Sedimentary Geology, 40 (1984) 131-149 131

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

EUSTATIC CONTROL ON SYNCHRONOUS STRATIGRAPHIC

DEVELOPMENT: CRETACEOUS AND EOCENE COASTAL BASINS ALONG
AN ACTIVE MARGIN

JEFFREY A. MAY 1, ROSS K. YEO 2 and JOHN E. WARME 3

1 Marathon Oil Company, Littleton, CO 80160 (U.S.A.)
2 Amoco Canada Petroleum Company, Calgary, Alia. T2P 0Y2 (Canada)
3 Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401 (U.S.A.)
(Accepted for publication January 1, 1984)

ABSTRACT

May, J.A., Yeo, R.K. and Warme, J.E., 1984. Eustatic control on synchronous stratigraphic development:
Cretaceous and Eocene coastal basins along an active margin. In: L.F. Jansa, P.F. BuroUet and A.C.
Grant (Editors), Basin Analysis: Principles and Applications. Sediment. Geol., 40: 131-149.

Field studies document an apparent eustatic control on facies patterns along a tectonically active
margin. In the San Diego Embayment and northern Baja California, progradational-retrogradational
shoreline sequences characterize Late Cretaceous and Eocene forearc stratigraphy. Extensive benthonic
foraminifera and nannoplankton data provide control on the age and distribution of facies changes along
these depositionally compact, bathymetrically steep-gradient margins. The complete stratigraphic package
is arranged into three scales and patterns of depositional sequences. Timing and geometry of the two
largest sequences provide relative sea-level curves that correlate exceptionally well with worldwide
sea-level curves.
The major depositional cycle is asymmetric, hundreds of meters thick, characterized by a thin, basal
retrogradational sequence overlain by a thick progradationai sequence; each cycle correlates to a
coastal-onlap "supercycle". Smaller scale stratigraphic rhythms, controlled by global "cycles" and
"paracycles", compose depositional cycles. Local depositional pulses overprint these two larger order
sequences of sedimentation. Coeval cycles and depositional rhythms in isolated coastal basins from
Oregon to Baja California further indicate a primary eustatic control on sedimentation. Field-based facies
analysis thus supports the use of the "Vail curve" or other coastal-onlap and global sea-level curves as a
predictive tool in basin analysis.

INTRODUCTION

G e o l o g y is r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g f r o m a s c i e n c e t h a t is l a r g e l y d e s c r i p t i v e in n a t u r e to
o n e t h a t is m o r e p r e d i c t i v e . O n e e x a m p l e is o u r a b i l i t y to m o d e l t h e age a n d
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f facies in a b a s i n p r i o r to d e t a i l e d o u t c r o p s t u d y a n d / o r extensive
s u b s u r f a c e drilling. A c c u r a t e b a s i n m o d e l s c a n o n l y b e c o n s t r u c t e d b y c o m b i n i n g the
concepts of depositional systems, basin evolution and stratigraphic prediction.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f g l o b a l s e a - l e v e l c u r v e s c a n e n h a n c e o u r c a p a b i l i t y in strati-

0037-0738/84/$03.00 © 1984 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

132

I GLOBAL TECTONICS __J

// / I ",4
./"/ / I J, EPEIROGENV
/// I ~, SUBDUCTION / \,
/ M.O.R. 1 \
// I
~ [VOLUME / ' ~ O R O G E N Y '
{ \
GEOIDAL \ / / .~/S0-STACY' J
~ VARIATION \ J. ~( / ,,~ / ]
\ [- BASIN IN, I-OCEAN-BASIN II
\IoEs,CCATIONI \ VOLUME "/-,
~1[ ~ ~ / MARINE
;
I EUSTAT,C SEA LEVEL J
Fig. 1. Interrelationships of factors causing eustatic fluctuations. The major controls on volume changes
of the ocean basins and of the global hydrosphere are encased in boxes. Ultimately, global tectonics is the
overriding influence, either directly (solid lines) or indirectly (dashed lines). M.O.R. = mid-oceanic ridge.

graphic prediction. Suess (1906) first proposed the term "eustatic" for global
variations in sea level. Such fluctuations occur as a result of volume changes in the
total amount of seawater and/or in the ocean basins themselves. Through geologic
time, addition of juvenile water, earth expansion or sediment input to the sea floor
yield long-term sea-level change, but only fluctuations in the continental-ice masses
were traditionally recognized as capable of producing the observed rapid and
frequent eustatic changes (see Lisitzin, 1974).
With the advent of plate tectonics a variety of other mechanisms competent to
create short-term eustatic fluctuations were newly identified (Fig. 1). Of special
significance are changes in the volume of oceanic ridges due to variations in
spreading rates, subduction of ridge segments and creation of new ridges (Pitman,
1978; Donovan and Jones, 1979). Other events related to global tectonics, and
probably responsible for eustatic changes, include basin desiccation and flooding,
climatic fluctuations, submarine volcanism, epeirogenesis and orogenesis, isostatic
subsidence of continental margins, geoidal undulations, and changes in sediment
influx (Hallam, 1963; Hays and Pitman, 1973; Donovan and Jones, 1979;
Matsumoto, 1980; M6rner, 1980; Pitman and Golovchenko, 1983). Glacio-eustacy is
no longer necessary to explain every cycle of sea-level rise and fall throughout the
geologic record. As Sloss (1979) stated, eustatic variations are largely second-order
responses to global tectonic events and, hence, to the driving mechanisms of these
tectonic events.

SEA-LEVELCHANGES
Sea-level curves

Vail model
Many authors have developed sea-level curves for a variety of time spans and
 133

from a variety of information. On an outcrop scale, cyclothems and carbonate

sequences have inspired the production of local curves of relative sea-level change
(e.g. Elias, 1937; Dott, 1958; Pirlet, 1963; Fischer, 1964; Moore, 1964). Because
global sea level is predominantly a response to global-tectonic interactions, some
workers have calculated worldwide curves based on rates of sea-floor spreading and
basement subsidence (Hays and Pitman, 1973; Pitman, 1978, 1979), and upon
tectonic events along the continental margin (Watts and Steckler, 1979). Examina-
tion of the stratigraphic record, though, reveals many more short-term shallowing
and deepening events that appear correlative over extensive areas and from numer-
ous continents. This information has been used to produce eustatic curves, which
endeavor to portray rates, timing and magnitude of sea-level change, for the Jurassic
(Hallam, 1978), Cretaceous (Matsumoto, 1980) and Tertiary (Rona, 1973).
Although the exposed rock record is fragmentary, the more extensive subsurface
stratigraphy can be examined by seismic-reflection profiling. Vail et al. (1977c) used
this seismic information to revolutionize the interpretation of depositional se-
quences. Of special importance is the inference of coastal onlap and toplap and of
relative sea-level transgressions, regressions, and stillstands. These data are incorpo-
rated to produce relative "sea-level" curves (Vail et al., 1977a).
It is exceedingly important to realize that the original Vail et al. (1977c)
"sea-level" curves are in reality "coastal onlap" curves. That is, the asymmetric
curves (Fig. 2), with apparently long transgressions and stillstands followed by
apparently instantaneous regressions, are in actuality artifacts of the nearshore
stratigraphic record. As a transgression occurs, relatively little deposition takes place
and facies bands migrate landward. Most of the sedimentary up- and out-building
occurs during ensuing sea-level stillstands, creating a shallowing-upward "regressive"
sequence. Upon sea-level fall, unconformable truncation of the stratigraphic succes-
sion occurs. Utilizing the maximum erosion as a time line produces the fallacious
instantaneous "sea-level regressions" of Vail et al. (1977c).

X_

- - T .....

~400 M - ~ I'-- 200 M--'I ~100 M-.-4

""-'" RISE RELATIVECHANGEOF SEA LEVEL FALL

Fig. 2. Orders of relativesea-levelchange(Vail et al., 1977a).Cyclesare relativerises and falls of sea level,
each composed of "paracycles", relative rises to stillstands. Cycles form "supercycles", a number of
successive rises truncated by major relative falls. The asymmetriccurve shape is an artifact of nearshore
stratigraphic onlap and erosional truncation.
134

One cycle of coastal onlap is defined (Vail et al., 1977a) as a gradual transgressive
phase, followed by an apparent stillstand, then completed by the abrupt regressive
unconformity. Such cycles are on the order of 5-10 m.y. in length. Cycles are formed
by a series of transgressive pulses and stillstands, with no appreciable relative
sea-level drops. These smaller scale events are "paracycles", on the order of 1-2 m.y.
in length, and represent meters to tens of meters of relative sea-level change. Cycles,
in turn, compose "supercycles", which span approximately 10-20 m.y. and portray
apparent sea-level changes of hundreds of meters. A major relative fall in sea level
ends each supercycle.

Curve-shape controversy
By labeling coastal-onlap curves as "sea-level" curves, Vail and his co-workers set
the stage for some intense discussion on the nature of sea-level change. Pitman
(1978) discussed a number of crucial points, including the following: (1) worldwide
sea level has dropped between the Late Cretaceous and Middle Miocene; (2)
shoreline positions are primarily a response to the interaction of continental-margin
subsidence and this eustatic fall; and (3) apparent Tertiary sea-level fluctuations are
actually due to variations in the rate of the eustatic sea-level drop along continually
subsiding margins. Therefore, transgressions and regressions, according to Pitman
(1978) (see also Sloss, 1962), are largely controlled by the relative magnitude of the
rate of eustatic sea-level change and the rate of subsidence.
However, it is difficult to reconcile the few, large-scale transgressions and
regressions of Pitman, which should vary from margin to margin depending on the
type of tectonic setting and, hence, rate of subsidence, to the supposedly worldwide
correlative patterns of Vail et al. (1977b). Unfortunately, the actual data used in
constructing these global-onlap curves are proprietary, so a rigorous critique of the
method is impossible. One purpose of this paper is to test the "Vail concept" that
eustatic fluctuations are the dominant control on facies development, even along
tectonically active margins.
The shape of the "Vail curves" has also caused some discussion. Whereas Vail et
al. (1977c) ascribe these coastal-onlap patterns to global fluctuations in sea level,
Watts et al. (1982) believe the depositional patterns are a response to sedimentary
loading of the lithosphere. The onlap-curve shapes approximate curves of rapid,
post-rift, thermal subsidence of the lithosphere, followed by decreasing subsidence
due to an increase in flexural rigidity as the lithosphere cools (Watts et al., 1982).
Watts et al. (1982) correlate most of the Vail et al. (1977c) supercycle boundaries to
major tectonic events associated with the break-up of Pangea. But, this apparent
correlation of supercycle boundaries and plate reorganizations may simply be
fortuitous. No cause-and-effect relationship has adequately been proved for litho-
spheric subsidence controlling coastal-onlap patterns. Both eustatic cycles and
tectonic events ultimately respond to the same global driving mechanisms. Watts et
al. (1982) also did not explain smaller-scale depositional fluctuations which are
 135

apparently correlative worldwide.

In subsequent publications (Vail and Mitchum, 1980; Vail and Todd, 1980; Vail
et al., 1981), Vail and his co-workers distinguished between the highly asymmetric,
flat-topped, coastal-onlap curves and true global sea-level fluctuations that are more
symmetric, though individual sea-level falls as well as rises may be exceptionally
abrupt. It is interesting to note that asymmetric relative sea-level curves, produced as
an artifact of shallowing-upward depositional packages, have been produced from
outcrop interpretation of both clastic cyclothems and carbonate units (e.g. Dott,
1958; Moore, 1964).

Stratigraphic response

Basin-margin depositional patterns are greatly affected by changes in sea level. In

the idealized siliciclastic model (Fig. 3), during a relative highstand of sea level,
coarse-grained detritus is trapped in the nearshore zone and only fine-grained
material bypasses to the adjacent basin (Vail et al., 1977a; Vail and Hardenbol,
1979). Deltas, and the slope as a whole, may prograde seaward. Sedimentation rates
are extremely low in the deep basin, resulting from hemipelagic fallout. In contrast,
when sea-level fall is greater than subsidence, the continental shelf may be exposed

SEA LEVEL HIGHSTAND

• NEARSHORE TRAPPING
• DELTA PROGRADATION
• LOW SEDIMENTATION
• FINES TO BASIN
• HEMIPELAGIC DRAPING

LOWSTAND
• SHELF EXPOSURE
• FLUVIAL DOWNCUTTING
• HIGH SEDIMENTATION
• NEARSHORE BYPASSING
• FAN PROGRADATION

Fig. 3. Model for siliciclastic basin-margin response to relative sea-levelchange (Vail et al., 1977a; Vail
and Hardenbol, 1979). Highstands cause coarse-graineddeposition in nearshore areas and coastal/shai-
low-marlneprogradation. Low sedimentationby hemipelagicfallout occurs in the deep basin. In contrast,
rapid sediment input of coarse-graineddetritus, which bypasses the nearshorezone, results in submarine-
fan growth during relative lowstands.
136

and incised by fluvial systems (Vail et al., 1977a; Vail and Hardenbol, 1979).
Coarse-grained clastics are funneled directly to the slope; density flows carry this
material onto the adjacent basin floor. The resultant submarine fans build outward
and upward.

CASE STUDY

Forearc setting

Basin-margin sequences were studied for Late Cretaceous and Eocene units in
San Diego, southern California, United States, and for three separate Late Creta-
ceous depocenters in northern Baja California, Mexico (Fig. 4) (May, 1982: Yeo,
1982). During the Cretaceous to Eocene period, a triple junction of the Pacific, Kula
and Farallon plates migrated northward off the California coast (Atwater, 1970).
The spreading ridge that separated the Kula and Farallon plates intersected the
continental margin (Atwater, 1970). The small forearc basins under study were part
of a series of compact, isolated coastal basins that formed along the tectonically
active margin due to oblique subduction.
These forearc basins were very responsive sedimentologically to relative changes
of sea level, because they were (1) relatively small, with (2) a steep bathymetric
gradient and (3) rapid sediment input, creating (4) very rapid lateral and vertical

~ 1Mar
La Jolla -~"J~/J !
~'~ EOCENE ~- an Dt o 1
~.d STUDY AREA ~r~.~"~S "eg

Tijuana

B JA~ "~ Ensenada

Fig. 4. Location map of study areas of Cretaceous and Eocene outcrops in southern California, U.S., and
northern Baja California, Mexico (May, 1982; Yeo, 1982).
 137

facies changes, and were subject to (5) high subsidence rates that preserved a
majority of the stratigraphic section. The downdip transition, from subaerial
fluvial/alluvial-fan deposition to coeval submarine fans at bathyal to abyssal depths,
varied from 5 to 10 km. Slight variations in sea level caused major shifts in facies
bands.

Stratigraphic record

The assortment of facies which developed in these forearc-basin margins were

first defined by extensive field mapping and include fluvial/alluvial/fan-deha
sequences, coastal-plain and lagoon environments, gradational sequences of the
nearshore to outer shelf, passive vs. active (channelized) slopes, base-of-slope and
basin-floor deposits, and a wide variety of submarine:fan facies (May, 1982; Yeo,
1982). Regional unconformities were also mapped. Depositional sequences at each
locality were analyzed and combined to reconstruct lateral and vertical facies
patterns, as portrayed in a diagrammatic cross-section of the Cretaceous basins (Fig.
5).
Two generalized stratigraphic sections through this idealized basin margin, labeled
A and B in Fig. 5, are shown in Fig. 6. Both sections contain basal continental units
overlain by a shelf-to-basin transition. In section B, the more landward of the two,
the retrogradational and progradational sequences of deposition are approximately
equivalent in thickness. However, in section A, the basal retrogradational succession
is much thinner in this more basinward area relative to the overlying progradational
succession.
The complete stratigraphic succession is actually composed of individual events
that define relative sea-level changes. To produce relative sea-level curves, bathymet-

MIDDLE INNER
FAN A LAIuTER B SHELF/
__ ~V" !~l r .... I BASIN/ NEARSHORE

o'o 'o,o. o. o- •
~ooo b ~,=' x

• ". " ' " X X

I x BASEMENT x x

X X x X
Xx( s o T TO SCALE) x
•

x EAST
WES T x T

Fig. 5. GeneralizedCretaceous forearc basin-margin stratigraphy, southern California and northern Baja
California (modifiedfrom Yeo, 1982). Fan-delta conglomeratesline the crystallinebasement and also cap
the sedimentary column. Progradational submarine-fan units are sandwiched between shallow-marine
sandstone. An erosionalunconformitymodifiesthe completesequence.Two stratigraphic sections, A and
B, are diagrammed in Fig. 6.
138

COMPOSITE COMPOSITE
BASINWARD LANDWARD
S E C T I O N (A) S E C T I O N (B)
iml

~ ' ~ /"-7 INNERFAN-

~./~/~ FAN DELTA
MID/INNER SHELF)

)
~Z~/- MIDDLE FAN
¢~ (OUTERSHELF)
Zl
.=,.I
\ OUTER SHELF
UI ~ \ MID SHELF
;a:o.~ ~\ BEACH-INNER
Z z~
=
00u- ~ L

'"'"l v v v ,
BASEMENT
a.i-

Fig. 6. Two contrasting composite stratigraphic sections for the Cretaceous forearc basins. Both sections
consist of basal continental units overlain by shelf-to-basin transitions. This retrogradational sequence is
relatively equal in thickness to the progradational succession in the more landward area, whereas there is
a marked asymmetry in the more basinward locations.

ric changes were defined by facies patterns and analysis of benthonic foraminifera.
Nannoplankton control provided the chronostratigraphic framework (May, 1982;
Yeo, 1982). There is an overwhelmingly close correspondence between the generated
local curves and published global curves. Selected sea-level curves compiled by
Matsumoto (1980) from numerous platforms worldwide are compared to the relative
sea-level curve produced by Yeo (1982) for the southern Alta and northern Baja
California basins (Fig. 7). Many of the transgressive peaks and regressive troughs are
obviously correlative. A "Vail curve" of stratigraphic onlap can be simulated using
this information and is shown for the Late Cretaceous. Likewise, for the Eocene
basin of San Diego, the generated relative sea-level curve correlates exceptionally
well to timing of the onlap curve of Vail and Hardenbol (1979).
When the basin-margin stratigraphic successions are plotted on a time scale, this
produces very asymmetric sequences of deposition whose timing correlates to Vail et
al. (1977c) supercycles (Figs. 8 and 11). These asymmetric stratigraphic sequences
are actually "cycles" of deposition, series of events that are recurrent and circuitous
in a regular order. If each facies in a stratigraphic succession is represented by a
letter, a "cycle" of deposition could be presented as " A - B - C - D - C - B - A . " In
 139

•-I U,I~

CAMP. ~,

sAN. ...ti
CON. ~"'T'~
TUR. ..-,.,,
Fig. 7. Regionally derived sea-level curve for the Late Cretaceous from southern California and northern
Baja California(dashed curve) compared to selectedsea-levelcurves generatedfrom variousplatformsby
Matsumoto (1980). Many of the transgressive peaks (arrows) and regressive troughs are correlative. A
"Vail-type curve" of coastal onlap is simulatedfrom this information.

contrast, a depositional "rhythm" is a sequence of regular events that is truncated

and may or may not be repetitive. Delineation of a "rhythm" might simply be
" A - B - C ' , and stacked rhythms would be " A - B - C , A - B - C " (see Duff et al., 1967,
pp. 1-20; Bates and Jackson, 1980).
Not only does the timing of the complete Eocene depositional cycle (Fig. 8)
correspond to an onlap supercycle, but individual sedimentation patterns predicted
as a reponse to changes in sea level are correlative to specific eustatic events. The
thin, basal retrogradational succession, represented by marine inundation of a
coastal region, was deposited during a global transgression. The medial Middle
Eocene sea-level drop was sufficient to cause resedimentation of coarse-grained
material previously trapped in the nearshore zone, resulting in submarine-fan
progradation. Nearshore and fan-delta coarse-grained detritus prograded seaward
during the worldwide stillstand, capping the depositional cycle.
Asymmetric depositional cycles, in turn, are composed of individual depositional
rhythms. Two such rhythms are illustrated for the Eocene basin margin of San Diego
(Figs. 8 and 9). The retrogradational rhythm of the submarine-fan succession, the
transition from inner to mid fan, is relatively thin and represents a very rapid
bathymetric change. The illustrated submarine-fan stratigraphic section (Fig. 9)
includes most of the complete retrogradational succession. In contrast, the shallow-
water progradational rhythm that is diagrammed (Fig. 9) is only a very small part of
the entire progradational portion of the hemicycle. Another contrast is that the
progradational rhythm represents a very gradual bathymetric change.
The smallest scale stratigraphic sequences are only meters thick and local in
nature. These are depositional pulses, most easily recognized as thin progradational
sequences in an otherwise much thicker retrogradational rhythm (Fig. 10). Each
pulse is separated by a nondepositional or "transgressive" lag of broken shell
140

Z
0
GLOBAL SEA LEVEL CURVE DEPO$1TIONAL CYCLE,
(VAIL • HARDENBOL, 11179) SAN DIEGO REGION

Rising Falling BNinward

~. k 4
M

42" ,

44- ~l~a Si4ALt "'

..] \ R -n o ~ P -p ~

Fig. 8. Correlation of the eustatically controlled Middle Eocene onlap curve and stratigraphic develop-
ment along the San Diego basin margin. The asymmetric depositional cycle corresponds in timing to a
global supercycle. Specific depositional events include (1) a basal unconformity related to a worldwide
sea-level drop; (2) a thin basal retrogradational sequence caused by global transgression; (3) basinward
flushing of coarse-grained, nearshore detritus during a medial Middle Eocene regression, causing
submarine-fan progradation; and (4) nearshore and subaerial progradation during a worldwide highstand.
The depositional cycle is composed of numerous depositional rhythms, two of which (A and B) are
delineated by vertical scale bars and diagrammed in Fig. 9.

fragments, phosphatic and glauconitic pebbles, and winnowed coarse-grained sand.

These pulses are formed by local variations in the sediment supply and are not
correlative from basin to basin. However, sedimentation is obviously very rapid, able
to overprint the normal course of deposition.
It is important to note that not every supercycle produces a depositional cycle in
the area under study (Fig. 11). The Coniacian to Maestrichtian depositional cycle
corresponds to the timing of a global supercycle of the simulated "Vail onlap
curve". However, no depositional cycle is correlative to the preceeding Cenomanian
to Coniacian supercycle. This is simply a function of the paleogeographic position.
The Cenomanian to Coniancian outcrops were formed landward of the shoreline.
Hence, deposition was non-marine. A depositional cycle requires basin-margin
deposition--a transect of coastal to deep-marine facies. The only marine sequence
preserved and exposed on land is that of the late Coniacian to Maastrichtian.
 141

SUBMARINE-FAN SHALLOW-MARINE
RETROGRADATIONAL PROGRADATIONAL
RHYTHM RHYTHM
m Fm
40'

MID FAN UPPER SHOREFACE/

TIDAL CHANNEL
30-
LOWER SHOREFACE
I
INNER FAN 20-

u) 9;,~ o, ° OFFSHORE
a ~ o ". A
10-

¢3 BASIN/SLOPE SHELF

Fig. 9. Two depositional rhythms of the Middle Eocene depositional cycle. Retrogradational rhythms
contrast with progradational rhythms in being relatively thinner and bathymetrically more abrupt.

T h u s three types a n d scales of s e d i m e n t a t i o n are recognized; the two largest are

p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d b y eustatic fluctuations. N o t only can global sea-level or coastal
o n l a p curves therefore be used to p r e d i c t specific d e p o s i t i o n a l events, b u t b y

OUTER SHELF t
INNER SHELF R
OFFSHORE
. . . . . . . . _-_-_------= LA G
'~"J~)U. SHOREFACE f l
~ ~ L. S H O R E F A C E / P
- ~i -c-~i~[ OFFSHORE /
~ o ...... o, = = - - - _ - = - ~ = iLAG
~ - ~ ~ ~ >~"~ FORESHORE
~ / I U. SHOREFACE / _
--~=J L. SHOREFACE [ k'
i ~ . ; ~S.~ ( _ OFFSHORE /
LA G

x x x × x x~BASEMENT

Fig. 10. Depositional pulsesduring a retrogradational rhythm (R). Thin progradational sequences(P) are
punctuated by nondepositional or "transgressive" lags of broken shells, pebbles and coarse-grained sand.
142

RISE FALL BASINWARD

x.
CON.
IV
TUR'I 0 ~ NOgI-M~,RINE o "~-
o"'"~/~"
~
o,,,o
r o o o O o O ° o o

R- RETROGRADATION
P- PROGRADATION
Fig. 11. Facies relations of southern California and northern Baja California and the simulated Late
Cretaceous onlap curve (see Fig. 7). An asymmetricdepositional cycle of Late Coniacian to Maestrichtian
basin marginscorresponds in timing to a global supercycle.No analogous stratigraphic pattern correlates
to the preceeding supercycle because the preserved outcrops were deposited landward of the paleoshore-
line.

combining such curves with these geometric models for basin-margin stratigraphic
development, one can also predict the vertical and lateral patterns and extent of
depositional sequences.

Coeval stratigraphy

Good evidence of a primary eustatic control on sedimentation in these basins is

the correspondence of depositional patterns to specific global sea-level events. More
support for this concept is the synchronous development of cycles and rhythms in
other isolated coastal basins of the tectonically active Pacific margin. A simplified
correlation chart for Late Cretaceous Alta and Baja California depocenters displays
the correlation of these depositional packages (Fig. 12). Turonian nonmarine deposi-
tion covered erosional unconformities, and in turn was followed by further nonde-
position a n d / o r erosion during a eustatic lowstand that ended one supercycle. A
series of cycles of Late Campanian to Maastrichtian occur in each of these basins,
corresponding to the latest Cretaceous supercycle (see Yeo, 1982).
Likewise for the Eocene, a somewhat more detailed correlation chart exhibits the
general development of coeval facies patterns (Fig. 13). A late Early Eocene
erosional surface corresponds to a global sea-level lowstand. This was followed by
facies retrogradation during a worldwide transgression. Basinal shales cap shelf to
nearshore sands which, in turn, overlie coastal and lagoonal fine-grained units. In
many of the basins, the medial Middle Eocene drop in sea level produced a pulse of
submarine-fan progradation. This fan deposition was followed by progradational
deposition during the late Middle Eocene highstand. Shelf and nearshore units built
seaward and are themselves capped, in many basins, by fan-delta deposits.
 143

SANTA SIMI SANTA SAN DES- PUNTA EL

MONICA HILLS ANA DIEGO CANSO CHINA ROSARIO
ROSARIO
MAES. ~ "
c,,,,iL;0 "~ ?"~' ""~?'~
..... ~
u:2HiC&;IcH'°ci ~ ; . :: "OSAFii01:ROSARiO
~. \ aA,'LO~ -..
.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.~
•..:.~'.. u]j ....'.,..:..: ".WILLIAMS "Pi. LoMA"-'".: ":'"l".'-:'".:.:'J"
CAMP. PUNTA
BANDA

SANT.

CON. ; : . ~-~- -,.,. ' t.Ac,bT

T,,,Boco ,.T."ABOC0

Fig. 12. Stratigraphic correlation chart for the Late Cretaceous of southern California and Baja California
(see Yeo, 1982). Coeval development of depositional patterns argues for a primary eustatic control on
basin-margin sedimentation. Basal nonmarine units are overlain by synchronous depositional cycles in
these various basins.

However, there are obviously many instances where local conditions overrode the
eustatic control on deposition. In Baja California, there is no recognized submarine-
fan sequence. Once again, paleogeographic position comes into play; the exposed
Eocene units are relatively more landward than those cropping out in the other
examples. Rather than a conglomeratic fan delta developing during the late Middle
to early Late Eocene in the vicinity of the San Rafael Mountains, fine-grained delta
and shelf units indicate overprinting due to a difference in sediment source and/or
local tectonic factors. Tectonism clearly affected southwest Oregon. Based on
previous work, Dott and Chan (1981) and May (1982) believed the Tyee submarine
fan to be equivalent in time to the California examples and the ensuing prograda-
tional sequences to be synchronous. However, recent compilations by Armentrout
(1981) and Armentrout and Franz (1983) indicate the depositional cycle of south-
west Oregon may be much more compressed in time. The lack of a coarse-grained
progradational facies in Baja California brings up a final important factor. Erosion
at any time after deposition can alter an originally developed depositional cycle.

APPLICATION

The concepts developed by these studies are of direct application to basin

analysis. First of all, we tested the use of global sea-level curves in predicting both
lateral and vertical stratigraphic relationships. The Vail "onlap curves" were devel-
oped through seismic analysis predominantly from passive continental margins. But
144

SANTA SAN SANTA

sw LUCIA E M I G D I O RAFAEL SAN BAJA
Ma ~.1 i O ~ ~ ° OREGON
I..d RANGE MTS. MTS. DIEGO CALIF
o.
38 ~ . . . .
U.I
I-. Bastendorlf
o
o
o
9
,o
Tecuya
io o
Cozy Dell °o ° o°il i!i
'¢[ CP15bl
..I Fm.
o
Fm, o Shale ° ° I!~1
P15 Berry Fro. o Stadium
o Cgl. ~
\o
o o o \. o

4 Coaledo
E
~P15at P14 Fm. ii
42-
\ ° W

o i <
The Rocks,
!CP14b' P13 Bateman 0
Fm O
e-
O

44- 0:3P14al
o=
P12 ¢f)
13P13c~-~-- 1
46- m I/
i~ J = /
_~ rCP13b P l l
//"
48- ~ Ss. I
o
0
ICP11 P9 . . . . v ..~ ~-v--v-~
(J i Looking:i] ~ I LCgl. j I[ ~ !=IJiroFm.~ J-jLat~rit~
--/ O CP10 P7/8 ~ glass'
I Fm.
. 1 : I to o :L: [1' J, iJ !i ~ ~J? I I Ss.

Fig. 13. Stratigraphic correlation chart for Eocene depocenters from southwest Oregon to Baja California
(see May, 1982), showing facies relations. Relatively synchronous depositional patterns support a primary
eustatic control on stratigraphic development. Local variations are caused by relative paleogeographic
position, later erosion, basin shape and gradient, differences in sediment supply, and local tectonic/subsi-
dence events.

even from a tectonically active margin, our field work, with a stratigraphic and
paleontologic resolution far greater than that of seismic stratigraphy, documents the
validity of these somewhat controversial curves. Obviously, eustatic sea-level fluctua-
tions exert strong control on basin-margin sedimentation and in the development of
stratigraphic packages.
Combining facies models and our hierarchical scheme of stratigraphy--deposi-
tional cycles, rhythms, and pulses--with either onlap or eustatic curves, can produce
a predictive tool for general basin modeling or specific exploration problems.
Regional lithology and facies patterns can be anticipated. The age of each rock unit
can be surmised ahead of the drilling bit or for a measured stratigraphic section. A
global system of correlative rock units can be constructed, and used to predict the
stratigraphic succession for basins having little previous field work or subsurface
drilling.
 145

It is very important to realize that there are numerous other controls on facies
development that will often overprint the primary eustatic control. The magnitude
and rate of the eustatic change can be modified by the basin margin's bathymetric
gradient (Pitman and Golovchenko, 1983), by variations in sediment supply and by
continental-margin or hinterland subsidence or uplift. Later erosion can drastically
affect the stratigraphic sequence, as can the relative geographic position within the
basin. The asymmetric nature of depositional cycles is best seen and preserved
between the dominantly subaerial and dominantly deep-marine portions of a basin.
When variations are found in the predicted facies patterns, one's understanding
of the basin can be even further refined. Improved structural analysis includes
recognition of previously undefined local tectonic events or a better control on their
timing, and an increased understanding of the basin-margin gradient. Improved
stratigraphic analysis involves recognition or better definition of (1) erosional
unconformities, (2) the varying rates of sediment supply through time, or (3)
paleogeographic reconstructions. It may be possible to separate thermal-subsidence
effects from the eustatic control on basin-margin sedimentation, thus enhancing
studies of source-rock maturation. With additional refinement of sea-level curves
from the ever increasing number of basin analyses, we will better improve our
knowledge of the timing, magnitude and causes of each worldwide transgression and
regression, thereby even further advancing the use of global onlap and sea-level
curves in a predictive capability.

CONCLUSIONS

The Cretaceous and Eocene forearc basins of southern Alta and northern Baja
California were compact, with steep bathymetric gradients. Field-based facies analy-
sis in these tectonically active basins, having a resolution far greater than that
provided by seismic stratigraphy, supports the validity of the concept of global onlap
and sea-level curves. This work also supports combining such curves in conjunction
with facies models to provide a predictive and evaluative tool in basin analysis.
Three scales and types of sedimentation patterns are defined. The largest is an
asymmetric depositional cycle, hundreds of meters thick, with a thin retrograda-
tional base and a thick progradational cap. This asymmetric cycle is very different
from the traditional wedge of "transgressive" then "regressive" strata t3/pically
portrayed for basin-margin sequences (Fig. 14). These major asymmetric cycles are
subdivided into sequences of stratigraphic successions--rhythms--which are tens of
meters thick and are either "shallowing upward" or "deepening upward." Small-scale
depositional pulses often overprint these two major stratigraphic subdivisions.
Comparing the timing and duration of depositional events to global sea-level and
onlap curves demonstrates a primary eustatic control on the development of the two
largest sedimentation patterns. Each depositional cycle corresponds to a global
"supercycle," a succession of relative sea-level rises, stillstands and falls (sea,level
146

SW NE
EOCENE STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS
ACROSS THE DEPOSITIONAL STRIKE
POMERADO CGL.
----_______ IO1 ,_
MmSlON VALLEY FM. I 1_,"37
~ I -~ I--.~
~ - - - - - - , - ~ t _~ I Z =
STADIUM CONGLOMERATE I~m Im -

ARDATH SHALE ~ ~ I~IN~

FM. _ - ............ > ?v

_ ~ UPPER CRETACEOUS
v & BASEMENT

Fig. 14. Typical "depositional wedge" traditionally diagrammed for basin margins, shown here for the
Eocene San Diego depocenter (see May, 1982). In contrast, this study recognizes an asymmetric
"transgressive-regressive" cycle of deposition, controlled by global fluctuations in sea level (see Fig. 8).

cycles) punctuated by a major sea-level drop. Stratigraphic rhythms, in turn,

correlate to cycles and paracyctes. In contrast, the depositional pulses were produced
by local factors that affected sediment supply. Coeval cycles and depositional
rhythms in isolated coastal basins from Oregon to Baja California further indicate a
primary eustatic control on sedimentation.
Because stratigraphic development, even in tectonically active areas, is apparently
dominantly controlled by worldwide sea level, global-onlap and sea-level curves can
be combined with the sedimentation patterns recognized in this work to predict
regional facies patterns. The presence and extent of specific rock types may be
modeled prior to extensive field work or subsurface drilling. The age of individual
components of depositional cycles--their initiation and duration--can be forecast.
A global stratigraphic heirarchy may even be erected. Not only would this be
extremely useful in frontier basin analysis and exploration, but also in pinpointing
previously overlooked, potentially productive intervals in maturely explored basins.
Ultimately, worldwide comparisons of stratal patterns, in coeval basins from a wide
variety of tectonic settings, will provide a data base for the development of much
more accurate and detailed basin models.
Perhaps even a more powerful tool to basin analysis is provided when one finds
variations in the expected stratigraphic patterns. Local controls can overprint the
global sea-level control on basin-margin development. The gradient and shape of the
basin affect the local response to eustasy. The relative position of the paleoshoreline
controls whether a marine stratigraphic sequence even develops in the area of
interest. A variety of factors--climate, hinterland tectonism, drainage development
--controls rates of sediment input and, hence, the stratigraphic response to sea level.
Continental-margin tectonism and subsidence may greatly alter the local base level
 147

relative to sea-level variations. And varying amounts of erosion at any time after
deposition can modify the resultant stratigraphic succession. Recognizing each
individual factor causing variations in the expected stratigraphic pattern can thus
help refine knowledge of a specific basin and its evolution. The resulting improve-
ments in structural analysis include a better understanding of basin shape and
gradient, and timing and types of previously unrecognized local events of subsidence
or uplift. Improved stratigraphic analysis includes newly perceived erosional uncon-
formities and variations in sediment supply, and the development of more precise
paleogeographic reconstructions. Finally, recognizing and understanding variations
in expected stratigraphic patterns may provide further understanding of the causes
and/or magnitude of specific transgressions or regressions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

J.A. May's and R.K. Yeo's dissertation research was funded by grants from
Amoco Production Company, Marathon Oil Company, Shell Development Com-
pany, Union Oil Company, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and
the Geological Society of America. Jack Welch, Department of Parks and Recrea-
tion, was instrumental in permitting access to May for field work in Torrey Pines
State Reserve. Special appreciation is given to Xenia Golovchenko, Joseph W.
Hakkinen and Joseph J. Lambiase, who critically reviewed the manuscript and
provided many helpful comments, and to Lubomir F. Jansa, who encouraged the
manuscript's submittal and patiently waited through the many delays. Technical
support in the manuscript's preparation is gratefully acknowledged of S.A. Hartline,
L.M. Lockrem and C.L. Pedde.

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