MODULE 1

ENGLISH (SECONDARY)
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, LITERACIES,
AND LITERATURE
___

By JOAN ADRIAN C. TABALANZA

“Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are

fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are
used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use
of words involves a process of free creation.”

– Noam Chomsky –
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INTRODUCTION

As a reviewee for the Licensure Exam for Teachers in the Philippines, understanding the theoretical

foundations of language, culture, literacies, and literature is essential to your success as a teacher.

Language is the primary tool we use to convey meaning and express ourselves, but it is also deeply

embedded in culture and shaped by it. Culture, in turn, shapes our understanding and use of

language, and influences the way we think, feel, and behave. In addition, literacies and literature are

crucial components of our cultural heritage, providing us with a way to understand and interpret the

world around us.

As a teacher, you will be responsible for helping your students to develop their language, literacy, and

cultural competencies. Understanding the theoretical foundations of language, culture, literacies,

and literature will help you to design and deliver effective language instruction, and to create learning

environments that are inclusive, respectful, and responsive to the diverse needs and backgrounds of

your students. You will also be able to use literature as a tool for developing your students' critical

thinking, writing, and communication skills, and for fostering their appreciation of the cultural

heritage of the Philippines and other cultures.

Furthermore, your understanding of these theoretical foundations will help you to appreciate the rich

diversity of human expression and communication, and to communicate more effectively and

empathetically with people from different backgrounds and cultures. This knowledge will be valuable

not only in the classroom but also in your personal and professional life. As a reviewee, it is

important to be well-versed in these theoretical foundations as they are often tested in the licensure

exam and are also important in the teaching profession.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Objectives:

1. Demonstrate knowledge and application of the structural aspects of language (phonology,

morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics) across languages and other related fields.

2. Apply theories, principles and concepts of language, literacies and language use in specific
contexts for language and literacy acquisition and learning in multilingual and multicultural societies.

3. Draw implications of the theories of the theories of linguistics, psycholinguistics, and

sociolinguistics to language teaching and learning.

As a reviewee for the Licensure Exam for Teachers in the Philippines, understanding the field of

linguistics is essential to meeting the objectives of the examination. The study of linguistics is the

scientific examination of language and its structure, including the sounds, words, and grammar used

in a language, as well as how language is acquired, used, and processed by the human mind. By

understanding the structural aspects of language, such as phonology, morphology, syntax,

semantics, and pragmatics, you will be better equipped to analyze and understand the intricacies of

language and how it functions.

Furthermore, as a teacher, the ability to apply theories, principles and concepts of language,

literacies and language use in specific contexts for language and literacy acquisition and learning in

multilingual and multicultural societies is crucial. The examination requires you to demonstrate

knowledge and understanding of how language is used in different contexts and cultures, and how

this understanding can be applied to teaching and learning in multilingual and multicultural

classrooms.
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Finally, the examination requires you to draw implications of the theories of linguistics,

psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics to language teaching and learning. Through an understanding

of linguistics, you will be able to analyze language from different perspectives and understand the

complex relationships between language, culture, and society. Furthermore, by understanding the

theories of linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics, you will be able to design and deliver

effective language instruction in the classroom and create an inclusive and effective language

learning environment.

Structural Aspects of Language

It's important to understand the various structural aspects of language and how they contribute to
the overall functioning of a language. These aspects include phonology, phonetics, morphology,
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Phonology deals with the sounds of a language and the rules governing their use. For example, in
English, the "t" sound in "cat" is produced differently than the "t" sound in "bat." Additionally, English
has specific rules governing the use of stress and intonation, which can change the meaning of a
word or sentence.

Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds and deals with how sounds are
produced, transmitted, and perceived.

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules governing their formation. It
deals with the way words are built up out of smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest
units of meaning in a language. For example, in English, the word "unhappy" is made up of two
morphemes "un-" and "-happy", where the morpheme "un-" adds the meaning of negation and the
morpheme "-happy" is the root word for happy.

Syntax is the study of the rules governing sentence structure. It deals with how words are arranged to
create well-formed sentences in a language. For example, in English, the subject of a sentence
typically comes before the verb, as in "The cat sat on the mat."

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences. For example, the word "bat" can refer
to a flying mammal or a piece of equipment used in sports. The context in which a word is used can
also change its meaning, such as the phrase "I'll bat for you" meaning to take over a task or
responsibility.
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Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context. It deals with how speakers use language
to convey meaning in social situations and how listeners interpret that meaning. For example, when
someone says "I'm fine," in response to the question "How are you?" in English, it may not always
reflect their true feelings, but it's a common polite way to respond.

Examples of studies that focus on these linguistic subfields include:

● "The Oxford Handbook of Morphology"

● "Syntax: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research"
● "The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics"
● "Semantics: An International Handbook of Natural Language Meaning"
● "The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics"
● "The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology"

In conclusion, as teachers of the English language, it's important to understand the various subfields
of linguistics that focus on different aspects of language. These subfields are interrelated and
constantly changing, and researchers continue to study them to better understand how language
works.

Specific Topic Discussion – Phonology

The study of a language's sound systems and patterns is known as phonology. It discusses the laws
dictating how sounds are used in a language, such as intonation and stress patterns, as well as the
connection between sounds and meaning.

When linguists started methodically examining the sounds of many languages for the first time in
the 19th century, the field of phonology was born. The comparison of sounds across languages and
the discovery of universal sound patterns were the main goals of early phonological study. In the
1920s and 1930s, the Prague school of linguistics created the first comprehensive theory of
phonology. They argued that phonology be studied formally and abstractly and that a set of
phonological rules may be used to define a language's sound patterns.
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The structuralist approach to phonology, which put an emphasis on describing sound systems in
terms of their underlying structure and relationships between sounds, predominated in the 1950s
and 1960s. In order to explain how a language's sound patterns are learned and stored in the mind,
Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle devised a new generative theory of phonology in the 1960s.
Researchers like Alan Prince, John Goldsmith, and Paul Kiparsky developed the Optimality Theory
(OT) and Generative Phonology (GP) theories as a result of this theory's substantial influence on
phonology.

In recent years, researchers have become interested in examining the interactions between
phonology and other linguistic concepts including phonetics, morphology, and syntax. Additionally,
researchers have been examining the connection between phonology and the brain as well as how
the neural representations of sound relate to a language's phonological principles.

Several eminent experts in phonology include:

● Noam Chomsky
● Morris Halle
● Roman Jakobson
● Nikolai Trubetzkoy
● John Goldsmith
● Paul Kiparsky
● Alan Prince
● John McCarthy
● Mark Hale

References that concentrate on phonology include the following:

● Carr, P. (2019). English phonetics and phonology: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
● Gussenhoven, C., & Jacobs, H. (2017). Understanding phonology. Routledge.
● Hawkins, P. (2018). Introducing phonology. Routledge.
● Yavas, M. (2020). Applied English Phonology. John Wiley & Sons.

In conclusion, the study of sound systems and patterns in a language is the focus of the linguistic
branch of study known as phonology. It has a long history that dates back to the 19th century and
has been greatly affected by the writings of eminent academics like Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle,
and Roman Jakobson. Today, the study of phonology is still an active topic of research since it is
strongly related to the study of other aspects of language and the brain.
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Specific Topic Discussion – Phonetics

The study of the physical characteristics of speech sounds, including their creation, transmission,
and perception, is known as phonetics. It is focused on the production of speech in the human
vocal tract, airborne transmission of those sounds, and ear perception of those same sounds.

The study of rhetoric and elocution in classical Greece and Rome can be linked to the history of
phonetics. But phonetics did not become a distinct discipline of study until the 19th century. The
invention of a method for transcribing speech sounds using the International Phonetic Alphabet and
the study of speech sounds in various languages were the main goals of early phonetics research
(IPA).

The relationship between phonetics and other branches of linguistics, such as phonology and
phonemics, deepened throughout the 20th century. Researchers started looking at how speech
sounds are employed and arranged in various languages, as well as how they connect to the
meanings of words and phrases. Additionally, there has been a rise in interest in research on how
phonetic differences between languages and cultures affect speech sounds.

In the context of cognitive science and the brain underpinnings of language, there has been a
resurgence in interest in the study of phonetics in recent years. Researchers have also been
interested in learning more about how phonetics relates to the organization of words and sentences
as well as how it connects with other linguistic concepts like phonology and phonemics. Additionally,
there has been an increase in interest in cross-linguistic phonetic studies, which examine how
speech sounds vary throughout cultures and languages.

Several eminent experts in phonetics include:

● Peter Ladefoged
● Daniel Jones
● Juan Manuel Hernández-Campoy
● Mark Liberman
● Ray Jackendoff
● John J. Ohala
● John Goldsmith
● Catherine J. Stevens
● Paul T. D. Wong
● Alain Despain

Examples of studies that focus on phonetics include:

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● Abercrombie, D. (2022). Elements of general phonetics. In Elements of General Phonetics.

Edinburgh University Press.
● Carr, P. (2019). English phonetics and phonology: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
● Ogden, R. (2017). Introduction to English phonetics. Edinburgh university press.
● Reetz, H., & Jongman, A. (2020). Phonetics: Transcription, production, acoustics, and
perception. John Wiley & Sons.

The study of the physical aspects of speech sounds, such as their creation, transmission, and
perception, is the focus of the branch of linguistics known as phonetics. It has a lengthy past that
spans from antiquity to the present and has been greatly affected by the writings of illustrious
academics like Roman Jakobson, Peter Ladefoged, and John Goldsmith. Today, research on
phonetics is strongly related to research on the brain underpinnings of language, phonology, and
phonemics, among other fields of language studies. It is still a thriving area of study, and
cross-linguistic research is becoming more popular.

Specific Topic Discussion – Phonemics

The study of a language's phonemes, as well as their distribution and patterns, is the focus of the
field of phonology known as phonemics, sometimes known as phonemics or phonematics. The
smallest unit of sound that may alter a word's meaning in a language is called a phoneme.
Phonemics is concerned with identifying and defining a language's phonemes as well as the patterns
and laws that control their distribution.

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the research into the sounds of many languages may
be used to date the history of phonemics to the 19th century. The study of speech sounds in many
languages and the creation of a method for transcribing speech sounds using the IPA were the main
topics of early phonemics research.

In the 20th century, phonemics and other branches of linguistics, such phonetics and phonology,
became closer together. Researchers started looking at how speech sounds are employed and
arranged in various languages, as well as how they connect to the meanings of words and phrases.
Additionally, there has been a rise in interest in research on how phonetic differences between
languages and cultures affect speech sounds.

In the context of cognitive science and the brain underpinnings of language, there has been a
resurgence in interest in the study of phonemics in recent years. Researchers have also been
interested in learning more about how phonemics relates to the organization of words and sentences
as well as how it links with other linguistic fields like phonetics and phonology. Additionally, there has
been an increase in interest in cross-linguistic phonemic studies, which examine how speech sounds
vary throughout cultures and languages.
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Several eminent experts in phonemics include:

● John Goldsmith
● John Lyons
● Kenneth L. Pike
● Roman Jakobson
● Morris Halle
● Noam Chomsky
● Peter Ladefoged
● Paul Kiparsky
● Morris Swadesh
● André Martinet

Studies that emphasize phonemics include the following examples:

● Creanza, N., Ruhlen, M., Pemberton, T. J., Rosenberg, N. A., Feldman, M. W., &
Ramachandran, S. (2015). A comparison of worldwide phonemic and genetic variation in
human populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(5), 1265-1272.
● Nagamine, T., Seltzer, M. L., & Mesgarani, N. (2015). Exploring how deep neural networks
form phonemic categories. In Sixteenth Annual Conference of the International Speech
Communication Association.
● Suggate, S. P. (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness,
phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of learning disabilities,
49(1), 77-96.

To sum up, phonemics is a branch of phonology that focuses on the distribution and patterns of a
language's phonemes. It has a long history that dates back to the 19th century and has been greatly
affected by the writings of eminent academics like Roman Jakobson, Noam Chomsky, and Morris
Halle. Today, the study of phonemics is strongly related to the research of the brain underpinnings of
language, as well as other disciplines of language studies such as phonetics and phonology. It is still
a thriving area of study, and cross-linguistic research is becoming more popular.

Specific Topic Discussion – Morphology

The study of word formation and internal structure is known as morphology. It focuses on the
examination of the smallest linguistic constituents, such as roots, affixes, and inflections.

The earliest systematic study of the internal structure of words by linguists dates back to the 19th
century, which is when morphology first emerged. The comparison of word forms across languages
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and the discovery of general word-forming processes were the primary goals of early morphological
study. One of the oldest and most significant books in morphology was "Comparative Grammar" by
Franz Bopp, published in 1833.

The structuralist approach to morphology, which prioritized the description of word forms in terms of
their internal structure and the connection between form and meaning, predominated in the early
20th century. A novel generative theory of morphology was put out by Noam Chomsky and Morris
Halle in the 1950s and 1960s in an effort to shed light on how language word structures are learned
and stored in the brain. This hypothesis had a profound effect on morphology and inspired
academics like Mark Baker, Alec Marantz, and Mark Hale to establish the theory of distributed
morphology (DM).

In recent years, researchers have become interested in examining the interactions between
morphology and other linguistic concepts including phonology, syntax, and semantics. Additionally,
researchers have been examining the connection between morphology and the brain as well as how
word representations in the brain relate to morphological laws in languages.

Several eminent experts in morphology include:

● Mark Aronoff
● Mark Baayen
● Greville G. Corbett
● Keith Allan
● Martine Grice
● John Goldsmith
● Richard Hogg
● Geert Booij
● Alec Marantz
● Heidi Harley

Examples of references that focus on morphology include:

● Clark, E. V. (2017). Morphology in language acquisition. The handbook of morphology,

374-389.
● Katamba, F., & Stonham, J. (2018). Morphology: Palgrave Modern Linguistics. Bloomsbury
Publishing.
● Lieber, R. (2021). Introducing morphology. Cambridge University Press.

In conclusion, the study of the internal structure of words and their formation is the focus of the
linguistics discipline known as morphology. It has a long history that dates back to the 19th century
and has been greatly affected by the writings of eminent academics like Noam Chomsky, Morris
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Halle, and Mark Baker. The study of morphology is still an active topic of research today since it is
strongly related to the study of other aspects of language and the brain.

Specific Topic Discussion – Syntax

The study of syntax focuses on the principles guiding how sentences are put together in natural
languages. It focuses on how words are put together to create grammatically sound phrases and
how various sentence constructions express various meanings.

Ancient Greek grammarians, who analyzed sentence construction in the context of poetry and
rhetoric, are credited with developing syntax. However, syntax did not develop into its own area of
study within linguistics until the 19th century. Early studies of syntax concentrated on describing
sentence patterns in many languages and identifying general rules guiding sentence construction.

Early in the 20th century, the structuralist approach to syntax predominated, focusing on the internal
organization of sentences and the connection between form and content. Noam Chomsky developed
a novel generative theory of syntax in the 1950s and 1960s that sought to explain how a language's
sentence patterns are learned and stored in the brain. This idea had a profound effect on syntax and
inspired Chomsky and his students to establish the theories of Government and Binding (GB) and,
subsequently, Minimalism.

In the context of cognitive science and the brain underpinnings of language, there has been a
resurgence in interest in the study of syntax in recent years. Researchers have also been interested
in examining the connections between syntax and other linguistic concepts like semantics and
pragmatics. Additionally, there has been an increase in interest in cross-linguistic studies of syntax,
which look at how different languages' syntactic patterns compare and contrast.

Several eminent syntax experts include:

● Noam Chomsky
● Howard Lasnik
● Lisa Travis
● Mark C. Baker
● Cedric Boeckx
● Edward L. Keenan
● Maria Polinsky
● Alan Prince
● Jane B. Grimshaw
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● James Pustejovsky

Examples of studies that focus on syntax include:

● Carnie, A. (2021). Syntax: A generative introduction. John Wiley & Sons.

● Mair, C., & Leech, G. N. (2020). Current changes in English syntax. The handbook of English
linguistics, 249-276.
● Miller, J. (2016). Introduction to English syntax. Edinburgh University Press.
● Tallerman, M. (2019). Understanding syntax. Routledge.

To sum up, the study of the rules guiding the form of sentences in natural languages is the focus of
the linguistics area known as syntax. It has a long history that dates back to the ancient Greek
grammarians and has been greatly affected by the writings of illustrious academics like Noam
Chomsky, Morris Halle, and Mark Baker. Today, research on syntax is strongly related to research on
the brain underpinnings of language, as well as semantics and pragmatics. It is still a thriving area of
study, and cross-linguistic research is becoming more popular.

Specific Topic Discussion – Semantics

The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. It is concerned with the relationships
between word and phrase meanings, sentence structure, and speaker and listener comprehension.

Semantics has its roots in the ancient Greek philosophers who were curious to know how words and
phrases related to the things and ideas they represented. However, semantics did not develop into
its own area of study within linguistics until the 19th century. Early semantics study concentrated on
describing meaning across languages and finding universal rules guiding word and phrase meaning.

Early in the 20th century, the structuralist school of thought predominated in semantics, emphasizing
the underlying structure of meanings and the connection between form and meaning. Noam
Chomsky developed a novel generative theory of semantics in the 1950s and 1960s that sought to
explain how the meanings of sentences are learned and stored in the brain. This idea significantly
influenced semantics and sparked the creation of formal semantics, an effort to give meaning a
formal, mathematical explanation.

The study of semantics within the context of cognitive science and the brain underpinnings of
language has recently attracted considerable attention. Researchers have also been interested in
examining the interactions between semantics and other linguistic concepts, such as syntax and
pragmatics. Additionally, there has been an increase in interest in cross-linguistic semantic studies,
which look at how words and phrases signify different things in other languages and contrast them.
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Several eminent semantics researchers include:

● Noam Chomsky
● John Lyons
● Barbara Partee
● Jerrold J. Katz
● Irene Heim
● Richard Montague
● Ruth M. Kempson
● Annie Zaenen
● Alain Lecomte
● Leonard Talmy

Examples of studies that focus on semantics include:

● Clark, H. H. (2019). Semantics and comprehension. In Semantics and Comprehension. De

Gruyter Mouton.
● Hofmann, T. (2015). Realms of meaning: An introduction to semantics. Routledge.
● Kearns, K. (2017). Semantics. Bloomsbury Publishing.
● Saeed, J. I. (2015). Semantics. John Wiley & Sons.

In conclusion, semantics is a branch of linguistics that examines how language conveys meaning. It
has a long tradition that dates back to the Greek philosophers of antiquity and has been greatly
impacted by the writings of eminent academics like Noam Chomsky, Ray Jackendoff, and Barbara
Partee. These days, research on semantics is strongly related to research on the brain
underpinnings of language, as well as syntax and pragmatics. It is still a thriving area of study, and
cross-linguistic research is becoming more popular.

Specific Topic Discussion – Pragmatics

The study of pragmatics focuses on how humans express meaning through language in a given
situation. It is concerned with how language is utilized by speakers and listeners to accomplish
communicative objectives, as well as how the context in which language is used impacts how it is
interpreted.

The origins of pragmatics may be found in the writings of early 20th-century philosophers like John
Dewey and Charles Sanders Peirce, who were interested in learning how language is utilized in
ordinary conversation. However, pragmatics did not become a distinct area of study within linguistics
until the 1960s and 1970s. The study of implicature, presupposition, speech actions, and the
interaction between language and situation were the main topics of early pragmatics research.
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In the 1980s and 1990s, pragmatics and other disciplines of linguistic research, such semantics and
syntax, began to interact more often. Researchers started looking at how the context in which words
and phrases are employed affects their meanings, as well as how pragmatic concerns impact
sentence structure. Additionally, there has been a rise in interest in cross-linguistic pragmatic
studies, which examine how language usage varies among cultures and languages.

The study of pragmatics within the framework of cognitive science and the brain underpinnings of
language has recently attracted increased interest. Researchers have also been curious about how
pragmatics interacts with other linguistic concepts, such as semantics and syntax. In addition, there
has been an increase in interest in cross-linguistic pragmatics studies, which examine how language
usage varies among cultures and languages.

Several eminent pragmatics academics include:

● Paul Grice
● Deirdre Wilson
● Dan Sperber
● Herb Clark
● Erving Goffman
● Deborah Tannen
● Robin Lakoff
● Emanuel Schegloff
● Harvey Sacks
● Jonathan Ginzburg

Examples of studies that focus on pragmatics include:

● Leech, G. N. (2016). Principles of pragmatics. Routledge.

● Taguchi, N. (2015). Instructed pragmatics at a glance: Where instructional studies were, are,
and should be going. Language Teaching, 48(1), 1-50.
● Taguchi, N., & Roever, C. (2017). Second language pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford.
● Verschueren, J., & Östman, J. O. (2022). Handbook of pragmatics. Handbook of Pragmatics,
1-298.

In conclusion, the study of how humans use language in context to transmit meaning is the focus of
the linguistics area known as pragmatics. It has a lengthy history that dates back to the early 20th
century and has been greatly impacted by the writings of eminent academics like John Searle, H.
Paul Grice, and Dan Sperber. These days, research on pragmatics is strongly related to research on
the brain underpinnings of language, as well as semantics and syntax. It is still a thriving area of
study, and cross-linguistic research is becoming more popular.