is needed, based on a
• UNAPROFIJA Union Nationale pour la Promotion de la collaborative environment in which participants are
filière Jatropha Curcas (National Union for the encouraged to solve problems and share information,
promotion of the Jatropha value chain) knowledge, perceptions, ideas, and concepts.
ii. Given the multi-sectoral specificity of biofuels, any
Coordination and cooperation is needed among all stakeholders central coordinating platform needs to be equipped with
towards common objectives. The leverage of cross-governmental operational autonomy, where neutrality, independence and
capabilities and the translation of national objectives into unified authority need to be ensured.
action are essential to unity of effort, and ultimately mission iii. Despite the multi-sectoral nature of biofuels, their
success. Unified planning that considers the capabilities of all promotion from the sole perspective of energy is not
stakeholders is particularly important with regard to resource- sufficient. Biofuel-related policies focusing on technical and
sensitive challenges and projects. economic aspects of biomass-based energy production
without sufficiently taking into account socio-economic and
To achieve the overreaching common objectives of climate environmental objectives linked to agricultural production
change mitigation, GHG emissions reduction, poverty alleviation, are inadequate to secure the level of involvement and
rural development and land rehabilitation, they need to support needed. Going beyond the energy dimension
be integrated at the strategic level and coordinated at the and anchoring the issue within the broader field of rural
operational level with the activities of participating government development could help to facilitate the establishment of
departments and agencies, relevant international organizations, relationships and critical cooperation between numerous
NGOs, and representatives from the private sector. ministries, notably those of agriculture, energy, territory and
the environment.
In Burkina Faso, democratically elected leaders are also encouraged
to collaborate with tribal leaders, as historic tribal structures
5.6 MARKET DEMAND AND OFF-TAKE
have contemporary significance. Traditional moral authority can
provide societies in transition with stability, and for States where COMMITMENTS
democracy has been subverted, wise guidance for retrieving it. Renewable energy ventures that involve the development
In Burkina Faso, civil society is an increasingly important agent of upstream bioenergy crop plantations (in particular the
for promoting sustainable development and the good governance, mobilization of thousands of farmers needed to cultivate large
in terms of transparency, effectiveness, openness, responsiveness tracts of land), and related biofuel production require large
and accountability. The deliberate integration of tribal leaders financial resources from investors. With project developers
and civil society representatives has the potential to contribute lacking proprietary financial strength and a solid balance sheet,
to a higher level of accountability. If empowered and properly third party financial support and funding depend to a large extent
monitored, a strong and vigorous civil society can be a critical on project financing. Project finance is an exercise in project
driver of reform, offering tremendous potential in activating an risk identification. The more accurately the existing risks can
engaged and informed citizenry. To ensure unity of effort and be quantified and controlled, the better the parties involved can
reduce/prevent costly inefficiencies, it is vital to integrate any and negotiate the allocation of such risks to the party most prepared
or able to bear each of the risks. Market risk plays a crucial

role in the funding process. Without a market and reliable off- and processed.
take commitments for the envisaged end products, it will be In addition to technical and logistical constraints, significant
difficult to encourage investments into necessary farm inputs barriers relate to project financing and risk. The high risks
and mobilize large scale production. associated with sustainable fuel projects inherently affect
the willingness to invest and the availability and conditions of
A long-term agreement for a defined volume of fuel, at a project financing.
specified price, provides demand assurance, ideally from a
creditworthy counterparty (e.g. jet fuel trading company, airline Keeping costs under control and pricing of SAF ultimately
or airline fuel consortium). Such an arrangement could facilitate competitive, calls for a controlled vertical integration of the
the alternative fuel producer to confidently solicit external whole supply chain and the collaborative engagement of
investor production financing. multiple stakeholders – irrespective of whether they represent
private, public, political, technical or scientific interests.
Where airlines or relevant counterparts are reluctant to provide
reliable fuel off-take commitments, this will lead to a one-sided To balance all types of related risks (production, investment,
allocation of risks to the disadvantage of producing farmers. market, price, political), cross-sector cooperation and
A long-term, bankable fuel off-take agreement is the crucial partnerships are required. Accordingly, the long-term
component needed to trigger third party funding to facilitate development and deployment of SAF requires close cooperation
commercial production scale-up that will secure future feedstock and interaction between relevant government agencies, the
and SAF supply at pre-agreed prices. Concluding timely airline industry, aviation and SAF stakeholders in the value chain to
off-take agreements prior to the launch of large-scale plantation leverage technological advancement and operational processes.
activities will contribute to overall risk balancing between Partnerships between stakeholders operating at different
stakeholders involved, help raise third party project funding and stages along the value chain appear to offer the advantage of
accelerate alternative fuel production. conciliating the interests of most of the stakeholders involved.
5.7 SUPPLY CHAIN OPTIMIZATION One potential opportunity for reducing the conversion cost for
A necessary precursor to the development, production, and use alternative fuels is to develop partnerships with petroleum
of economically viable SAF is the identification of a functional refinery owners and/or operators and develop strategies for
domestic supply chain. Such a supply chain for SAF production co-processing or blending renewable derived intermediates
presents social and economic opportunities that go far beyond the with crude oil fractions in existing infrastructure. This strategy
immediate feedstock and fuel-related metrics. The identification has been validated, for example, by Delta Airlines which in
and optimization of a domestic supply chain will depend, inter 2012 bought a 185 000 barrel per day (bpd) oil refinery in
alia, on the region, feedstock, climate, agro-economic and social Trainer, Pennsylvania, from ConocoPhillips. Delta’s goal for this
conditions as well as available infrastructure and logistics. By transaction was to mitigate risk stemming from the “cracking
integrating the country’s vital needs for food and energy into spread” (the price difference between crude oil and jet fuel)
the alternative fuel value chain, the civil aviation sector could and thus, to generate cost savings. Delta hopes to use the
Trainer refinery to produce jet fuel at a lower cost than it would
become a true catalyst for economic and social development in
rural Burkina Faso, stimulating green growth, creating new jobs otherwise pay on the market. Delta expected the Trainer refinery
and providing new markets for farmers and producers, while purchase to reduce its annual costs by USD 300 million. As of
at the same time striving to achieve the industry’s ambitious December 2016, Delta had decided to start marketing its own
targets for reducing its carbon footprint. gasoline and diesel fuel produced at the refinery, rather than
swap it under existing contracts.
In practice, each component of the SAF supply chain is connected
to and influences the other components. For example, the To close the loop between feedstock cultivation and full market
specific source of biomass will determine the most suitable fuel integration at predictable and competitive prices, efficient and
conversion technology. The state of science and technologies cost-conscious conversion solutions must be taken into account
in feedstock conversion, in turn, directly affects the quality and every bit as much as prevailing infrastructure and logistics
quantity of feedstock available for fuel conversion and the R&D conditions. In the long run, the full integration of major supply
to scale-up for commercial production. chain parameters promises to be the only way to monitor and
control the cost of production and offer competitively priced SAF
While a number of conversion technologies already exist to to the aviation industry.
produce alternative fuels, it is more likely that the availability
and logistical considerations around the feedstock will actually With no large vertical integrator driving the overall development
be the key factors in determining the feasibility and viability of of the entire supply chain, it will be difficult to manage the
fuel production (see Figure 43). Key factors in the development of simultaneous and independent growth of the feedstock supply
an alternative fuel supply chain are the logistical considerations chains and conversion facilities at appropriate scales. As
highlighted by the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board,
of where the biomass is grown and how it is collected, stored
this may prove particularly challenging for feedstock systems

that take several years to achieve scale or maturity and have no other viable customers. Several
uncertainties exist if the feedstock is available prior to being needed in the conversion facility, such
as who will buy it, at what price, if it will be stored without degradation, or who will pay for the
storage. At the same time, questions on who will capitalize and build a production facility without
the assurance that feedstocks will be available when needed, would also need to be addressed.
Integration does not necessarily mean that all process steps must be implemented at the same
geographic location. Economies of scale and competitive advantages may suggest that individual
steps may be spread out over various domestic and international locations. In the case of Burkina
Faso, this might imply that the domestic supply chain stops with basic feedstock processing
(T1) while more complex refining and hydrotreatment operations (T2) would be concentrated at
strategic locations overseas. This geographic segmentation would allow Burkina Faso to leverage
existing refining, transportation, storage and handling infrastructure associated with SAF production
without incurring any additional financial obligations in this respect.
Instead, a temporary and deliberate focusing on biodiesel production could still send a strong signal
of commitment while potentially benefiting the airport’s diesel-powered ground fleet. Chances
are that constraints on infrastructure, mechanization, transportation and capex requirements
may risk hampering or even preventing the establishment of a functional supply chain capable
of exploiting locally available sources of biomass. Instead of aiming directly for ambitious SAF
production, identified constraints may rather suggest a phased approach, allowing for the gradual
implementation of a supply chain that can initially also include rural electrification and biodiesel
options as tangible first steps towards future SAF production.
To minimize potential supply chain disruptions, lower capital costs and reduce investment risks,
fully integrated domestic and/or regional biomass conversion and refinery technology solutions
(T2) will only become a strategic option for Burkina Faso once minimum feedstock production
thresholds are reached and tangible stakeholder commitments from airlines and investors are in
place. To incentivize and integrate efforts among all stakeholders involved in the SAF supply chain
adequate policies and collaborative initiatives will be needed.
5.8 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Sustainable aviation in the context of Burkina Faso, arguably, goes beyond shifting to low carbon
fuels or practices in the aviation sector. Achieving sustainable aviation in Burkina Faso requires
significant financial assistance, capacity development and technology transfer to address several
pre-existing infrastructural deficits. The transfer of technology, the building of capacity and
improvements in farming techniques will not only help rural communities in Burkina Faso to gain
access to energy, but also increase food production, improve the ability to embark on income
generating activities, add value to products, empower women and protect soil from erosion.
Developed countries have a general obligation to facilitate the transfer of environmentally
sound technologies (ESTs) to developing countries in order to foster emission reduction in key
sectors, such as transportation and aviation. Article 4(1) (c) of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) explicitly calls upon industrialized countries to promote
and cooperate in the transfer of technologies, practices and processes that control, reduce or
prevent anthropogenic emissions of GHG in the transport sector. It also provides that developed
countries shall promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to ESTs
and know-how needed by the developing country parties to meet emission reductions targets.
However, a pre-condition for the transfer of urgently needed tissue culture propagation and
biomass processing and expelling technologies is an adequate level of protection accorded
to intellectual property rights. International technology providers need to be assured that their
innovations and technological advancements are not abused or deployed without permission or
protection under the relevant national regulatory regime. To attract related investments, Burkina
Faso needs to make sure that technology providers are not faced with regulatory, institutional
and/or bureaucratic barriers that inhibit technology transfer.

FIGURE 43
Sustainable Aviation Fuel
Supply Chain

6. SOURCES OF FINANCING
6.1 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS
Public-private partnerships (PPP) and cooperation between the Governmentof Burkina Faso and
the private sector, including industry, NGOs and academia are crucial to addressing key scientific
and technical challenges and international financing. The PPP approach is not only a strategic tool
to mobilize private financing and expertise; it can also ensure better allocation of public resources
and typically boost private sector confidence. A new Law on public private partnership was adopted
by the National Assembly of Burkina Faso in July 2017. One of the first renewable energy projects
involves the solar electrification of 150 schools and 30 general education colleges. As Burkina Faso
has already put in place an enabling PPP legislative and regulatory framework, forming public-
private partnerships to commercialize the production of biofuels appears feasible. However, and
as already stated in this study (refer to Section 6.5), there is a need to improve coordination
across various government departments for project approval. For the Government of Burkina Faso,
it appears to be worth considering creating a single access point which facilitates the central
processing, execution and monitoring of renewable energy projects.
6.2 GOLD REVENUES: REALLOCATING NATURAL WEALTH

From 2008 to 2015, the Burkinabe gold mines paid about USD 2 billion to the Treasury for about
144 tonnes of gold produced. The average contribution over the last three years equalled USD
311 million/year.
Mining could be an important source of financing for the development of the agricultural sector
and the implementation of qualified biofuel production projects. In this regard, the mining
sector plays a particularly ambiguous role as it is perceived simultaneously as a blessing and a
curse. While the increase in gold exploration and production generates the majority of the gross
national income and accounts for about 70 per cent of total export revenues, mining activities
contribute in a disproportionate way to environmental degradation, loss of agricultural land and
social imbalances. Excessive energy needs further highlight the disparity. While less than 3
per cent of the rural population have access to electricity, the recent surge in gold mining and
sector-related related industrial energy consumption has even worsened the country’s chronic
electricity shortage.
PICTURE 21
Artisanal gold mining in
Burkina Faso
In recent years, the discovery of gold and the start of large-scale mining operations
has drawn attention away from the agricultural sector. Occupying the fourth position in
Africa, Burkina Faso has become the fastest growing gold producer in the world with
some of the most productive mines and the highest graded gold deposits.

The extraction of gold is environmentally hazardous at virtually mining operators) into the Development Fund. Similarly, the
all stages and makes land unusable for agriculture. The Rehabilitation Fund will also be financed through a mandatory
construction and exploitation usually involve the clearing of annual contribution from mining companies that will be
land given that most modern gold mines in Burkina Faso are determined based on an environmental impact assessment.
open-pit. This has led to significant deforestation, diversion Depending on the interpretation of “local development” and
of water streams and erosion. When the ore is extracted, the “land rehabilitation”, there appears to be an opportunity at
process of separating gold from other materials involves use present to secure urgently needed funds for select agricultural
of highly hazardous chemicals, which can lead to harmful projects directly from the mining sector. In connection with
soil and groundwater contamination. If top soil has not been environmental protection obligation provisions under existing
preserved in time, ultimate mine closure can lead to irreversible license agreements (cf. e.g. Art 11 Essakane Mine exploitation
environmental degradation. license, or Art. 11 Roxgold Sanu S.A. Yaramoko Concession),
it is arguable that the Government of Burkina Faso has the
In view of its environmental damage, the gold mining sector is regulatory authority to enforce compliance with environmental,
somewhat predetermined to contribute its share to social and development, rehabilitation, health, and other standards.
economic development and help the country sustain its growth In other words, a portion of gold revenues may be used to
and self-reliance. address the challenges of climate change and contribute to the
most pressing sustainable development needs. This may well
All gold mines in Burkina Faso are majority-owned by foreign include, among others:
multinational companies. As a result, the main avenues through • fertilizer and essential input subsidies;
which Burkina Faso benefits from the mineral revenues is • price support schemes and feedstock floor pricing;
through government tax revenues, a 10 per cent free equity • basic market infrastructure; and
State participation (carried interest) and the entitlement to a • seed propagation labs.
3 to 5 per cent sliding royalty on gold production (cf. Art. 13
Essakane Mine exploitation license). The effectiveness of this A partial reallocation of natural wealth also seems to be
mechanism depends in turn on the fairness of the mining supported by the main strategic objectives of the PNDES.
concession agreements negotiated. According to objective No. 3.5.1., the sustainable management
of natural resources shall explicitly include the fight against
How to share mining revenues between the central the exploitation of mineral resources.
government and local communities in mining and rural areas
is a highly contentious issue in Burkina Faso. The amount of Concrete challenges to be addressed include the improvement
any additional revenues from mineral development to allocate of mining impact on local development; the improvement of
to the local level as opposed to other national purposes is a control and monitoring of mining activities; and the appropriate
political decision within the sphere of sovereign government. use of mining revenue.
Few countries with mineral development have been able to
resolve this issue satisfactorily. If Burkina Faso demonstrates that it can reallocate at least
a small percentage of gold and or other mining revenues
However, minerals and mining revenues are essential to address to sustainable bioenergy and biofuel production projects,
climate change and contribute to the pursuit of sustainable such commitment could be interpreted as responsible, self-
development goals. How to ensure that mineral resource reliant action that could trigger matching funds from foreign
wealth contributes to sustainable economic development has governments, donors and investors.
been a perennial topic concerning many African States. It is an
especially pressing issue in a country that is rich in resources,
6.3 CAPITALIZING ON REFORESTATION
but performs poorly on a host of development indicators.
AND AGROFORESTRY
The Preamble of the Roxgold Sanu S.A. Yaramoko Concession In addition to jatropha, two other indigenous plant species
(2015) explicitly recognizes that the country’s mineral have been identified as a potential feedstock source for biofuel
resources play an important role for the economic development production, i.e. cashew trees and shea trees. To overcome low
of Burkina Faso. In addition, the new Mining Code, which was yield, logistics and infrastructure constraints and install basic
passed in 2015, provides various options to procure financial processing facilities, funding requirements are significant.
resources that are specifically aimed at measures in favour
of “local development” and “land rehabilitation”. The code To alleviate public and government funding pressure,
foresees the creation of four new funds, including a local innovative valuation and pricing models may be required. On
Development Fund and a Rehabilitation Fund. Accordingly, the one hand, socio-economic co-benefits could potentially
exploitation license holders are obliged to pay 1 per cent of be quantified and credited towards the cost of production
their monthly gross turnover (or the value of the extracted (Sections 6.4 and 6.6, refer). Placing a fair price on carbon,
minerals) to the local Development Fund. The State will also on the other hand, could also facilitate commercial viability of
pay 20 per cent of its mining revenues (i.e. royalties paid by large-scale feedstock production projects.

Recognized carbon offsets include emission reduction credits c. promote sustainable forest management; as well as
from the UNFCCC’s Clean Development Mechanism, through (2) lay the ground work for a distinct biofuel value chain in its
which States purchase emissions reductions from developing own right.
countries, or from other formal carbon offsetting programmes,
such as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) or the Gold Standard. Depending on land use compatibility issues and the specific
A tradable offset “credit” is generated for each tonne of CO2 plants/trees in question, reforestation, agroforestry and carbon
equivalent that is abated by eligible GHG-reducing activities. sequestration projects in Burkina Faso may simultaneously
These credits can then be purchased and retired by parties, qualify as renewable energy projects. Several African reference
such as airlines and States, to formally offset their emissions examples exist (e.g. the “Gilé REDD+ Project” in Zambézia,
and contribute to achieving emissions reduction goals. Mozambique or the “Cashew Infrastructure Development
Project” in Zambia) where the underlying commercialization
GHG emission reductions can potentially be certified and traded of carbon credits (awarded for the avoidance, sequestration,
as credits in the carbon market, providing additional revenue or reduction of 1 tonne of CO2e) reveals relevant funding
that can facilitate the deployment of SAF projects and mitigate opportunities.
projects’ investment cost. Tradable carbon credits can basically
be generated in two different ways, be it through the production 6.3.1 COMOÉ BASIN CASHEW PROJECT
and use of SAF in replacement of current aviation fuel, or from In 2010, Burkina Faso was one of the eight pilot beneficiaries
preceding projects and activities leading to the production and of the FIP, an initiative of the world Bank’s Strategic Climate
use of alternative fuels. This may include carbon sequestration Investment Fund. The FIP seeks to facilitate the reduction of
from reforestation and bioenergy plantation activities, such as deforestation and forest degradation and promote sustainable
biomass feedstock development and production. forest management, thereby helping to reduce GHG emissions,
maintain the forest carbon stock and reduce poverty. In
In another scenario, the generation of carbon credits would 2013, the Burkinabe Wouol Farmers’ Association submitted
not be directly linked to the emissions reductions related to a proposal for a cashew development support project in the
the use of alternative fuels, but rather to specific aspects of Comoé Basin (covering the Cascades, Hauts Bassins and Sud-
the feedstock production process, which constitutes a critical Ouest regions) which was accepted for funding.
upstream milestone in the total supply chain. Linking feedstock
production to the generation of eligible carbon credits could help Cashew trees offer multiple benefits, in that they:
incentivize early financial engagement by aircraft operators. 1) create income in rural areas;
Methodologies to determine the portfolio of eligible carbon 2) restore degraded soils; and
offsetting programmes are still under development. The ICAO 3) sequester carbon (~ 0.33 t CO2e/ha) in areas where land is
Council will determine which types of offsetting programmes, increasingly degraded.
emissions units and carbon credits will ultimately be eligible for
use by aircraft operators intending to comply with regulatory It is worth noting that cashew planting was first introduced in
offsetting requirements. Burkina Faso for this purpose and not to produce cashew nuts.
Accordingly, the intended plantation of 25 000 ha of cashew
By expanding the focus beyond the original energy and in agroforestry is expected to increase carbon sequestration
biofuel value chain to also include the positive side-effects of capacity and reduce rural poverty, directly benefiting thousands
reforestation, land rehabilitation and carbon sequestration, the of producers and small processors. Other positive social
Government of Burkina Faso may tap into necessary alternative impacts include securing and diversifying agricultural produce,
sources of funding. strengthening food security, and improving the availability of
production, processing and storage infrastructure and equipment.
In addition to energy recovery and biofuel production, the
extra dimension of reforestation and agroforestry brings its While officially labelled as an effort to address climate change,
own specific advantages and merits. No matter whether the the addition of 25 000 ha of new cashew plantations to the
underlying motivation for potential funding support is driven by existing cultivation area will also increase the availability of
renewable energy or forest conservation concerns, they prove to cashew nut shells and thus CNSL oil. Based on a planting
be two sides of the same coin linked by the leitmotif of the fight density of 60 trees/ha (allowing the producers to simultaneously
against climate change. Ideally, this nexus can prove mutually plant other crops such as ginger, hibiscus, sesame, peas and
advantageous by providing a stabilizing effect on project groundnuts without creating additional land pressure) and an
implementation and by securing overall project viability. improved yield of 800 kg/ha, an additional production capacity
A balanced mix of policies with an emphasis on reforestation can of 20 000 tonnes of raw cashew nuts per year will provide
pursue parallel goals, such as: around 14 000 tonnes of shells with a recoverable CNSL oil
(1) mobilizing international financing to: content of 2 800 tonnes. This feedstock source for biofuel
a. reduce GHG emissions; production is in addition to the benefits described above and
b. facilitate the reduction of deforestation and forest the commercialization of 3.8 million tonnes of CO2 emissions
degradation; and that are estimated to be generated by the project.
The cashew project will be implemented over a five-year period also provide feedstock for biofuel production. Funding for
(2017-2021) by a Project Coordination Unit to be located within carbon credit commercialization efforts may thus indirectly
the Ministry of the Environment, Green Economy and Climate facilitate biofuel production.
Change. Key performance indicators to be monitored include,
inter alia: For example, the Jatropha Mali Initiative (JMI) was validated
1) cashew productivity; in 2012 as one of the first VCS agroforestry projects in West
2) the amount of cashew nuts processed and certified; Africa. Located in the Kayes region of south-western Mali,
3) the surface area of the new agroforestry plantations; the project implements agroforestry systems by cultivating
4) additional CO₂ sequestration; jatropha on 15 000 ha of degraded land. Jatropha is used to
5) the number of jobs created in the cashew sub-sector; stabilize and improve soil fertility and provide windbreaks. JMI
6) the number of farmers trained in good organic farming works with thousands of individual farmers that are grouped in
practices; the regional Union des Sociétés Coopératives des Producteurs
7) the number of cooperatives supported in farm management de Pourghère du Cercle de Kita. Each farmer has been assigned
(including women); and a plot of 0.5 to 2 ha and jatropha is planted at a density of 1
8) the number of processing units upgraded or constructed. 200 trees/ha.
6.3.2 SHEA REFORESTATION PROJECTS Similarly, the Jatropha Agroforestry Project Senegal was
(GHANA AND MALI) validated under the VCS in 2013 and operates in several semi-
While the feedstock production potential from cashew rural areas of Senegal, around Fatick, Kaolack and Kaffrine.
plantations ultimately remains limited, reforestation projects The project applies sustainable management practices for the
using shea trees seem to be a particularly attractive option purpose of carbon storage (in plant biomass and soil), as well
for Burkina Faso. Shea trees are ubiquitous in Burkina Faso. as providing opportunities for income and development for the
Intensification of shea nut production in the south-western local population. The project proponent is the African National
part of the country and the Plateau-Central region should Oil Corporation (ANOC) which collaborates with 20 villages and
be possible and have the potential to sustainably increase more than 7 000 farmers.
people’s income and reduce net GHG emissions from improved
agricultural and forestry practices. 6.4 REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM
The optimization of shea nut production through a system DEFORESTATION AND
transition from exclusively wild harvest to a semi-intensive DEGRADATION (REDD+)
agroforestry system has the potential to offer several advantages While land degradation in Burkina Faso is progressing at an
at once, namely, climate-change mitigation, improved annual speed of 250 000 to 400 000 ha, 110 000 ha of forest
resilience to climate change, socio-economic development cover are being lost every year.
benefits, and feedstock cultivation for biofuel production. The
likelihood of success depends on how successfully a range of The international community is aware of the climate-regulating
challenges can be addressed, which depends, inter alia, on role of forests and trees and has created a mechanism aimed at
local rules, regulations and incentives, the use of domesticated Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
varieties, the future market environment for both carbon and (REDD) and enhancing the conservation and sustainable
tradeable shea butter, and the available funding and successive management of forests and forest carbon stocks, a mechanism
installation of nut shell processing facilities. usually referred to as REDD+. The acronym denotes a carbon
finance concept developed in 2008 under the UNFCCC. The
The wild shea tree is a slow-growing species, which is an concept encourages society to financially value forests for their
obstacle to the participation of rural farmers in projects that carbon sequestration, storage and other services. REDD+ has
intend to increase the shea population. The use of domesticated been recognized as a mitigation strategy and financial incentive
varieties would be crucial because it provides early yields, as through Article 5 of the 2015 Paris Agreement.
well as yield stability and reliability and disease tolerance.
Under REDD+, tropical countries are to be financially
6.3.3 JATROPHA AGROFORESTRY PROJECTS compensated for accomplished objectives in reducing
(MALI AND SENEGAL) deforestation and forest degradation, sustainably managing
Land-use practices that increase terrestrial stocks of biocarbon forests, conserving forest carbon stocks and reinforcing forests’
prevent GHG emissions and can thus be considered as key carbon sequestration capacity. While the protection of forests
components in controlling or mitigating global climate change. is regarded as one of the most promising mitigation measures
Depending on project design, validation, monitoring and for combating climate change, the expected carbon offset
verification, jatropha based agroforestry and afforestation land payments are only a part of the advantages that forest and tree
management practices that increase CO2 absorption hold the conservation can bring to developing countries. Beyond carbon
potential to produce carbon credits that can be commercialized. benefits, forest carbon projects also deliver a range of other
At the same time, jatropha agroforestry projects incidentally environmental and social benefits, often referred to as co-
benefits under REDD+, especially when compared to carbon Based on aggregated data from Ecosystem Marketplace, the
reductions in other sectors such as land-fill gas management. cumulative value of implemented forest conservation carbon
These include enhancing biodiversity-rich primary forest, offset projects as of 2016 reached USD 480 million with an
creating sustainable livelihoods for impoverished local average price of USD 5.02/tonne CO2e. This compares to a
communities, protecting watersheds, providing climate transaction volume of USD 293 million and an average price of
resilience to sustainably produced crops, as well as a range of USD 7.68/tonne CO2e for tree planting projects and a cumulative
ecosystem services such as mitigating flooding, reducing soil value of USD 120 million and an average price of USD 8.42/
erosion and conserving water resources. tonne CO2e for improved forest management projects.
A broad range of programmes has been designed to support In Burkina Faso, the creation of a General Directorate on Green
States and subnational jurisdictions in the development and Economy and Climate Change integrating REDD+ now provides
implementation of REDD+ related carbon financing and results- the Ministry of Environment with an adequate body to implement
based payment programmes. These include, among others: and supervise any REDD+ specific carbon financing activities.
• The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in 6.5 MANAGING THE COST PREMIUM
Developing Countries (UN-REDD), a programme of the UN FAO, the
UNDP and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
OF SAF
While the cost of SAF relative to current aviation fuel has
• The Readiness Fund of the World Bank-managed Forest
decreased substantially from its first introduction in 2008, a
Carbon Partnership Facility supports efforts in tropical and
significant price differential remains; the reduction in life-cycle
sub-tropical developing countries to adopt national REDD+
GHG emissions come at a production cost 3 to 5 times greater
strategies, develop reference emission levels, design
than petroleum-derived fuels. With a jet fuel price average for
measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems, and
2017 of USD 509.20 USD/Mt this amounts to an average price
establish REDD+ national management arrangements that
for alternative aviation fuel in the range of USD 1.527 to 2.546/
include proper environmental and social safeguards.
tonne. In a recent report for the Norwegian aviation sector and
• The REDD Early Movers Programme (REM), a programme of
airport operator Avinor, the Danish engineering, design and
the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
consultancy company Rambøll estimates the cost of aviation
Development (BMZ). REM places emphasis on incorporating
biofuel production at USD 0.90 to 3.20/litre, compared to
agriculture sectors, and provides technical and policy
current aviation fuel at USD 0.50 to 0.64/litre21.
advice on the development of functional systems for carbon
financing, advisory support on gender sensitive benefit
These variations and the price premium of SAF are highly
sharing programmes, on safeguards and monitoring, and on
dependent on assumptions around the SAF production process,
development of REDD registers, reference levels and MRV
the feedstock used, the production technology, plant scale, the
systems.
fraction of aviation biofuel in the biocrude mix, the specific
• The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest
policy environment and other factors and cost drivers. The
Landscapes (ISFL), managed by the World Bank on behalf of
main production cost drivers for SAF are feedstock cost and
Germany, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States.
composition, capital cost, petrochemical infrastructure, overall
The programme focuses on REDD+ and land-use planning in
yield of conversion, quality and composition of the produced
developing countries, and uses results-based finance to create
SAF, operating expenses, financial requirements and logistics.
landscape-level change. It promotes reducing greenhouse
According to Rambøll, the lower end of the production cost of
gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in
SAF can be achieved only through HEFA-derived fuels, which
developing countries, and from sustainable agriculture, as well
utilize oil crops and animal fats as feedstock, two bioenergy
as smarter land-use planning, policies and practices.
resources highly relevant for production in Burkina Faso.
• The Jurisdictional and Nested REDD+ pilot programmes of
the non-profit Verified Carbon Standard (VCS JNR). VCS JNR
For the envisaged long-term replacement of petroleum-based
works with civil society partners and host governments to link
fuels with SAF the real challenges lie beyond science alone. The
the development of national and subnational REDD+ policies
most significant barriers to the commercial deployment of SAF
and programmes and to generate lessons for policymakers.
are economic rather than technological. There is little doubt
• The Governors’ Climate and Forests Task Force (GCF). GCF
that a multitude of innovative fuel conversion technologies can
is a subnational collaboration among 29 states and provinces
produce a fuel that replicates aviation fuel from sustainable
from Brazil, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru,
alternative raw materials. However, doing so in a cost-
Spain, and the United States. GCF promotes REDD+ and low
effective, affordable way and at the scale that the aviation
emissions rural development and seeks to link these activities
industry requires is the bigger problem. Fuel production may
with voluntary and compliance-based programmes to reduce
be prohibitively expensive if the biomass yield is insufficient,
GHG emissions.
biomass availability limited, or the conversion technology
inefficient or capital-intensive. Except for individual airlines
that have shown willingness to pay a “voluntary” sustainability
21
Rambøll, SUSTAINABLE AVIATION BIOFUEL - STATUS 2017, Helsinki, May 2017
premium for smaller demo-scale quantities of SAF, airlines are generally not prepared to pay a
higher price for SAF compared to that for current aviation fuel.
To bridge the gap between current SAF production costs and current aviation fuel prices, and to
incentivize commercial-scale deployment of SAF, alternative pricing models are needed. In this
context, the quantification and monetization of avoided climate damages and ancillary benefits
as illustrated in Figure 44 may offer a theoretical solution.
FIGURE 44
Bridging the GAP: Alternative
fuel price/ cost components
One established price component that could potentially bring down the cost for SAF relates to CO2
compensation and carbon offsetting. Taking arbitrage into consideration, the maximum price for
SAF that an airline may be willing and capable to pay for equals the price of fossil kerosene plus
the price of the CO2 emissions certificates (or similar market-based compensation measures)
saved. However, not all carbon prices are created equal. Carbon pricing policies and offsetting
mechanisms are quite heterogeneous. Moreover, the cost of emitting CO2 dropped to less than
USD 10/tonne in 2017. Assuming a 100 per cent offsetting of CO2 by using SAF, every tonne
combusted avoids the need for certificates for 3.15 tonnes of CO2. With carbon trading at less
than USD 10/tonne, it is far more economical for aircraft operators to burn regular fuel and pay
the carbon penalty by purchasing emissions units, than to switch to SAF. Even by quadrupling
the cost of carbon, it is still significantly cheaper adding the CO2 compensation penalty to the
price of Jet A-1 fuel than the projected selling price of USD 2 546/tonne for SAF. Acknowledging
airlines’ small competitive margins, there may be little incentive for them to use SAF as is the
case today22.
To balance the negative effects of the remaining SAF cost premium, additional environmental,
economic, and societal impacts of bioenergy technologies need to be considered in a holistic
assessment of their feasibility, including potential impacts on air, water, and soil quality, land use
patterns, commodity prices, energy and food security, poverty alleviation and livelihoods.
22
Cf. Buse, Market Commercialization of Alternative Aviation Fuels, in: Martin Kaltschmitt/Ulf Neuling (ed.), Biokerosene, Status and Prospects, p.741 – 759, Hamburg 2018
However, quantification and monetization of avoided climate others), logistics companies (e.g., FedEx), and oil majors (e.g.,
damages and ancillary environmental and societal benefits BP and Shell).
(e.g. reducing erosion, restoring degraded soils, enhancing
biodiversity, creating new agricultural opportunities in areas In particular the international oligopoly of oil majors might
not amenable to the production of food crops) remain a be well advised to take on some production-cost risk and to
challenge. Lacking binding definitions and industry practice, consider amending their portfolio of products by integrating
values attributed to individual price components can merely comparatively small portions of SAF. The oil majors not only
be regarded as approximations. The Laboratory for Aviation have extensive expert knowledge of all stages of the process
and the Environment (LAE) at the Massachusetts Institute of chain, but also of a highly standardized and cost-optimized
Technology (MIT) has developed techno-economic models transport and storage chain that facilitates the lowest cost
for evaluating alternative fuel production costs and analyses production and distribution of their products. Given their de
societal benefits and costs of pursuing various fuel options. facto control over logistics, pricing and the overall process
Accordingly, the fuel cost premium of SAF compared to recent chain, established oil majors and jet fuel suppliers are natural
Jet A-1 market prices is still greater than the monetized net addressees to step in and bear part of the cost premium.
present value of the aggregated climate benefits for any SAF Transfer pricing in the various process steps could make it
production pathway under consideration today23. However, the possible to compensate SAF related costs, while still optimizing
climate-cost trade-off may evolve over time due to learning- total return.
by-doing of nascent SAF production technologies and the
increasing societal value of GHG emissions mitigation. Insofar However small, the cost disparity between SAF and current
as learning-by-doing contributes to improvements in efficiency aviation fuel is still a hurdle that market forces alone are
and a reduction in process input requirements, the life- unlikely to overcome. As of today, none of the certified
cycle environmental impact of SAF production may gradually feedstock-to-fuel pathways are profitable on a stand-alone
improve. According to Rambøll, the expected rate of learning basis. Without strong public intervention, commercial scale
is assumed to be around 8 per cent, which implies an 8 per SAF deployment is unlikely to happen.
cent reduction in production costs each time the production is
doubled. All of these time-dependent factors indicate that the It is likely that a range of strong government production incentives
climate damages mitigated by replacing Jet A-1 with SAF may (including subsidies, grants and loan guarantees) and innovative
ultimately balance and potentially even exceed the additional fund structures will be needed to cover the gap. Only long-term
cost premium of producing SAF at some point in the future, stable policies and objectives, including sufficient economic
even if that is not the case today. incentives and proper recognition of SAF’s positive environmental
externalities, can encourage the necessary capital investments
Meanwhile, neither market forces nor government action alone from both the public and private sectors.
will be sufficient to drive the fuel-switching process and replace
petroleum-based fuels with SAF. Regardless of whether the By means of dedicated State guarantees and insurance
monetization of fuel-switching related benefits can ultimately programmes, the government could, for example, implement
balance the price gap, the high price premium remains a major a guaranteed minimum price (i.e., a price floor) for both
hurdle. Independent of the identified climate-cost trade-off, feedstock producers and low carbon fuel investors, thus
another question is how to equally share the burden. mitigating market risks and investor uncertainty. Whenever
Many airlines and early movers in the aviation industry have market or policy shifts occur that drop the value of either a
made early investments in SAF to meet their own voluntary feedstock or a finished fuel product below the agreed-upon
carbon emissions goals and to stimulate the market. Further price floor, the policy would pay out the difference. Similarly, a
market participants and aviation stakeholders may be guaranteed price cap covering the risk of high SAF production
called upon to help reduce the cost delta and advance SAF costs for a fixed volume might encourage airlines to enter into
development. In addition to the airline industry itself, potential long-term off-take agreements.
addressees with a vested interest also include governments,
development banks and NGOs, as well as airport authorities, Alternatively, a CO2 fund could be established by uniting the
oil majors, fuel suppliers and other established actors in the income from carbon compensation payments to purchase,
production value chain. on behalf of participating airlines, the feedstock required for
biofuel and SAF production. This way, the market risk would
Recent examples of a direct engagement include strategic be placed upon the fund and the environmental charges, and
investments into the feedstock and SAF supply chain by CO2 compensation paid by the airlines and aggregated in the
airlines (e.g., Cathay Pacific, Southwest Airlines, United, and fund would directly contribute to the production of feedstock.
23
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Mark Douglas Staples, Bioenergy and its use to mitigate the climate impact of
aviation, Feb. 2017 and Seamus J. Bann, A Stochastic Techno-Economic Comparison of Alternative Jet Fuel Production Pathways, June 2017
6.6 VALUING CO-BENEFITS OF restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt
Although the premium has decreased considerably, the current and reverse land degradation, and stop biodiversity loss.
cost of SAF is still at least three times higher than for current In addition, UN SDG 2 also recognizes that sustainable fuel
aviation fuel. This deficiency has been an important factor in production holds the potential to end hunger and malnutrition,
their slow take-up and large-scale production. Independent of achieve food security and promote sustainable agriculture.
the underlying conversion pathway, alternative fuel production
costs will continue to remain uncompetitive for the foreseeable The social, environmental and economic “side effects” of
future, with the predictable negative consequences on an integrated renewable energy supply chain in general,
profitability and internal rates of return. To compete with fossil and a potential multi-feedstock pilot plant operation for SAF
fuels, alternative fuel requires conventional and innovative production in particular, can vary considerably and may
forms of price support. actually outweigh the importance and monetary value of
climate change mitigation benefits. Sample co-benefits may
The application of carbon pricing, preferably combined with include, inter alia:
increasing costs of carbon (i.e. above the current market • contribution of the project to the national economy, energy
supplies and the number of people employed in the sector;
value), may help to temporarily bridge the price gap between
• energy security;
current aviation fuel and alternative fuel. However, even
- improved access to energy;
carbon-credit revenues that reflect the social costs of carbon
- reduced dependence on fossil fuel imports;
may not be sufficient to enable greater numbers of projects
- decreased disruption in energy supply;
to move from demonstration to commercial scale. As a result,
- rural electrification;
additional streams of financing are required.
• balance of trade considerations;
- savings from reduced imports of fossil fuels, associated
By recognizing the co-benefits of low carbon investments, with increased reliance on domestic renewable energy
investors, donors and government entities can go beyond endowments;
valuing GHG reductions through carbon credits. To facilitate • reduction in life-cycle GHG emissions and climate change
raising project finance, ancillary benefits that go beyond the adaptation;
original GHG emission reduction and fuel switching goals - sustainability gains/positive environmental impacts;
also need to be taken into account. The associated benefits - improved local water resource management
of developing, producing, and using SAF can go far beyond - international and sector recognition;
the immediate benefits of reducing the impact of international • technology transfer and clean energy partnership
aviation on the global climate; they can provide opportunities - technological spill over;
for greater economic growth, expanded employment, - access to world-class technology at preferential
revitalized infrastructure, and reduced inequality throughout conditions: share and profit from expertise in technology
States’ economies. and innovation to secure new business opportunities;
- installing low-carbon technologies typically has systemic
impacts well beyond GHG emission reductions;
Bridging the price premium gap will ultimately require valuing
- technical role model;
and properly pricing environmental, economic and social co-
• demonstrate policy and business leadership;
benefits. These associated benefits include numerous positive
• positive effects on food security;
externalities created by the production and consumption of
• positive health effects24;
biofuels and SAF.
• biofuels can serve as a stimulus to rural economies;
- rural economic benefits are a key rationale behind the
Climate policy and climate induced investments rarely take
expansion targets and biofuel policies and incentives
place for the sole purpose of mitigating climate change, but established by producer country governments around
most typically serve other primary purposes, with the co- the world;
benefit being climate mitigation. This is especially true in - employment and income generation;
developing countries, where basic development objectives - ecosystem impact, improvement of soil and land use
(such as food security, poverty alleviation, improved health, (reforestation, land rehabilitation);
energy access, optimized water resources and appropriate - infrastructure improvement;
land use) often take precedent over climate objectives for the - poverty reduction;
allocation of scarce resources. - recognition of community needs;
- positive implications of biofuel feedstock cultivation
This correlation was explicitly recognized during CAAF/2 including industrial-scale plantations, smallholders
and is well reflected within the framework of the UN SDGs. growing independently for defined markets, and
diverse arrangements under which companies contract
Accordingly, UN SDG 15 explicitly recognizes that well-planned smallholders to produce feedstock on their behalf, will
SAF feedstock development can at the same time protect, each have their own unique set of impacts.
24
For example, various studies estimated average health co-benefits at USD 58 to 380/tonne of CO2, reduced, with benefits higher in developing than developed countries.
If properly valued, these ancillary benefits may at least partially Barriers to the implementation of projects that are high in
offset cultivation and production costs, and thus encourage co-benefits are related to a failure to monetize the value (in
project implementation and competitive pricing. Various terms of willingness to pay) of such co-benefits/social assets.
academic studies have concluded that social, environmental A successful fundraising and incentivization strategy therefore
and economic co-benefits can represent between 50 to must provide mechanisms that:
350 per cent of direct benefits from investment in energy • assess and quantify the co-benefits associated with
efficiency and renewable energy sources, with health benefits mitigation actions identified;
dominating. According to research carried out by the Centre for • establish who is willing to pay for the provision of such co-
Environmental Policy, Imperial College London in partnership benefits/ social assets;
with the International Carbon Reduction and Offsetting Alliance, • determine their willingness to pay per “unit” of created co-
offsetting one tonne of CO2 may generate an additional USD benefit/social asset; and
664 in economic, social and environmental benefits to the • facilitate a transaction of this willingness to pay to the
communities where carbon reduction projects are based. producer of these co-benefits.
The estimation of these co-benefits largely depends on the
context in which the project takes place and the modalities of As a result, it is recommended that the financial viability and
implementation, which prevents deriving generally applicable bankability of feedstock cultivation and biofuel production
rules on the size of these ancillary benefits. projects should not be analysed on sector-specific merits
alone. Instead, feedstock cultivation and biofuel production
To reduce costs and obstacles to investment for both feedstock should be considered as a source of opportunity to advance
cultivation and biofuel production, co-benefits of climate other policy objectives simultaneously, for which separate
change policies need to be integrated into the financial funding may be available. While the trigger for the launch of
equation from the outset (i.e. project launch). The monetization an alternative fuel project may ultimately be influenced by
of development co-benefits could significantly improve considerations related to renewable energy, biofuels and GHG
financial viability, based on calculated net present values and emissions reductions, ancillary benefits as described above
internal rates of return. may open up additional dedicated funding programmes and
financial instruments formally reserved for environmental
In addition to potential carbon sequestration benefits (see or social development projects. This correlation between
Sections 6.3 and 6.4), environmental credentials and socio- underlying motivation and ancillary benefits demonstrates that
economic benefits could potentially be quantified and credited the strategic promotion of co-benefits can play an important
towards the cost of production. This would facilitate overall role in the ultimate mobilization of alternative funding sources.
commercial viability and encourage broad market uptake. In fact, in some cases, policies may seek the co-benefits as the
primary target, while climate change mitigation and renewable
The major challenge is how to translate heterogeneous co- energy financing become a collateral effect.
benefits into economic terms and how to value and monetize
their impact on the financial rate of return. Co-benefits are
rarely measured, quantified, or monetized, and even less
frequently do they enter the quantitative decision-making
frameworks applied to climate change and biofuel production.
Direct market valuation methods typically monetize benefits

on the basis of production or cost data. Therefore, they can
only be applied to goods or services (i.e., the benefits being
monetized) for which markets exist. However, the difficulty is
that resource efficiency, energy access, improved agricultural
practices, sustainability of ecosystems and preservation
of biodiversity, to name but a few examples, do not have a
direct monetary value and therefore need to be estimated.
Without proper market pricing, estimation of the intrinsic
monetary value ultimately depends on what investors/donors
are voluntarily willing to pay. Motivation to recognize a certain
value and thus willingness to pay for select co-benefits may
include sustainability related reputation, brand image, market
differentiation, philanthropy, environmental credentials, or
supply chain management considerations.
7. CONCLUSIONS
7.1 FEEDSTOCK PRIORITIZATION
Based on the analysis in the previous chapters, the major domestic biomass resources suitable
for conversion into SAF include:
• agricultural residues (sorghum);
• MSW;
• cashew and shea nut shell oil; and
• waste animal fats (tallow).
Lignocellulosic feedstock offers the highest potential in terms of volume with energy recovery
estimates exceeding 9 million boe, though such estimates are highly variable when taking into
account the identified logistical, technical and economic restrictions, as well as any competing
utilization.
Despite its challenges, authorities and stakeholders in Burkina Faso nevertheless seem to favour
the cultivation of jatropha over alternative energy crops and other domestic sources of biomass.
Cognizant of lessons learnt and project-related challenges and pitfalls, the re-launch of the
jatropha value chain remains regarded as one of the most realistic and achievable renewable
energy options due to the plant’s modest soil requirements, allowing it to be grown on land that
is marginal or unsuitable for other agricultural uses.
The concentration of smaller waste fractions at one location makes animal waste fats and MSW
potentially attractive for biofuel production. However, the organic fraction of MSW may only
become available in the wake of cheap and efficient municipal waste collection and sorting
technologies.
While the expansion of sugarcane appears limited due to irrigation needs and sustainability
concerns, cashew and shea nut shells represent a Burkinabe specialty. As by-products with no
assigned value, decent quantities of feedstock are available for processing and energy conversion
with immediate effect. Ongoing plantation projects promise further yield and production volume
increases which are conducive for any commercialization efforts.
FIGURE 45
Potential biomass availability
To put things into perspective, it is helpful to compare the energetic value of the total potential
biomass availability with annual fossil fuel imports. As of 2016, Burkina Faso imported
approximately 150 000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil (HFO) and 30 000 tonnes of distillate diesel oil
(DDO). Based on an average calorific value of 43 MJ/Kg or 7.33 boe/tonne of fuel imported, the
collective energetic value of all fuel imports in 2016 equalled 1.3 million boe. This compares with
over 12 millon boe in terms of domestic biomass availability. In other words, the demonstrated
energetic potential of alternative feedstock sources exceeds the country’s oil imports by at least
nine times. Even allowing for methodological inconsistencies and a high margin of error, it is fair
to conclude that theoretically available domestic feedstock supply could easily outweigh Burkina
Faso’s annual fossil fuel imports. The comparison shows at least the potential for domestic
biofuel production. Figure 45 above provides a breakdown of feedstock sources and their
respective contribution to the potential biomass availability in Burkina Faso.
PICTURE 22
Bioenergy and food
crop harvest
Farmers present their harvest of intercropped jatropha, maize and green beans in the
community of Toeghin, Yimkonka village.
As the market for alternative fuels remains in its infancy, market growth will be driven by a wide
number of factors, including economic and technical feasibility, as well as the signals provided
by ICAO in terms of what feedstock types are deemed eligible under CORSIA. At the same time,
the much larger oil and biofuel markets will also drive change and compete with the aviation
sector for feedstocks, production capacity and consumers.
Finally, the question of whether rural households or specific target groups own land or can
obtain the rights to use land for energy crop cultivation is of critical importance to the success
and sustainability of biofuel projects, in Burkina Faso, as well as in Sub-Saharan Africa more
generally.
7.2 FUEL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

A multitude of fuel conversion technologies is being developed at various scales (pilot,
demonstration, and pre-commercial) to transform biomass-based feedstocks into aviation
fuel25. The wide range of potential raw materials available in Burkina Faso entails an equally
diverse range of matching fuel processing solutions. There are many possible combinations
of feedstock, pre-treatment options, conversion technologies and downstream processes that
25
For an overview of ongoing international commercialization efforts, see International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), BIOFUELS FOR AVIATION - TECHNOLOGY BRIEF,
Jan. 2017; Wei-Cheng Wang et al., Review of Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), July 2016; International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT), Anastasia Kharina, Nikita Pavlenko, Alternative jet fuels: Case study of commercial-scale deployment, Oct. 2017
can be followed as potential pathways to produce transport
biofuels, alternative fuel and bio-chemicals. In practice,
feedstock characteristics pre-determine the choice of the
most fitting conversion pathway. The molecular composition of
plant matter is an important determinant for the feasibility and
efficiency of biomass processing. For example, while woody
biomass is composed of firmly bound fibres with high lignin
content, grassy energy crops have more loosely bound fibres
and lower lignin content. Also, residues from agriculture and
agroindustry typically contain less cellulose (20 to 40 per cent)
than forestry or energy crops (30 to 50 per cent).
The most promising fuel conversion technologies for Burkina

Faso that are relatively mature include:
• hydro-treatment and upgrading of waste oils or plant-based
oils (oleaginous crops) to SAF (HEFA-SPK);
• gasification of biomass or MSW into a synthesis gas
followed by FT conversion of the synthesis gas into SAF FIGURE 46
(FT-SPK); Enabling SAF production by de-risking investment
• AtJ synthetic paraffinic kerosene (ATJ-SPK);
• synthesized iso-paraffins produced from hydroprocessed
fermented sugars (SIP-HFS); and In fact, process economics of SAF production are dependent
• synthesized kerosene with aromatics derived by alkylation on many variables, such as composition and cost of feedstock,
of light aromatics from non-petroleum sources (SPK/A). conversion efficiency or product yield, co-product credits,
plant size, process design, energy conservation, and degree of
In comparative terms, HEFA-SPK has the lowest production maturity of the technology.
complexity. Its downside is the need for expensive hydrogen
to hydrotreat the biomass. Hydrogen is a key input needed Without basic petrochemical or refining infrastructure in
for almost all SAF production processes because the ratio of place, there is no chance for cost savings through potential
hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms in aviation fuel molecules brownfield co-location, co-processing or the use of existing
is typically higher than the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio in infrastructure. This excludes any autonomous SAF production
feedstocks. While hydrogen represents a significant portion of capacity in Burkina Faso for the time being. In order to improve
operating cost in most conversion processes, it is not readily production efficiency and reduce unit costs, further R&D will
accessible, particularly at reasonable cost. In many cases, be needed. Regarding the gasification/FT pathway, R&D could
hydrogen can be supplied from the conversion of natural gas, potentially enable modular, small-scale reactors that can
but natural gas infrastructure is also limited. convert bio-derived synthesis gas into aviation fuel.
It is possible that the largest potential for drop-in biofuels

is routed in the FT-SPK process which relies on low-cost Encouraging the willingness of private and institutional
lignocellulosic feedstock that can be derived from waste or from investors will require a significant degree of public
intervention. As long as markets are still in the
dedicated energy crops. Advantages of this pathway include the
process of development and production volumes of
flexibility and wide availability of feedstocks. Cellulosic waste
competitively priced alternative aviation fuels remain
materials and biomass are ubiquitous in Burkina Faso and low, viability gap funding schemes may be needed to
include agricultural waste and plant residues. In addition, there de-risk critical investments.
is a wide range of tropical grasses and climate resilient fast-
growing trees that are suitable as dedicated cellulosic biofuel
crops. However, synthetic fuel processing facilities come with
high economic risks as they are highly capital intensive. Indeed, In addition to the conversion processes and technology
all conversion technologies have high capital costs and require solutions already certified and approved as annexes to ASTM
large production facilities to achieve economies of scale. D7566, another five conversion processes are currently being
investigated and are going through the approval process for
Project viability with attractive returns for private investors is inclusion as an ASTM D7566 annex (see overview in Table 9).
only expected to kick in with economies of scale and an oil
production capacity beyond 20,000 mt per annum. To bridge
the viability gap and reduce investment risk, government
support and development funding schemes will be necessary.
FIGURE 47
Select processing
technologies: complexity
and cost overview
TABLE 9
Alternative fuel conversion
processes currently within
the ASTM approval process 26
However, in terms of technology readiness, the new processes have not been demonstrated
at a level greater than pilot or demonstration scale. They are thus of much lower technological
maturity and associated with greater uncertainties and risks. It is widely accepted that one of the
key aspects limiting the progression from pilot to demonstration plant, and from demonstration
to commercial plant is the scale and risk associated with the required investment. Independent of
technological achievements the remaining risks and costs associated with developing integrated
demonstration and first commercial plants, as well as the uncertainty in market uptake and
value of the output fuels, remain a significant barrier to realizing commercial production.
Among the approved processes, only HEFA fuels have been produced at commercial scale (e.g.
Neste Oil, UOP, ENI, Dynamic Fuels). As of today, existing HEFA capacity produces predominantly
diesel fuels, with only a small fraction of aviation fuels. The development and deployment of
HEFA aviation fuels has progressed from single demonstration flights by airlines and equipment
manufacturers to multi-stakeholder supply-chain initiatives including civil, military and
government aircraft operators, fuel producers and airports. A recent report by France’s Académie
des Technologies and Académie de l’Air et de l’Espace concluded that vegetable oil-based HEFA
bio-jet is likely to remain the only economically viable option in the near future.
26
Cf. CAAF/2-WP/-7 Table 2 – available to download from: https://www.icao.int/Meetings/CAAF2/Pages/Documentation.aspx
TABLE 10
Operational or planned U.S.
Aviation Jet Fuel and Green
Diesel Production Facilities
(2017)
An alternative near-term opportunity could also be the production of SAF by means of a catalytic
thermal cracking mini-refinery. With regard to capex, opex and overall process complexity, the
German catalytic cracking conversion technology developed by Fraunhofer enjoys a competitive
advantage over all other fuel technology pathways in operation or under development today. This
includes the HEFA process as the main and most established competitive fuel conversion pathway.
In the near future, thermochemical conversion technologies are the most likely option to provide
the large alternative fuel volumes requested by the aviation industry. In comparison, the high
market value of intermediates produced via alternative biochemical conversion routes can often
achieve much more attractive purchase prices in chemical, lubricant and cosmetic markets than
lower valued kerosene and jet fuel fractions.
As Burkina Faso currently lacks petrochemical infrastructure, it is unlikely that alternative fuel
will be developed or deployed in the near-term unless domestically produced feedstock is
exported, converted in petrochemical complexes and refineries overseas and then re-imported.
Meanwhile, Burkina Faso is well positioned to initially focus on feedstock and biomass processing
(e.g. transesterification) which require less capital-intensive facilities.
Fully integrated domestic and/or regional refinery technology solutions (T2) will only become a
strategic option for Burkina Faso once minimum feedstock production thresholds are reached,
a basic petrochemical infrastructure is in place or under construction, and tangible stakeholder
commitments from airlines and investors are secured.
7.3 LAND USE CHANGE AND GHG LIFE-CYCLE

Emission reductions from biofuels vary by production pathway, feedstock, and fuel produced.
There is broad consensus that the GHG emission reductions resulting from the use of alternative
fuels should be calculated on a life-cycle basis. The full life cycle of SAF comprises feedstock
production, harvesting, feedstock handling and extraction, preparation, storage and transport of
raw materials, SAF conversion and processing, transport of the finished product, and combustion.
Accordingly, the actual emissions reductions to be achieved depends on many factors.
The carbon intensity of a given fuel is estimated using life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology
and is typically expressed in gCO2e/MJ of fuel (i.e., its carbon intensity). The LCA is an operational
tool aiming at the evaluation of the potential environmental impacts of a product, a process or
a service, on human health, ecosystems and the depletion of natural resources. It is used to
calculate the amount of CO2 released during the whole process from the feedstock production
to the tank of the aircraft.
Aircraft operators that intend to claim emissions reductions from emissions of 11 gCO2e/MJ, leading to potential GHG savings of
the use of SAF will need to determine the life cycle emissions 87 per cent.
value of such fuels. Work is ongoing in ICAO to determine With regard to HEFA-processed alternative aviation fuel derived
default LCA values for CORSIA-eligible fuels, including SAF27. from animal waste fats (tallow), the life cycle GHG emissions
The current status of this work in ICAO includes a requirement have been calculated by the MIT LAE. Accordingly, total CO2e
that SAF shall achieve net GHG emissions reductions of at GHG emissions of tallow-derived SAF were found to range
least 10 per cent compared to current aviation fuel on a life between 25.7 to 37.5 gCO2e/MJ. This corresponds to life cycle
cycle basis. Therefore, in addition to other key environmental GHG emission reductions of 59 to 72 per cent, compared to its
and social development factors, the GHG balance of a conventional counterpart29.
biofuel pathway is a critical metric in determining its overall
sustainability characteristics. A recent study published by the All of the analysed values for SAF produced from waste and
MIT LAE confirmed that there is a significant potential for a lignocellulosic feedstocks are below the GHG intensities of
reduction in life cycle GHG emissions across all of the SAF current aviation fuel.
production pathways under consideration today28.
One of the lessons learnt from international biorefinery projects
The impacts of biofuel production on land use are of particular is that setting high GHG savings thresholds for demonstration
concern, as in some cases, the resulting emissions from land plants may not be appropriate as these plants are typically
use change can fully negate the GHG benefits of replacing designed to demonstrate the technical viability of the
aviation fuel with a biofuel. Therefore, land-use change effects concept, but may not be designed to optimize environmental
that may be associated with SAF production needs to be performance so to limit costs and added complexity.
considered. Emissions attributable to indirect land use change
(ILUC) can occur, for example, when existing cropland is Another caveat to consider is that different national
diverted to meet the increased feedstock demand of additional circumstances will result in different sustainability
biofuel production, resulting in the displacement of other specifications. Some concerns have been raised that
agricultural production activities onto land with high carbon standardization of SAF sustainability without taking into full
stocks or other ecosystem services. account the specific interests of developing countries might
set up barriers for the sustainable development of developing
However, in the case of Burkina Faso, none of the analysed countries, whch would be contrary to the objectives of the UN
feedstock cultivation and related biofuel production scenarios SDGs and the ICAO No Country Left Behind initiative.
are likely to cause either direct or indirect land-use change
that otherwise would have to be accounted for when assessing 7.4 AVIATION ALTERNATIVE
the GHG implications of substituting conventional fuels with
biofuels. ILUC risk is greatly reduced when biofuel feedstock is FUEL IMPLEMENTATION-INDEX
grown on marginal land and does not displace other activities The series of feedstock-specific feasibility matrices in the
or cultivation practices. previous chapters summarized the most significant parameters
of a domestic feedstock supply chain and potentially matching
Provided that land-use change effects are properly considered fuel conversion technologies.
in feedstock cultivation and biofuel production in Burkina Faso,
life-cycle GHG emissions reductions of 60 to 90 per cent could The following “Aviation Alternative Fuel Implementation-
be achieved. The binding constraint of avoiding harmful land- Index”, as shown in Figure 48, intends to add a chronological
use changes encourages the use of waste biomass (cashew perspective, providing a concise and streamlined overview.
and shea nut shells, waste fat), agricultural residues (rice straw,
corn stover) and oil crop (jatropha) cultivation on marginal The segmentation into three parallel but nevertheless distinct
land, as well as the balanced integration (intercropping) of streams (i.e., (A) Feedstock Readiness, (B) Technology
food and fuel production to the extent possible. Cellulosic Readiness and (C) Financials/Economics) may serve as a
crops (elephant grass) generally carry lower risks of land-use tool and rough guideline for governments and authorities
change impacts than oilseeds. While no actual GHG intensity to identify the right action items in the appropriate context,
values for elephant grass are available from any of the prioritize implementation measures and define a conducive
operating demonstration plants, comparable reference data policy framework within a given set of agro-climatic, social,
can be derived from the European Renewable Energy Directive. economic and ecological circumstances in a specific region.
Accordingly, wheat straw-derived ethanol has typical GHG
27
Cf. 191. Wei-Cheng Wang et al., Review of Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), July 2016; 199. Erik C. Wormslev et al., Nordic
Council of Ministers, Sustainable jet fuel for aviation, Nordic perspectives on the use of advanced sustainable jet fuel for aviation, 2016; 81. International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT), Sammy El Takriti et al., Mitigating International on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Sammy El Takriti et al., Mitigating International Aviation Emissions - Risks
and Opportunities for Alternative Jet Fuels, March 2017.
28
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cassandra Vivian Rosen, Scenario based lifecycle analysis of greenhouse gas
emissions from petroleum-derived transportation fuels in 2050, June 2017
29
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Gonca Seber, Robert Malina et al., Environmental and economic assessment of
producing hydroprocessed jet and diesel fuel from waste oils and tallow, Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol. 67, 108-118, Aug. 2014
FIGURE 48
Aviation Alternative Fuel
Implementation Index
FIGURE 48
Aviation Alternative Fuel
Implementation Index
8. ROADMAP GOING FORWARD
A. STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Recommendations/Action items Potential stakeholders Electricity

What needs to be done to be involved Priority &
Timing Target
1. NATIONAL STEERING COMMITTEE/PROGRAMME OFFICE - Ministry of Finance Short Term

• Bold and transformative action requires a neutral party that combines - Ministry of Energy
competency and authority without being dependent on any particular - ANAC
government agency or ministry. Potentially paralyzing bureaucracy, sectoral
- ANEREE
interests and internal issues risk slowing down momentum and international
stakeholder and investor commitment. - SP/CONEDD
• It is therefore recommended to set up a National Steering Committee - CIRAD

(NSC)/Programme Office with budget authority that enjoys a central role in - CNRST
formulating and coordinating policy instruments under the chairmanship
(reporting line) of either the Prime Minister or the President.
• Given the multi-sectoral specificity of biofuels, this independent central
coordinating platform needs to be equipped with operational autonomy,
ideally under the technical oversight of the Ministry of Finance.
• The NSC will provide strategic orientation for the project; approve annual
work plans and budgets; review project progress and evaluation reports;
monitor implementation of the NSC recommendations; and ensure synergy
with other projects;
The NSC/Programme Office would be supported by two governing bodies,

a project Coordination & Cooperation Office (CCO) and a project
Implementation & Execution Office (IEO)
• The IEO is responsible for overseeing all operational implementation aspects.
It will take stock of project progress, implementation of action plans, and
financial performance.
• The IEO will also oversee the execution of activities which fall under the
areas of responsibility of relevant ministries.
• Following the identification and prioritization of individual tasks, a clear
assignment of responsibilities will allow for effective monitoring of
performance and prevent the break-down of accountability mechanisms.
• It is critical that those team members assigned responsibility for certain
tasks are made fully aware of both their own responsibilities and how these
inter-relate with other tasks.
• The CCO will coordinate all project activities at the central level; ensure day-
to-day coordination of relevant stakeholders; and consolidate information
on project progress.
• Given its pioneering role in climate protection and international coordination,
the National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC) could potentially become the
nucleus of the CCO.
• Additional national high-level strategic partners to include ANEREE and SP-
CONEDD.
FIGURE 49
Enabling Environment and Structural Organization
B. BUSINESS PLAN & IMPLEMENTATION

Timing Target
2. BUSINESS WHITE PAPER - Hanns-Seidel Imme-

Draft a business plan that allows to secure public climate finance and Foundation diately
international development funding.
3. UNITY OF EFFORT Short Term

Develop a concrete business plan for a national biofuel supply chain, incl.
all relevant aspects, recommendations, interdependent factors, sequence
of decisions, implementation of Master Plan etc.
To ensure unity of effort and reduce/prevent costly inefficiencies, it is vital
to integrate any and all willing project partners into joint planning as early
as possible, so an integrated, comprehensive and achievable execution
plan can be developed.
4. Promote technology transfer and forge technology and energy partnerships. Mid- Term
5. JOINT MARKET DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS

• To reach economies of scale for the envisaged installation of high tech - ECOWAS Mid- Term
feedstock processing equipment it is recommended to also identify - UEMOA
suitable biomass potential in Ghana, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire.
• Depending on the specific feedstock, the concentration of production
capacity at select strategic locations would potentially allow for more
cost-efficient processing plants with a higher throughput.
• Efforts made by individual States on policies affecting feedstock
production, social development and international aviation are less
effective than regionally coordinated options.
• In addition, the national civil aviation, air transport and energy industries
would be much more motivated to implement SAF policies if a long-
term policy framework based on regional policy agendas would be
established and such policies would be part of regionally coordinated
and harmonized efforts to tackle both, sustainable development goals
and international aviation emissions.
• Chances are that regional coordination by ECOWAS could be helpful.
6. Support alternative aviation fuel demonstration programme and early

- ANAC Short Term
on commercial use (local centres of excellence)
Timing Target
7. Identify quick wins to promote awareness and understanding for

environmental and related technical issues. Short Term
• Climate change mitigation affects harvests and livelihoods. Aviation which
doesn’t play a role in the daily life of impoverished farmers therefore just
acts as a “door opener”. Apart from sector-specific environmental goals
(GHG emission reductions, carbon neutral growth) aviation is ideally used
as a very suitable and vivid medium to help convey the key messages in
order to win broad public support for necessary mobilization efforts and
recommended changes in agronomic practices.
• Practical applications on the community level could raise awareness and
- RACGAE
facilitate necessary mobilization on a large scale.
- ANAC
• Recommendations for practical examples that allow straightforward
implementation include domestic biodiesel production for Ouagadougou - Ministry of
Transport.
airport GSE and select rural electrification (water pumps).
8. THINK SMALL
Short Term
• As time to market is critical, it is advisable to consider exporting
feedstock first for conversion overseas (and re-import of upgraded end-
product).
• Lacking any petrochemical infrastructure, it is unlikely that SAF will
- BDI Austria
play any noticeable role in reducing aviation emissions in Burkina Faso
the near term. One remaining option would be to export domestically - GEA
produced feedstock to Europe for fuel conversion and SAF upgrading at - Fraunhofer
existing petrochemical complexes and refineries.
• While this may incur significant cost and logistical challenges, another
more pragmatic option would be to focus initially on technologically less
complex feedstock and biomass processing (incl. transesterification)
which requires less capital-intensive infrastructure.
• While any domestically produced biodiesel cannot replace jet fuel, it - RACGAE
could nevertheless be used by the ground support handling agency of - ANAC
Ouagadougou airport (RACGAE) which operates the truck and trailer fleet - Ministry of
of diesel-powered GSE. Transport
9. To unleash the larger potential with regard to SAF production it might - ANEREE Mid- Term
be advisable to concede -at least temporarily- feedstock use for
- SP/CONEDD
decentralized rural electrification, environmental protection, reforestation
and other urgent socio-economic activities and local needs first. Such - CIRAD
holistic strategic approach would integrate public actors who otherwise - CNRST
found themselves marginalized. Securing critical buy-in among public
stakeholders from across the political and sectoral spectrum at an early
stage would help to formulate a shared vision and also facilitate necessary
mobilization for later production scale-up.
10. Identify, prioritize and install demonstration facilities for - ANEREE Short Term
• biofuel use (e.g. airport trucks/ ground support equipment); - Anatrans
• decentralized, rural (off-grid) electricity generation (e.g. powering
of water pumps);
• efficient use of heat and power (e.g. in the cashew nut industry in
Bobo-Dioulasso)
Timing Target
11. To avoid costly duplication of uncoordinated renewable energy activities, - UNDP Short Term
it is strongly recommended to align project conceptualization and agree on
synchronized implementation efforts. Pragmatism, focus, critical reflection and
time to market are fundamental to success.
12. Consider collaboration with the West African Science Service Centre - WASCAL
Mid Term
on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL), a large-scale - Univ. of
research-focused programme initiated to develop effective adaptation and Ouagadougou
mitigation measures to climate change. Funded by the German Federal
Ministry of Education and Research, the geographical focus of WASCAL is
on West Africa in general and Burkina Faso in particular. The University of
Ouagadougou recently launched a Master’s programme (Oct. 2017) in this
subject matter.
C. FUNDING
13. Mobilize public funding and private investments: - Ministry of Finance Short Term
• encourage and incentivize strategic investments into the feedstock and - Ministry of Energy
SAF supply chain. - Ministry of Agriculture
• market participants and stakeholders to be called upon as investors - Ministry of Transport
should include public and private entities, such as development banks,
NGOs, airport authorities, oil majors, fuel suppliers and other established
actors in the biofuel production value chain.
• it is essential to significantly expand the funds available to domestic
feedstock producers.
14. • The full range of identified risks and sensitivities requires public funding
- German Ministry of Short Term
sources as a precursor to private finance
Finance
• Use official development assistance funds to leverage private investment - German Ministry for
and matching funding Economic Cooperation
- Germany, together with the European Union, made 2017 a year with and Development
a special focus on Africa. The German Government campaigned for
renewed cooperation efforts with African States on various political,
social, economic and technological levels. Launched in February 2017,
the “Marshall plan with Africa” intended to offer stable conditions
for inclusive growth and sustainable economic development. One of
the cornerstones of the Plan concerned the mobilization of private
investment through government guarantees. The recent German
initiative offers an opportunity to identify and mobilize additional
sources of international public and private funding, especially for
investments involving technology transfer, biomass processing
facilities and mechanization of the farming sector.
15. Mobilize financial resources in Burkina Faso and strengthen the country’s - Ministry of Energy
capacity to generate own revenues (e.g. reallocation of revenues from - Ministry of Finance Short Term
mining operations)
Timing Target
16. Apply for KfW Development Bank project finance in the form of non- - KfW Development Short Term
repayable grants and development finance. Bank
• KfW is the world’s leading financier of renewable energies in developing
countries. Key strategic focus perfectly matches the situation in
Burkina Faso, i.e. providing a route out of poverty in combination with
reforestation and environmental and climate protection.
• To be eligible for KfW funding, development policy criteria must be met
including the partner country’s commitment as well as the performance
capacity of the project partner.
17. MARKET INTERVENTION - Ministry of Finance Mid-Term

• The government should consider direct market intervention and offer - Ministry of Agriculture
price guarantees (price floors) to domestic feedstock producers/farmers.
• To improve overall market functionality for identified sources of feedstock
and to balance/reduce production and market risks for farmers and
feedstock suppliers, specific measures should include:
- the establishment of a central purchasing counterparty (Centrale d’achat
des intrants et du matériel agricoles, cf. PNDES No. 186);
- the establishment of an agricultural seed production company (société de
production de semences agricoles, cf. PNDES No.197);
18. FARM INPUT SUBSIDIES

• Provide input subsidies for high yielding seeds/seedlings and fertilizer - Ministry of Finance
Mid-Term
(payments made to feedstock farmers aimed at incentivizing production). - Ministry of Agriculture
• Biofuel subsidies could potentially take the form of a subsidy equivalent
to the government’s financial support granted to Sonabel.
• Provide subsidies for basic equipment and mechanization
19. PUBLIC-PRIVATE RISK HEDGING

• To encourage investments into large-scale feedstock production, it is Mid-Term
recommended to introduce an effective public-private risk hedging
system.
• The absence of a policy for financing agriculture — aside from ad hoc
fertilizer subsidies — remains one of the main barriers to scaling up
production.
• Domestic financial services and incentives need to be adapted to better
reflect production, market and price risks and to suit the diversity of the
agricultural sector as a whole.
• The establishment of a dedicated bank for agricultural finance which is
explicitly foreseen in the PNDES (item No. 250) is certainly a step in the
right direction.
• Investigate the potential for PPP and opportunities for cooperation
between the Government of Burkina Faso and the private sector,
including industry, NGOs and academia.
Timing Target
20. MICRO-FINANCE - KfW Mid-Term

• Smallholders need easy access to agricultural financial services (e.g. - REEEP
loans for agricultural inputs and insurance). - EUEI
• To spur investment into a Burkinabe biofuel value chain it is important
to enlist and engage local (micro-)finance institutions that are well
informed about local market conditions just as well as international
institutions, such as multilateral and bilateral donors.
• Potential international financing partners and programmes may include,
inter alia the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership
(REEEP), the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI),
21. CARBON FINANCE

• The role for carbon financing should be further explored. - Ministry of Environment Short Term
• Emission reductions can be certified and traded as credits in the carbon - Directory on Green
markets, providing additional revenue that can mitigate investment cost Economy andClimate
and facilitate the deployment of SAF projects. Change
• Consider setting up a dedicated Biofuel Agroforestry Fund which - UN-REDD

provides upfront financing to project developers for the implementation - UNEP
of select feedstock cultivation and production projects in Burkina Faso.
In return for the risk taken, the fund would receive carbon credits from
the projects over a period of [x] years. The carbon credits could then be
distributed to private companies which have invested in the fund and
they use them to offset some of the emissions they cannot avoid. This
investment model is made possible through the long-term commitment
of the investors who rely on the fund to generate carbon credits with
high value for them, be it for social, marketing or regulatory compliance
reasons. In order to gain airlines as partners and potential investors, it
would be necessary to identify qualifying offsetting requirements
• In close coordination with the General Directorate on Green Economy
and Climate Change of the Ministry of Environment develop dedicated
REDD+ project for marketing of voluntary carbon credits to international
airlines.
• Support the quantification and monetization of avoided climate
- Ministry of Environment Mid-Term
damages and ancillary environmental, economic and societal benefits.
- DGECC
22. GLOBAL GREEN GROWTH INSTITUTE (GGGI) - GGGI Long Term

Investigate collaboration and co-funding potential with the Global Green
Growth Institute (GGGI) - an international organization dedicated to
supporting and promoting sustainable economic growth in developing
countries and emerging economies. The GGGI was formed in 2012, at the
Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. According
to GGGI, and in contrast to conventional development models that rely on
the unsustainable depletion and destruction of natural resources, green
growth is a coordinated advancement of economic growth, environmental
sustainability, poverty reduction and social inclusion driven by the
sustainable development and use of global resources.
Timing Target
23. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUND FOR AFRICA (SEFA) - AfDB Mid-Term

Investigate collaboration and co-funding potential with AfDB which has
taken the lead in establishing the Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa
(SEFA) to facilitate access to financing and private risk guarantees for the
implementation of renewable energy projects.
SEFA provides the initial phase financing for small and medium-sized
renewable energy projects and technical and skills empowerment for
entrepreneurs and developers.
24. ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTION FUND (EIF)

• Consider setting up an Environmental Intervention Fund (EIF). - ANEREE Long Term
• Funding missions are to:
- Ministry of Environment
- mobilize national and international financing for the environment in
Burkina Faso; - Directory on Green
- allocate financing (subsidies) or facilitate financial incentives (interest Economy and Climate
Change
rate subsidies, loan guarantees) for the various national stakeholders
in line with their skills in environmental management and protection;
and
- monitor and report on the use of funds received and allocated.
25. Other alternative forms of financing may include national tax systems, the
issuance of government securities, voluntary contributions and lotteries, - Ministry of Finance Long Term
methods of mobilizing Burkinabe funds from abroad, bonds guaranteed - German Ministry for
by donor countries sold on the financial market, allocations from funds EconomicCooperation
generated by the sale of emission quotas, public private partnerships, and Development
subsidized loans, crowd-funding, and popular shareholding, among others.
D. FEEDSTOCK
26. Promote agricultural yield improvement (productivity, energy and water - ENBW
Mid- Term
use, fertilizer use, land use changes).
Promote innovative agricultural practices to enable large-scale feedstock
and biofuel production.
27. If jatropha in Burkina Faso stands any chance to succeed on a commercial Short Term
scale, high quality performing hybrid plants are needed to prevent
unnecessary and costly disappointments. Certified high-yielding jatropha
hybrids from special breeding sites in Cameroon under German operation
are potentially available for planting trials and mass propagation in Burkina
Faso.
28. Develop genomic and marker-aided selection capacities

Short Term
• set up/leverage sub-commercial-scale test sites to perform R&D with
- ENBW
existing genotypes/residuals;
• train regional extension/technology transfer specialists who will interface - Jatro Solutions
with producers (farmers/landowners), processors, and communities; - University of Hohenheim
• accelerate improvement of crop yields by expanding capacity building - University of
and extension services to promote modern farming techniques; Ouagadougou
Potential collaboration partner to include ENBW and JatroSolutions.
Timing Target
29. Expand local trials of the most promising new biomass varieties. - UNDP Mid- Term
30. Establish two decentralized jatropha nurseries for superior quality and high - ENBW Mid- Term
yielding seedling production from improved planting material. - Jatro Solutions
31. Support the establishment of a 1 000 ha jatropha demo plantation,

Mid-Term
intercropped with mango, beans, cashews, maize, ginger, sesame, and
peanuts.
32. Scale-up next generation improved feedstock for deployment. - UNDP Long Term
33. To stop the process of degradation and to improve agricultural productivity Mid- Term
- Ministry of Agriculture
per hectare, the use of organic fertilizers is needed;
• given its proven properties, the use of available jatropha seedcake
should be actively encouraged;
• government recognition of the jatropha seed cake as organic fertilizer
would facilitate valorization of this product and encourage domestic use.
34. Given the positive impact on climate change mitigation and carbon - Ministry of Agriculture
Mid- Term
sequestration, the development and expansion of cashew tree plantations - Ministry of Environment
is to be encouraged and incentivized.
35. Conduct in-depth research on practices for cultivating fast growing trees
and grasses on pastureland that could sequester carbon and enhance Long Term
biodiversity.
36. Accelerate afforestation through incentives to cultivate trees on - Ministry of Environment Long Term
degraded lands and through sharing best practices for sustainable forest
management.
E. PROCESSING & TECHNOLOGY
37. Increase the processing rate of agricultural products in the country. - Harburg Freuden-berger Mid- Term
Improve jatropha, cashew and shea processing capacities. - GEA
38. Assess the most promising locations for sustainable feedstock processing Mid- Term
capacity.
39. To improve oil extraction rates and process economics, domestic oil - Harburg Freuden-berger Mid- Term
expelling and milling operations need to be upgraded to latest technology - GEA
standards.
• This includes innovative aqueous oil extraction methods and optimization
of dehusking.
• Potential industry partners are Harburg-Freudenberger Group and GEA
Group, Germany.
40. Considering the domestic portfolio of identified feedstock sources, it - BDI Austria Long Term
would make economic sense to opt for a multi-feedstock processing plant.
BioEnergy International (BDI) AG, Austria has developed a proven concept
even for a small-scale multi-feedstock biofuel plant.
Timing Target
41. Investigate potential for a catalytic cracking micro-refinery solution - Fraunhofer Long Term
(greenfield), potentially in partnership with the German Fraunhofer Society, - German Ministry for
the German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and the Economic Cooperation
German Aerospace Center (DLR). and Development
- German Aerospace
Center (DLR)
F. MARKET STRUCTURE & LOGISTICS
42. • Strong governmental initiatives on infrastructure and logistics, - Ministry of Finance

contributing to decrease the feedstock costs, are inevitable if aviation - Ministry of Agriculture
biofuel production based on identified domestic feedstock resources
should be established in Burkina Faso.
43. Key factors in the development of an alternative aviation fuel supply chain Mid- Term
- Sonabhy
are the logistical considerations of where the relevant biomass is cultivated
- SEGAS-BF
and how it is collected, stored and processed. The logistical considerations
are heavily reliant on the locality.
• Improve understanding of logistics for cost-effective harvesting of farm
and agricultural residues;
• Improve harvesting, collection, storage, densification, pre-treatment,
and transportation of physical biomass to the conversion facility;
• Increase storage capacities (building storage warehouses, store-keeper
training, etc.) to avoid losses from insects and other pests;
Best practices on logistics for cost-effective, sustainable residue collection
should be disseminated.
44. Negotiate logistics Joint Venture with Sonabhy

- Sonabhy
• Even if feedstock processing and biofuel production in Burkina Faso Mid- Term
were successfully launched, transportation and logistics still pose a - SEGAS-BF
major challenge since the “nearest” petrochemical facilities capable - Total
of converting biofuels into alternative aviation fuels are all located in
Europe. However, state-owned hydrocarbon company Sonabhy has
put in place a logistics infrastructure that might offer a cost-efficient
opportunity worth investigating. Petroleum fuel supply is ensured by a
large fleet of tank trucks that are continuously covering the 1 000 km
to the maritime ports of Lomé (Togo), Cotonou (Benin), or Abidjan (Côte
d’Ivoire) by land. While Sonabhy’s fleet delivers fossil fuels to Burkina
Faso, the trucks return empty. Should domestic biofuel production in
Burkina Faso exceed a certain (high) volume, the feedstock could
theoretically be loaded onto the circulating trucks and potentially be
transported overland to a tank farm at one of the three seaports,without
incurring extra costs.
45. The Société d’Entreposage, de Gestion de Garantie et de Sûretés Burkina Mid- Term
- SEGAS-BF
Faso (SEGAS-BF) is the only privately operating market intermediary that
offers market access and product marketing assistance, storage and - Allianz
warehousing facilities, trade financing, crop insurance and transparent
price-finding services to farmers and producers. A large-scale mobilization
of farmers and the establishment of a domestic biofuel supply chain is
Timing Target
likely to require the services and build upon the agro-sector expertise of
SEGAS-BF. Given the company’s close links with market participants,
financial institutions and insurance companies, it could potentially play a
crucial role with regard to agricultural credits and micro-finance for small
farmers and outgrowers.
G. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK & SUPPORT POLICIES
46. Policy support has been instrumental in the global development and - Hanns-Seidel
commercialization of road transportation biofuels, such as in Brazil, the Mid- Term
Foundation
U.S. and the EU. The two main policy drivers in those cases were energy
security and climate-change mitigation. A wide variety of policy instruments
and measures is available to achieve the desired goal of reducing GHG
emissions and hence influence the gradual market introduction of SAF. This
portfolio of policy instruments includes, for example, raising awareness,
research and development support, governance and coordination, voluntary
agreements, market based measures, private and public financing
schemes, tradeable permits, tax credits, blending quota, subsidies and
incentives, and new regulations and standards.
• While the majority of instruments are either directly or indirectly targeted
towards alternative fuels and fuel uses, it may seem advisable to focus on
an earlier stage in the alternative aviation fuel supply chain, as emission
savings and economic benefits of sustainable fuels can only be realized
if steps are taken to actively promote and support their development.
• Taking the global demand for SAF as a given, the main stimulus
package for Burkina Faso therefore preferably relates to all measures
that incentivize large-scale feedstock production in combination with
reforestation and agroforestry mandates and in accordance with
national circumstances.
• Such measures could foster, for example, a sustainable increase in
agricultural yields, feedstock production efficiency, and agricultural
residue removal and utilization.
• The availability of biomass feedstock is expected to ultimately attract
technology-related investments.
47. The revival of the energy crop sector calls for the mobilization of the
authorities at the highest level, as it cannot be the result of one single
agricultural policy. Addressing agricultural and renewable energy
challenges requires policies in numerous areas (agriculture, renewables,
trade, infrastructure, environment, social protection, etc.), which must be
driven with a high degree of coherence.
48. As the challenges are siginifcant, and the available resources limited,
successfully countering the adverse impacts of climate change will require
the involvement of all national actors, from the government down to local
communities. It will also require adequate assistance from the international
community, to support the country’s own efforts.
For the protection of the remaining natural reserves, the local communities
have to be involved in order to prevent them from exploiting the remaining
forests for firewood or expansion of agricultural areas.
Timing Target
49. Facilitate international cooperation and coordination in three primary areas: Mid- to
- BDI Austria
• capacity building, technical assistance and technology transfer; and Long Term
- Harburg-Freudenberger
• scientific and technical R&D conducted under multilateral and bilateral
- GEA
agreements to mutually share risks, minimize duplication of effort, and
benefit from international best practices; - Fraunhofer
50. Securing political commitment and putting in place effective policy and
Short to
regulatory frameworks are crucial elements that can improve the overall
Mid- Term
investment climate for bioenergy.
• The Burkinabe government has a role to play at all levels and across a
range of ministries (all sectors) in effective policy design.
• To encourage investment in biofuel technologies and projects,
incentivizing policies need to be clear and long-term in nature.
• Policies could also address barriers to the development of small-scale
activities, e.g. biofuel operated water pumps.
51. A key issue for delivering biofuels for the aviation sector is the development
of an appropriate support mechanism. Short to
• To achieve economies of scale and cost reduction, a stable, long term Mid- Term
policy framework to build investor confidence and induce demand
is necessary. This could be achieved, for example, by announcing
aspirational targets, blending mandates or higher carbon taxes –
provided there is sufficient supply of feedstock.
52. PNDES
• In July 2016, Burkina Faso adopted its national economic and social - Ministry of Energy
- Ministry of Finance Short Term
development plan (PNDES) as the main instrument defining the strategic
guidelines for economic and social development for the period 2016-20. - Ministry of Environment
The PNDES identifies strategic objectives and implementation measures
to support growth and resilience and improve, inter alia, economic and
environmental governance effectiveness.
• Based on the findings and conclusions presented above, it is recom-
mended to amend and modify the PNDES accordingly.
- Hanns-Seidel Mid- Term

53. Amend and modify the framework of the Rural Development Strategy (SDR) Foundation
Long Term
54. To alleviate burdens on investment and in the absence of regulation,
domestic operators and producers should be assured that the domestic
fuel tax (taxe sur les produits pétroliers (TPP)) does not apply to the
jatropha agrofuel sector.
Timing Target
55. Develop risk management tools such as crop insurance to promote - Allianz Short Term
dedicated bioenergy crop production. The insurance provider agrees to
indemnify (i.e., to protect) the insured farmer against losses that occur
during the crop year.
56. The country’s weak legal framework doesn’t protect farmers from the
appropriation or destruction of their efforts, threatening the agricultural Mid- to
gains they’ve made thus far. For example, farmers in Burkina Faso don’t Long Term
have legal rights to the trees that grow on their property.
• Policy changes could provide for this ownership, allowing climate-smart
agriculture to expand.
• Strengthen land tenure and improve land governance to provide
incentives for more intensive land management.
• Evaluate gaps and mechanisms to allow farmers and producers to
legalize land tenure situations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dynamique de production du Jatropha au Burkina Faso, Mission 17. Irene Angeluccetti et al., Land degradation in a semi-urban
ARP pour l’ADECIA de janvier 2013, Rapport final, Juin 2013. catchment in Burkina Faso: monitoring land use change and soil
2. Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, Commercial erosion with earth observations and field surveys, Geophysical
Aircraft Propulsion and Energy Systems Research - Reducing Research Abstracts Vol. 17, EGU2015-12673, 2015.
Global Carbon Emissions, Washington D.C. 2016. 18. Javier Arevalo, Improving woodfuel governance in Burkina
3. Aeronautics Science and Technology Subcommittee, U.S. Faso: The experts’ assessment, Renewable and Sustainable
Committee on Technology of the National Science and Energy Reviews 57(2016) 1398–1408
Technology Council, FEDERAL ALTERNATIVE JET FUELS 19. Ahmed Saad Attaya et al., Progress in jatropha curcas tissue
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY, June 2016. culture, American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture,
4. Agence Nationale de la Météorologie, ANAM, Histoire de la 6(1): 6-13, 2012.
Méteorologie en Burkina Faso. 20. Rafael Grillo Avila et al., REDD+ in ICAO: Ready for Takeoff,
5. Agence pour le développement de la coopération internationale Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 10/2, 2016, p.134-143.
dans les domaines de l’agriculture, de l’alimentation et des 21. Y Azoumah et al., Exergy efficiency applied for the performance
espaces ruraux, Jean-Yves DUPRE et Guillaume VERMEULEN, optimization of a direct injection compression ignition (CI)
Rapport sur les politiques publiques en faveur des biocarburants engine using biofuels, Renewable Energy 34 (2009).
à base de cultures paysannes de jatropha au Mali et au Burkina 22. John Baffes, Markets for Cotton By-Products, Global Trends
Faso, PROGRAMME D’APPUI AU DEVELOPPEMENT ET A LA and Implications for African Cotton Producers, The World Bank
STRUCTURATION DE LA FILIERE PAYSANNE DE JATROPHA / Development Prospects Group, June 2010.
BIOCARBURANT (HUILE & BIODIESEL) EN AFRIQUE DE L’OUEST, 23. Bakhtiari, F., Valuation of climate change mitigation co-
16 Dec. 2012. benefits. UNEP DTU Partnership. Copenhagen, Denmark, 2016.
6. Md. Hasan Ali, Biodiesel from Neem oil as an alternative fuel for 24. Rob Bailis, Derik Broekhoff, and Carrie M. Lee, Supply
Diesel engine, Procedia Engineering 56 (2013), p.625 – 630. and sustainability of carbon offsets and alternative fuels
7. African Development Bank Group, Burkina Faso, CASHEW for international aviation, Stockholm Environment Institute,
DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT PROJECT IN COMOÉ BASIN FOR Working Paper 2016-03.
REDD+ (PADA/REDD+), Feb. 2017. 25. Sébastien Bainville, Land rights issues in Africa: the contribution
8. African Development Bank Group, ZAMBIA, CASHEW of agrarian systems research in Burkina Faso, The Journal of
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (CIDP), Oct. 2015. Peasant Studies, Vol. 44, 2017 - Issue 1, p.261-285.
9. African Development Bank Group, GAZETTED FORESTS 26. Luís Augusto Barbosa Cortez (ed.), ROADMAP FOR
PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT PROJECT FOR REDD+ (PGFC/ SUSTAINABLE AVIATION BIOFUELS FOR BRAZIL - A Flightpath
REDD+), COUNTRY: BURKINA FASO, PROJECT APPRAISAL to Aviation Biofuels in Brazil, 2014.
REPORT, Nov. 2013. 27. Ty Jason Barten, Evaluation and prediction of corn stover
10. African Development Fund, BURKINA FASO, ELECTRIFICATION biomass and composition from commercially available corn
OF SEMI-URBAN AREAS OF OUAGADOUGOU AND BOBO- hybrids, Graduate Theses and Dissertations (2013), Paper
DIOULASSO, Aug. 2016. 13347.
11. African Development Fund, ENERGY SECTOR BUDGET SUPPORT 28. Philippe Bayen et al., The use of biomass production and
PROGRAMME (PASE), Burkina Faso, Appraisal Report, June allometric models to estimate carbon sequestration of Jatropha
2015. curcas L. plantations in western Burkina Faso, Environ Dev.
12. African Development Fund, BAGRE GROWTH POLE SUPPORT Sustain 2015.
PROJECT (PAPCB), BURKINA FASO APPRAISAL REPORT, Apr. 29. Becken, S. & MacKey, B., What role for offsetting aviation
2015. greenhouse gas emissions in a deep-cut carbon world? Journal
13. Grupo Ageco, IS GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION IN AGRICULTURE of Air Transport Management, 63, 71-83 (2017).
STILL RELEVANT IN THE 21ST CENTURY? Final Report presented 30. Hildegard Bedarff, Climate Change, Migration, and
to Union des Producteurs Agricoles, Oct. 2015. Displacement - The Underestimated Disaster, Center for
14. Duygu Akkaya et al., Government Interventions in Promoting Research on the Environment and Development, Hamburg
Sustainable Practices in Agriculture, Graduate School of University, May 2017.
Business, Stanford University, 25 Sept. 2016. 31. L.K. Behera et al., In vitro mass multiplication of Jatropha
15. Md. Tanveer Ahmad, Global Civil Aviation Emissions Standards (Jatropha curcas L.) through axillary bud culture, Journal of
– from Noise to Greener Fuels, McGill Centre for Research in Air Applied and Natural Science 6 (1): 189-192 (2014).
and Space Law, Occasional Paper Series No.XI, July 2016. 32. Elsayed B. Belal, Bioethanol production from rice straw
16. Glen Anderson et al., CLIMATE VULNERABILITIES AND residues, Braz J Microbiol. 2013; 44(1): 225–234.
DEVELOPMENT IN BURKINA FASO AND NIGER, Background 33. Bern University of Applied Sciences, School of Agricultural,
Paper, prepared for USAID, November 2012. Forest and Food Sciences HAFL and CSIR-Forestry Research
Institute of Ghana, REDD+ in agricultural landscapes: evidence
128 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SOLAR ENERGY AT PIARCO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
from Ghana’s REDD+ process, 2014. 51. Tizane Daho et al., Study of droplet vaporization of various
34. Nicolas Berry et al., Community Biocarbon Projects in West vegetable oils and blends of domestic fuel oilecottonseed oil
Africa: Challenges and Lessons learned, Bioclimate and the under different ambient temperature conditions, Biomass and
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), August 2016. Bioenergy 46 (2012).
35. Nils Borchard et al., Sustainable forest management for land 52. AMY ALBERTA DENNIS, CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS IN
rehabilitation and provision of biomass-energy, CIFOR, Brief No. WEST AFRICA AND GOOD GOVERNANCE: A CASE STUDY OF
41, February 2017. GHANA, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, July 2014.
36. Outtara Brama, ETUDE COMPAREE DES CARACTERISTIQUES 53. U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and
BIOMETRIQUES DES GRAINES DE Jatropha curcas L. Renewable Energy (EERE), Alternative Aviation Fuels: Overview
PROVENANT DE TROIS ZONES CLIMATIQUES DU BURKINA of Challenges, Opportunities, and Next Steps, 2017.
FASO, DIPLOME D’INGENIEUR DU DEVELOPPEMENT RURAL, 54. William J A Dick et al., Government Interventions in Agricultural
Juin 2010. Insurance, International Conference on Agricultural Risk and
37. Joachim Buse, Market Commercialization of Alternative Aviation Food Security 2010, Agriculture and Agricultural Science
Fuels, in: Martin Kaltschmitt/ Ulf Neuling (ed.), Biokerosene, Procedia 1 (2010) 4–12.
Status and Prospects, p.741 – 759, Hamburg 2018. 55. Kangbéni Dimobe et al., Identification of driving factors of land
38. Caitlin S. Byrt et al., Prospecting for Energy-Rich Renewable degradation and deforestation in the Wildlife Reserve of Bontioli,
Raw Materials: Sorghum Stem Case Study, PLoS One, 2016; (Burkina Faso, West Africa), Global Ecology and Conservation 4
11(5), published online 27 May 2016. (2015) 559–571.
39. Drew Christiansen, Traditional Authority and Good Governance 56. Ecofys, Roadmap for a Meta-standard for sustainable
in Africa, Georgetown University, Berekely Center for Religion, alternative jet fuels, Final report, 2016.
Peace and World Affairs, 27 April 2015. 57. E4tech (UK) Ltd, From the Sugar Platform to biofuels and
40. Christopher J. Chuck (ed.), Biofuels for Aviation, Feedstocks, biochemical, Final report for the European Commission
Technology and Implementation, 2016. Directorate-General Energy N° ENER/C2/423-2012/
41. CIFOR, Sustainable bioenergy systems to restore and valorize SI2.673791, April 2015, V2.1.
degraded land, Brief No. 37, March 2016. 58. E4tech (UK) Ltd and Ricardo Energy & Environment for
42. Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO), Air Department for Transport, Future Fuels for Flight and Freight
Navigation Service Provider Carbon Footprinting, A Best Practice Competition – Feasibility Study, Final Report, 23 Jan. 2017.
Guide, 2017. 59. Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), Clean Fuel
43. Climate Advisers, Linking the ICAO Global Market-Based standard: Discussion Paper, Feb. 2017.
Mechanism to REDD+ in Peru, March 2017. 60. The Ethiopian Society for Consumer Protection, and the GAIA
44. COMITE PERMANENT INTER-ETATS DE LUTTE CONTRE LA Foundation, Biofuels – A Failure for Africa, A briefing by the
SECHERESSE DANS LE SAHEL, SECRETARIAT EXECUTIF, African Biodiversity Network, Dec. 2010.
BIOCARBURANTS AU BURKINA, 2007. 61. Daniel Etongo et al., Poverty and Environmental Degradation in
45. SP/ CONEDD, Troisième sur le rapport de l’état de Southern Burkina Faso: An Assessment Based on Participatory
l’environnement au Burkina Faso, Dec 2010. Methods, Land 2016, 5, 20; doi:10.3390/land5030020.
46. Conservation International et al., LINKING FLIGHT AND 62. European Commission, Directorate General for Trade, European
FORESTS: THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF FORESTS IN SUPPORTING Union, Trade in goods with Burkina Faso, 03 May 2017.
GLOBAL AVIATION’S RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE, Apr. 63. Maura Farver and Christopher Frantz, Garbage to Gasoline:
2016. Converting Municipal Solid Waste to Liquid Fuels Technologies,
47. Tizane Daho et al., Influence of engine load and fuel droplet size Commercialization, and Policy, Duke University, April 2013.
on performance of a CI engine fueled with cottonseed oil and its 64. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAA Office of Environment
blends with diesel fuel, Département de Physique, Université de and Energy, Aviation Emissions, Impacts & Mitigation - A Primer,
Ouagadougou, Applied Energy 111 (2013). Washington D.C. January 2015.
48. Tizane Daho et al., Optimization of the combustion of blends of 65. Scott Fields, Continental Divide: Why Africa’s Climate Change
domestic fuel oil and cottonseed oil in a non-modified domestic Burden Is Greater, Environmental Health Perspectives 2005
boiler, Fuel 88 (2009). Aug; 113(8): A534–A537.
49. Tizane Daho et al, Combustion of vegetable oils under optimized 66. Ibrahim H. Gado, Salifou K. Ouiminga, Tizane Daho Arsene,
conditions of atomization and granulometry in a modified fuel H. Yonli Moussa Sougoti, Jean Koulidiati, Characterization of
oil burner, Fuel 118 (2014). Briquettes Coming From Compaction of Paper and Cardboard
50. Tizane Daho et al., Model for predicting evaporation Waste at Low and Medium Pressures, Waste Biomass Valor, 24
characteristics of vegetable oils droplets based on their fatty Nov. 2013.
acid composition, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer 55 (2012).
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SOLAR ENERGY AT PIARCO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 129
67. Ousman Gajigo et al., Gold Mining in Africa: Maximizing 84. International Energy Agency (IEA), Executive Committee,
Economic Returns for Countries, African Development Bank Sustainable Production of Woody Biomass for Energy, 2002.
Group, Working Paper No. 147, March 2012. 85. International l Energy Agency (IEA), Mobilizing sustainable
68. Nasir Anka Garba, Rice straw & husk as potential sources bioenergy supply chains: Opportunities for agriculture,
for mini-grid rural electricity in Nigeria, Int. Journal of Applied Summary and Conclusions from the IEA Bioenergy ExCo77
Sciences and Engineering Research, Vol. 4, Issue 4, 2015. Workshop, 2016.
69. Jesus Gonzalez-Garcia et al., SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN 86. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), BOOSTING
MIGRATION Patterns and Spillovers, International Monetary BIOFUELS Sustainable Paths to Greater Energy Security, 2016.
Fund, Oct. 2016. 87. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), INNOVATION
70. Damodhar J Garkal et al., REVIEW ON EXTRACTION AND OUTLOOK - ADVANCED LIQUID BIOFUELS, 2016.
ISOLATION OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID, INTERNATIONAL 88. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Production of
JOURNAL OF INNOVATIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH AND Liquid Biofuels - Technology Brief, Jan 2013.
TECHNOLOGY [IJIERT], VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1 NOV-2014. 89. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), BIOFUELS
71. Charly Gatete & Marie-Hélène Dabat, From the fuel versus FOR AVIATION - TECHNOLOGY BRIEF, Jan. 2017.
food controversy to the institutional vacuum in biofuel policies: 90. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Global
evidence from West African countries, Energy, Sustainability and Bioenergy SUPPLY AND DEMAND PROJECTIONS, A working
Society, December 2017, 7:12. paper for REmap 2030, Sept. 2014.
72. Ioannis Gravalos, An Experimental Determination of Gross 91. Fei Jia et al., Efficient extraction method to collect sugar from
Calorific Value of Different Agroforestry Species and Bio-Based sweet sorghum, Journal of Biological Engineering, 2013; 7: 1.
Industry Residues, Natural Resources, 2016, 7, 57-68. 92. Raphael M. Jingura and Reckson Kamusoko, Experiences with
73. Jeongwoo Han et al., Development of Tallow-based Biodiesel Jatropha cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons for the next
Pathway in GREETTM, Systems Assessment Group, Energy phase of development, Pages 333-337 | Published online: 16
Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, online Dec 2014.
publication, Oct. 2013. 93. A. Kadeba, Land cover change and plants diversity in the Sahel:
74. Doug Hawkins and Yingheng Chen, Hardman & Co, Future A case study from northern Burkina Faso, Ann. For. Res. 58(1):
Harvest, 21st Century Jatropha, 03 March 2015. 109-123, 2015.
75. Jorgen Hinge et al., Unexploited biomass sources, availability 94. Ndèye Mbayang KEBE, Etude des opportunités de valorisation
and combustion properties – D5.1, Solutions for biomass fuel des biocarburants en milieu rural et leurs effets socio-
market barriers and raw material availability - IEE/07/777/ économiques: Cas du Jatropha Curcas L., MINISTERE DE
SI2.499477, Aarhus May 2011. L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR ET DE LA RECHERCHE, Senegal,
76. Fidèle HIEN, Christophe KIEMTORE, EVALUATION A MI- UNIVERSITE DE THIES, 2013.
PARCOURS DU SOUS-PROGRAMME BOUCLE DU MOUHOUN DU 95. Kima, S.A., Okhimamhe, A., Kiema, A. et al., Adapting to the
PROGRAMME NATIONAL DE PARTENARIAT POUR LA GESTION impacts of climate change in the sub-humid zone of Burkina
DURABLE DES TERRES, RAPPORT PROVISOIRE, PNUD, Mars Faso, West Africa: Perceptions of agro-pastoralists, Pastoralism
2016. (2015) 5: 16. doi:10.1186/s13570-015-0034-9.
77. Carol Hunsberger, Explaining bioenergy: representations 96. ALEXANDER KIYOSHI MINO, ETHANOL PRODUCTION
of jatropha in Kenya before and after disappointing results, FROM SUGARCANE IN INDIA: VIABILITY, CONSTRAINTS AND
published online Nov 22, 2016. IMPLICATIONS, THESIS, Univ. of Illinois, 2010.
78. International Carbon Reduction and Offset Alliance (ICROA), 97. Klauber, Adam et al., Innovative Funding for Sustainable
Unlocking the hidden value of carbon offsetting, Sept. 2014. Aviation Fuel at U.S. Airports: Explored at Seattle-Tacoma
79. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Onboard a International, Rocky Mountain Institute, SkyNRG, July 2017.
S ustainable Future, ICAO ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2016, 98. Kim Knauer et al., Monitoring Agricultural Expansion in Burkina
AVIATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE. Faso over 14 Years with 30 m Resolution Time Series: The Role
80. International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Alternative of Population Growth and Implications for the Environment,
Jet Fuel Development and Deployment in North America, May Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 132; doi:10.3390/rs9020132.
2017. 99. Marcel Kohler, An Economic Assessment of Bioethanol
81. International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Sammy El Production from Sugar Cane: The Case of South Africa, SAEF
Takriti et al., Mitigating International Aviation Emissions - Risks Working Paper No. 2016/01/08, August 2016.
and Opportunities for Alternative Jet Fuels, March 2017. 100. Estelle KOUSSOUBE, Augustin LOADA, Gustave NEBIE, Marc
82. International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Anastasia RAFFINOT, Political Economy of growth and poverty in Burkina
Kharina, Nikita Pavlenko, Alternative jet fuels: Case study of Faso: Power, Institutions and Rents, DOCUMENT DE TRAVAIL
commercial-scale deployment, Oct. 2017. DT/2014-01, Dauphine, Université de Paris.
83. International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Nikita 101. Kumar S. et al., Production of Biodiesel from Animal
Pavlenko et al., DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS OF A DURABLE Tallow via Enzymatic Transesterification using the Enzyme
LOW-CARBON FUEL INVESTMENT POLICY FOR CALIFORNIA, Catalyst Ns88001 with Methanol in a Solvent-Free System,
Oct. 2016 Fundamentals of Renewable Energy and Applications, 2015,
Vol.5:2.
102. Laboratoire de Physique et de Chimie de l’Environnement, 118. Stefan Majer et al., Biomass potentials and competition for
Elaboration et utilisation de biocombustibles alternatifs à base biomass utilization, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt
d’huiles végétales dans des applications spécifiques: Production e.V. (DLR)/ DBFZ, 17 July 2013.
d’électricité et de force motrice en milieu rural-assainissement 119. Graham von Maltitz et al., The Rise, Fall and Potential Resilience
en milieu périurbain, Projet d’Appui à l’Enseignement Supérieur Benefits of Jatropha in Southern Africa, Sustainability 2014, 6,
(PAES) de l’UEMOA, 2013-2016. 3615-3643, 05 June 2014.
103. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), 120. Samson Daudet Medza et al., In Vitro Micropropagation of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Seamus J. Bann, Jatropha curcas L. from Bud Aggregates, Journal of Technology
A Stochastic Techno-Economic Comparison of Alternative Jet Innovations in Renewable Energy, 2013, 2, 145-154.
Fuel Production Pathways, June 2017. 121. Stelios Michalopoulos and Elias Papaioannou, On the Ethnic
104. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Origins of African Development: Chiefs and Precolonial Political
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cassandra Vivian Centralization, Acad Manag Perspect. 2015 Feb 1; 29(1): 32–71.
Rosen, Scenario based lifecycle analysis of greenhouse gas 122. MINISTERE DE L’ENVIRONNEMENT DE L’ECONOMIE VERTE ET
emissions from petroleum-derived transportation fuels in 2050, DU CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE, Rapport Final, Mars 2016.
June 2017. 123. MINISTERE DE L’AGRICULTURE ET DE LA SECURITE
105. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), ALIMENTAIRE, RAPPORT D’ACHEVEMENT DE LA MISE EN
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Mark Douglas ŒUVRE DU PROGRAMME DE DEVELOPPEMENT RURAL
Staples, Bioenergy and its use to mitigate the climate impact of DURABLE (PDRD), Dec. 2013.
aviation, Feb. 2017. 124. MINISTERE DE L’ENERGIE DES MINES ET DES CARRIERES,
106. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), Garane Amidou and Faugere Garance, EVALUATION PRATIQUE
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Pooja Suresh, CONCERNANT L’ADAPTATION DU STANDARD RSB POUR
Environmental and economic assessment of transportation LES PETITS AGRICULTEURS ET ANALYSE DE LA SITUATION
fuels from municipal solid waste, June 2016. REGLEMENTAIRE ET POLITIQUE POUR LES BIOCARBURANTS
107. Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (LAE), AU BURKINA FASO, Burkina Faso, Nov 2013.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Gonca Seber, 125. MINISTERE DE L’ENERGIE DES MINES ET DES CARRIERES,
Robert Malina et al., Environmental and economic assessment SECRETARIAT GENERAL, DIRECTION GÉNÉRALE DES ÉNERGIES
of producing hydroprocessed jet and diesel fuel from waste RENOUVELABLES, Rapport diagnostic actualisé de la filière
oils and tallow, Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol. 67, 108-118, Aug. agrocarburant à base de Jatropha Curcas L. au Burkina Faso,
2014. Rapport Final, May 2016.
108. Frans Lamers and Robert van Kessel, Advanced Thermal 126. MINISTERE DE L’ENERGIE DES MINES ET DES CARRIERES,
Treatment Technologies for Waste – Present State of the Art –, SECRETARIAT GENERAL, DIRECTION GÉNÉRALE DES ÉNERGIES
2011. RENOUVELABLES, KONATE Salifou, KAFANDO Garance,
109. ROGALAMANDE AWORET GUENAEL LAURENT, SYNTHESE DAHO Tizane, ELABORATION D’UNE STRATEGIE POUR LE
DE BIOCARBURANT PAR TRANSESTERIFICATION DE L’HUILE DEVELOPPEMENT DES FILIERES DE PRODUCTION DES
DE JATROPHA CURCAS EN CATALYSE HOMOGENE BASIQUE, AGROCARBURANTS, Rapport des données – version provisoire,
Mémoire de Master, 2012-2013. Jan. 2017.
110. Steven Lawry et al., The Impact of Land Property Rights 127. MINISTERE DE L’ENERGIE DES MINES ET DES CARRIERES,
Interventions on Investment and Agricultural Productivity in SECRETARIAT GENERAL, DIRECTION GENERALE DE L’ENERGIE,
Developing Countries: A Systematic Review, Jan 2014. Georges BAZONGO, Agronome, Dr. Dénis OUEDRAOGO,
111. Amanda Lenhardt, A greener Burkina - Sustainable farming Economiste, ETUDE DE FAISABILITE RELATIVE A LA PRODUCTION
techniques, land reclamation and improved livelihoods, Sept. DE BIO ENERGIE, RAPPORT PROVISOIRE, Nov 2010
2014. 128. MINISTERE DE L’AGRICULTURE ET DE LA SECURITE
112. Bo Yuan Lim et al., The Performance of a Jatropha Fruit Shelling ALIMENTAIRE, SECRETARIAT GENERAL, RAPPORT
Machine and the Future Improvement, Universal Journal of D’ACHEVEMENT DE LA MISE EN ŒUVRE DU PROGRAMME DE
Applied Science 2(7): 233-236, 2014. DEVELOPPEMENT RURAL DURABLE (PDRD), Dec. 2013.
113. Pierre-Luc Lizotte et al., Ash Content and Calorific Energy of 129. Ministère de l’Energie, Elaboration d’une stratégie pour le
Corn Stover Components in Eastern Canada, Energies 2015, 8, développement des filières de production des agrocarburants
4827-4838, published 26 May 2015. au Burkina Faso (étude en cours de validation dans le cadre du
114. LMC International, Feedstocks for Sustainable Aviation Biofuels Projet Jatropha Burkina), Financement FEM-PNUD, 2017.
in Norway, Dec. 2012. 130. Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources
115. A.C. Lokesh, Neem Biodiesel - A Sustainability Study, Journal of Halieutiques, Opportunités de développement des biocarburants
Biomass to Biofuel, Volume 1, 2015. au Burkina Faso, Financement GTZ, 2008.
116. Harold Macauley, Cereal Crops: Rice, Maize, Millet, Sorghum, 131. Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Development, PNDES
Wheat, Background Paper, 2015. 2016-2010, Transformer le Burkina.
117. Teresa M. Mata et al., Properties and Sustainability of Biodiesel 132. Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Development, National
from Animal Fats and Fish Oil, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Plan for Economic and Social Development (PNDES) 2016-
TRANSACTIONS, VOL. 38, 2014, p.175-180 2020, Overview, Oct. 2016.
133. Ministry of Environment and Fishery Resources, BURKINA 147. Montes Osorio et al., High level of molecular and phenotypic
FASO NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION PLAN (NAP), biodiversity in Jatropha curcas from Central America compared
Final version, May 2015. to Africa, Asia and South America, BMC Plant Biology 2014
134. Meena Misra and Amarendra N. Misra, Jatropha: The Biodiesel 14:77.
Plant Biology, Tissue Culture and Genetic Transformation – A 148. Razacswendé Fanta OUEDRAOGO, Etude des paramètres
Review, Int. J. Pure Appl. Sci. Technol., 1(1) (2010), pp. 11-24. morpho-physiologiques, biochimiques et moléculaires de
135. Mochizuki, J., Yanagida, J. F., Kumar, D., Takara, D., & Murthy, trois écotypes de Jatropha curcas soumis à des contraintes
G. S. (2014), Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from lumineuse et hydrique au Burkina Faso, Docteur de l’Université
tropical banagrass (Pennisetum purpureum) using green and de Ouagadougou, Option: Sciences Appliquées, Spécialité:
dry processing technologies in Hawaii, Journal of Renewable Ecophysiologie Végétale, 30 juin 2014.
and Sustainable Energy, 6(4), 043128. doi:10.1063/1.4893673. 149. Moussa Ouédraogo, Land tenure and rural development in
136. Darrell Moellendorf, Climate change and global justice, WIREs Burkina Faso: Issues and Strategies, Issue Paper No.112.
Clim Change 2012, 3:131–143. doi: 10.1002/wcc.158. 150. Souleymane OUEDRAOGO, Technical and Economic Efficiency
137. Isah Y. Mohammed, Comprehensive Characterization of Napier of Rice Production on the Irrigated Plain of Bagre (Burkina Faso):
Grass as a Feedstock for Thermochemical Conversion, Energies A Stochastic Frontier Approach, Journal of Economics and
2015, 8, p.3403-3417, published 24 April 2015. Sustainable Development, Vol.6, No.14, 2015.
138. Kirsi Mononen and Sari Pitkänen, Sustainable Fuelwood 151. Parry, I., Veungh, C. and Heine, D., How Much Carbon Pricing is
Management in West Africa, CIFOR, Aug. 2016. Countries’ Own Interests? The Critical Role of Co-Benefits, IMF
139. Roger CH. H. Nebie, Notes de Présentation, Centre National de Working Paper WP/14/174 (2014).
la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST). 152. Fred Pearce, Jatropha: it boomed, it busted, and now it’s back,
140. Ibrahim NIENTA, consultant International, Chef de mission CGIAR, 2013.
et Soungalo TRAORE, ÉVALUATION FINALE DE LA PREMIERE 153. Leonardo de Azevedo Peixoto et al., Breeding Jatropha curcas
PHASE DU SOUS-PROGRAMME COORDINATION NATIONALE by genomic selection: A pilot assessment of the accuracy of
DU PROGRAMME NATIONAL DE PARTENARIAT POUR LA predictive models, Editor: Rongling Wu, Pennsylvania State
GESTION DURABLE DES TERRES, Rapport Final, MINISTERE University, UNITED STATES, published online March 15, 2017.
DE L’ENVIRONNEMENT DE L’ECONOMIE VERTE ET DU 154. Raghavendra Prasada S.A, A Review on CNSL Biodiesel as
CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE, SECRETARIAT PERMANENT an Alternative fuel for Diesel Engine, International Journal of
DU CONSEIL NATIONAL POUR L’ENVIRONNEMENT ET LE Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 3 Issue 7, July 2014, 2028.
DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE, PROGRAMME NATIONALE DE 155. Programme des Nations Unies pour le développement (PNUD),
PARTENARIAT POUR LA GESTION DURABLE DES TERRES, EVALUATION A MI-PARCOURS DU SOUS-PROGRAMME BOUCLE
«Sous-programme Coordination Nationale N° 00072385–CPP», DU MOUHOUN DU PROGRAMME NATIONAL DE PARTENARIAT
Mars 2016. POUR LA GESTION DURABLE DES TERRES, Rapport Provisoire,
141. Svitlana Nitièma-Yefanova et al., Ethyl biodiesel production Mars 2016.
from non-edible oils of Balanites aegyptiaca, Azadirachta indica, 156. Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement (PNUD),
and Jatropha curcas seeds, Renewable Energy, Oct. 2016, DOI: Promotion du Jatropha Curcas comme source d‘agrocarburants
10.1016/j.renene.2016.04.100. durable au Burkina Faso, 2014 & 2017 (revised edition).
142. Jean Fidèle Nzihou, Improving Municipal Solid Waste Land 157. Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement (PNUD),
Filling Disposal Process: Experiments with a Laboratory Scale PROMOTION DU JATROPHA CURCAS COMME SOURCE DE
Rotary Kiln, Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 753- BIOCARBURANT DURABLE AU BURKINA FASO, AVRIL 2014.
759. 158. C. Rabany, THE AFRICAN CASHEW SECTOR IN 2015, General
143. Jean Fidèle Nzihou et al., Potential and Feasibility of Solid trends and country profiles.
Municipal Waste Treatment with Gasifiers in a Developing 159. Rambøll, SUSTAINABLE AVIATION BIOFUEL - STATUS 2017,
Country: A Review for Burkina Faso, British Journal of Applied Helsinki, May 2017.
Science & Technology 4(3): 450-464, 2014. 160. Kaveh Rashid, Martin Stadelmann, Anthony Patta, Valuing co-
144. Lawrence Ikechukwu Obidike, BIOFUEL PRODUCTION FROM benefits to make low-carbon investments in cities bankable:
WASTE ANIMAL FAT USING PYROLYSIS (THERMAL CRACKING), The case of waste and transportation projects, Sustainable
MSc RESEARCH DISSERTATION, University of the Witwatersrand, Cities and Society, Volume 34, October 2017, Pages 69-78.
Johannesburg, June 2016. 161. Thippa Reddy, STUDIES ON CHARACTERIZATIONS OF
145. Damilola S. Olawuyi, Sustainable Aviation and the Transfer AGRICULTURE WASTE (RICE HUSK) FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
of Environmentally Sound Technologies to Africa: Paradoxes, ETHANOL, Journal of Environmental Research and Development
Barriers and Prospects, McGill Centre for Research in Air and Vol. 7 No. 2A, October-December 2012.
Space Law, Occasional Paper Series No.XIII, July 2016. 162. Thibault Rérolle, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne,
146. T.U. Onuegbu et al., COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF DENSITIES Réflexion prospective sur l’évolution du cadre réglementaire et
AND CALORIFIC VALUES OF WOOD AND BRIQUETTES fiscal pour le développement durable des agro-carburants au
SAMPLES PREPARED AT MODERATE PRESSURE AND AMBIENT Burkina Faso, Rapport Final, 28 Oct. 2014.
TEMPERATURE, International Journal of Plant, Animal and 163. Royal Institute of Technology, Technical Background Document
Environmental Sciences, Vol. 2, Issue 1, Jan-Mar 2012, p.40. – Biofuels in Burkina Faso Crop Intensification and the potential
of biofuels in in Burkina Faso, An Appendix to the study “Climate, rurale de Boni en zone soudano-sahélienne, Diplôme d’Etudes
Land, Energy and Water (CLEW) interlinkages in Burkina Faso”, Approfondies (D.E.A) En Sciences Biologiques Appliquées,
Stockholm 2012. Option: Ecophysiologie Végétale, 22 Oct 2011.
164. Jitendra Kumar Saini et al., Lignocellulosic agriculture wastes 178. K. Stecher, A. Brosowski, D. Thrän, BIOMASS POTENTIAL IN
as biomass feedstocks for second-generation bioethanol AFRICA, DBFZ/ IRENA, 2013.
production: concepts and recent developments, 3 Biotech. 179. Benjamin Sultan and Marco Gaetani, Agriculture in West Africa
2015 Aug; 5(4): 337–353. in the Twenty-First Century: Climate Change and Impacts
165. Sabari Sévérin SAMA, ETUDE DU ROLE DU JATROPHA DANS Scenarios, and Potential for Adaptation, Front Plant Sci. 2016;
LA PROMOTION DE L’ENTREPRENARIAT AU BURKINA FASO, 7: 1262, Published online 30 Aug 2016.
CAS DE BELWET, RAPPORT DE FIN DE CYCLE PRESENTE EN 180. Pooja Suresh, Environmental and economic assessment of
VUE DE L’OBTENTION DE LA LICENCE EN AGRO-ECONOMIE, transportation fuels from municipal solid waste, MIT, June
Dec 2013. 2016.
166. Ronald D. Sands, United States Department of Agriculture 181. Elijah A. Taiwo, Cashew Nut Shell Oil — A Renewable and
(USDA), Dedicated Energy Crops and Competition for Agricultural Reliable Petrochemical Feedstock, Department of Chemical
Land, Jan 2017. Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State,
167. Bassirou Sanon et al., Valorisation des tourteaux de jatropha Nigeria, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61096.
curcas l. sous forme de fertilisant, Programme d’appui au 182. Abdoul-Rahamane TAPSOBA, Réponses physiologiques
développement et à la structuration de la filière paysanne de des plantes vivrières cultivées sous plantation de Jatropha
Jatropha / biocarburant en Afrique de l’Ouest. curcas L.: cas du maïs, Zea mays L., dans la commune de
168. Estomih Sawe and Jensen Shuma, Socio-economic Boni, en zone soudano sahélienne, DIPLOME D’INGENIEUR DU
experiences of different jatropha business models in Africa, DEVELOPPEMENT RURAL OPTION: Agronomie, Juin 2011.
in Dominik Rutz et al., Socio-economic impacts of bioenergy 183. Patricia Thornley et al. Maximizing the greenhouse gas reductions
production, pp. 171-182, 24 Feb. 2014. from biomass: The role of life cycle assessment, Biomass and
169. Devesh K Saxena et al., COMPARATIVE EXTRACTION OF Bioenergy, Volume 81, October 2015, Pages 35-43.
COTTONSEED OIL BY n-Hexane and Ethanol, ARPN Journal of 184. TIENDREBEOGO K. Fidèle, CARACTERISATION MORPHOPHYS-
Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 6, No.1, Jan. 2011. IOLOGIQUE D’UN ECHANTILLON DE Jatropha curcas L. DU
170. N. Scarlat et al., Evaluation of energy potential of Municipal Solid BURKINA FASO AU STADE JUVENILE, Département de Biologie
Waste from African urban areas, Renewable and Sustainable et Physiologie Végétales, Mémoire, 30 Jul 2009.
Energy Reviews, Volume 50, October 2015, Pages 1269-1286. 185. Diana Ürge-Vorsatz, Sergio Tirado Herrero, Navroz K. Dubash,
171. Stefan Schwietzke, Ethanol Production from Maize, in: A.L. and Franck Lecocq, Measuring the Co-Benefits of Climate Change
Kriz, B.A. Larkins (eds.), Molecular Genetic Approaches to Maize Mitigation, Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2014. 39:549–82.
Improvement, Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 63. 186. Union Économique et Monétaire de l’Ouest Africain (UEMOA),
172. Moustapha SENE, FAISABILITE DE TRAITEMENT DES EAUX Étude de Viabilité de la Production de Biocarburants dans
USEES DOMESTIQUES PAR FILTRES PLANTES D’ESPECES l’UEMOA, Appel Public de Prospection BNDES/FEP nº 02/2011.
UTILITAIRES: CAS DU JATROPHA CURCAS L. AU BURKINA 187. Union Économique et Monétaire de l’Ouest Africain (UEMOA),
FASO, MEMOIRE POUR L’OBTENTION DU DIPLOME DE MASTER Requête de financement pour la mise en oeuvre du Programme
D’INGENERIE EN EAU ET ENVIRONNEMENT, 25 Jul. 2009. Régional Biomasse-Energie dans les Etats membres de
173. SESSION DE FORMATION DES OPÉRATEURS DE l’UEMOA, 2004.
BIOCARBURANTS AU BURKINA FASO: Du 1er au 3 avril 2014, 188. Union Économique et Monétaire de l’Ouest Africain (UEMOA),
Guide technique pour le choix des équipements de production BIOENERGIES ET DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE DANS LES
de biocarburants à base de Jatropha, Avril 2014. ETATS MEMBRES DE L’UEMOA, 2008.
174. SESSION DE FORMATION DES OPÉRATEURS DE 189. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE),
BIOCARBURANTS AU BURKINA FASO: SESSION DE FORMATION The co-benefits of climate change mitigation, Sustainable
DES OPÉRATEURS DE BIOCARBURANTS AU BURKINA FASO: Development Brief No.2, Jan. 2016.
«MEILLEURES PRATIQUES EN MATIÈRE DE PRODUCTION DE 190. United States Government Accountability Office (GAO),
BIOCARBURANTS À BASE DE JATROPHA«, OUAGADOUGOU du DEFENSE ENERGY, Observations on DOD’s Investments in
1er au 3 avril 2014. Alternative Fuels, July 2015.
175. Claude Stephane Side, Stratégie de mécanisation de 191. USAID, Country Profile, Property rights and resource
l’agriculture familiale en Afrique subsaharienne, Mémoire de fin governance, Burkina Faso.
d’étude, Montpellier SupAgro, CIRAD et AFD, 2013. 192. Velmurugan. A, Loganathan. M, Performance and Emission
176. Sivakumar S, OPTIMIZATION OF NON TRANSESTERIFIED Characteristics of a DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Cashew
CARDANOL AS BIOFUEL BASED ON ITS PHYSICAL Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL)-Diesel Blends, International Journal
AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, Journal of Chemical and of Mechanical, Aerospace, Industrial, Mechatronic and
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Special Issue 7: 2015, 15. Manufacturing Engineering Vol:5, No:10, 2011.
177. SORI Lallé Abdoul Karim, Réponses physiologiques des 193. Wei-Cheng Wang et al., Review of Biojet Fuel Conversion
cultures vivrières en association avec Jatropha curcas L : Technologies, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
cas du niébé (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) dans la commune July 2016.
194. H. K. Watson and R. A. Diaz-Chavez, An assessment of the
potential of drylands in eight sub-Saharan African countries
to produce bioenergy feedstocks, Interface Focus. 2011 Apr 6;
1(2): 263–270, published online 02 Feb 2011.
195. Jae Woon, Lee Benoît Mayer, Joseph Wheeler, Aviation and
Sustainable Development: Some Perspectives from the Asia-
Pacific, McGill Centre for Research in Air and Space Law,
Occasional Paper Series No.XVI, Aug. 2016.
196. The World Bank Group, Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and
Adaptation to Climate Change, Country Profile Burkina Faso,
April 2011.
197. The World Bank Group, The International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, Burkina Faso’s Infrastructure:
A Continental Perspective, May 2011.
198. World Bank, Burkina Faso – Disaster Risk Management,
Country Note, Report No AAA60-BF, May 17, 2011.
199. World Bank, Doing Business 2011: Making a Difference for
Entrepreneurs. Washington, DC.
200. World Bank, INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION,
PROJECT APPRAISAL DOCUMENT ON A PROPOSED CREDIT
IN THE AMOUNT OF EUR 87.80 MILLION (US$100 MILLION
EQUIVALENT) TO BURKINA FASO FOR A TRANSPORT AND
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT, May 20,
2016
201. Erik C. Wormslev et al., Nordic Council of Ministers, Sustainable
jet fuel for aviation, Nordic perspectives on the use of advanced
sustainable jet fuel for aviation, 2016.
202. YAMEOGO Kouilga Fidèle, La valorisation du Jatropha curcas
en milieu rural aux Burkina Faso : état des lieux et impacts
probables du projet Jatropha-biodiesel de l’Association
Impulsion dans la commune de Barsalogho, Centre d’Etudes
de Promotion, de L’Aménagement et de la Protection de
l’Environnement (C.E.P.A.P.E), Mémoire.
203. David W. Zingg and Ömer L. Gülder, Technology Developments
and Renewable Fuels for Sustainable Aviation, McGill Centre for
Research in Air and Space Law, Occasional Paper Series No.XII,
July 2016.
Project funded by
[email protected]
European Union
www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/ICAO_EU.aspx

FeasabilityStudy BurkinaFaso Report-Web

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FeasabilityStudy BurkinaFaso Report-Web

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FeasabilityStudy BurkinaFaso Report-Web

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Project funded by

Feasibility Study on the use

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

Project funded by the European Union

© ICAO 2018. All rights reserved.

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 3

4 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 5

6 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 7

8 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 9

10 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 11

12 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 13

ICAO works with the Convention’s 191 Member States and

14 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 15

16 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 17

18 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

1.7 DOMESTIC BIOMASS POTENTIAL

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 19

20 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

1.8 FUEL CONVERSION PROCESSES

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 21

22 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

2.2 TRADE AND GOVERNMENT

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 23

24 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 25

26 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

As a consequence, Burkina Faso is repeatedly facing water

2.6 LAND DEGRADATION

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 27

28 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

The President of Burkina Faso, Roch Marc Kaboré,

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 29

2.8.2 HYDROCARBONS/ FOSSIL FUELS

30 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

2.8.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY OUTLOOK

2.9 TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 31

Burkina Faso is completely dependent on overland road corridors to access refining,

32 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

Road conditions pose a serious challenge for the

The disconnect between urban centres and the countryside is

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 33

In search of the most suitable feedstock for biofuel production

The study came to the conclusion that, among all feedstock

34 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 35

36 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 37

38 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 39

40 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO

3.1.2.4 Feasibility Matrix

FEASIBILITY STUDY ON THE USE OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS IN BURKINA FASO 41