APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

1. DERIVATIVE AS RATE OF CHANGE 2. EQUATIONS OF TANGENT & NORMAL

In various fields of applied mathematics one has the quest (I) The value of the derivative at P (x1, y1) gives the
to know the rate at which one variable is changing, with slope of the tangent to the curve at P. Symbolically
respect to other. The rate of change naturally refers to time.
But we can have rate of change with respect to other dy
f ´ (x 1 ) = dx = Slope of tangent at
variables also. x1 , y1

An economist may want to study how the investment P (x1, y1) = m (say).
changes with respect to variations in interest rates.
(II) Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is ;
A physician may want to know, how small changes in dosage
can affect the body’s response to a drug. § dy ·
y  y1 ¨ ¸ u x  x1
A physicist may want to know the rate of change of distance © dx ¹ x1 , y1
with respect to time.
All questions of the above type can be interpreted and (III) Equation of normal at (x1, y1) is ;
represented using derivatives.
Definition : § ·
¨ 1 ¸
The average rate of change of a function f (x) with respect to y  y1 ¨ dy ¸ u x  x1
¨ ¸
f a+h - f a © dx ¹ x1 , y1
x over an interval [a, a + h] is defined as .
h

Definition :
The instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x is
defined as

f ah  f a
f´x lim , provided the limit exists.
h o0 h

To use the word ‘instantaneous’, x may not be representing

time. We usually use the word ‘rate of change’ to mean
‘instantaneous rate of change’.
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

3. TANGENT FROM AN EXTERNAL POINT

Given a point P (a, b) which does not lie on the curve

y = f (x), then the equation of possible tangents to the curve
1. The point P (x1, y1) will satisfy the equation of the y = f (x), passing through (a, b) can be found by solving for
curve & the equation of tangent & normal line.
the point of contact Q.
2. If the tangent at any point P on the curve is parallel to
X-axis then dy/dx = 0 at the point P.
f h b
3. If the tangent at any point on the curve is parallel to And equation of tangent is y  b x a
Y-axis, then dy/dx = f or dx/dy = 0. ha
4. If the tangent at any point on the curve is equally
inclined to both the axes then dy/dx = +1.
5. If the tangent at any point makes equal intercept
on the coordinate axes then dy/dx = +1.
6. Tangent to a curve at the point P (x1, y1) can be
drawn even though dy/dx at P does not exist. e.g.
x = 0 is a tangent to y = x2/3 at (0, 0).
7. If a curve passing through the origin be given by a
rational integral algebraic equation, the equation
of the tangent (or tangents) at the origin is obtained
by equating to zero the terms of the lowest degree
in the equation. e.g. If the equation of a curve be
x2 – y2 + x3 + 3x2y – y3 = 0, the tangents at the origin
are given by x2 – y2 = 0 i.e. x + y = 0 and 4. ANGLE BETWEEN THE CURVES
x – y = 0.
Angle between two intersecting curves is defined as the
2
y1 1  ª¬ f ´ x1 º¼ acute angle between their tangents or the normals at the
(IV) (a) Length of the tangent (PT) = point of intersection of two curves.
f ´ x1

y1 m1  m 2
(b) Length of Subtangent (MT) = f ´ x tan T
1 1  m1m 2
2
(c) Length of Normal (PN) = y1 1  ¬ª f ´ x1 ¼º where m1 & m2 are the slopes of tangents at the intersection
point (x1, y1).
(d) Length of Subnormal (MN) = y1 f ´ (x1)
(V) Differential :
The differential of a function is equal to its derivative
multiplied by the differential of the independent variable.
Thus if, y = tan x then dy = sec2x dx.
In general dy = f ´ (x) dx.

d (c) = 0 where ‘c’ is a constant.

d (u + v – w) = du + dv – dw
d (uv) = udv + vdu
* The relation dy = f´(x) dx can be written as
dy
f ´ x ; thus the quotient of the differentials
dx
of ‘y’ and ‘x’ is equal to the derivative of ‘y’ w.r.t. ‘x’.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

(b) Approximations
From definition of derivative,

? Derivative of f (x) at (x = a) = f ´(a)

(i) The angle is defined between two curves if the

f (a  Gx)  f (a)
curves are intersecting. This can be ensured by or f ´(a) = Glim
x o0 Gx
finding their point of intersection or by graphically.
(ii) If the curves intersect at more than one point then
angle between curves is found out with respect to f (a  Gx)  f (a)
or o f '(a) (approximately)
the point of intersection. Gx
(iii) Two curves are said to be orthogonal if angle
f (a + Gx) = f (a) + Gx f´ (a) (approximately)
between them at each point of intersection is right
angle i.e. m1 m2 = –1.
7. DEFINITIONS
5. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO CURVES
1. A function f (x) is called an Increasing Function at a point x
Shortest distance between two non-intersecting = a if in a sufficiently small neighbourhood around
differentiable curves is always along their common normal.
x = a we have
(Wherever defined)
f (a + h) > f (a)
6. ERRORS AND APPROXIMATIONS
f (a – h) < f (a)
(a) Errors
Let y = f (x) Similarly Decreasing Function if

Gy dy f (a + h) < f (a)
From definition of derivative, lim
Gx o 0 Gx dx
f (a – h) > f (a)
Gy dy
approximately Above statements hold true irrespective of whether f is non
Gx dx
derivable or even discontinuous at x = a
§ dy ·
or Gy ¨ ¸ . Gx approximately 2. A differentiable function is called increasing in an interval
© dx ¹
(a, b) if it is increasing at every point within the interval (but
Definition : not necessarily at the end points). A function decreasing in
(i) Gx is known as absolute error in x. an interval (a, b) is similarly defined.

Gx 3. A function which in a given interval is increasing or

(ii) is known as relative error in x.
x decreasing is called "Monotonic" in that interval.

Gx 4. Tests for increasing and decreasing of a function at a point :

(iii) u 100 is known as percentage error in x.
x
If the derivative f ´(x) is positive at a point x = a, then the
function f (x) at this point is increasing. If it is negative, then
the function is decreasing.

Gx and Gy are known as differentials.

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

5. (a) ROLLE'S Theorem :

Let f (x) be a function of x subject to the following
conditions :
(i) f (x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval
Even if f ´(a) is not defined, f can still be increasing or of a < x < b.
decreasing. (Look at the cases below). (ii) f ´ (x) exists for every point in the open interval
a < x < b.
(iii) f (a) = f (b).
Then there exists at least one point x = c such that
a < c < b where f ´ (c) = 0.
(b) LMVT Theorem :
Let f (x) be a function of x subject to the following
conditions :
(i) f (x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval
of a < x < b.

(ii) f ´ (x) exists for every point in the open interval

a < x < b.

Then there exists at least one point x = c such that

f (b)  f (a)
If f ´ (a) = 0, then for x = a the function may be still increasing a < c < b where f ´ (c) =
b a
or it may be decreasing as shown. It has to be identified
by a seperate rule. Geometrically, the slope of the secant line joining the curve
at x = a & x = b is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn
e.g. f (x) = x3 is increasing at every point. to the curve at x = c.
Note that, dy/dx = 3x2. Note the following : Rolles theorem is a special case of LMVT
since
f (b)  f (a)
f (a) f (b) Ÿ f ´(c) 0
ba

Physical Enterpretation of LMVT :

Now [ f (b) – f (a)] is the change in the function f as x
f (b)  f (a)
changes from a to b so that is the average
ba
1. If a function is invertible it has to be either increasing
rate of change of the function over the interval [a, b]. Also
or decreasing. f ´ (c) is the actual rate of change of the function for x = c.
2. If a function is continuous, the intervals in which it Thus, the theorem states that the average rate of change
rises and falls may be separated by points at which of a function over an interval is also the actual rate of
its derivative fails to exist. change of the function at some point of the interval. In
particular, for instance, the average velocity of a particle
3. If f is increasing in [a, b] and is continuous then
over an interval of time is equal to the velocity at some
f (b) is the greatest and f (a) is the least value of instant belonging to the interval.
f in [a, b]. Similarly if f is decreasing in [a, b] then f (a)
This interpretation of the theorem justifies the name "Mean
is the greatest value and f (b) is the least value.
Value" for the theorem.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

(c) Application of rolles theorem for isolating the real roots of

an equation f (x) = 0
Suppose a & b are two real numbers such that ;
(i) f (x) & its first derivative f ´ (x) are continuous for
a < x < b. (i) The local maximum & local minimum values of a
function are also known as local/relative maxima or
(ii) f (a) & f (b) have opposite signs. local/relative minima as these are the greatest &
(iii) f ´ (x) is different from zero for all values of x between least values of the function relative to some
neighbourhood of the point in question.
a & b.
(ii) The term ‘extremum’ is used both for maxima or a
Then there is one & only one real root of the equation minima.
f (x) = 0 between a & b. (iii) A local maximum (local minimum) value of a function
may not be the greatest (least) value in a finite
8. HOW MAXIMA & MINIMA ARE CLASSIFIED interval.
(iv) A function can have several local maximum & local
1. A function f (x) is said to have a local maximum at x = a if f (a) minimum values & a local minimum value may even
is greater than every other value assumed by f (x) in the be greater than a local maximum value.
immediate neighbourhood of x = a. Symbolically (v) Maxima & minima of a continuous function occur
alternately & between two consecutive maxima there
f a ! f ah º is a minima & vice versa.
» Ÿ x=a gives maxima
f a ! f a  h »¼ 2. A necessary condition for maxima
& minima
for a sufficiently small positive h.
If f (x) is a maxima or minima at x = c & if f ´ (c) exists then
Similarly, a function f (x) is said to have a local minimum value
f ´ (c) = 0.
at x = b if f (b) is least than every other value assumed by f (x) in
the immediate neighbourhood at x = b. Symbolically if

f b  f bh º
» Ÿ x=b gives minima for a sufficiently
f b  f b  h »¼
(i) The set of values of x for which f ´ (x) = 0 are often
small positive h. called as stationary points. The rate of change of
function is zero at a stationary point.
(ii) In case f ´ (c) does not exist f (c) may be a maxima
or a minima & in this case left hand and right hand
derivatives are of opposite signs.
(iii) The greatest (global maxima) and the least (global
minima) values of a function f in an interval [a, b] are
f (a) or f (b) or are given by the values of x which are
critical points.
(iv) Critical points are those where :
dy
(i) 0, if it exists; (ii) or it fails to exist
dx
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

3. Sufficient condition for extreme values maximised or minimised. If this quantity is denoted by ‘y’, it
must be expressed in terms of a single independent variable
First Derivative Test x. This may require some algebraic manipulations.
Third : If y = f (x) is a quantity to be maximum or minimum,
find those values of x for which dy/dx = f ´ (x) = 0.
f ´ c  h ! 0º
»Ÿx c is a point of local maxima, Fourth : Test each values of x for which f ´ (x) = 0 to determine
f ´ c  h  0»¼
whether it provides a maxima or minima or neither. The usual
where h is a sufficiently small positive quantity tests are :
(a) If d2y/dx2 is positive when dy/dx = 0
f ´ c  h  0º Ÿ y is minima.
Similarly » Ÿ x c is a point of local minima,
f ´ c  h ! 0»¼ If d2y/dx2 is negative when dy/dx = 0
where h is a sufficiently small positive quantity Ÿ y is maxima.
Note :– f ´ (c) in both the cases may or may not exist. If it If d2y/dx2 = 0 when dy/dx = 0, the test fails.
exists, then f ´ (c) = 0.
positive for x  x0 º
dy »
(b) If is zero for x x0 » Ÿ a maxima occurs at x x0 .
dx negative for x ! x 0 ¼»

But if dy/dx changes sign from negative to zero to positive

If f´ (x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a as x advances through x0, there is a minima. If dy/dx does
certain complete neighbourhood of c, then f (x) is either not change sign, neither a maxima nor a minima. Such points
strictly increasing or decreasing throughout this are called INFLECTION POINTS.
neighbourhood implying that f (c) is not an extreme value
Fifth : If the function y = f (x) is defined for only a limited
of f .
range of values a d x d b then examine x = a & x = b for
possible extreme values.
4. Use of second order derivative in
Sixth : If the derivative fails to exist at some point, examine
ascertaining the maxima or minima this point as possible maxima or minima.
(In general, check at all Critical Points).
(a) f (c) is a minima of the function f, if
f ´ (c) = 0 & f ´´ (c) > 0.
(b) f (c) is a maxima of the function f, if
f ´ (c) = 0 & f ´´ (c) < 0.

If the sum of two positive numbers x and y is

constant than their product is maximum if they are
If f ´´ (c) = 0 then the test fails. Revert back to the first equal, i.e. x + y = c, x > 0, y > 0, then
order derivative check for ascertaining the maxima or
minima. 1ª
xy  xy º
2 2
xy
4¬ ¼
5. Summary­working rule If the product of two positive numbers is constant
then their sum is least if they are equal.
First : When possible, draw a figure to illustrate them
i.e. (x + y)2 = (x – y)2 + 4xy
problem & label those parts that are important in the
problem. Constants & variables should be clearly
distinguished.
Second : Write an equation for the quantity that is to be
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

6. Useful formulae of mensuration to remember

Volume of a cuboid = lbh.

Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl).
Volume of a prism = area of the base × height.
Lateral surface of a prism = perimeter of the base × height.
Total surface of a prism = lateral surface + 2 area of
the base
(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangles).

1
Volume of a pyramid = area of the base × height. d2
3 (i) ! 0 Ÿ concave upwards
dx 2
Curved surface of a pyramid =
1 d2
(perimeter of the base) × slant height. (ii)  0 Ÿ concave downwards.
2 dx 2
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).
d2 d2
1 At the point of inflection we find that 0 and
Volume of a cone = Sr 2 h. dx 2 dx 2
3
changes sign.
Curved surface of a cylinder = 2Srh.
d2
Total surface of a cylinder = 2Srh + 2Sr2. Inflection points can also occur if fails to exist (but
dx 2
4 3 changes its sign). For example, consider the graph of the
Volume of a sphere = Sr .
3 function defined as,
Surface area of a sphere = 4Sr2.
ª x 3 /5 for x  f,1
1 f x «
Area of a circular sector = r 2 T, where T is in radians. «¬ 2  x for x  1, f
2

7. Significance of the sign of 2nd order

derivative and points of inflection

The sign of the 2nd order derivative determines the concavity The graph below exhibits two critical points one is a point
of the curve. Such point such as C & E on the graph where of local maximum (x = c) & the other a point of inflection
the concavity of the curve changes are called the points of (x = 0). This implies that not every Critical Point is a point
inflection. From the graph we find that if : of extrema.