C

Cities in Nature their policies, plans, and designs. These well-

known city concepts are summarized in Table 1.
Khee Poh Lam and Teng Chye Khoo Many Asian countries became independent
National University of Singapore, Singapore, from their western colonialists in the
Singapore mid-twentieth century. Rapid economic and pop-
ulation growth resulted also in rapid urbanization,
very often with serious sprawl, pollution, and
Evolution of City Concepts congestion, with haphazard high-rise buildings
and poor infrastructures, much like many western
The Industrial Revolution (IR) in the eighteenth industrial cities in the nineteenth century.
century transformed the way cities grew. Mass Singapore became an island city state in 1965
production in urban factories led to large numbers with very little land and basic resources like water,
of workers relocating into the cities to work. As food, and energy. The challenge was to plan for,
the cities grew, homes and other commercial and build, and run a city that was able to accommodate
community facilities like schools and hospitals people and density and yet be liveable, sustain-
had to be planned and built. Urban transport and able, and resilient with these constraints. Its
communication also transformed with the build- founding Prime Minister, Lee Kuan Yew, having
ing of suburban railway networks, metros, auto- been a student in England, was familiar with the
mobiles, and bicycles. However, industrialization failure of planned new towns there. He was not
and rapid growth also resulted in environmental keen to see Singapore develop as a high-rise con-
pollution and poor living conditions. crete jungle like some other cities in Asia. Instead,
City planning concepts evolved in response to he wanted a Singapore that is clean and green, like
these technological trends in the last two centu- a garden city.
ries. But as cities grew denser, more polluted, and How Singapore has since evolved, from a Gar-
congested with industrialization and with the pro- den City towards being a City in Nature even with
liferation of cars, the urban planners’ challenge increasing density, is an approach to city planning
has primarily been to keep cities in harmony with and development that has been documented by the
nature and to retain the human scale even with Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC) as the Liveabil-
higher density and high-rise buildings. These ity Framework (LF). This approach draws on
ideas have therefore influenced the shape of cities many of the good city concepts mentioned earlier
especially in western cities as policymakers, plan- but has combined and adapted them in a way that
ners, architects, and engineers adopted them in is more suited to many developing cities in Asia.
The next section elaborates on this urban systems
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
R. Brears (ed.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Futures,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51812-7_182-1
2 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Table 1 How city concepts have evolved

City concepts
1. Garden City (Encyclopedia Britannica, inc, 1998)
The Garden City concept was developed and promoted in “Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social Reform” published in
1898, by Ebenezer Howard, an English Town Planner, to address issues such as overcrowding and congestion, caused by
the Industrial Revolution. Howard advocated for quality urban life by planning a series of small cities and residential
community for 30,000 inhabitants that provide urban amenities and access to both nature and the rural environment. The
integral elements of a successful Garden City include establishing the city’s greenbelt areas and population densities up
front.
2. Modern City Movement (O’Donnell 2019)
French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier, inspired by the machine age as an opportunity to refine the society and the quality
of life, was the champion of the modernist movement, in the 1900’s. Corbusier’s Radiant City concept advocated an
ultimate form of perfect and ordered environment by destructing the existing city structure. Inspired by the industrial
revolution, s architecture and cities were expected to be mass produced in the most economical way and served as a
functional machine to fulfill its purpose. The functionalist ideology emphasized on raw geometry and separated the
architecture from preexisting culture.
The Contemporary City (Ville Contemporaine), with a population of three million, is an example of Corbusier’s urban
planning work. The main features included a central business district consisting of twenty four identical glass
skyscrapers located on a grid with generous public park spaces in between. The skyscraper was integrated with a
complex transportation system, while the public open spaces comprised of various squares, restaurants, and theatres.
The geometric low-rise housing and sporting grounds were designed around the center to enable the density to increase
and congestion to decrease.
3. Automobile City
This city planning concept, coined by Jeffrey Kenworthy, prioritized the usage of cars and trucks, allocated vast amount
of land for multilane highways and parking and had a lower density in population and jobs compared to older and more
compact cities (Newman 1945– (1989)). Such a city planning concept was extensively implemented, from the 1940’s, in
cities such as Houston and Phoenix in America, and Perth and Brisbane in Australia. The central city high-rise office
block was the primary focal point as people were expected to commute from the suburbs to the inner city. The public
transport and non-motorized modes of transportation received limited attention. This city planning concept resulted in
urban sprawl, air pollution, increased travelling time from place to place, and reduced sense of place due to the ease of
long-distance car travel (Marshall 2010).
4. Humanistic City Planning
An urbanist and activist, Jane Jacobs wrote the book Death and Life of Great American Cities, published in 1961, to
critique the 1950’s urban planning policies, responsible for the decline of city neighborhoods in the United States (Dreier
2006). Jacobs opined that the modernist urban planning ignored the intricacy of human lives. She opposed large-scale
urban renewal programs, especially freeways through inner cities. Instead, she advocated for walkable streets with dense
mixed-use developments and preached that the “eyes on the street” of passers-by would enhance public order. These
ideas eventually led to a humanistic planning approach for the neighborhood level.
Jan Gehl, a Danish architect and urban planner, has been inspired by the works of Jane Jacobs. He focused on the
re-orientation of city design towards the pedestrian and cyclist to improve the quality of urban life. Gehl argued that the
modernist ideas separating functions as work, living, recreation, and communication had resulted in the focus on objects
instead of spaces. When human scale and left-over spaces are ignored, the automobiles would be the main focus of city
planning. Such planning paradigms, with limited considerations on humans, led to the decline of cities.
The main concept of Humanistic City Planning involves the understanding of how people interact at the microlevel with
their urban environments as a reaction to the fast-paced city developments. Gehl’s book Life between buildings,
published in 1971, shared how spaces and places influenced people and focused on making people visible in architecture
and city planning.
5. Compact Cities
The term “Compact City” was coined in 1973, by mathematicians, George Dantzig and Thomas L. Saaty, who
advocated the need to use resources efficiently. In contrast to the past conventional planning and transport planning, they
advocated for a compact city with high residential density, mixed land uses, efficient public transport system, and an
urban layout to encourage low energy consumption and nonpolluting transportation. When compared to urban sprawl, a
compact city will be a more sustainable urban settlement type due to less dependency on automobiles and requiring less
infrastructure provision (Dempsey 2010).
(continued)
Cities in Nature 3

Cities in Nature, Table 1 (continued)

6. Biophilia and Biophilic City
Edward O. Wilson, an American biologist, popularized the word “biophilia” in 1984, by emphasizing the idea that
humans have an innate love for nature and living things. Since 2010’s, there is increased interest in incorporating nature
into urban environments, by improving people’s interaction with parks and green spaces, building eco-bridges to
enhance habitat connectivity, and seeking quantifiable impacts of nature on human (National Parks Board 2015).
Dr Timothy Beatley, a city researcher, focused on inventive strategies for cities to become more liveable by easing their
ecological footprints. Beatley advocated the use of the biophilia hypothesis to implement the essential elements of a
biophilic city and shared examples of cities with positive integration of biophilic elements (Beatley 2011).
Professor Peter Newman, an environmental scientist, is recognized for his research and contributions to improve Perth’s
transport system, by introducing sustainable public transport practice to replace the city’s dependence on automobiles.
Together with Isabella Jennings, Newman authored the book Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices
to illustrate the integration of city residents into their bioregional environment, and the planning of cities with ecological
sustainability in mind (Newman and Jennings 2012). Newman advocated for urban redevelopments to consider
sustainable elements such as greening roofs, rainwater harvesting, and renewable energy production, supported the
biodiversity in parks, community gardens for food productions, and pedestrian-friendly spaces suitable for walking and
cycling.

approach which has shaped modern Singapore for reserved areas designated for government func-
more than five decades. The subsequent section tions and commercial activities (Fig. 1).
documents Singapore’s transformation from a The area around Fort Canning (formerly
Garden City to a City in Nature, even as a very known as Government Hill), Singapore River,
high-density city. and the Padang were reserved strictly for govern-
ment use. Fort Canning was identified as Raffles’
place of residence and also became an important
Singapore’s Urban Transformation: communication center with a lighthouse and a
From Mudflats to Metropolis telegraph office. Fort Canning was converted
into a fort in 1860 and was further upgraded into
The archaeological excavations from the Singapore an artillery fort within a few years. Commercial
River and Fort Canning Hill have suggested that activities were planned to take place at the “Com-
Singapore as a city probably dates back 700 years mercial Square,” which was later renamed as Raf-
(National Heritage Board 2020). A wide variety of fles Place. Inspired by the greenery in Calcutta,
trade wares were unearthed and shed light on Raffles advocated for greenery in Singapore, to
Singapore’s history as a harbor and trade settle- give the impression of prosperity. Greenery
ment. The city of Singapore came about upon the was provided in parklands and gardens, especially
signing of an official treaty, on 6 February 1819, at the Botanic Gardens and the Padang.
between Raffles and both Sultan Hussein and When conceiving the town plan, Raffles might
Temenggong Abdul Rahman. Planning for the have been inspired by the Renaissance ideals of
growth of the early settlement was based on Raf- urban planning, where radial streets outstretched
fles’ vision of Singapore as a port city and strategic from a strategic point of governmental power.
British trading post for South East Asia Such a model was first implemented in Florence
(Makepeace et al. 1991). Raffles’ land-use plan and was widely imitated in European cities.
for Singapore, published in 1828, was known as Influenced by early established cities, such as
the Jackson Plan. It focused on the downtown area, Barcelona and Paris, the paved streets were laid
around the Singapore River, spanning from Telok out in right angles to create a grid pattern to
Ayer to the Kallang River. The key features of the celebrate the hierarchy of streets and to improve
town plan include a grid layout for the road net- drainage, urban sanitation, hygiene, fire safety and
work, which accentuate the clear segregation of facilitate policing and troop movement. The
residential communities by ethnic group, and the Padang, Raffles Place, Fort Canning, and the
4 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 1 The 1828 Jackson Plan (2020). (Source: National Heritage Board)

street grid pattern, found in the city center, are demarcation of forest reserves was not spatially
reminders of Singapore’s colonial legacy and are systematic.
today conserved as the Civic District. The competing land use needs resulted in the
Under British administration, planning was revocation of all the forest reserves in 1936.
largely ad hoc and mainly confined to the control Although most reserves had been depleted due to
of private developments before the Second World over-harvesting of timber for economic develop-
War. This resulted in haphazard growth, over- ment by 1937, Bukit Timah Forest Reserve was
crowding, and acute housing shortage in the cen- retained as it was under the administration of the
tral city. By early 1900’s, slums had infused into Singapore Botanic Gardens. Over the next three
the older sectors of the city and the roads were decades, the Kranji and Pandan mangrove reserves
unable to handle the automobiles. Rapiddefor- were intermittently re-gazetted, but were eventu-
estation continued as the town grew and cash ally still released for development upon
crops became more popular (Corlett 1992). With Singapore’s independence. The protection of
limited regulations over forest clearance activi- Bukit Timah Forest Reserve was strengthened
ties, most of Singapore’s forests were felled to finally, with the enactment of a Nature Reserves
set up gambier plantations. Ordinance and the establishment of a Nature
Sir Nathaniel Cantley was appointed Singapore’s Reserves Board in 1951. Today, Singapore’s four
first Superintendent of the Forest Department in remaining nature reserv es are Bukit Timah, Sungei
the 1880s, when only 7% of Singapore’s primary Buloh, Labrador, and the Central Catchment.
forests remained. He managed to establish 14 forest To address the poor urban living conditions as
reserves formally, which occupied around 11% of the city center was overcrowded with slums, the
Singapore’s land area. By salvaging what was left authorities established the Singapore Improve-
regardless of the reserves’ locations, Cantley’s initial ment Trust (SIT), in 1927. The enactment of the
Cities in Nature 5

Singapore Improvement Ordinance and the crea- In 1959, Mr Lee Kuan Yew set out a strong
tion of a Master Plan Committee facilitated the political mandate to remake Singapore into a
detailed study of the urban issues to draw up a new “First World oasis in a Third World region,”
master plan. Despite the completion of 23,000 with his vision of a clean, green, and modern
housing units and limited road improvement city that was not a concrete jungle and a home
works, before dissolving SIT in 1959, the housing where people could live in well-integrated, high-
supply was still insufficient due to rapid popula- rise communities, and not in ghettoes (Lee 2000).
tion increase. SIT’s limited accomplishments was This manifested into an era of continuous official
because it had no mandate to undertake the overall involvement on comprehensive and systematic
physical planning to regulate development until programmed exercise of urban development for
1951. However, the Master Plan, adopted in 1958, Singapore with a multi-ethnic society but without
did not achieve the desired outcomes as it was resources. In a 2012 interview by the CLC, he
based on traditional ideas of town planning that said, “I am pleased that we redeveloped the city
were more suited to United Kingdom, rather than when there was a chance to do it... That was a
that of a rapidly growing Asian city. By the time chance of a lifetime (Liu 2012).”
the Planning Ordinance (now known as the Plan- Mr Lee was mindful to avoid the duplication of
ning Act) was implemented on 1 February 1960, residential high-rise towers, built in Great Britain
to lay down the basic legal framework controlling after the Second World War, which eventually
the use and development of land set out by the became high-rise slums. The high-rise
1958 Master Plan, it was already too late and had towers were meant to resolve the crumbling and
limited impact on the city’s development (Fig. 2). unsanitary nineteenth-century dwellings and

Cities in Nature, Fig. 2 1958 Master Plan (Source: Urban Redevelopment Authority)
6 Cities in Nature

replace buildings destroyed during the war. safeguards prevented the fragmentation of com-
Influenced by Corbusier’s high-rise architecture, munities and crime within the poor enclaves. This
the towers were surrounded by public open space physical landscape, integrated with parks and
to promote social interactions and were deemed open spaces, connected seamlessly by roads
cheaper to build, as they shared similar population lined with trees, and the demographic mix has
density as the terraced housings they replaced. created a distinctive character of Singapore soci-
However, when the towers deteriorated over the ety. Singapore became more liveable even as it
years, they were perceived as undesirable urbanized.
low-cost housings, and the rising crime levels With HDB breaking the backbone of the severe
within the vicinity increased their unpopularity. housing crunch with its delivery of 55,000 flats in
Hence, the HDB apartments (or flats, as they the first five years, and the acquisition of land for
are commonly referred to locally) evolved in quite urban renewal in the city center, the Government
a different way, by fostering a greater mix of was in a position to plan more ambitiously for the
ethnic groups well as income groups. Mr Lee growth of the city. It sought technical assistance
was very clear that each town must have a mix and advice from the United Nations (UN) in the
of flats that catered to different income groups. early 1960s. This led to the establishment of a
Hence, different flat types from rental flats, 2 to State and City Planning Department (SCPD) in
5 rooms flats, and executive condominiums are 1967, to prepare a comprehensive, long-term
built for catering different housing needs. Within urban development plan for Singapore. Working
the HDB Towns, land has been safeguarded in the with an UN appointed team, the SCPD group
planning for private condominiums to provide comprised a diverse mix of agencies, with multi-
additional housing options to complement the disciplinary expertise, such as the Public Works
HDB’s home ownership scheme. The provision Department (PWD) and the Urban Renewal
of planned community facilities like schools, Department (URD), set up under HDB in 1964
libraries, community centers, and social facilities to “rejuvenate the old core of the city by making
(i.e., childcare and senior care centers) enhance better use of land. . . by rebuilding the city
the conveniences of the residents. The HDB completely.” This laid the foundations for an inte-
Towns are managed by Town Councils, which grated approach to urban planning that would
maintain and improve the common property of eventually be realized as the Concept Plan
the residential and commercial properties to keep of 1971.
them in a state of good and serviceable condition
(MND 2020). The service and conservancy The 1971 Concept Plan: A Radical Plan
charges (S&CC) collected from residents and for a Modern City (Garden City)
commercial operators fund the Town Councils’ In contrast to the 1958 Masterplan, the Concept
operational costs. Learning from the ethnically- Plan 1971 envisioned the comprehensive devel-
charged violence in the 1960s, such town man- opment of residential estates with varied densities,
agement arrangements help to build social cohe- commercial centers, and industrial areas, in a ring
sion and a sense of community to ensure harmony formation around the central water catchment area
within a diverse society. To avoid ethnic enclaves (Fig. 3). A network of expressways and a mass
from re-forming in certain housing estates, the rapid transit (MRT) system were planned, to
introduction of Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP) in improve the overall connectivity for Singapore.
1989 ensures a mix of ethnic groups at both the It provided the framework to build the infrastruc-
apartment block and town level. The mixing of the tures such as utilities, port, airport, industrial
races also contributed to the even spread of the parks, new towns, and greenery. Both the
less well-off or under privilege families in all Pan-Island Expressway (PIE) and the Changi Air-
estates. The social mixing and the preventing of port Terminal 1 were completed in 1981, while the
enclave formation in HDB estates have remained MRT network was opened in 1987.
an important principle in Singapore. These
Cities in Nature 7

Cities in Nature, Fig. 3 The Concept Plans of 1971, 1991, and 2001. (Source: Urban Redevelopment Authority)
8 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 4 The lushly planted Toa Payoh Town Park is located in Toa Payoh Town, the first satellite town
comprehensively planned and developed by HDB. (Source: Derek Loei)

The clear hallmark of the Concept plan was the With the completion of most proposals from
structure that it laid for modern Singapore which Concept Plan 1971 by 1989, a formal process was
remains to this day: a central business district set up to involve all ministries and agencies, pro-
ringed by 26 HDB towns and estates around the fessional institutes, trade associations, and the
Central Catchment Nature reserve and with well- community, to prepare for Concept Plan 1991.
planned regional, town parks and other greenery The process includes the Concept Plan review
to achieve a Garden City despite a doubling of the on every decade, with a mid-term review every
population. How this was achieved is elaborated 5 years. The Concept Plan 1991 crystalized the
in the next section (Fig. 4). new aspirations to become a “Tropical City of
Excellence” and focused on a “decentralization
The 1991 Concept Plan and the Reformed strategy” to bring jobs closer to homes. The devel-
Urban Planning System (City in a Garden) opment of the four regional commercial centers in
Key policy changes in the late 1980s laid the Woodlands, Tampines, Jurong East, and Seletar,
foundations of today’s urban planning system. had progressively eased the congestions in the city
An updated Concept Plan was completed in center. By emphasizing the quality-of-life aspira-
1991 and several major changes were made to tions, Concept Plan 1991 envisioned a Singapore
create a more formal and transparent urban plan- that balanced work and play, culture and com-
ning system, which remains essentially the system merce. Furthermore, the nature, waterbodies, and
till today. urban development within Singapore are
interfaced and integrated seamlessly. The
Cities in Nature 9

amalgamation of Planning Department and

Research and Statistics Unit as part of URA in
1989 allowed the consolidation of urban planning
functions. This results in the formation of the
present-day URA, a national planning, and con-
servation authority for Singapore.
The new masterplan, which was created from
an intensive exercise involving the drawing up of
55 Development Guide Plans, was forward
looking. It gave clear guides on every plot of
land on land use, plot ratios, and building heights
and became the statutory plan which had to be
reviewed every 5 years. The 1958 masterplan
remained as the base for calculation of develop-
ment charge, Singapore’s very successful mecha-
nism to capture the land value enhancement from
private landowners, as a result of the land use, plot
ratio, and building height changes which increase
land value substantially.
With planned increases in population to be
accommodated on just the same island, the focus
could not just be on increasing heights and den-
sity, but to also for the city to become even greener
as it densified. During this period, the green cover
of the city in fact increased from about one-third
Cities in Nature, Fig. 5 Liveable and sustainable cities.
of the island to about half in the City in a Garden (Source: Centre for Liveable Cities)
strategy.
The 2011 Concept Plan (City of Gardens
The 2001 Concept Plan: A City with Identity
and Waters)
(City in a Garden)
With the PUB launching the ABC Waters pro-
10 years later, Concept Plan 2001 focused on high
gram to turn Singapore’s 17 reservoirs, 32 rivers,
quality live work play to become a “thriving world
and 8000 km of stormwater drains and canals into
class city in the twenty-first century,” with charac-
beautifully landscaped streams, rivers, and lakes,
ter, diversity, rich heritage, and identity. More
Singapore now aimed to be a city of gardens and
housing options in the city were provided to inject
waters (section 3).
vibrancy into the central area. As part of identity
enhancement and retaining social memories, the
2021 and Beyond (City in Nature)
charm and endearing ambience of Balestier, Hol-
Singapore is currently undergoing its next Con-
land Village, Jalan Kayu, Joo Chiat, and Serangoon
cept Plan (now termed Long Term Plan) review.
Gardens were safeguarded and upgraded, to pre-
While population growth is likely to slow, the
serve the scale and well-loved activities. Commit-
challenge now is for sustainable urbanization.
ment to the City in a Garden vision
This has been articulated in the Singapore Green
was demonstrated with the setting aside of more
Plan 2030, of which a key concept is City in
than 100 ha of prime land in the city center to be a
Nature.
new people’s gardens, the Gardens by the Bay,
which was designed and implemented through an
international design competition.
10 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 6 Singapore’s urban systems approach. (Source: Centre for Liveable Cities)

Liveable and Sustainable Cities Framework by are easily measurable policy goals, are supported
the Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC) by two elements: an integrated approach to plan-
Singapore’s evolving approach to urban planning ning and development and dynamic urban gover-
in the past decades has been documented by the nance. This approach is further elaborated in the
CLC (Fig. 5). Back then, Singapore’s pioneering next section, that is, the way Singapore trans-
leaders did not have a particular framework in mind formed from a Garden City to an aspiring City in
or a written set of principles and guidelines when Nature (Fig. 6).
they started to build Singapore (Khoo 2012). CLC
facilitated in-depth interviews with the key individ-
uals to capture their tacit knowledge and document Liveability and Density: The Journey
the roles of key pioneers and the enabling processes from Garden City to a City in Nature
and innovative policies that contributed positively
to Singapore’s key urban systems and urban devel- This section elaborates on the green and blue
opment. The Urban Systems Studies distilled the characteristics of Singapore’s urban transforma-
principles that were applied in solving urban chal- tion; which is a key element of achieving liveabil-
lenges like water, transport, housing, the environ- ity even as the city densified. Figure 7 showed the
ment, and industrial infrastructure. These progression as Singapore developed from Garden
principles have been consolidated in the CLC Live- City to City in Nature in terms of higher density
ability Framework. and liveability. This apparent contradiction of
The urban systems approach that Singapore becoming more green and in harmony in nature
has adopted builds on the urban planning theories even with higher density has been possible with
mentioned in section 1 (Table 1). It is an approach the urban systems approach depicted in the Live-
probably more relevant to rapidly growing high- ability Framework.
density cities than any particular theory of city
planning. The three liveability outcomes, which
Cities in Nature 11

Cities in Nature, Fig. 7 Nature provision as the means to achieving high liveability even as urban density increases.
(Source: Centre for Liveable Cities)

Garden City demonstrated an innovative process within the

The Garden City phase of urban development was bureaucratic level.
characterized by a systemic approach not just to Beyond tree planting, the GCAC focused sig-
plant trees, but a whole of society effort to green nificantly on the greening of the harsh concrete
the city, along with legislation to set up and urban infrastructures that were being built. Stan-
empower a Parks and Recreation Department dards and guidelines were established and exe-
and an enabling Act. The Parks and Trees Act cuted by agencies to plant creepers on retaining
was a key enabler to protect nature reserves and walls, concrete pillars, and even lamp posts and
mature trees and mandate road codes that guaran- provide planter boxes alongside pedestrian and
tee planting verges for trees along all roads and road bridges.
requiring public and private developers to set A hierarchy of parks (precinct, neighborhood,
aside green buffers and peripheral planting verges town, regional, and national parks) and open
for landscaping within all developments, effec- space planning standards were established and
tively extending the streetscape beyond the road implemented not just by the Parks and Recreation
reserves (Attorney-General’s Chambers 2001). Department but other regulatory and
The first nationwide tree-planting campaign to implementing agencies overseen by the GCAC,
signify the start of the greening movement was which resides in the Ministry of National Devel-
also launched in 1963. opment that has both strong regulatory and exe-
The formation of the Garden City Action Com- cution authority on housing, public infrastructure,
mittee (GCAC) in 1970, one of the first formal urban land use, and urban development.
Whole-of-Government initiatives, was directly While the land was being greened, the govern-
overseen by the Prime Minister to ensure coordi- ment took a systematic, multi-agency approach to
nated greening efforts across governmental agen- clean up the polluted Singapore River. The goal
cies. The GCAC ensured that any conflicting set in 1977 to clean up the river in 10 years was
agendas could be resolved within the different achieved, in line with the vision of a Clean and
government stakeholders at an early stage. Func- Green Singapore (Fig. 8).
tioning as a coordination mechanism and leader-
ship guidance provider, the GCAC had
12 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 8 Quality greening for the harsh concrete urban infrastructures. (Source: Derek Loei)

City in a Garden PCN users to travel through tree-lined walking

With the success of the Garden City, as Singapore and biking paths that connect parks and housing
became renowned for being a Clean and Green estates island wide, without interruption. As a
city, the “City in a Garden” plan to realize the next relatively low-cost development, the PCN pro-
vision was officially announced in 1998. The fun- vides recreational opportunities and promotes
damental change was to plan for the city not just to diverse benefits such as healthier lifestyles, biodi-
be green but urbanization to be seen as taking versity enhancements, and “carbon-free”
place within a matrix of an ever-greening island transportations.
and to bring people closer to greenery. This was New policies were also launched to incentivize
achieved with imaginative planning, given the developers to increase Singapore’s green cover.
land scarcity, with projects like the Gardens by The Landscaping for Urban Spaces and High-
the Bay. Rises (LUSH) program and the Skyrise Greenery
In the Master Plan 2003, released with the Incentive Scheme (SGIS) were launched by URA
Parks and Waterbodies Plan, the matrix of green- and NParks, respectively, in 2009. The LUSH
ery was achieved with a network of parks care- program is a “landscape replacement” policy to
fully planned within the dense HDB towns and ensure developers replace the greenery lost from
other centers. The Park Connector Network the site due to development, by providing green-
(PCN) is a brilliant concept of carving out strips ery at suitable locations (i.e., the ground, rooftops
of land along drainage reserves or space under or mid-level sky terraces) within the development.
transport viaducts in land-scarce Singapore, for Since 2019, the LUSH program has added more
Cities in Nature 13

Cities in Nature, Fig. 9 Green cover comparison between Singapore in 1986 and 2007. (Source: National Parks Board)

than 250 ha of greenery, consisting of urban Nature Park (Loo 2015) being gazetted as nature
farms, communal gardens, and green walls, to reserves in 2002.
reduce the environmental ambient temperature
and provide visual relief to the community. City of Garden and Waters
Complimenting LUSH is the SGIS, which pro- Singapore has an annual rainfall of 2.4 m across
vides funding to developers, to encourage the the island. However, Singapore’s limited land
increase of greenery provision on built structures. could not collect and store all that rain water for
Despite Singapore’s intense urbanization, its the population. Building more reservoirs is not
green cover increased from 36% in 1986 to 47% feasible since land is required for other more
in 2007. With holistic master planning, gover- pressing needs, such as housing. The scarcity of
nance and careful design, both the LUSH and land and water in Singapore was overcome by the
SGIS, have contributed to the mainstreaming of efficient planning and use of land resources.
pervasive greenery in Singapore (Fig. 9). Singapore’s National Water Agency (PUB)
Beside enhancing the hardware infrastructures, worked with many agencies to manage land use
the Community in Bloom (CIB) initiative and and environmental pollutions, again using a sys-
programs from the Centre for Urban Greenery tems approach. This made it possible to harvest
and Ecology (CUGE) were launched to provide rain from the most urbanized water catchments
the community and industry partners with more and built 17 urban reservoirs by damming river
awareness, knowledge, and hands-on experience. estuaries, something which was earlier thought to
The Garden City Fund (GCF) was set up as a be impossible because of the extensive land and
registered charity and Institution of a Public Char- water pollutions. Two-thirds of Singapore’s land
acter (IPC) in 2002, to partner and facilitate orga- area is now a water catchment. The Marina Bar-
nizations and individuals to contribute to rage, built at a cost of S$226 million (Tortajada
Singapore’s greening (National Parks Board 2018) and completed only in 4 years in 2008,
2002). The donations were used to promote con- formed Singapore’s 15th reservoir and first reser-
servation, research, outreach, and education ini- voir in the world to harvest rainwater in the central
tiatives. There was also increasing pressure from business district, with a catchment area of about
the public to preserve Singapore’s rich history and one-sixth the size of Singapore, or 10,000 ha
natural environment. These interactions between (Figs. 10 and 11).
the local Nature Groups and the public agencies Beyond recognizing water as a resource, Singa-
led to increased awareness of Singapore’s natural pore unlocked the potential of water as an urban
assets, leading to both Labrador Park (Tan and asset by visioning the re-naturalization of
Cornelius-Takahama 1997) and Sungei Buloh Singapore’s engineered waterways, such as drains,
14 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 10 Location of Singapore’s water catchment areas and reservoirs. (Source: PUB, Singapore’s
National Water Agency)

canals, and stormwater collection ponds. This built reservoirs into beautiful recreational spaces where
upon the efforts by the Waterbodies Design Panel people can be close to water and naturally become
(WDP), an advisory body within the government in stewards of the waterways (Centre for Liveable
1989, chaired by Dr Liu Thai Ker, to advise on the Cities 2019). Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong
design and aesthetics of major waterways (Tan coined the inspirational phrase “a City of Gardens
et al. 2009). By involving the Ministry of Environ- and Water” when he launched the ABC Waters
ment, Urban Redevelopment Authority, Housing Exhibition in 2007. He advocated that more
and Development Board, the WDP provided posi- should be done and commented, “To realise the
tive benchmarks by creating outstanding projects, exciting potential of ABC Waters, we should
such as Sungei Api Api, located in Pasir Ris Town. mainstream it in our vision for the future.”
Instead of a typical monsoon canal, the Sungei Api Besides launching demonstration projects in
Api was designed as a scenic river lined with lush Bedok, Kallang River, and MacRitchie reservoir,
mangroves. The success of the WDP facilitated the PUB partnered agencies to conduct proof-of con-
URA to draw up a Parks and Water Bodies Plan to cept pilot projects to test specific ideas. One such
drive the implementation of re-naturalizing example was the implementation of rain gardens
Singapore’s engineered waterways. at Balam Estate. The project was possible due to
the planned infrastructure works of Pelton Canal
The ABC Waters Journey diversion to make way for the Kallang-Paya Lebar
In 2006, the PUB launched the Active, Beautiful, Expressway (KPE) tunnel in 2001. Upon the com-
Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme (PUB pletion of the KPE tunnel, upgrading of Pelton
2006) to improve water quality, enhance liveabil- Canal, and realignment of adjacent vehicular
ity, and transform Singapore’s canals, rivers, and roads in 2008, the new open spaces at Balam
Cities in Nature 15

Cities in Nature, Fig. 11 Marina Reservoir forms Singapore’s 15th reservoir. (Source: Derek Loei)

Cities in Nature,
Fig. 12 Schematic section
of Pelton Canal and the
KPE Tunnel. (Source:
Housing & Development
Board)

Estate were re-landscaped. The reinstatement to other agencies and the general public. Such
works involved HDB, PUB, LTA, NParks, and consultations enhanced the understanding of the
Marine Parade Town Council, to incorporate the functions and benefits of ABC Waters and
rain gardens into the new landscapes (Fig. 12). avoided the misperceptions of the rain gardens
Extensive community consultations were car- as possible mosquito breeding ground.
ried out during the design process to improve the When PUB launched the ABC Waters Certifi-
designs and to show the viability of ABC Waters cation Scheme in 2010, both private and public
16 Cities in Nature

developers are encouraged to adopt ABC Waters otters. This type of living environment, with out-
design features in their projects. To cultivate the door learning opportunities, and urban lifestyle is
industry and mainstream ABC Waters, the devel- rarely experienced by most other city dwellers.
opers are provided with recognition and allowed
to promote their “certified” ABC Waters projects. ABC Waters’ Contributions to City in Nature
The PUB also shared the design guidelines and The ABC Waters Programme systematically build
engineering procedures including technical stan- on the good work of the Waterbodies Design
dards, in the public domain, and partnered the Panel (WDP), by institutionalizing the Blue in
Institution of Engineers Singapore (IES) to con- the city in the same way that the Green has been
duct seminars and professional programs to train achieved through the Garden City and City in a
and certify professionals. Since then, the local Garden strategies. It was guided by an overarch-
institutes of higher learning (IHLs) comprising ing master plan and was being implemented on a
universities and polytechnics, have introduced larger scale. By developing small-scale pilot pro-
ABC Waters design into their curriculums. jects and demonstration sites, the ABC Waters
In the flagship Kallang River at Bishan-Ang Programme is able to innovate systemically to
Mo Kio Park, PUB and NParks introduced a com- ensure that all new ideas could keep stormwater
bination of softscapes, natural materials, and civil flowing efficiently and at the same time, gauge the
engineering solutions to create a softer and more level of involvement by communities. Guided by
natural appearance for the waterway. Designed as research, pilot projects, and experts, the ABC
a flood plain, the once utilitarian concrete canal is Waters Design Guidelines were published and reg-
now a useable park space. During dry days, the ularly updated as new projects were completed.
flow of water is confined to a narrow stream that Recognizing the need to provide quality out-
park users can access and explore, improving the door environment to create pleasing high-density
park user experience. During a storm event, the living, HDB worked with PUB and stakeholders
adjacent park area functions as a conveyance to push the creative boundaries of landscape
channel to carry the run-off downstream steadily. design to bring many firsts to the HDB public
The stormwater surge in January 2017 validated housing estates (Table 2) (Fig. 13).
its capacity to hold and slow down runoff. Addi-
tionally, a hedonic pricing analysis carried out by
the Ministry of Environment and Water Resources Cities in Nature, Table 2 Examples of ABC Waters
assessed that this project had a positive and statis- projects located in the heartlands
tically significant impact on property prices there. No Projects Completion Date
The estimated total impact was at $157 million, 1 1st Bioretention System 2008
more than offsetting its implementation cost of in SG: Balam Estate
$76 million (Ministry of Environment and Water Raingarden
Resources 2016). A 2018 study by Future Cities 2 1st Neighbourhood Park- 2009
scale ABC Waters:
Laboratory at Singapore-ETH Centre and Greenwood Sanctuary @
National University of Singapore estimated that Admiralty
the presence of green spaces could account for 3 1st Precinct-scale ABC 2015
$179 million in value of all homes sold during Waters: Waterway Ridges @
Punggol
2013 to 2014, due to the positive effect coming
4 1st Public Integrated 2018
almost entirely from managed vegetation sur- Development with Skyrise
rounding the estate (Au-Yong 2018). Beyond the ABC Waters: Kampung
monetary value, re-naturalized riverscape now Admiralty
provides opportunities for the community to 5 1st Estate-scale ABC Waters: Estimated to be
have a closer interaction with water. It is common Bidadari Estate completed in
2025
to see families walking towards the stream to
catch fishes and spot wildlife such as egrets and
Cities in Nature 17

Cities in Nature, Fig. 13 Wide range of ABC Waters design implemented in HDB. (Source: Housing & Development
Board)

The mainstreaming of ABC Waters in HDB City in Nature

estates has certainly contributed to cleaner runoff, The Meteorological Service Singapore Centre for
improved esthetic quality of the outdoors, biodi- Climate Research Singapore indicated that Singa-
versity enhancement, build up resilience to climate pore is almost 1
hotter today than in the 1950s
change, and increased education opportunities. By (Ng 2019). This is an increase of about 0.25
C
designing sensitively, there is minimal land take per decade and by year 2100, the maximum daily
and no compromise of functional spaces. The temperatures could reach 35–37
C. Climate sci-
ABC Waters design features, especially those entists at the Crowther Lab (based at ETH Zurich)
with elaborated designs, generate more interests warned that 22% of the cities will experience
among the community. Separately, there are chal- unprecedented climate conditions, such as more
lenges on the ground as well, for example, the intense dry and wet monsoon seasons, heighten-
various upgrading and renovation works by third ing the risks of drought and flooding by 2050
parties may damage the ABC Waters design fea- (TODAY 2019a). With the warmer temperature
tures and affect the hydraulic connectivity. regime, the coral reefs have bleached and died in
Public education and community engagements the warmer oceans and affected the global food
facilitate a better understanding of the integration supply chain. The breeding of more dengue mos-
of blue layer and the green matrix. Through quitoes during the warmer months of June to
dynamic urban governance, initiatives like the October has led to a higher transmission of dengue
ABC Waters Learning Trails have encouraged in Singapore (Tan 2015). There is an urgent need
the adoption of various water sites by schools, to to build resilience and mitigate the impacts of
keep the waterways clean and bring people closer climate change, an existential challenge for
to water. Singapore.
18 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 14 Bishan Ang Mo Kio Park is an early example of implementing nature-based solution in the
urban landscape. Source: Derek Loei]

Singapore had laid out mitigation and adaption • Extend Singapore’s natural capital
strategies in the Singapore Climate Action Plan • Intensify nature in our gardens and parks
(2020) and the Singapore Green Plan 2030. It • Restore nature into the urban landscape
has formulated “City in Nature” plans to provide • Strengthen connectivity between our green
citizens with a better quality of life, while spaces
co-existing with the biodiversity (Heng 2020).
Nature-based solutions are applied to restore Strategy 1: Extend Singapore’s Natural Capital
nature into the city for liveability, sustainability, Singapore has consciously left four zones of high
and well-being, seeking to attain climate, ecolog- biodiversity relatively untouched, each character-
ical, and social resilience. (Fig. 14). ized by different ecosystems. These four Biodi-
versity Core Areas house the majority of the
The Implementation Strategy native biodiversity, as well as Singapore’s four
With the integration of the green and blue strate- Nature Reserves. The nature reserves occupy a
gies, Singapore continues to build upon its strong land area of 3347 ha, which is about 4.6% of
foundation, to restore nature into Singapore’s Singapore’s total area. Singapore’s coastal waters
urban fabric, with an urban systems approach. are home to over 250 species of hard corals, which
Four key strategies have been identified to guide is roughly one third of the world’s total num-
Singapore towards fulfilling the vision of City in ber. Various coastal and marine habitats ranging
Nature: from the rocky shore of Labrador Nature Reserve
Cities in Nature 19

Cities in Nature, Fig. 15 The four biodiversity core areas of Singapore. (Source: National Parks Board)

to the mangroves and mudflats of Sungei Buloh along roads and park connectors, and ABC Waters
Wetland Reserve, and Sisters’ Islands Marine along all major canals, will enhance the ecological
Park, contribute to biodiversity and recreation connectivity across Singapore. By softening the
options in Singapore (Fig. 15). urban matrix sufficiently, nature and biodiversity
can permeate our everyday experience, increasing
Growing the Nature Park Network As the the city’s liveability (Figs. 16 and 17).
most valuable parts of the natural ecosystems
reside in the core biodiversity areas, it is important Strategy 2: Intensify Nature in Our Gardens
to extend such natural capitals beyond the bound- and Parks
ary of the nature reserves, to other areas of Singa- Singapore is intensifying nature in the public
pore. The Nature Park Network seeks to create parks and gardens by incorporating biophilic
rustic and forested nature parks, around the nature design, nature inspired planting designs, and con-
reserves, to act as buffer to mitigate the impact of serving more native flora to create positive impact
urbanization. on health and well-being. More waterways and
The new Nature Parks provide complementary water bodies in existing parks will be naturalized
habitats for the flora and fauna from Nature and function as floodplains to protect homes and
Reserves and serve as compatible nature-based properties from flooding while supporting biodi-
recreation for the population. With more than versity. The plans include the implementation of
350 ha of Nature Parks currently, Singapore therapeutic landscapes, nature playgardens for
plans to provide an additional 200 ha of nature children, naturalized waterways, and conservation
parks by 2030. These new nature parks allow the of mangrove areas and species recovery and hab-
community to enjoy a myriad of nature-based itat restoration.
recreational activities such as bird watching and
trekking. The mainstreaming of Nature Ways
20 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 16

(Left) Examples of Nature
Park Network (NPN).
(Source: National Parks
Board)

Lim Chu Kang

Nature Park
Mandai Mangrove
Kranji Coastal & Mudflat
Cashin
House Nature Park Nature Park
Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve SBWR
Nature Park (Existing and Future)
Park Connector, Rail Corridor,
Round Island Route
NA (Nature Area)
Open Space
Cashin House Southern
Extension
*Arrows denote ecological
connectivity of complementary
wetlands
Kranji
Marshes

Jln Gemala

Cities in Nature, Fig. 17 (Right) Details of Sungei Buloh Nature Park Network (NPN). (Source: National Parks Board)

Implementation of More Therapeutic shown to improve wellbeing of elderly. The thera-

Landscapes With Singapore’s aging population, peutic gardens are able to meet the physical, psy-
therapeutic landscapes have been introduced in chological, and social needs of the users. Besides
gardens and parks, as therapeutic horticulture has spaces for relaxation, strolling, and resting, these
Cities in Nature 21

Cities in Nature, Fig. 18 A therapeutic garden located at Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park. (Source: Derek Loei)

gardens also comprise activity spaces where pro-

grams for seniors, such as gardening and exercise,
may be organized. The customised design and
programming for therapeutic gardens are aimed at
catering to a range of users including those with
dementia, autism and attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD). In a government-wide effort
to mainstream therapeutic gardens, NParks targets
to implement 30 therapeutic gardens by 2030
(Fig. 18).

Implementation of Nature Playgardens The

nature playgardens seek to reconnect children
with nature, to improve children’s mental and Cities in Nature, Fig. 19 Nature play opportunities are
also available at Jacob Ballas Children’s Garden. (Source:
physical well-being, cognitive functions, and Derek Loei)
self-esteem and confidence. Taking reference
from the concept of “biophilia,” research has
These positive experiences strengthen the love
shown that interacting with the outdoors helps
and stewardship of nature from young.
children develop creativity and playing freely
The 0.35-hectare nature playgarden built at
with nature, reduces stress (TODAY 2019b).
HortPark in 2019 (National Parks Board 2020)
22 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 20 Concrete canal between Bishan

Road and Braddell Road in 2015 (Source: PUB,
Singapore’s National Water Agency)
Cities in Nature, Fig. 21 The naturalized waterway
between Bishan Road and Braddell Road was completed
serves as a testing ground for NParks to develop in 2019. (Source: Derek Loei)
design guidelines, to help developers and educa-
tion providers in building more of such sites for Technology such as video traps has been utilized
children to experience and learn about nature. In in the nature areas for biodiversity monitoring to
March 2021, the Como Adventure Grove nature track the species recovery of Porcupines, Pango-
playgarden, located within the 8-hectare Gallop lin, Lesser Mouse Deer, Leopard Cat, Sunda
extension of the Singapore Botanic Gardens was Colugo, Slow Loris, Raffles Banded Langur, etc.
completed. Based on the nature play principles, the The 10-year Forest Restoration Action Plan
design familiarizes children with nature through was launched by NParks in 2019, to strengthen
play, by recreating the experience of climbing and the resilience of native rainforests in Singapore.
playing in trees (Amin 2021) (Fig. 19). The action plan charts the restoration progress
over the next 10 years to regenerate the secondary
Naturalize Waterways and Conservation forests in the nature parks buffering the Bukit
of Mangrove Areas Flood resilient designs have Timah Nature Reserve and Central Catchment
been introduced to Riverine and Coastal Parks and Nature Reserve, including the disturbed patches
mangrove areas, to mitigate flooding risk and sea within the reserves (Juraimi 2019). The commu-
level rise. Such designs include the naturalizing of nity have been involved in the planting of more
waterways and waterbodies. Strategic mangrove than 250,000 plants, including fruit-bearing trees
areas have been identified for conservation and like the Kumpang (Horsfieldia polyspherula) and
restoration, so as to avert coastline erosion and nitrogen-fixing plants like the Petai (Parkia
protect seagrass beds and coral reefs from siltation. speciosa), across the nature parks and open areas
Mangrove forests serve as a source of food and in the nature reserves. Such initiatives allow the
nursery ground for numerous marine organisms community to learn about the science and the
and also contribute as an excellent carbon sink, broader strategic considerations behind the plant-
storing up to five times as much carbon per hectare ing program and cultivate the community stew-
compared to tropical forests (Figs. 20 and 21). ardship over the forests.

Species Recovery and Habitat Strategy 3: Restore Nature into the Urban
Restoration The ongoing biodiversity conserva- Landscape
tion efforts have enabled Singaporeans to encoun-
ter rare plant and animal species, such as the Industrial Estates: Bringing Nature Back Built
Hairless Rambutan (Nephelium maingayi), urban hard surfaces such as roads typically absorb
Straw headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus zeylanicus), and retain a lot of heat from solar radiation.
and Tiger Tail Seahorse (Hippocampus comes).
Cities in Nature 23

Cities in Nature, Fig. 23 Using Nature Ways to facilitate

movements of birds. (Source: National Parks Board)
Cities in Nature, Fig. 22 A lushly planted precinct gar-
den located in Dawson Estate, where a row of matured community and resulted in strong emphasis on
existing trees is retained during development. (Source:
Derek Loei) nature, community, and play, in an effort to create
a “people’s garden.” The nature-inspired design
Hence, 170,000 more new trees will be planted in exemplifies Singapore’s efforts to create a City in
industrial estates, in a “multi-tiered manner,” Nature through the restoration of nature in the
made to resemble the “look and feel of natural urban environment by recreating freshwater
forests,” as part of the “One Million Trees move- swamp forest habitats and naturalized storm-
ment”, over the next 10 years (Co 2020a). The tree resilient waterways.
planting efforts seek to cool the industrial areas by
up to 6
C, improve air quality, and infuse the Strategy 4: Strengthening Connectivity Between
therapeutic effects of greenery closer to people’s Green Spaces
workplaces.
Growing the Network of Nature Ways Nature
Residential Estates: Incorporating Nature into Ways are routes planted with specific trees and
HDB New and Existing Towns The HDB towns shrubs to facilitate the movement of animals like
and estates are steered by the HDB Biophilic birds and butterflies between two green spaces
Town Framework, launched in 2013, to guide (National Parks Board 2021b). Besides enhancing
the incorporation of greenery into the functional the quality of our living environment, Nature
landscapes, to enhance the natural environment Ways bring birds and butterflies from nature
and the well-being of residents (Wong 2018). areas and parks to urban spaces so that Singapore
The framework encourages the intertwine of residents can develop a greater appreciation of
nature with the built environment of all HDB Singapore’s rich biodiversity. The plant species
Towns, to enhance the sense of place and liveable are curated and planted strategically along the
spaces (Fig. 22). identified corridors progressively to replicate the
natural structure of forests.
More Parks in the Heartland There are plans to There are 39 Nature Ways in Singapore,
implement more parks in the heartlands. As part of stretching 150 km in total (as of 2020), connecting
the Jurong Lake District project, the Jurong Lake high biodiversity areas such as Bukit Timah
Gardens (JLG) is Singapore’s first national garden Nature Reserve, Central Catchment Nature
in the heartlands, which provides a distinctive rec- Reserve, and Western Catchment. With an aspira-
reational node in a lakeside setting. The multi- tional vision of “Every Road a Nature Way,”
agency Steering Committee for the Jurong Lake NParks is committed to increase the Nature
District oversaw the planning process, which Ways to 300 km by 2030 (National Parks Board
consisted of extensive consultations with the 2021c) (Figs. 23 and 24).
24 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 25 (Left) Park Connector Network

(PCN). (Source: National Parks Board)
Cities in Nature, Fig. 24 (Right) A Nature Way located
in Clementi Town. (Source: Derek Loei) conserve Singapore’s existing biodiversity and
safeguard Singapore’s public health, animal
Expanding the Park Connector Network health, and welfare.
(PCN) The interlinking network of park connec- Coupled with more development projects in
tors which improve connectivity and expand the works, and the increased greening of
green spaces by integrating the PCN with the Singapore’s urban areas, there will be closer con-
surrounding heartlands amenities, park spaces tacts between humans and animals (Chong 2021).
and allowing users to engage in recreational activ- The Animal & Veterinary Service (AVS) was cre-
ities such as cycling, jogging, and walking had ated under NParks in April 2019, to take on the
proven successful (Poon 2013). role as first responder for animal-related feedback,
To date, Singapore has 340 km of park connec- as well as maintaining standards in animal welfare
tors island wide, although the PCN network was and health. This allows NParks to provide a
initially planned to be 300 km. The 36 km Coast- one-stop service on animal management and wel-
to-Coast Trail (Choo 2019), which stretches from fare issues, manage “human-animal interactions,”
Coney Island Park to the Jurong Lake Gardens, and improve the detection and response to animal
was completed in 2019, and the 150 km Round diseases which can be transmitted to humans
Island Route (RIR), that loops around Singapore, (Mohan 2018). The development of a science-
will be completed from 2021, respectively. By the based management approach, with holistic strate-
year 2030, NParks aims to increase the PCN gies, comprising urban animal population man-
to 500 km, in the form of green links and recrea- agement, bio-surveillance, public education, and
tional corridors, so that 100% of Singapore’s community stewardship, is facilitating in-depth
households will be within a 10-min walk from a assessments to balance different viewpoints and
park (Figs. 25 and 26). mitigate the conflicts between Singapore’s diverse
population, nature, and wildlife.
Building Expertise, an Industry, and Living
with Nature Build Science and Technology and Industry
The population’s general health and well-being Capacity Higher-order skills are necessary for
are interconnected with the health and welfare of greenery and landscape management, as Singa-
animals, found in the community. While the com- pore transforms into a City in Nature. The deep-
munity animals play a vital role as human’s com- ening of Science and Technology capabilities is
panions, the diversity of animals and birds in the essential for Singapore’s strategic and operational
wild, such as oriental pied hornbill, long-tailed decision-making. Since 2007, the Centre for
macaque, smooth-coated otters, and wild boar, Urban Greenery and Ecology (CUGE) has up-
enrich the Singapore’s urban ecosystem. There is skilled many local workers through the Workforce
a need to inculcate a shared responsibility to Skills Qualifications (WSQ) programs and helped
Cities in Nature 25

Cities in Nature, Fig. 26 Right) A PCN located in Sembawang Town. (Source: Derek Loei)

industry organisations to restructure operations to allotment gardening scheme have been expanded,
increase productivity. CUGE is also working with as part of the Growing with Edibles initiative. The
the Animal & Veterinary Service (AVS) to jointly distribution of complimentary packets of seeds to
develop relevant trainings, to enhance the skills households and the wealth of online resources on
and knowledge on animal welfare, health, ecol- gardening encourage the growing of produce at
ogy, and behavior. home. The Community in Nature initiative,
launched in 2011, is continuing to involve more
Inspire Communities to Cocreate and Be Stew- educational institutes and partners to participate in
ards of Nature The success of a City in Nature is citizen science projects and reforestation efforts.
to forge closer bonds within the community, Furthermore, NParks will take the lead to intro-
through active participations and stewardship of duce options for up to 25,000 youths to participate
the greenery and biodiversity. With the building of in biodiversity conservation yearly, through the
more parks, communities can partake in the Youth@SGNature initiative (Ng 2020). (Fig. 27).
design, building, management, and programming
of parks within their estates through the “Friends
of the Parks initiative,” which aims to promote What Does the Future Holds?
greater stewardship in the management of the
green spaces. This ground-led initiative As Singapore strives to recover from the current
spearheaded by the community will complement pandemic to be a City in Nature, these are key
the “OneMillionTrees movement” (Co 2020b). issues to address :
The Community in Bloom program and the
26 Cities in Nature

Cities in Nature, Fig. 27 An example of allotment garden found in Bishan Ang Mo Kio Park. Source Derek Loei

(a) Planning a Postpandemic City Central Business Districts (CBDs). With the
When COVID-19 first emerged in Singa- mainstreaming of remote working, there is a
pore in January 2020, it was the start of a need to review the design of CBDs, homes,
series of unprecedented closures and restric- and public transport networks to consider the
tions (Goh 2020). Beyond Singapore, the human experience and the innate need to
world faced serious challenges and drastic come together creatively and socially in
changes both socially and economically. The shared spaces.
cities with high population densities and con- The URA has already in its latest Concept
centration of activities were more vulnerable Plan or Long Term Plan as it is now called,
due to COVID-19’s ability to spread rapidly planned for an increasingly polycentric city
within confined spaces and there was no with new centers like Jurong Lake District,
known vaccine for the new virus then. These subregional centers like Paya Lebar as well
cities grappled with issues such as access to as the Greater Southern Waterfront, with
quality healthcare, trust in government, and 30 km of coastline which extends from Pasir
ensuring the population complied with mask- Panjang to Marina East (Co 2019). The
wearing and safe management measures. urgency to develop these new centers will
With the implementation of Work-From- probably be greater postpandemic to increase
Home and Home-Based-Study, there are the city’s resilience.
fewer people on the streets, transport nodes, (b) Care for the People: General Wellness and
public spaces, commercial centers, and the Mental Health
Cities in Nature 27

How can people can live, work, and play

well in cities during lockdowns (or circuit
breakers) in a pandemic? With people living
in high-rise, small flats in HDB Towns, the
accessibility of nearby amenities like parks
and park connectors, community clubs, sports
facilities, schools, and child care centers
became a key asset of HDB towns. However,
this is an area that needs more research and
experimentation, especially how the urban
environment affects the mental health and
general wellness of people living and working
in high rise, high density cities.
Cities in Nature, Fig. 28 Curious children interacting
(c) Pragmatic Solutions for Climate Resilience
with nature. (Source: Derek Loei)
Singapore is a low-lying island at the equa-
tor and is hence vulnerable to the impacts of
Epilogue
climate change: rising temperature, sea level,
and extreme weather resulting in flooding and
Singapore has evolved from a basket case of
drought. The challenge is the uncertainty of
urbanization gone wrong in the early 1960s with
these impacts, and how collectively as a city
a population of less than 2 million to a liveable
and society, it can build up its climate defense.
city of 5.7 million. It has done so by adopting
With established governance and strong finan-
ideas from many city planning theories but
cial position, Singapore will explore both
uniquely used an urban system approach, the
engineering and technological solutions and
Liveability Framework as it transformed from a
nature-based solutions. Singapore continues
Garden City, to a City in a Garden, a City of
to undertake intensive research and experi-
Gardens, and Water to a City in Nature even as
mentation and is learning and sharing with
its urban density tripled. The principles of this
other countries and experts. For example, as
systems approach will continue to apply even as
part of strengthening Singapore’s coastal
Singapore face a more challenging future with
defenses, empoldering, a Dutch reclamation
climate change, an aging society, and other yet
method involving the building of a seawall in
unknown challenges while remaining constrained
the water, and pumping the water out behind
as an island without much land and other natural
the seawall to create dry land, is being tried
resources. It is an approach that could well be
out on an island in the north, Pulau Tekong
adopted or adapted by other rapidly growing
(Mohan 2021; Tan and Fogarty 2019).
cities.
(d) Living with Nature
Singapore’s sustainable urbanization jour-
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the
ney to be a “City in Nature” is not just about research assistance provided by Derek Loei in the prepara-
technical challenges related to urban planning tion of this Chapter
and building to incorporate nature. While peo-
ple generally love nature, inevitable human-
wildlife conflicts pose challenges to this rela- References
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