Name:____________________________________________Grade and Section:_________________

Activity No. 1. Frog’s Skeletal System

Most animal bodies are provided with a supporting framework or skeleton. The frog's skeleton is
a jointed internal framework that supports the soft parts of the body, protects the most vital
organs, and provides attachments for the muscles used in movements and locomotion. The
supporting framework of a frog larvae (tadpole) is entirely cartilage, but the adult is chiefly of
bones with cartilage on the ends of the limb bones, parts of the skull, and in the limb girdles. The
skull, vertebral column (backbone), and sternum (breastbone) comprise the median or axial
skeleton; the paired fore- and hind limbs together with the supporting shoulder and hip girdles
form the appendicular skeleton. The frog or toad has no ribs.

Skeletons for study are prepared by "stewing" a freshly killed frog or toad in mild alkali (washing
powders, etc.) to soften the flesh. The flesh is then removed by scraping and brushing. Care is
needed to preserve the soft cartilage and to prevent some parts from being separated or
disarticulated.

Materials
Frog
Hydrogen peroxide (you can buy one small bottle for the whole class; kindly decide on
it)
Plastic cups
Container with cover
Dishwashing liquid
Tooth brush
Forceps - LABORATORY
Scissors
Alcohol

See video for the process of getting the skeleton of the frog successfully.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umJUV1Nh-Xg
AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton is the medially situated part of the skeleton and is composed of the:

A. Skull
The conspicuous divisions are:
a. cranium or brain box -housing the brain
b. jaws - upper jaw fused with cranium and lower jaw with non-movable attachment.
C. sense capsules - paired cavities for special sense organs:
1. nasal/olfactory capsule - harbors nostrils
2. auditory capsule - for the ear
3. optic capsule - a spacious orbit that harbors eye
d. hyoid cartilage - embedded beneath tongue; lacking in cleaned skeleton just as the slender
columella of each middle ear.

1. Dorsal Surface
a. premaxilla-most anterior teeth-bearing (in frogs only) that forms the tip of the upper
jaw. b.
b. maxilla - teeth-bearing (in frogs only) bones posterior to the premaxilla that form the
largest and middle segment of the upper jaw.
c. quadratojugal - toothless short bone posterior to maxilla.
d. frontoparietal - slender bone (in frog only) forming most of the roof of the skull united
at the median line by the sagittal suture.
e. sphenethmoid - small squarish bone anterior to frontoparietal (dorsally visible in frog,
but ventral in toad).
f. nasal - triangular bone anterior to sphenethmoid; covering the nasal capsule. g. prootic
- projection on each side of the skull posterior to the frontoparietal forming the auditory
capsule.
h. squamosal- lateral to the prootic whose longer end extends outward to the lower jaw.
i.
i. exoccipital - short bone surrounding a large opening at the posterior boundary of the
skull.
j. occipital condyle - rounded prominence on each exoccipital bone.

2. Ventral Surface
a. parasphenoid - central dagger-shaped bone that forms the floor of the skull.

b. basisphenoid - lateral to
parasphenoid.
c. sphenethmoid - bone lateral to the basisphenoid.
d. vomer- flat wing-shaped and teeth-bearing (in frog only) just posterior to the
premaxillae.
e. palatine - bone-extending laterally from the anterior end of the sphenethmoid to the
maxillae. f. pterygoid - three-edged bone joined to the prootic, squamosal and maxillae.
The large posterior opening between the occipital condyle is the foramen magnum through
which the brain and spinal cord connect. There are also paired openings called foramina for exit
of cranial nerves in the sides of the cranium.

3. Lower jaw
The lower jaw may be divided into left and right halves. Each half consists of the following fused
bones seen from the side:

a. Mentomeckelian - the anterior bone that unites the two halves of the jaw b.
b. dentary - middle bone
c. angulare - posterior bone

B. Vertebral Column
Composed of ten segmented bones. Each segment is called a vertebra. The specific identities
of the vertebrae are:
a. atlas - the first, most anterior, without that transverse processes, articulating with the occipital
condyles of the skull.
b. typical vertebrae - second to eight vertebrae (lumbar region).
c. sacral vertebra - ninth vertebra with long transverse processes extending backward (in frogs
only), articulating with the pelvic girdle.
d. urostyle - tenth terminal bone; slender, with dorsal keel; articulating with the sacral vertebra.

1. Parts of a typical vertebra.

Examine the vertebral bones and locate the following:

a. centrum - ventral spool-life base or body; concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly. b. neural
arch - pair of dorso-lateral projection on the centrum fused mid dorsally; encloses nerve cord.
c. neural canal - cavity enclosed by the neural arch.
d. neural spine - caudally directed projection on the mid dorsal part of neural arch; for muscle
attachments.
e. transverse processes - the pair of elongated processes that extend at right angles to centrum;
for muscle attachments.
f. zygapophyses - paired processes on each end of the neural arch:
1. prezygapophyses -articulating processes at the anterior end of neural arch. 2.
postzygapophyses- articulating processes at the posterior end of the neural arch.

g.Sternum - the breastbone, is divided by the pectoral girdle into anterior and posterior regions.
Beginning anteriorly, identify the following (some may be missing in your specimen): 1.
episternum - flat, slightly circular cartilage at the anterior tip of the omosternum. 2. omosternum
- tapered bone attached anteriorly to the epicoracoid.
3. epicoracoid - cartilage between clavicle and coracoids.
4. mesosternum - bony rod, posterior counterpart of the omosternum, correspondingly
connected to epicoracoid.
 5. xiphisternum -thin heart-shaped cartilage, the posterior counterpart of the episternum
at the tip of mesosternum.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton arises from the axial skeleton; laterally situated and paired.

A. Limb Girdles
Paired, composed of:
1. pectoral or shoulder girdle
together with the sternum forms the arch of bones and cartilage around the anterior portion of
trunk; divided into left and right halves, each consists of:
a. suprascapula - distal, thin and flat, dorsal portion of the girdle
b. clavicle or collarbone - slender antero-medial to the scapula
c. scapula - smaller piece of bone articulating with suprascapula
d. coracoids - bone flared at ends, postero-medial to scapula

The opening, which separates the clavicle and coracoids, is the fenestra. The posterior cup-
shaped cavity between the coracoids and the scapula, which receives the head of the humerus,
is the glenoid fossa.

2. pelvic or hip girdle

- the posterior -shaped bone that joins anteriorly to the transverse process of sacral vertebra
and supports the posterior limbs; has left and right halves, each half consists of the following. a.
ilium - anterior long and slender bone articulating with sacral vertebrae. b. ischium - short
posterior bone on the dorsal side of the girdle.
c. pubis - triangular cartilage of the ventral side of the girdle.
The cup-like depression formed at the area of the union of the three pairs of bones, which
receives the head of the femur, is called acetabulum. The areas of the median posterior fusion
of the three pairs of bones are known as symphyses.

B. Limbs
Each long bone has a centrally cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and expanded ends (epiphyses)
covered by cartilage for smooth action of the joints.

1. anterior limbs or forelimbs

- paired and composed of:
a. humerus - bone of upper arm; with deltoid crest on ventral side; its head fits into the
glenoid fossa.
b. radio-ulna - bone of the forearm; two fused bones, the radius and the ulna.
c. carpals - bones of the wrist consisting of two rows of 3 bones. d.
d. metacarpals - bones of the palm consisting of four slender and rudiments of the
 thumb.
e. phalanges - bones of the fingers made up of small pieces arranged linearly.

2. posterior limbs or hindlimbs

- paired and composed of:
a. femur - bone of the thigh; longest bone of the frog's body; its head fits into the
acetabulum of the hip girdle.
b. tibio-fibula -two fused bones (the tibia and the fibula) of the shank, posterior to the
femur.
c. tarsals - bones of the ankle consisting of two rows of bones posterior to the tibio-fibula:
the calcaneum (outer) and astragalus (inner) with an oval space between them. d.
metatarsals - five slender long bones comprising the sole of the foot.
e. phalanges - bones of the toes composed of numerous short bones.

I. Answer the following questions.

1. To what extent is the skeleton of the frog comparable to that of man?

2. What parts of the skeleton afford the most complete protection to the body parts?

3. Of

what function is the cartilage at the ends of limb bones? 4.

Name the types and give examples of joints found in the frog.
5. List 2 ways forelimbs are different than hind limbs

6. How do skeletal system and muscular system work together?

II. Draw and identify the different parts of the skeletal system in a frog.

Anterior View:

Lateral View

Posterior View
Conclusion:

Name:____________________________________________Grade and Section:_________________

Activity No. 2. Frog’s Muscular System

The skeletal or voluntary muscles are generally attached to and make possible the movement of
the bones. Because of this close association, these muscles are called "skeletal". The
contraction of skeletal muscles may be consciously controlled, so these muscles are also called
"voluntary". Practically all movements of animals are brought about by the contraction of these
muscles.

A typical skeletal muscle is an elongated mass of numerous and generally parallel fibers
enclosed in a tough covering of connective tissue, the fascia. The fascia thickens at the end of
the muscle into a dense fibrous connective tissue called tendon, which attaches the muscle to
the bone. Each skeletal muscle has two points of attachments: the origin which is more fixed or
more proximal attachment, and the insertion, which is more movable or a distal attachment. A
muscle may have more than one attachment at its origin or insertion. The enlarged part between
the origin and the insertion is the belly of the muscle.

Muscles cause movement by contraction. Thus, they only pull and never push. Muscles,
therefore, come in antagonistic pairs that are able to do the opposite actions (Table 16.1).
Movement of skeletal parts that occurs when a muscle contracts is called action of the muscle.

Muscle names are generally descriptive terms referring to the major action, location, direction of
fibers, number of decisions, shape or appearance, origin and insertion, or other features of the
muscle in question.

There are nearly 200 muscles in the frog but only the major ones will be considered.

Material
Skinned frog or toad

Procedure
1. Put a fresh or preserved skinned frog in a dissecting pan.
 2. If it is a preserved specimen, rinse it
well in running water. Dissecting of
muscles requires greeting each one from those adjacent to it.
3. This can be done by loosening the fascia that holds the muscles together with a probe so
that the origin, insertion and general action may be learned.

The list in the next pages gives the position, shape, origin, insertion, and action of the principal
muscles, beginning anteriorly. The smaller muscles of the eye, head, hand, foot and the deeper
muscles are
omitted.

Table 1 Examples of muscle types and their modes of action

Muscle Type Mode of Action Antagonistic pair (does the
opposite)

Flexor Moves jointed parts towards

Extensor
each other

Adductor Moves a part toward the

longitudinal line of the body Abductor

Levator Raises a jointed part Depressor

Rotator Turns around an axis Tensor

Constrictor Closes an opening Dilator

Table 2 Muscles of the Frog: Location, Origin, Insertion and Action

Location/Name/ Origin Insertion Action
Posi tion/Shape

A. Floor of Mouth

1. SUBMENTAL Anterior end of

In tip of lower jaw, Tendon in midline Pushes sublingual
short transverse mandible
muscle tubercle on lower jaw
against premaxillae
to close external
nares in respiration
2. MYLOHYOID / Inner end side of
SUBMANDIBULA Tendon in median
R Is a broad Raises floor of mouth
sheet lower jaw
across the lower jaw line
in breathing

B. Lower Jaw

3. DEPRESSOR Posterior ridge of

MANDIBULI Extreme posterior
Behind tympanic ring Opens mouth
tympanic ring and
end of lower jaw
dorsal fascia

4. TEMPORALIS Side of skull between Near posterior eye

Closes mouth
and tympanic ring
end of lower jaw

5. MASSETER Tympanic ring and

Short, between Lower jaw, behind
nos. 3 & 4 of two Like temporalis and
parts adjacent bones
temporalis
small muscles
connected to lower
jaw

C. Pectoral Two heads from

Girdle and Arm Deltoid crest of
Draws arm forward
6. DELTOID clavicle, scapula and
Anterior border of humerus
upper arm omosternum

7. Coracoid Proximal part of

CORACORADIAL Flexes forearm
IS Posterior to radius
deltoid

8. Episternum From proximal part of

STERNO- Flexes forearm
RADIALS/ radius by tendon
BICEPS
Fan-shaped
behind no. 6 and
partly
under no. 9

9. PECTORALIS Sternum, coracoid,

Large, fan-shaped Converges to deltoid
of 4 parts Flexes arm, also
and rectus abdominis
crest of humerus
expands abdomen by
muscles
compressing viscera
in thorax

10. TRICEPS a) behind border of

BRACHII Radius over elbow Radius over elbow
scapula
Extends forearm

Dorsal side of b) anterior half of

upper arm humerus

D. Abdominal Wall
11. RECTUS Pubis Dosally on sternum
ABDOMINIS Supports abdomen
Thin lengthwise and coracoids
sheet beside the and holds sternum
mid-ventral line
called linea alba
and divided
transversely by
connective tissue
called tendinous
inscriptions

12. OBLIQUUS
EXTERNUS Dorsal fascia Linea alba, dorsal to
Thin sheet over Supports and
entire side of body rectus abdominis
fibers run compresses
posteroventrally abdomen; also
compresses lungs
13.
TRANSVERSE/
OBLIQUUS Transverse process
INTERNUS Coracoid and
Thin sheet Same as obliquus
beneath obliquus of 4th and 9th
xiphisternum,
externus, fibers
externus
run laterally and
vertebrae and ilium
anteroventrally
sternum, esophagus
and pericardium and
on linea alba

E. Back and
Pelvic Girdle

14. DORSAL Scapula By tendon joining that

SCAPULAR/ Raises arm toward
INFRASPINATUS of latissimus dorsi
Triangular behind the body
no. 3 and partly
under no. 4

15. LATISSIMUS Dorsal fascia On deltoid crest of

DORSI Raises arm upward
Narrowly tapered humerus
and backward
16. Urostyle, anterior
LONGISSIMUS Vertebrae and skull Straightens back and
DORSI third
Along back; long raises hand
and slender with
transverse septa

17. Urostyle, anterior

COCCYGEO- Vertebrae and skull Straightens back and
SACRA LIS third
Narrow; fibers raises head
diagonal, behind
no. 16

18. Side of urostyle Ilium, anterior part Holds urostyle in place

COCCYGEO-
ILIACU S
Behind no. 17,
narrow fibers,
diagonal
Ilium, middle of
19. GLUTEUS Anterior side of head
Short, stout Draws thigh forward
passes ventrally lateral
between of femur
21a and 21b and upward

20. PYRIFORMIS
Short, slender
behind 21a Posterior tip of
Medial surface of
Raises thigh
urostyle, above anus
femur

F. Thigh -
Muscles of the
thigh are
described in
sequence
around the
dorsal,
posterior, and
ventral surfaces
21. TRICEPS a) VASTUS
FEMORIS Ventral Antero-ventral border
Large, covers EXTERNUS
entire anterior of acetabulum
border of dorsal
thigh both dorsally Posterior dorsal
& ventrally; origin crest- of ilium; behind
by 3 heads joining no. 19
midway on the b) RECTUS
thigh ANTICUS FEMORIS

medial, smallest
under no. 19
Mid-ventral third of
ilium
c) VASTUS
INTERNUS

22. Crest of ilium above

ILIOFIBULARIS/ Two heads:
BICEPS Like that of triceps
FEMORIS acetabulum
Long, slender a) distally on femur
femoris
between nos. 21
and
and 23
b) posteriorly on
tibio-fibula

23. Dorsally on ischium Posteriorly on head

SEMIMEMBRAN Flexes shank
OS US of tibia-fibula
Large, postero-
dorsal on thigh

24. GRACILIS
MINOR/ RECTUS Edge of ischium Inner side of
INTERNUS Flexes shank,
MINOR Slender, tibio-fibula, below
flat attaches to skin adducts thigh
head
25. GRACILIS
MAJOR/
RECTUS
INTERNUS
MAJOR Larger
than no. 24
Edge of ischium Inner side of
Flexes shank and
tibio-fibula
adducts thigh

26. SARTORIUS Ilium, below

Thigh, oblique Inner head of
band, across Flexes shank,
ventral acetabulum
surface of thigh tibia-fibula
adducts thigh

27. ADDUCTOR Ischium and pubis Distal third of femur Adducts thigh and leg
MAGNUS
Large, runs under
no. 26

28. ADDUCTOR Ilium, anterior

LONGUS With adductor
Narrow, mostly Adducts thigh and leg
under no. 26 symphisis
magnus

29. Ischium, by two

SEMITENDINOS With gracilis minor on
US Long, thin, Adducts thigh and
remove no. 24 to heads
see proximal end of
flexes shank
tiblio-fibula

G. Shank

30. a) distal end of femur

GASTROCNEMI By Achilles tendon
US Two heads: Extends foot and
Large, posterior, by flat tendon
forms "calf" of leg over heel and into
flexes shank
b) edge of knee
planter fascia on sole
tendon
 of foot

31. PERONEUS Knee tendon Tibio-fibula, distally,

Stout, posterior Draws shank against
between nos. 30 and ankle
and 32a thigh (before leaping
calca-neum)
32. TIBIALIS or swimming); also
Group of three extends or twists foot
ventral muscles
next to tibio-fibula a) TIBIALIS
proximate end of
Flexes ankle
ANTICUS LONGUS
astralagus &
Coastal end of femur
calcaneum
by
Two heads: to
long tendon
Two heads: to

33) TIBALIS Middle part of

ANTICUS BREVES Astralagus Flexes ankle
tibio-fibula

E TIBIALS Alone entire

POSTICUS Astralagus Flexes and twists
Long, under no. 29 tibio-fibula
ankle

34. EXTENSOR Medial end of femur Astralagus Extends shank

CRURIS
Small, under nos.
31a and 31b

I. Answer the following questions.

1. Classify the muscles according to action and give an example of

each. 2. How are muscles related to joints?

3. How do muscles work, by shortening or lengthening?

4. What are some of the effects of exercise on a muscle? What happens to muscles during
prolonged illness?

5. Find the Achilles tendon above your heel. Why is the tendon so named?

6. Why do the fibers of obliquus externus and obliquus internus run in different direction? Based
on your answer, what do you think are their functions?

7. Give specific examples of antagonistic muscles.

II. Draw and identify the different parts of the muscular system in a frog.

Anterior View:

Lateral View:
Posterior View

Conclusion:

Name: ____________________________________________Grade and Section: _________

Activity No. 3 The Heart and the Process of Blood Circulation

Learning objectives:
● Describe how the heart functions in the human body.
● Differentiate the roles of the different blood vessels and components of the blood.
● Explain the process of pulmonary and systemic circulation.

Materials:
Torso Model
Pencil
Activity Sheet
Eraser
Ruler

Procedure:
1. Observe and familiarize the organs in the reproductive organ system using a circulatory
system laboratory model.
2. Draw the different parts and components of the system.

I- The Heart
1. What is the fluid component in the circulatory system? How does it function in our body
in concert with the heart?
 2. What structure is our heart made of? How does our heart function in blood circulation?

3. Will the heart be able to function

properly if the pathway is blocked?
Explain your answer by citing an example.

4. Draw the pathway of the blood inside the heart. And explain how the heart functions in
the human body and how valves and ventricles work together as the heart pumps blood.

II. Blood Vessels and the Blood

1. Differentiate the three different types of blood vessels using a Venn diagram.

2. What are the four important components of the blood? Draw and describe their roles in
the circulatory system.
 III. The Blood Circulation
Direction: Draw the pathways of the blood and briefly discuss how the process of
systemic and pulmonary circulation undergoes.

Conclusion:

Name: ____________________________________________Grade and Section: _________

Activity No. 4 Nervous Control and Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

Learning objectives:
 ● Determine how sensory and motor mechanisms work through reaction time.
● Describe the mechanism of the stimuli-response pathway in the body. ●
Explain how nervous control functions in the human body.
● Illustrate how the action potential undergoes in the nervous system.

Materials:
Torso Model
Pencil
Activity Sheet
Eraser
Ruler

Procedure:
1. Observe and familiarize the organs in the reproductive organ system using a nervous system
laboratory model.
2. Draw the different parts and components of the system.

I- Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

1. How do the different organs in the nervous system work together to allow the reflexes in
our body to happen?

2. Explain how stimuli and response in the nervous system take place in our body. 3. Why

is it important for our sensory organs to work in concert with our nervous system?

4. How does our endocrine system aid the nervous system in the process of
 stimulus-response mechanism?

II. Divisions of the Nervous system.

1. Using a Venn diagram, compare and contrast the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system.

2. Using a Venn diagram, compare and contrast sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system.

3. Draw the stimuli-response pathway of the nervous system by using its involved organs
as the markers. Provide a brief description of how stimuli and response happen.
Conclusion: