Chapter 1 The Human Body An Orientation

CHAPTER 1:
The Human Body: An Orientation
ANATOMY
 Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts.
 Observation is used to see sizes and relationship of parts.
Anatomy is divided into:
 Gross Anatomy – large structures, easily observable
An example of gross anatomy using the digestive system organs.
 Microscopic Anatomy – structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope.
An example of microscopic anatomy using the digestive system organ; the

stomach.
PHYSIOLOGY
 Study of how the body and its parts work or function.
 Structure determines what functions can occur.
 For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very thin walls, a feature that enables
them to exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body.
Levels of Structural Organization:

1. Atom
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ System
6. Organisms
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

A. Integumentary System
 Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and fingernails
 Waterproofs the body
 Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
 Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
 Excretes salts in perspiration
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
B. Skeletal System
 Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
 Provides muscle attachment for movement
 Protects vital organs
 Site of blood cell formation
 Stores minerals
C. Muscular System
 Skeletal muscles contract or shorten
 Produces movement of bones
D. Nervous System
 Fast-acting control system
 Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors
 Responds to internal and external stimuli
 Sensory receptors detect changes
 Messages are sent to the central nervous system
 Central nervous system assesses information and active effectors
(muscles and glands)
E. Endocrine System
 Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the blood
 Body functions controlled by hormones include:
o Growth
o Reproduction
o Use of nutrients
 Endocrine glands include:

o Pituitary gland
o Thyroid and parathyroid
o Adrenal glands
o Thymus
o Pancreas
o Pineal glands
o Ovaries (females) and testes (male)
F. Cardiovascular
System
 Includes heart
and blood
vessels
o Heart pumps blood

o Vessels transport blood to tissues
 Blood transports:
o Oxygen and carbon dioxide
o Nutrients
o Hormones
 Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide
protection from foreign invaders
G. Lymphatic System
 Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs
 Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to
bloodstream
 Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood
 Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity
H. Respiratory System
 Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
 Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs
o Supplies the body with oxygen
o Removes carbon dioxide
I. Digestive System
 Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum, and accessory organs
 Breaks down food
 Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
 Eliminates indigestible material as feces
J. Urinary System
 Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Maintains acid-base balance
 Regulates water and electrolyte balance
 Helps regulate normal blood pressure
K. Reproductive System
 For males, includes the tests, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and duct
system
o Testes produces sperm
o Duct system carries sperm to exterior
 For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus and vagina
o Ovaries produce eggs
o Uterus provides site of development for fetus
Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions

 Maintaining boundaries
o Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
 Movement
o Locomotion
o Movement of substances
 Responsiveness (irritability)
o Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
o Break down and absorption of nutrients
 Metabolism – chemical reactions within the body
o Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
o Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
o Produces energy (ATP)
o Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
o Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
o Wastes may be removed in urine, feces or sweat
 Reproduction
o Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
 On cellular level – new cells are used for growth and repair
 On organismal level – the reproductive system handles the task
 Growth
o Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells)
o Hormones play a major role
Survival Needs
 Nutrients
o Chemicals used for energy and cell building
o Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
 Oxygen
o Required for chemical reactions
o Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory system and
cardiovascular system
 Water
o 60 to 80 percent of body weight
o Most abundant chemical in the human body
o Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal Body Temperature
o 37˚C (98.6˚F)
o Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop
o Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly
 Atmospheric Pressure
o Must be appropriate for gas exchange
Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.

The Language of Anatomy
 Anatomical Position
o Standard body position used to avoid confusion
o Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position
o Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing
forward and thumbs pointing away from the body
The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
 Exact terms are used for:
o Position
o Direction
o Regions
o Structures
Anatomical Position
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward
and thumbs pointing away from the body
Directional Terms - explain location of one body structure in relation to another

 Superior (cranial or cephalic) – toward the head or upper part of a structure or
the body; above
 Inferior (caudal) – away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or
the body; below
 Anterior (ventral) – toward or at the front of the body; in front of
 Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the backside of the body; behind
 Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
 Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
 Intermediate – between a more medial and a more lateral structure
 Proximal – close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to
the body trunk
 Distal – farther from the origin of a body part or the point od attachment of a limb
to the body trunk
 Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface
 Deep (internal) – away from the body surface; more internal
Regional Terms
 Anterior (ventral) body land marks
 Posterior (dorsal body landmarks)

Body Planes and Sections
 Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes
 Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one another
o A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts
o A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left and
right parts
o A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and
posterior parts
o A transverse,
or cross,
section
divides the
body (or organ)
into superior and
inferior parts
Body Cavities
 Provide varying
degrees of
protection
to organs
within them
 Two internal
body cavities are:
o Dorsal
o Ventral
o Dorsal Body Cavity has two subdivisions
1. Cranial Cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected by the skull
2. Spinal Cavity
 Houses the spinal cord
 Protected by the vertebrae
o Ventral Body Cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm

1. Thoracic Cavity
 Cavity superior to the diaphragm
 Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
 Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other
organs
 Protected by the rib cage
2. Abdominopelvic Cavity
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other
organs
 Protected only by trunk muscles
 Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and
rectum
 Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
 No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities
 Abdominal Pelvic Cavity have two subdivision:
a. Four quadrants
b. Nine regions
Other body cavities include:

 Oral and digestive cavities
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
Homeostasis – maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions

 A
dynamic state of equilibrium or balance

 Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
 Main controlling systems:
o Nervous system
o Endocrine system
 Homeostatic balance
o A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components: receptor,
control
center
and
effector
o Receptor
- Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
- Sends information to control center along an afferent pathway
o Control Center
- Determines set point
- Analyzes information
- Determines appropriate response
o Effector
- Provides a means of response to the stimulus
- Information flows from control center to effector along efferent
pathway
Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative Feedback
o Includes homeostatic control mechanisms
o Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
o Works like a household thermostat
 Positive Feedback
o Rare in the human body
o Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
o Reaction occurs at a faster rate
o In the body, positive feedback occurs in the blood clotting and during the
birth of a baby

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Chapter 1 The Human Body An Orientation

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CHAPTER 1:

The Human Body: An Orientation

An example of gross anatomy using the digestive system organs.

An example of microscopic anatomy using the digestive system organ; the

Levels of Structural Organization:

ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW

 Endocrine glands include:

o Heart pumps blood

Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions

Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.

Directional Terms - explain location of one body structure in relation to another

 Posterior (dorsal body landmarks)

o Ventral Body Cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm

 Abdominal Pelvic Cavity have two subdivision:

Other body cavities include:

Homeostasis – maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions

dynamic state of equilibrium or balance

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