See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/339927764

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE

Research · December 2008

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36041.49766

CITATIONS READS
0 7,925

4 authors, including:

Presly Obukoadata
University of Calabar
25 PUBLICATIONS   11 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Journal Publications View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Presly Obukoadata on 14 March 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM:
A DISCOURSE
By
Godsgift, Odiepiriye ·Harold
&
Obukoadata, Ogheneruke Presly

ABSTRACT
The issue of cultural imperialism has been a thorny one in the discourses of
media scholars. Much as we try to shy away from it, it keeps creeping in. The
focus of this study is to x-ray the whole frame of cultural imperialism and look
at ways of mitigating its supposedly domineering influence in our society. It
underscores the arguments of several thoughts against the cultural
imperialist theory and proffers a way out.

INTRODUCTION globalization. Rothkopf (1997:39)

Cultural imperialism grew observed that "Globalization has
out of a global context in terms of economic roots and political
economic, social, political and consequences, but it also has
cultural dimensions. It touched on brought into focus the power of
the spheres of living of the people culture in this global environment
especially in the Third World with the power to bind and to decide in a
dominant paradigm of suppression, time when the tension between
coercion and neo-colonization. integration and separation tugs at
Marshall McLuhan peeped into his every issue that is relevant to
crystal ball, thought of a time when . international relations".
the world would become a global
village, but perchance never came to TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF THE
terms with the undercurrents from CONSTRUCTS OF CULTURAL
these processes of globalization. IMPERIALISM
And when globalization crept in, few Reddi (1987:315) sees culture
realized it and today the debate is on as the way of life of a people, a
either for or against globalization. composite of historical and living
There is a sweeping wind of traditions, beliefs, values, and
change at the local, national and practices reflected as much in
transnational levels - a change patterns of childbirth, marriage and
orchestrated by the whims of death, as in the music, dance,

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 1008 125

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE 126
drama, clothing, public tastes and 1984); (Mohamadi, 1995); 'Cultural
values and in the religious practices synchronization' (Hamelink, 1983);
of a given social system. It could be "Electornic colonialism" (McPhail,
viewed as a subsystem of a larger 1987); "Communication
social system, drawing from and imperialism" (Sui-Nan Lee, 1988);
giving to other subsystems. "Ideological Imperialism" and
It is not fixed, but "Economic Imperialism" (Matt-
dynamically encouraged reverence Leart , 1994), is seen by Schiller
for selected customs and. habits. (1976:9) as "the sum of the process
Indeed, Webster's Third New by which a society is brought into
International Dictionary defines the modern world system and how
culture as "the total pattern of its dominating stratum is attracted,
human behaviour and its products pressured, forced and sometimes
embodied in speech, action and bribed into shaping social
artifacts and dependent upon man's institutions to correspond to, or
capacity· for learning and even promote the value and
transmitting knowledge to structures of the dominating center
succeeding generation". Culture is of the system".
used by the organizers of the society Ogan's (1988:94) specific
such as the politicians, theologians, approach to the concept above views
academics and families. . it as a "process whereby the United
For imperialism, it is a highly States and Western Europe produce
subjective or' emotional world. most of the media products, make
Morgenthau sees it as an the first profits from domestic sales,
"expansion of state's powers beyond and then market the products in
its borders, a policy that aims at the Third World countries at costs
overthrow of the status quo, at considerably lower than those
reversal of the power relations countries would have to bear to
between two or more states. For produce similar products at home".
Lenin, it is a precise stage in the Cultural imperialism thus involves a
development of international sort of domination, a vault of
capitalism. Basically, it implies "an economic gain and national
imposition of the stronger nations' prestige. It involves an ideological
will or rule over weaker nations by warfare more bizarre than the world
means of force, with territorial, wars. Its central proposition is that
political, economic, social, religious a society is brought into the modern
and cultural implications. world system through a
Consequen tly, cultural domineering process of technology,
imperialism, variously phrased as economic and political beliefs.
'Media imperialism' (Boyd-Banet, Despite the assumptions
1977); 'Structural Imperialism' above, Meyer (1988:6) observed that
(Galtung, 1979); 'Cultural positions taken by journalists,
dependency and domination' (Link diplomats and academicians

An Interdisciplinary Journal of Communication Studies

127 GODSGIFT, ODIEPIRIYE HAROLD & OBUKOADATA, OGHENERUKE PRESLY

concerning international political effects that can result from

communication have cut across the unregulated actions of the West
economic, regional and national and hence call for fundamental
boundaries" thus paving way for restructuring of the international
three schools' of thoughts system.
Conservatives, Reformists and The third group, the
Structuralists. structuralists (Schiller, 1976:2-9)
First is the' conservatives, believe that the source of global
ably supported by the United States information imbalance can be found
government which deny that in the West's desire to retain
"imbalances in international hegemony over formerly colonized
information flow due to the activities areas. According to them,
of government and the media in the communication dominance has
West" exist (US Department of State, replaced more direct forms of
1982:67)stating that it is natural, political and military control.
which, Merrill (1981: 156) attested to Strong proponents include Galtung
in the form that "unevenness of flow John and Herbert Schiller.
is a basic characteristic of news and According to Momoh (1994:2)
not only of news flow but of water the story of imperialism began with
th
flow, oil flow, money flow, the slave trade in the is" and 17
population flow and food flow". centuries which led to the "depletion
They contend in line with the of needed manpower" and
Lerner's Theory (1964:43-75) that ultimately "economic stagnation",
western technology and western then it shifted to the relocation of ex-
newswires serve as tools of slaves, who no' doubt came back
development for the Third World, with alien cultures; next was the
while the inputs serve to overcome 1885 scramble for Africa, whose
traditional (anti-modern) values; golden rule was that "a European
increase media exposure and power must first establish its
literacy and thus facilitate increased presence on a stretch of African
economic productivity and political coastline" before claiming legitimacy
participation. Conservatives of influence on such territories and
invariably strive to defend the status finally the democratization of Africa,
quo. which implies that "Africa cannot go
The reformists, about the capitalist without capital. Africa, as
most populated, and vocal, it were, is now restricted to one
spearheaded by Sean McBride of choice: to go West, in the West, by
Ireland, President of the McBride the West and for the benefit of the
Commission, "readily admit that West The cultural, social,
imbalance in information" is due to anthropological and geopolitical
the West's near-monopoly of matrices of the African environment
newswires and technology. They notwithstanding". Galtung
recognize the harmful social and

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 2008

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE 128
(1979:164-166) went on to identify many dependent countries, an
five basic types of imperialism increasing share of industrial
economic, political, military', investment, which no doubt help in
communication and cultural. the global spreading of "a profit-
The implications and oriented mercantilist and consumer
conclusions drawn from empirical culture".
studies in structural thesis of Specifically, tying on to films,
cultural imperialism in Meyer Ekweazi (1991 :98) stated that "every
(1988:86-87) are that: film is an audio-visual cultural
• Press freedom is the variable encyclopedia, and therefore a
most clearly related to the three cultural experience". Hourton
areas of westernization (1963) argued further that the fact
(economics, education and that every film carries with it a
imports), hence, it is a possible national image; and however arty
cause of cultural imperialism; the film, or however distorted the
• Imported broadcast media do image of the society that comes
not have significant relationship across, the 'national face' behind the
to consumer goods which screen remains all too clearly
indicates that there may be a discernable; while Linton (1979)
negative relationship to sound contends that the beliefs, attitudes,
the drum of cultural and values implicit in any film tend
imperialism; and to resonate with those beliefs,
• Economic growth, economic attitudes and values which are
development in themselves need dominant in the society from which
not necessarily lead to western the film originates. These sum up to
modes of business, education, disastrous consequences of such
and lifestyles, but is an index to enslavement: "The technology of
western cultural hegemony. communication, varying from the
electronic media to publishing, has
TOOLS FOR CULTURAL become at times the declaration of
IMPERIALISM wars; the more foreign films pumped
Several tools abound for the into Africa, the more the cultural
purpose of cultural enslavement, the more the dire
synchronization, either as a direct consequences". In an analysis of
arbiter or remote catalyst. Hamelink international satellite television
(1983:7-8) identified the tool of broadcasting, Sin clair (1995: 108)
'native capital' when he pointed out notes that "satellite distribution is
that "the national elite provides the purely an international means by
nationalist legitimization .of the which signals are spilled across
dependency system, the local national and international borders".
marketing knowledge, and the The onus here is the use of language
native capital, which represent in and culture as powerful forces in
making and breaking international

An Interdisciplinary Journal of Communication Studies

129 GODSGIFT, OD/EPIRIfE HAROLD & OBUKOADATA, OGHENERUKE PRESLf

markets. after, and so visible that they are

Underscoring the language now available literally everywhere
tool, Lambert (1996) observes that on Earth. They influence the tastes,
"access to the internet depends not lives, and aspirations of virtually
only on ready access to terminals, every nation. In some, they are
efficient phone lines and telecoms viewed as corrupting".
infrastructure but also a working
command of English, the language THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
of cyberspace", for without which, Cultural imperialism is
negotiating or surfing the net rooted in the cultural imperialism
becomes a mirage. Other tools theory by Schiller (1976) which
identified by Ekeli (2002) are states, "Western nations dominate
educatibnal and economic base. He the media around the world which in
contends that our system of return has a powerful effect on Third
education bears a semblance· of world cultures by imposing on them
foreign values, which depict that the western views and therefore
greatest cultural imperialist tool is destroying their native cultures".
our form of western education which . Western civilization produces the
does not place emphasis on our majority of the media (film, news,
peculiarities and dynamics. The comics etc.) because they are
economy too, which is heavily financially endowed, as the rest of
reliant on foreign investment has the world purchase from them
been fingered as a tool for cultural simply because it is cheaper as a
imperialism. Instances were drawn result of first, satisfying their
from activities of multinational domestic needs, then doubling sales
organizations such as shell, and profit from the international
Chevron and Coca -cola which market.
dictate economic policy for the The cultural imperialism
government and even help to install theory is based on some tenets of the
governments because of their Uses and Gratifications Theory,
financial might. which holes-up into the Agenda
Rothkopf (1997) observed Setting Theory. The Uses and
rather positively, that "satellites Gratification Theory explains how
carrying television signals now people use and become dependent
enable people on opposite sides of . on the media. People find use of the
the globe to be exposed regularly to a media for all forms of activities
wide range of cultural stimuli". He ranging from entertainment, Para
concludes inter alia: "The United social relationships to the extremes
States dominates this global traffic of culture. The Dependency Theory
on information and ideas. says the more a person becomes
American music, American movies, dependent on the media to fulfill his
American television, and American needs, the media will become more
software are so dominant, so sought important to that individual. The

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 2008

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE 130
media will also have much more of modernity", stressing that the
influence and power over that term "modernity is complex and
individual, and thus it becomes easy contradictory; but, it has most often
for the media to set agenda. The been viewed as the idea of the "most
individual thus falls victim' to general way in which we in the West
Agenda Setting, criss-crossing from represent our cultural experience to
cultural imperialism to Uses and ourselves".
Gratification and then Agenda Supporting this assertion,
Setting theories. Bigsby (1975:6) opines that
modernization is only an
PRO-CULTURAL IMPERIALISTS accompanying process for cultural
ARGUMENT experiences as human culture is the
UNESCO's definition of product of our making and cultural
cultural policy' cited in Charles experiences; an abstract frame-
(1969:9) considers "the sum of work in which we construct our
conscious and deliberate usage, social reality. Bigsby (1975) waved
action or lack of action in a society off the issue on the grounds that we
aimed at meeting certain cultural are lamenting over a changing world
needs". This consideration opens up sparked off by the distress of living
a floodgate of extremes on the issue in our own backwardness and
of supporting or opposing cultural flanked by a new era dominated by
imperialism. Quite interesting, a lot the realities of city life and a
of work supports the principle of t e c h nolo g i call y - d efi n e d
cultural imperialism, most times environment.
wishing it offas non-existence. Rothkopf's (1997)
Larson (1979:137) observes submission on this discourse is
that the "amount of coverage given quite instructive. He argues that if
any country or territory would persons are to compete in the global
increase according to whether or not marketplace, they must conform to
that country possesses one or more the culture of the marketplace". This
of four news systems newspaper or is the view of the American culture.
world news agency (AP, UPI, AFP, Rothkopfs (1997) position should
Reuters); national News Agency; not be taken lightly as he is
INTELSAT earth stations or News currently the Managing Director of
Bureau". If these are absent, then Kissinger Associates and an adjunct
there is no base for a country crying Professor of InternationalStudies at
for balance, rather it should contend Columbia University, coupled with
itself with imbalances and the fact that he served as Senior
opportune cultural dependencies. Official in the US Department of
Tomlinson (1991: 140) stated that, Commerce during the first term of
"much of the critique of cultural the Clinton's administration. )
imperialism seems to lie in a critique
AFTER THOUGHTS

An Interdisciplinary Journal of Communication Studies

 131 GODSGIFT, ODIEPIRIYE HAROLD & OBUKOADATA, OGHENERUKE PRESLY

No matter how logical the • just treatment of all peoples.

advocates of cultural imperialism
may marshal out their arguments, This, in no small measure,
studies have made far reaching paved the way in the mid-70's for a
conclusions on the dangers of New World Information and
cultural imperialism. Some of them Communication order (NWICO),
are here outlined in addition to which was first voiced at the UN
established discourse above. assembly in 1946. The call
• Importations of filmic according to Momah (1994: 111)
materials nave the potentials of demanded "a centralization of
stereotyping infant industries in the access to global information from
"mould of the source of importation the developed countries, to the least
(Edeami, 1991 :98). developed countries", stressing that
• The impact of television flow is there is the need for both sides of the
significantly powerful' on north-south divide to be objective
women, children and and pragmatic about information
populations of the least gathering and disseminating,
industrialized countries (Beltan particularly in each country's
1976). political, economic, social and
• Unwanted materials, whether cultural spheres.
intentional or unintentional is Before this could be perfectly
damaging on the people's lives optimized, Momah (1994:25)
and stretch the limit of national advocated for "accultural
security (Mowlana, 1983:40) Adjustment Programme (AP)which
• Destruction of the local filmic eliminates the primitive approach to
industry (Pendakur, 1981). cultural propagation, and halt's
cultural habits which accentuate
• Promotion of cultural
imbalances especially in sexual population explosion". Momah's
issues, violence and crime argument is borne out of the need to
(Franzblan et al, 1977). address the excuses of the cultural
imperialist . for "modernizing our
culture". Furthermore is the need
PATH FINDING A WAY OUT
for traditional rulers to complement
Al though shadowed by the
efforts at mobilizing the people for
Millennium Development Goals
progressive and productive ventures
(MDG's) whose mark-up date is
2015, the New World Order (NWO)in so as to reduce their 'parasitive'
propensities and eulogize the
Momah (1994: 114) is based on the
African simplicity of cultural
four principles of:
patterns.
• peaceful settlement of disputes;
White (1999:99) argued that
• solidarity against aggression; "dislodging of peoples from
• reduced and controlled traditional villages and thrusting
marshals; and

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 2008

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE 132
them into cities where they must •. high level of discriminability
rebuild the meaning of their lives with what must be considered
tend to generate new cultural essential imports
movements "not good for exerting • ability of leadership to win the
dominance or sustainability in confidence and the mandate of
cultural affairs. It makes for the nation in its search for
'undigested' cultural positions that national identity and an
are difficult to appreciate, ultimately alternative form of government.
making the people to have "less On the socio-economic front,
belief in a dogmatic hegemonic there is the need to develop ready
cultural position. The way out is to capacity to control environment;
stop internal migration, ability of the majority to take charge
communication and reorganization of their own lives, ability to provide
of cultural capitals so that there can food and shelter for all and the
be a strong root paradigm. Next in ability and willingness to participate
line is the question of regional in governance.
initiative such as the Pan African Culturally, there must be a
News Agency (PANA), Organization varied approach to national
of Asian News Agencies (OANA)and appreciation and understanding of
soon. traditional values and norms. In all,
Another pathfinder expose put though self-reliance is the end
forward by Briddell (1985:20) is that product of liberalization, and
the issues of poverty, imbalance of liberalization is an on-going
resources and oppression can be process, the indictors are constantly
documented and presented in such changing; hence the fight to redress
a way that there is no loss of dignity cultural imperialism must be
or misrepresentation in the process. consistent and sustained at all
This is applicable mainly to the film fronts. These efforts must be
industry. charged at the fronts of counterforce
The Third WorId could be to dependence, media, world
. culturally liberated through the system, conservation, colonial
concept of self reliance which White mentality, and elitist interests.
(1982:25) submits has political, Finally, MacBride (1980) in his
economic, social and cultural report reeled ou t far reaching
implications. conclusions and recommendations
Politically, it implies a which are in tune with modern
• controlled selectivity in the trends. Summarily, the report calls
importation of scientific fur )
information and cultural eliminating imbalances and
products. disparities in communication
• autonomy in the making of all and its structure s, and
nocturnal decision. particularly in information flow

An Interdisciplinary Journal of Communication Studies

133 GODSGIFT, ODlEPIRIYE HAROLD & OBUKOADATA, OGHENERUKE PRESLY

(Item 2). Thomas (1966) The Social

development of comprehensive Construction of Reality. New
. national communication York: Double Day.
policies linked to overall social, Bigsby, Christopher (1975) Super
cultural and economic Culture: American Popular
development objectives (Item 4). Culture and Europe. London:
development of all languages to Elek.
serve the complex .and diverse Briddell, David (1985) "The Practice
requirements of modern of NWICO Values within
communication (Item 7). Religious Structures" in
strengthening of strong national Communication Challenges our
news agencies which are vital for four Time. London: World
improving each country's Association of Christian
national and international Communication.
reporting (Item 11). Charles, Mark (1969) A Study of
Development of a national book Cultural Policy in the United
production base; States. NewYork: UNESCO.
comprehensive radio networks; Cogburn, Demick (2000)
national capacity for producing "Globalization and Culture:
broadcast materials, and Cultural Imperialism or a
adequate educational and Critique of Modernity?" in
training facilities to supply www.si.umich.edu.
personnel for the media and d'Aray, Jean (1981) "The Right to
production organization (Items Communicate" in Richstead and
12,3,14,15). Anderson [e d s) Crisis in
aggregated activities tailored at International News: Policies and
creating a vibrant local Prospects. New York: Colombia
communication resource University.Mowlana, Hamid
centers for entertainment, (1983) International Flow of
education, formation Information; A Global Report
dissemination and cultural and Analysis No. 99. Paris,
exchange; (Item22) as well as France: UNESCO.
sufficiently urging that Ekeli, Elo (2002) "Paper Presented at
communication be given high "International Communication
priority in national development and the New World Order" at the
with possible sources of conference of Communication
investment finance identified Students, Abraka, Nigeria.
Ekweazi, Hyginus (1991) "Towards
the Decolonization of the African
Film" in Odhiambo L. (ed)
African Media Review Vol. 5 No.
REFERENCES 2. Kenya, Nairobi: ACCE.
Berger, Peter and Luckman, Franzblau, S. Sprafkin, J.N. and

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 2008

 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM: A DISCOURSE 134
Rubinstein E.A.; (1977) "Sex in Annenberg School of
TV:A Contact Analysis" in Communication.
Gerbner (ed) Journal of Link, J. (1984) "Test of the Cultural
Communication Spring, 1977. Dependency Hypothesis" in
Philadelphia: The Annenberg Stevenson and Shaw (eds)
School Press. Foreign News and the New World
Galtung, J (1979) "A Structural Information Order. AMES: Lowa
theory of Imperialism" in State University Press.
Modelski (ed] Transnational Linton, James (1979) "But it's Only
Corporations and World Order a Move" in Jump Cut April 17.
Readings in International No. 2. Nairobi, Kenya: ACCE.
Political Economy. San MacBride Commission Report
Francisco: W.H. Freeman and (1980) Many voices, One World.
Company. - Paris UNESCO.
Gonzalez, Jorge (1987) "Exvotos y Mattleart, A. (1994) Mapping World
retablitos: Communicacion y Communication Minneapolis,
religion popular in Mexico" in University of Minneapolis Press.
Estudious Sobre las culturas Media Imperialism" in
contemporaneas Vol. 1No. 1. h Up: / / en. wikipedia. org / miki /
Houston, Penelope (1963) The media-imperialism-html.
Contemporary Cinema. Boston: Merrill, John (1981) "A Growing
Pengium Books. Controversy: The Free Flow of
Katz, Elihu (1977) "Can Authentic News" in Richstead and
Cultures Survive New Media?" Anderson (eds) Crisis in
in Gebner (ed) Journal of International News: Policies and
Communication Spring 1977. Prospects. New York: Columbia
. Philadelphia: The Annenberg University Press.
School Press. Meyer, . Williams H. (1988)
Lambert, Andrew (1996) "How the Transnational Media and Third
W 0 rid s Rule sin World Development: The
Telecommunications and Media Structure and Impact of
are Shaping up in Cyberspace: Imperialism. New York:
North Asia generally and Korea Greenwood Press.
as a case study" Paper Mohammadi, A. (1995) "Cultural
presented at a forum of the Imperialism and Cultural
International Institute of Identity" in Downing,
Communications, 14 May, Mohammadi and Sreberny
Melbourne, Australia. Mohammadi (eds) Questioning
Larson, J. (1979) "International The Media: A Critical
Affairs Coverage on US Network Introduction. London: SAGE.
Television" in G. Gerbner (ed) Momah, S (1994) Global Disorders
Journal of Communication Vol. and the New World Order.
29; No.2. Philadelphia: The Lagos, Nigeria: Vista Books

An Interdisciplinary Journal of Communication Studies

135 GODSGIFT, ODIEPIRIYE HAROLD & OBUKOADATA, OGHENERUKE PRESLY

Limited. Communication and

Muslima, alsaraji (2003) "An Agenda Information technologies
of Disdain, Cultural Imperialism (CIRCIT).
and the Western Media View of Tomlinson, John (1991) Cultural
Afghanistan" in Imperialism. Baltimore: John
http://www.themodernreligion. Hopkins University Press.
com/women/w.afghanistan.ht U.S. Department of State (1981)
m!. Bulletin October 1981.
Ogan, C. (1988) "Media Imperialism Washington, D.C.: US
and the Video Cassette Department of State. Lerner,
Recorder: the Case of Turkey" Daniel (1964) The Passing of
Gerbner (ed) Journal of Traditional Society:
Communication. Philadelphia: Modernizing the Middle East.
The Annenberg School Press. New York: The Free Press.
Pendakur, Manjunath (1981) White, Livingstone (2000)
"Cultural Dependency in "Reconsidering Cultural
Canada's Feature Film Imperialism Theory" in
Industry" in g. Gerbner (ed) Transriational Broadcasting
Journal of Communication Studies. Cairo Egypt: The
Winter 1981. Philadelphia: The American University in Cairo.
Annenberg School Press. White, Robert (1982) "Priorities for
Reddi, Usha V. (1989) " Media and National Policy in the Third
Culture in Indian Society: World" in Communication Policy
Conflict or Cooperation" in and Planning: Reader on Policy
Media Culture and Society. Vol. Analysis. London; Institute of
11:SAGE. Social Studies.
Rothkopf, David (1997) "In Praise of White, Robert A. (1999) "Conditions
Cultural Imperialism", Foreign for Cultural Negotiation in Civil
Policy, Number 107, Summer Conflicts" in Uche Uka (ed) Mass
1 9 9 7 i n Communication, Democracy
www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intr and Civil Society in Africa:
e / protected /rothkopf. h tm!. International Perspectives
Schiller, H. I. (1976) Lagos, Nigeria. Nigerian
Communication and Cultural National Commission for
Domination. New York: UNESCO.
International Arts and Science
Press.
Sinclair, John (1995) "The Business
of International Broadcasting:
Cultural Bridges and Barriers"
International Business.
Australia and Asia. Center for
International Research on

International Journal of Communication No. 9 December, 2008

View publication stats