Lupini Et Al. (1981) - The Drained Residual Strength of Cohesive Soils

LUPINI,J. F.
, SKINNER,
A. E. & VAUGHAN,P. R. (1981). Geddmique 31, No. 2. 181-213
The drained residual strength of cohesive soils
J. F. LUPINI,* A. E. SKINNER* and P. R. VAUGHAN*
The drained residual strength of cohesive soils has been presentes dans le sol ainsi que le coefficient de friction
studied extensively during the last 20 years. Various interparticulaire des particules plates qui rtgissent le type
correlations between residual friction angle and index de mtcanisme de cisaillement residue1 qui se produit.
properties have been proposed and these are reviewed. Trois modes de cisaillement residue1 sont dtmontres; un
Residual strength is measured with least ambiguity in the mode turbulent dans les sols comportant une forte
ring shear apparatus. A large number of natural soils have proportion de particules arrondies ou dont le frottement
been tested in the ring shear apparatus developed jointly interparticulaire des particules plates est importante, dans
by Imperial College and the Norwegian Geotechnical lequel une orientation des particules plates preferentielle
Institute, and the results of these tests are summarized. ne se produit pas, un mode du type glissement dans lequel
The mechanisms controlling residual shearing are se forme une surface de cisaillement a faible resistance
considered. The results of three series of tests on different composte de particules plates a faible friction et fortement
soil mixtures, for which the gradings of the soils could be orienttes, et un mode transition impliquant a la fois un
varied artificially, are presented. The proportions of platy cisaillement turbulent et a glissement. Ces modes sont
particles to rotund particles present in the soil and the ttablis grace a des etudes de la fragilite et de la structure
coefficient of interparticle friction of the platy particles are post-cisaillement du sol. L’etude considere l’influence de
confirmed as controlling the type of residual shearing ces modes de cisaillement residue1 sur le comportement
mechanism which develops. Three modes of residual general de sols cohtrents et etablit un rapport entre le
shear are demonstrated; a turbulent mode in soils with a passage de fun a l’autre de ces modes et le tassement et la
high proportion of rotund particles or with platy particles porositi des particules arrondies presentes. Elle re-
of high interparticle friction, in which preferred platy examine ensuite la valeur des correlations ttablies entre la
particle orientation does not occur, a sliding mode in resistance residuelle et les proprietes caracteristiques.
which a low strength shear surface of strongly orientated
low friction platy particles forms, and a transitional mode INTRODUCTION
involving both turbulent and sliding shear. These modes
The drained residual strength and brittleness of
are established by studies of brittleness and of the post-
shear structure of the soil. The influence of these modes of cohesive soils are of importance in geotechnical
residual shear on the general behaviour ofcohesive soils is engineering. They play a part in the stability of old
considered, and the transition from one to another is landslips, in the assessment of the engineering
related to the packing and porosity of the rotund particles properties of soil deposits which contain pre-
present. The effectiveness ofcorrelations between residual existing shear surfaces, and in the assessment of the
strength and index properties is then reconsidered. risk of progressive failure in stability problems in
La resistance residuelle drain&e de sols coherents a fait general. Drained residual strength has been studied
l’objet de nombreuses etudes au tours des vingt dernieres extensively in the laboratory, using a variety of
anntes. Diverses correlations entre l’angle de friction experimental techniques, and various attempts
residue1 et les prop&es caracteristiques ont iti have been made to correlate residual strength with
proposees et celles-ci sont pas&es en revue. C’est avec soil index properties. Some of this work is reviewed
l’appareil de cisaillement cireulaire par torsion que la in the first part of the Paper. Hypotheses for the
mesure de la resistance residuelle est la moins ambigue.
mechanisms involved in residual shear have been
Un grand nombre de sols naturels ont et& testes dans
l’appareil de cisaillement circulaire par torsion mis au advanced previously, and these are summarized.
point conjointement par 1’Imperial College et 1’Institut The ring shear apparatus offers an unambiguous
Geotechnique Norvtgien; les rtsultats de ces essais sont method of measuring residual strength and the
resumes dans le rapport. Les auteurs considerent ensuite results of a large number of such tests on natural
les mecanismes qui regissent le cisaillement residuel. soils are presented and compared with published
L’ttude presente les resultats de trois series d’essais sur correlations with index properties. Both previously
differents melanges de sols pour lesquelles il etait possible published results and those presented here show
de faire varier artificiellement la granulomttrie des ~01s. that residual shear behaviour changes significantly
Les resultats attestent que c’est la proportion des
as the clay content of cohesive soil increases, and
particules plates par rapport aux particules arrondies
that a change in shearing mechanism also occurs.
Discussion on this Paper closes 1 September, 1981. For The result of three series of ring shear tests
further details see inside hack cover. on artificially prepared soil mixtures, specially
* Imperial College, London. designed to examine these changes, are presented in
181
182 J. F. LUPINI. A. E. SKINNER AND P. R. VAUGHAN
I I I I I
LO I
--- Skempton ( 1964 1
~ Borowicka I1965 I
Josseaume (1976 I_
0 1 I I I 1
I
0 20 LO 60 80 100
Clay fraction (%)
Fig. 1. Residual strength: correlations with clay fraction
the main part of the Paper. Conclusions are drawn ferred to the ultimate point of the stressdisplace-
and the behaviour of natural soil is re-examined in ment curve as the ‘remaining shear strength’ and
the light of these conclusions. Hvorslev (1939) stated that the decrease of shearing
The values of residual strength which operate on resistance after failure could best be studied using a
field shear surfaces wiil not be discussed specifi- ‘ring shearing apparatus’. Extensive reviews of the
cally. The strengths of such surfaces are usually development of methods for measuring residual
assessed by back-analysis and are therefore subject strength were presented by La Gatta (1970), Bishop
to some uncertainty. The values of residual strength et al. (1971) and Lupini (1981).
evaluated from the laboratory ring-shear Haefeli (1951) investigated brittleness in a ring
apparatus are usually a lower bound to the values shear apparatus in which the shear stress was
assessed from back-analysis of actual failures. applied by dead weights, with post-peak movement
In this Paper residual strength za will be used for retarded by a spring. Thus the tests were not
the shear stress operating after shear to the residual performed with controlled rates of displacement.
state. The term z~/IJ,‘, where 0”’ is the normal He found that the magnitude of the drop in strength
effective stress operating on the failure surface, will from peak to residual in clays increased with liquid
be termed the residual friction coefficient. The limit. The significance of residual strength in the
residual friction angle 4s’ will be given by field was appreciated in the early 1960s. Skempton
tan &’ = za/(m’. In general, the residual failure (1964) reviewed the effect of residual strength on
envelope shows an apparent cohesion intercept; slope stability and reported residual strengths
thus rR’/un’ and &,‘, as defined here, will be normal measured in the shear box with multiple reversals of
stress dependent. In describing the gradings of shear. He postulated a general correlation between
cohesive soils the term clay fraction will be used for residual strength and clay fraction (Fig. I), suggest-
the percentage by weight of particles smaller than ing a relatively smooth transition with increasing
2um mean particle diameter, as determined by clay content from a residual strength equivalent to
sedimentation. The term clay content will be used gn’tan4,,’ for a granular soil to a low residual
for the proportion ofclay minerals present in the soil strength related to sliding between low friction clay
irrespective of particle size. particles in soils with a high clay fraction. Speci-
mens containing field shear surfaces were also
PREVIOUS OBSERVATIONS OF THE RESIDUAL tested in the shear box and the results reported by
STRENGTH OF COHESIVE SOILS Binnie, Clark & Skempton (1967), Skempton &
Early measurements of the strengths of cohesive Petley (1967) and Early & Skempton (1972). The
soils at large shear deformations were reported by Mangla and Jari clays (Binnie et al.) and the
Hvorslev (1936, 1937, 1939) Tiedeman (1937) and Walton’s Wood clay (Early 8~ Skempton) were of
Haefeli (1938). Tiedeman recognized the existence high plasticity and showed, typically, low residual
of a constant strength at large shear displacements friction angles. In both cases good agreement was
and called it ‘pure sliding resistance’. Haefeli re- found between the strength of the field shear
DRAINED RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF COHESIVES SOILS 183
- Vaughan et al (1978) 0,‘: 130 -180 kPa

Y--~ Bucher (1975) on’= 72.5-269.5 kPa
- Kanji ( 1974) on’= 147 kPa
--- Seyrek (1978 ) oi= 300 kPa
............ FLeischer ( 1972 )
-‘- Voight ( 1973)
0 20 LO 60 80 100
Plasticity index Ip %
Fig. 2. Residual strength: correlations with plasticity index
surfaces, as measured in direct shear box tests, and specimens with pre-cut planes. He found that the
the residual strength determined in reversal shear clay fraction in the residual shear surface was
box tests on the intact clay. Skempton & Petley higher than in the adjacent soil, indicating break-
found a similar result and also found agreement down of the aggregations during shear. His results
with the strength of the field surfaces as measured in were consistent with the relationship between &’
drained triaxial tests on specimens containing the and clay fraction of Skempton (1964). La Gatta
shear surfaces at the appropriate angle. The rela- (1970) used a strain-controlled rotary shear appara-
tionship between &’ and clay fraction found for the tus testing either a disc or an annular specimen (ring
Mangla and Jari clays is shown in Fig. 1. shear) of varying height. He tested undisturbed and
Borowicka (1965) reported reversal shear box remoulded London clay, Pepper shale, Cucaracha
tests on different clay soils produced artificially by shale and mica powders, varying stress history,
mixing in the laboratory. He found that brittleness stress level and shear rate. He found that specimen
increased and residual shearing angle decreased preparation and stress history did not influence
with increasing clay fraction. The relationship residual strength. He also found that increasing the
between shearing angle and clay fraction obtained shear displacement rate from 0.6 x 10m2 mm/min.
is shown in Fig. 1. Herrmann & Wolfskill (1966) to 60 x 1O-2 mm/min. increased the residual
reported tests on weak clay shales. They used ring strength of Cucaracha shale by only 35%.
shear, reversal shear box and triaxial tests, the last Ramiah, Dayalu & Purushothamaraj (1970) re-
two types of test with and without pre-cut failure ported the results of reversal shear box tests on a
surfaces. They found that the triaxial tests always silty clay (I, = 17x, ‘clay fraction = 8%). They
gave higher strengths than the other two types, investigated the influence of changing pore water
which gave results in reasonable agreement. chemistry from flocculating to dispersive condi-
Kenney (1967) reported results of reversal shear tions and found that this reduced the residual
tests using 2.5 mm thick specimens placed between friction angle from 33” to 28”. They also investi-
Carborundum discs. He studied the influence of gated the influence of rate of displacement from
mineralogy, normal effective stress, rate of strain 60 mm/min. to @02 mm/min. on residual strength
and pore water chemistry on residual shearing and found it to be negligible.
angle, and concluded that mineralogy was the most Garga (1970) and Bishop et al. (1971) reported
important factor and that there was no satisfactory the use of a strain-controlled ring shear apparatus,
relationship between residual shearing angle and developed jointly by Imperial College, London and
plasticity index. the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, to examine
Chandler (1966, 1969) studied the residual the influence of initial structure (undisturbed and
strength of the Keuper marl, a soil in which the clay remoulded), stress history and stress level on the
minerals are aggregated in stable, silt-sized par- residual strength of brown and blue London clay,
ticles, and which therefore is of low plasticity. He Weald clay, Cucaracha shale and Studenterlunden
used reversal shear box tests and triaxial tests on clay. Their conclusions were similar to those of La
184 J. F. LUPINI, A. E. SKINNER AND P. R. VAUGHAN
Gatta. They also found that the ring shear appara- (1976) reported similar findings.
tus gave lower residual shearing angles for intact Vaughan & Walbancke (1975) and Vaughan et
specimens of the London clay than did the reversal al. (1978) summarized tests in the ring shear
shear box test. Bishop (1971) and Vaughan (1971) apparatus at Imperial College, mainly on natural
also discussed residual shearing angles measured in clays of medium activity (0.7-1.0). They postulated
this ring shear apparatus. Vaughan found that the the discontinuous relationship between residual
residual shearing angle of a sandy clay till was only friction angle and I, which is shown in Fig. 2. They
slightly lower than the peak shearing angle and that also postulated that the controlling factor was
the shearing angle in terms of effective stress likely to be the proportion of platy clay minerals
measured at about 25% axial strain in an undrained present, and that this would correlate with I, for
triaxial test approximated to the drained residual clays of similar activity. Bucher (1975) used two
shearing angle measured in the ring shear strain-controlled ring shear devices of different
apparatus. design and reversal shear box tests to study the
Chattopadhyay (1972) as reported by Mitchell influence of stress history, stress level, shear rate
(1976), related residual strength to the mode of and temperature on residual friction angle. He
cleavage of the constituent minerals of soils, and presented a relationship between I, and residual
hence to particle shape. He found that low residual friction angle similar to that of Vaughan et al.
friction angles were associated with platy particles, (1978), which is shown in Fig. 2. He found that the
and that subangular and needle-shaped particles residual friction angle of two different clays
gave high residual friction angles. Spears & Taylor (I, = 27%, &’ = 12.5”; I, = 30%, @a’ = 25.6”) was
(1972) investigated the residual strength of intact unaffected by temperature changes between 10 “C
mudstones, using the shear box. They obtained a and 60 “C. He also found that changing the shear
range of residual strengths and related them to the displacement rate from 1.5 x lo-’ mm/min. to
proportions of quartz to clay minerals present. 15 mm/min. increased the residual shear strength of
Fleischer (1972) presented a relationship between the clay with I, = 27% by 24%.
residual shearing angle and plasticity index I, for Blondeau & Josseaume (1976) investigated the
various stiff clays, based on ring shear tests with residual strength ofclays of varying plasticity, using
varying strain-rates (Fig. 2). Fleischer & Schefller triaxial tests on specimens containing pre-cut
(1979) quoted further tests made using modified planes, and reversal shear box tests on specimens
ring shear equipment. Voight (1973) also found a with and without pre-cut planes. They found that
relationship between residual friction angle and I,, the triaxial tests gave higher strengths. They also
using the results of others (Fig. 2). Townsend & performed one strain-controlled ring shear test on a
Gilbert (1973, 1974, 1976) measured the residual high plasticity clay, which gave a result similar to
friction angle of clay-shales and residual soils using the reversal shear box. They presented a relationship
reversal shear box tests on specimens containing between residual strength and clay fraction which is
pre-cut surfaces, and strain-controlled ring shear shown in Fig. 1. Wesley (1977) carried out ring
tests on specimens of different heights, in two shear tests using the Imperial College apparatus on
different apparatuses, with and without pre-cut highly plastic tropical clays containing allophane
surfaces. They concluded that residual shearing and halloysite clay minerals. The results are given
angle was independent of initial soil structure and in Table 2. He found high residual strengths,
stress history, and also that it was substantially confirming the importance of the shape of the clay
independent of normal effective stress level when particles, as postulated by Chattopadhyay (1972)
stresses in excess of 150 kPa were used. They also and Vaughan et al. (1978). Bouceck (1977)
found that, for the hard clay-shales tested, reversal developed a strain-controlled ring shear apparatus
shear box tests gave the same residual friction angle and carried out tests in which the normal stress was
as ring shear tests. The results of Townsend & varied during shear to investigate the influence of
Gilbert (1974) for the Dawson clay-shale show a different stress paths. He used Croix-Rouge clay
sharp increase in residual friction angle when the (clay fraction = 20x, I, = 22%). His results show
plasticity index for this variable material falls below this clay to have a residual strength close to its peak
a threshold value. Kanji (1974) and Kanji & Wolle strength.
(1977) reported reversal shear box tests on the Kenney (1977) recognized the importance of the
interfaces between soils and polished rock sur- proportions of clay to massive particles present in a
faces.They found the relationship between residual mixture. He defined the ratio R, for relative
friction angle and I, shown in Fig. 2. D. U. Deere, in residual strength as
a personal communication to Mitchell (1976, p.
284), reported that shearing against hard polished
tan4R -ttan4R k
(1)
R+ = (tan #R’)M -(tan &‘)C
surfaces encouraged the development of residual
strength at small shear displacements. Littleton where $I~’ is the residual friction angle of the
mixture, (&‘)C is that of the clay minerals, tested on during shear, which was the same for both the dry
their own, and (&‘)M is that of the massive and wet ballotini, was still due predominantly to
minerals, tested on their own. frictional sliding between particles. He postulated
He also defined a volume ratio rve as that if 4p was increased, the shearing mechanism
changed to reduce the amount of frictional sliding,
volume of clay minerals and water
rvc = (2) so that the total energy dissipation remained
total volume of soil constant. When the same ballotini were’ tested
There is an ambiguity in the definition of rvc in that against a smooth glass plate, the change from the
Kenney considered the volume of water to be that dry to the wet state caused a change in shearing
associated with the clay minerals. Thus rvc becomes resistance from tan 4’ = @2 to tan 4’ = 0.37. This
zero in a saturated sand. An alternative definition, indicated that direct sliding played a part in the
more easily determined, is to use the whole volume shearing mechanism once interlocking was
of water, in which case r,, = n (the porosity) for a moderated by the flat interface.
saturated sand. The second definition will be used Hight, El Ghamrawy & Gens (1979) described a
in this Paper. It presents a disadvantage, in that rvc ring shear test on a sandy glacial till. The specimen
no longer takes account of a small quantity of clay was first normally consolidated and sheared to
in a soil when this is insufficient to fill the voids residual. It showed non-brittle behaviour. The
between more massive particles. Kenney used a specimen was then unloaded to the over-consoli-
clay content based on mineralogical examination dated state and resheared. It then showed brittle
rather than the clay fraction based on particle size. behaviour. They deduced from the brittleness of the
A summary of Kenney’s results for mineral two shearing stages that no zone of preferred
mixtures is given in Fig. 13. particle orientation had formed and that the soil
SeylSek (1978) summarized the results of reversal had behaved essentially as a sand. In this case the
shear box tests and results from others and re- ultimate strength reached would be equivalent to a
ported that there was a better correlation between point on the critical state line, first postulated by
residual friction angle and I, than with any other Roscoe, Schofield & Wroth (1958).
parameter (Fig. 2). A more plastic clay, which suffers preferred
Most previous studies have indicated a reduction particle orientation when sheared to large strains,
in residual friction angle with increasing clay will be brittle even when sheared after normal
content from that of a non-cohesive soil, involving consolidation. This effect is not recognized in the
shear at constant volume without preferred particle definition of critical state. Once a shear surface has
orientation, to that of a pure clay, involving strong formed, the clay will fail without brittleness on this
particle orientation’ and sliding on a failure sur- surface even after overconsolidation.’ Sliding
face, with a sliding resistance relating to 4,,. Evi- between clay particles in an orientated shear zone
dence for this particle orientation has been estab- will only occur if +,, is less than 4,“‘, with 4,“’
lished using optical microscope techniques (for defined for a possible state in which shear is at
instance, Mitchell, 1956; Morgenstern & Tcha- constant volume but with random particle orienta-
lenko, 1967) and using the electron microscope (for tion (the critical state normally postulated for such
instance, Roscoe, 1967; Yong & McKyes, 1971). soils). For platy clay minerals this seems to be the
usual case.
HYPOTHESIS FOR RESIDUAL SHEAR Four possible modes of residual shear behaviour,
MECHANISMS depending on particle shape and &@, may be
Skinner (1969) demonstrated that the friction deduced from the preceding arguments. These are
angle 4,“’ for glass ballotini sheared at constant summarized in Table 1. They involve two shearing
volume was independent of the coefficient of inter- mechanisms, described hereafter as turbulent shear
particle friction when this was varied from and sliding shear, according to the roles played by
O.O2<tan 4,,<0.14 for the dry state to particle rolling and translation as against particle
0.6~ tan 4, ~0.9 for the wet state. He concluded sliding. Vaughan et al. (1976) suggested that the
that the mechanism of failure involved particle discontinous change in residual friction angle with
rolling and translation, rather than direct sliding, as increasing clay fraction indicated by results
this was prevented by interlocking of the particles. obtained in the Imperial College ring shear appara-
Skinner also suggested that dissipation of energy tus might be due to the existence of these two
mechanisms, with a relatively sudden change
’ Throughout this Paper orientation is considered as that between them. Verification of these two
defined by particle shape. A soil showing no orientation of
particles according to their shape may show strong 2 Provided that displacement on the surface is monotonic
orientation of particle contacts. Thus random particle and without reversal (Chandler, 1977). Small peaks are
orientation, as defined here, does not imply an isotropic often observed after reversals in the shear box test
soil structure. (Skempton & Petley, 1967; Bucher, 1975).
Table 1. Four possible modes of residual shearing
Coefficient of interparticle
Dominant friction: 4,
particle
shape High Low
Rotund’ Turbulent Turbulent 0.6

shear: shear:
+RI = 4,“’ 4RI = 4,“’
Platy Turbulent Sliding
shear? shear:
4R’ = 4,“’ 4R) =fMl)
r Needle-shaped clay minerals such as halloysite seem to

behave as rotund particles.
‘No soil has been demonstrated experimentally to be-
have in this way.
mechanisms and examination of the transition

from one to the other were the principal purposes of
the tests on soil mixtures described subsequently. 3
0
E 15’
THE RING SHEAR APPARATUS Q ---+__-___-- _
The ring shear apparatus used in the tests 0.2

lo0
reported in this Paper is as described by Bishop et
al. (1971). This apparatus allows measurement of 5O
both peak and residual strength on a shear surface
formed within the soil specimen away from the 0'
loading platens. The annular specimen is 152 mm 0 loo 200 300 LOO 500
o.d., 102mm id., and has an initial thickness of
19 mm, which allows soils containing coarse sand Normal effective stress, On’,(kPa)
to be tested with an acceptable ratio of particle Fig. 3. Ring shear tests on natural soils; residual friction
diameter to specimen thickness. Stresses within the coefficient as a function of normal effective stress; test
specimen are not uniform, at least until a residual numbers refer to Table 2
state is reached, since, firstly, the strains and
displacements are 50% greater on the outside than
on the inside for any given rotation, and, secondly, no metal-to-metal sliding contact. Some difficulty
there are vanes attached to the platens which was experienced in testing uniform sands as part-
penetrate 2 mm into the specimen to prevent failure icles could become jammed in the gap. There was a
adjacent to the specimen boundaries. These vanes slight but continuous loss of soil through the gap
can cause non-uniform stresses and local failure throughout a test.
(Bishop et al., 1971). A drained rate of shear was established for each
Calibration tests using glass ballotini with nor- test from the initial rate of consolidation of the
mal effective stresses of 6 kPa and greater showed a specimen, to give at least 95% consolidation after a
linear ultimate strength envelope, passing through displacement of 1 mm. This rate was used during
the origin; this indicates that errors associated with the test until the peak strength was established. To
frictional resistance in the equipment are negligible. have continued at this rate to establish a residual
Two ring shear devices were used in the test strength at a displacement of 500 mm would have
programme. In the first the torque was measured by taken many weeks. Thus the procedure adopted by
proving rings and dial gauges. One division on the Garga (1970) was used. The tests were run at a faster
dial gauge was equivalent to 05 kPa shear stress on rate, typically 0.3 mm/min., until the required incre-
the specimen, giving a probable accuracy of ment of displacement was achieved. Shearing was
f0.5 kPa overall. In the second device the torque then slowed to the initial rate for a displacement
was measured by load cells which could be read to 1 rate of at least 2 mm to ensure that no excess pore
microstrain, equivalent to a shear stress of 0.1 kPa, pressures existed, or for longer if a stable shearing
giving a probable accuracy of f 0.2 kPa. The gap resistance had not been established. The test was
between the confining rings which retained the then speeded up again.
specimen could be adjusted to ensure that there was There is evidence (Lupini, 1981) that, when a
drop in residual friction coefficient with increasing

normal stress, which is most pronounced at low
0.60 effective stresses. The failure envelopes, expressed
conventionally in terms of CR’and c#+‘,are linear to a
good approximation. The correlation coefficient by
linear regression I for the individual tests lies
between 0.9995 and 0.986, with an average of 0.998,
for a stress range between 20kPa and SOOkPa.
Values of cR’ and &’ for the multi-stage tests with
four or more stages are shown in Table 2. The term
cR’ varies from zero to 8 kPa apparently at random
and unrelated to other soil properties. Agreement
between individual test stages and the shearing
resistance predicted from the linear envelope is
better than f5% for normal effective stresses
greater than 100 kPa. Below this stress level there is
greater variation, typically less than + lo%, but
occasionally much greater.
Typical stress+Iisplacement curves for the first
I shearing stage are shown in Fig. 4. For the more
0.1 1 10 100 1000 plastic clays, which show preferred particle orienta-
displacement (mm) tion and a low residual strength, a displacement in
Fig. 4. Ring shear tests on natural soils stress excess of 1OOmm and typically of the order of
ratio-displacement curves from first loading stages; test 400mm is required before the residual strength is
numbers refer to Table 2 reached. The clays of low plasticity, for which, if
shear involves contraction, there may be no post-
peak drop in strength (curve 42 in Fig. 4), require
much shorter displacements to reach the residual
shear surface containing oriented clay has formed,
state (curves 4143 in Fig. 4). The results are also
its shearing resistance is affected by rate of shear.
presented in Fig. 5 as residual friction angle against
The effect is not significant at the rates used in the
clay fraction, and in Fig. 6 as residual friction angle
tests presented. However, it is possible that the
against plasticity index.
displacements required to establish full residual
The evidence for a discontinuous change in
conditions have been slightly over-estimated by the
shearing resistance at a clay fraction of about 35x,
testing procedures adopted.
or at a value of I, = 30% can be seen. However, a
number of test results clearly fall outside any
RING SHEAR TESTS ON NATURAL SOILS reasonable correlation band on both plots. The
(Table 2) residual friction angles of the halloysite and allo-
The results of tests on natural soils are sum- phane soils tested by Wesley (1977) are clearly
marized in Table 2, where they are identified atypical (tests 48%51), indicating the importance of
according to number. Most of the soils were placed clay particle shape. The Studenterlunden clay (test
in the remoulded state, since it has been demon- 38) shows an atypical result when plotted against
strated (Bishop et al., 1971) that the ultimate clay fraction. Some of the degradable mudstone
residual friction angle is unaffected by the i itial and shale materials (tests 1-8) show atypically low
structure of the soil. Most of the tests invo ed residual friction angles, particularly when these are
changes in normal effective stress on the sa e correlated with plasticity index. This may be due to
specimen to define the residual failure envelo $ a failure to disintegrate fully the samples on which
Thus peak strength can only be determined from the index tests were performed. The Aberfan
the first loading stage at one normal stress, al- colliery spoil (tests 1, 2) consisted of fragments of a
though, as described by Hight et al. (1979) and hard, well-cemented mudstone. Degradation and a
subsequently, a clay of low plasticity which shows reduction in c$’was still occurring after a displace-
restricted particle orientation during shear will ment of 300 m (test I), although the presence of hard
exhibit a peak during reshearing if the normal coal particles may have influenced behaviour. The
stresses have been reduced. Plots of residual friction residual friction angles of the more plastic soils
coefficient against normal effective stress from these show a high degree of scatter &’ varying from 7” to
tests are given in Fig. 3. The line given for tests 17”. It is apparent that simple correlations with
21-25 is plotted for five tests on different samples at index properties are inadequate for the prediction
different normal stresses. Nearly all the tests show a of residual strength for engineering purposes.
Table 2. Ring shear tests on natural soils
Best linear
Liquid Plasticity Clay envelope
limit, index, fraction,
Test no., Site and soil type WL %<2pm cR’: kPa 4;: o Reference
I,
Mudstones, marls, clay-shales and other degradable materials
Aberfan Carboniferous shale

I
34 17 Bishop, 1974
Aberfan I (colliery waste) Bishou. 1974
Bury Hill Etruria marl 71 43 55 3.4 71 Hut&&on et al., 1973
Cucaracha clay shale 63 20 48 Bishop et al., 1971
Mam Tor ’ Clay gouge 59 31 43 1.9 8.1
Holme House W. from Carboni- 57 33 50 2.9 9.4
Taren slip ferous shales 26 6 32 8.1 10.1
Taren slip J and mudstones 31 12 32 7.4 12.1
Overconsolidated clays
9u
10
Arlington
Barnsdale
Weald 65
63
33
35
I 52
63
6.1 8.7 Bishop et al., 1971
Chandler, 1976, 1977
11 Barnsdale (solifluc.) 82 49 67-74 3.6 11.1
12 Barnsdale (solifluc.) 3.9 9.6
13 Empingham Lias 59 33 47 Chandler, 1976
14 Empingham 59 29 50 5.2 9.2 Chandler, 1976
15 Empingham 59 31 54 8.6
16 Wansford I 63 37 51 3.8 7.3 Chandler, 1976, 1979
17 S. Ockendon \ 75 51 48
18 S. Ockendon 73 49 48
19 S. Ockendon 73 49 48
20 S. Ockendon 57 36 36
21u Wraysbury 1 Blue 72 43 57 Bishop et al., 1971
22u Wraysbury 72 43 57 Bishop et al., 1971
23U Wraysbury London 72 43 57 Bishop et al., 1971
24U Wraysbury 72 43 57 Bishop et al., 1971
25 Wraysbury 72 43 57 Bishop et al., 1971
/
26 Heme Bay 95 61 59 3.1 94 Maugeri, 1976
27 Hadleigh 82 54 57 1.2 8.4 Hutchinson & Gostelow. 1976
Browr
28 U Walthamstow 66 42 53 1.4 8.0 Bishop et al., 1971
29 Walthamstow 68 43 64 Bishop et al., 1971
30U Swindon j 62 36 46 1.4 8.2
31u Swindon 62 36 46 1.2 7.8
Gault
323 Folkestone 85 58 50 1.4 6.6 Hutchinson et al., 1980
334 Folkestone 58 32 52 6.2 10.7 Hutchinson et al., 1980
34 Amuay, Venezuela 59 36 51 4.9 7.1
35 Cotgrave, Rhaetic 93 61 60 40 7.0
.luauraaelds!p UIOSJ~~JEpaqaEa~ IOUlmp!sax z
.juauraaelds!p tu 00~ .~agr!paymar IOUIenp!sax 1
op Lf 06 @!lo~x) !fid zs
647 E8 LS 101 (al!s~oWH) ‘=ef IS
0.0 9P EIZ PuWoIIv)eaer OS
6.E 9L OE S6 (al!sdoIleH)
viler 6P
0.0 s9 9P S91 WWw4 ew 8P
spas pnp!sap
If IZ SP Leftro.kaJL LP
9P 8f f9 UIEqllOMUad 9t
wz 64 PI EZ ZP UItJqlJOMUad SP
oz ZI PZ r@%‘nqs!ddEH Pp
PI 01 zz [,!I laurol3 Jarno? qthqs!ddEH EP
6L61 “I"12 @!H PI 01 zz @nqs!ddEH ZP
85Z 8.5 8Z 81 K uapMo3 IP
IL61 ‘u'@-'vA 82 sz IV Uaalf) MO3 op
E.SZ S.1 9z ET 6Z da@ug 6f
IL61 ‘1~JJdw!a L.8Z f.f (01~0) de13 uapunllaluapnls 8f
9.21 L.Z wnpqe )uax Lf
8.8Z 637 um!an~~E Suq3npq 9f
aaualqap o :,v Ed’l :,83 “I -h add] I!OSPUE ai!s 'ou IsaL
‘xapu! ‘1!“!1
adolahua &!lsE[d p!nb!?
Jeaug pag
0;“’ = 100-200 kN I m2
LO0
48.
w” 30*
.-s 20”
5
1 8.
t
a
3 10”
D
oz
0.1
7. 52-
30~;+_*~<%2g
5.\r,
6.
4
34 ;s
14l
613732
.9
.33
16 B l
\ 26
3)5
21.27
." I
oa0~IIIIIII1IIIIIIIIII’I1lIIIIII1cuIIIIII’IIIIII111J
20 40 60 60 100
Clay fmction ( % -z 2 pm )
Fig. 5. Natural soils residual friction angle against clay fraction; test numbers refer to Table 2
0,‘: 100-200 kN / m2
TR
Happisburgh till-
0%’
London clay mixtures
0.5
0.4
Sand-bentonite
mixtures 0.3
0.2
J
\
\
',.
--_
0 20 LO 60 60 100
Plasticity index I I p 1%)
Fig. 6. Natural soils residual friction angle against plasticity index; teat numbers refer to Table 2
TESTS TO EXAMINE MECHANISMS OF be determined independently, and it also allowed

RESIDUAL SHEAR the effect of varying 4,, during a test to be examined
Three series of tests have been performed to by flooding a specimen initially sheared to residual
examine the nature of the postulated modes of in the dry state. In the second series of tests mixtures
residual shear and the transition between them in of Happisburgh clay and London clay were used,
more detail. In the first series of tests a medium/fine enabling the clay fraction of an essentially natural
sand (Ham River sand) was used as the massive clay to be varied from 20% to 48%. In the third
mineral, and commercially available powdered series of tests mixtures of an artificially prepared,
mica as the platy mineral, simulating the properties well-graded quartz sand with a commercially pro-
of normal clay minerals. The two materials were cessed sodium bentonite were used.
tested separately and as mixtures. The use of The nature ofthe shear surface formed in the tests
powdered mica prepared from large mica plates was ascertained by splitting of the specimens after
allowed the coefficient of interparticle friction 4, to removal from the apparatus and visual examina-
b -90
s 70
5
u 60
$
a 50
: 40
; 30
cn’ 20
10
0
Lo2 ,006 .02 .06 .2 .6 2
Particle size (mm 1
f m C f m c
Silt Sand
Fig. 7. Gradings of sand and mica powders
non, by examination of brittleness when testing the water after mounting in the friction apparatus. The
soil in the normal and over consolidated states, by results obtained from four tests varied between
examination by optical polarizing microscope of @,, = 11.3” and #J, = 13.2”, with an average value of
thin sections of the failure zone made using the 4,, = 12”. The blocks were subsequently ground to
Carbowax impregnation technique (Morgenstern powder using a domestic food liquidizer, and the
& Tchalenko, 1967) and, for the Happisburgh powder obtained was wet-sieved to give three
clay-London clay mixtures only, by examination of separate gradings (C, D and E). These were then air-
the failure zone using the scanning electron dried and used for ring shear tests 13-1.5. The
microscope. The observations reported concern specimens for the interparticle friction tests and the
only the central shear zone in the specimens, and not powders for the ring shear tests received approxi-
secondary shear features which also existed. mately the same exposure to air and water, and thus
should have suffered similar amounts of surface
Tests on sand, mica powder and sand-mica contamination.
mixtures (Table 3) All the mixtures were first mixed dry,3 saturated
The gradings used in the tests are shown in Fig. 7. with distilled water and spooned into the ring shear
Where gradings of the platy mica particles have apparatus under distilled water. Some difficulty
been determined by sedimentation, the particle size was experienced in obtaining consistent residual
determined from Stokes’s Law has been corrected shear strengths for the unmixed sand, due to slip-
by the appropriate factor to give the equivalent stick behaviour (Skinner, 1969) and to particles
sieve grading (Allen, 1975). The sand used was Ham jamming in the gaps between the confining rings.
River sand, with subangular quartz particles. The The influence of normal consolidation and over-
shear tests performed are summarized in Table 3. consolidation on brittleness in subsequent shear
The changes in normal stress during each test are was not examined systematically in these tests.
given in sequence. Peak strengths are given when Difficulties in placing loose specimens, and large
these have been observed in first shearing and in contractions of the specimens sometimes observed
subsequent shearing stages. The principal tests on when shear loads were removed prior to further
mixtures (tests 3-l 1) utilized a commercially avail- increase in normal stress, made the positive estab-
able powdered Muscovite mica (grading A, Fig. 7). lishment of contractive and dilatant behaviour
A finer mica powder from the same source (grading difficult to achieve. The results summarized in
B) was tested unmixed (test 12). Table 3 are consistent with the results presented
Large pieces of the mica from which gradings A subsequently for the two other series of mixtures
and B were derived were not available for the tested, however. The values of the residual friction
determination of 4,,. Blocks of Muscovite mica coefficient measured in the tests on the mixtures are
from a separate source were obtained for these tests. shown plotted against mica content in Fig. 8.
The method adopted was that of Skinner (1975) and The displacements required to reach the residual
the same equipment was used. The mica was freshly
cleaved in air and subsequently flooded in distilled 3 Air equilibrated after over drying.
Table 3. Tests on sands, sand-mica mixtures and mica powders
--T-r
Shear stages
Normal Remarks
effective Peak friction Residual friction S, = displacement
stress, coefficient, coefficient, required to reach
Test Type % Sand: % un’: kPa r&Lt @Jn~ residual
1 0 100 879 Consolidation

88 O-853 0.527 6, = 30mm
177 n.m. 0.554
264 n.m. 0.586
f 1 --
352 n.m. 0,570
2 I 0 100 89
177
n.m.
n.m.
@573
0,613
352 n.m. 0.577
3 A 25 75 89 0.686 0.516 6, = 1OOmm

177 n.m. 0.543
264 0.529 0.529
t 352 n.m. 0.559
41A 5 A
25
40
75
60
89
89
n.m.
0.741
0.490
D483 6, = 1OOmm
_I_
177 0.509 0,478
264 n.m. 0.500
352 n.m. 0.521
264 0.520 0518
177 n.m. 0.514
89 n.m. @461
6 A 50 50 89 0.725 0.479 6, = 1OOmm

177 n.m. 0.496
264 0.483 0.483
352 n.m. 0.477
264 n.m. 0.484
7 A 60 40 89 0652 0.427 6, = IOOmm

177 n.m. 0.431
264 n.m. 0.433
352 n.m. 0.435
264 n.m. 0443
8 A 70 30 89 n.m. 0.372 6,=2OOmm

264 n.m. 0.390
352 mm. 0.392
89 n.m. 0.358
9 A 100 879 Consolidation

89 0.562 0.360 &=4OOmm
264 n.m. 0.364
352 mm. 0,358
177 n.m. 0.350
3
10 A 100 177 0.540 @503 Dry
177 n.m. 0.364 After saturation
11 A 100 264 0,499 n.m. I un’ change

177 n.m. 0.374 during test
12 B 100 550 Consolidation

221 0,533 0.333 6, =4OOmm
659 0.337 0.333
=F 13
14
15
I
C
E
100
100
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Mica content , (%)
Fig. 8. Residual f&tkm coefficient of sand-mica mixtures as a function of mica content; test numbers refer to Table 3
1 L
o,_,‘= ‘200 kPa
o+ lb
CLAY
G-3
, I*
lb.2 10-l 1
(mm)
D50
Fig. 9. The residual friction coefficient of mica powders as a function of particles size and of interparticle friction
state in the first shearing stages are indicated in ing normal stress; the tests on the 50%, 60% and
Table 3. They increase markedly with mica content 70% mica mixes show no trend, while the tests on
and with the extent to which particle orientation is the unmixed micas show, on average, the conven-
involved in reaching the residual state. The mini- tional decrease in friction coefficient with increas-
mum normal stress used in the tests was 89 kPa ing normal stress. Increasing compression due to
(except test 12). Thus the stress range in which increasing normal stress will bring the granular
residual friction angle is most sensitive to normal fraction of a mixture to a closer packing, and so
effective stress was not examined. Over the higher promote interference and interlocking between the
stress range the results of Table 3 show that for the rotund particles. When sliding occurs a decrease in
25% and 40% mica mixtures there is a slight friction coefficient with increasing normal stress is
increase in residual friction coefficient with increas- observed. If both turbulent and sliding shear are
Sand -mica mixtures
Happisburgh -London clay

mixtures
Sand-bentonite mixtures
Gs,=2.75 , Gsg=2.67
e, = clay void ratio

e, = granular void ratro
CT,‘-177 kPa
Od++ 20 LO
Water content (%)
Fig. 12. Water contents of soil mixtures
1.0
0
0 20 LO 60 80 100
Volume (clay +waterl/Volume soil rvc %
Fig. 13. Relative residual strength against volume ratio
consistent with the predominantly sliding failure visual examination. The specimen from test 3 (25%
mechanism postulated for the mica powders. It is mica) could not be split and there was no evidence
opposite to the finding of Skinner (1969) for shear that it contained a discontinuous shear surface. The
within model soils with spherical particles, for specimen from test 5 (40% mica) split to show a
which a turbulent shear mode of failure was surface, coarsely striated (slickensided) in the direc-
deduced, but is consistent with Skinner’s results for tion of shear, which was moderately reflective,
shear against a smooth interface where sliding was indicating the presence of orientated mica. As the
facilitated. proportion of mica increased in tests 6 and 7 the
The nature of the shear surfaces formed in the surfaces became less striated and more reflective.
specimens was examined primarily by attempting For test 8 (70% mica) and for the tests on unmixed
to split the specimens on the potential shear surface mica powders the striations were very subdued and
while they remained moist, and by subsequent the surfaces were highly reflective. Three thin
sections were made of the post-failure specimens is difficult to conceive that a continuous sliding
using the Carbowax technique: from test 4 (25% layer of orientated mica particles could form with-
mica A), test 9 (100% mica A) and test 12 (100% out being disrupted by the sand particles. The two
mica B). The first section is shown in Fig. 11, which sections of the unmixed mica powders showed
shows a closely packed sand, with the mica flakes single shear surfaces, which, when viewed in
between the sand particles orientated normally to polarized light, showed very strong orientation.
the would-be contacts between the sand particles. It The section made from test 9 showed disturbance of
the shear surface due to shrinkage when the
specimen was impregnated and the thickness of this
surface could not be measured accurately. The
section from test 12 on mica B was undisturbed and
the shear surface was, on average, 0.025 mm thick.
The sections and the visual examinations of the
split specimens indicated that there were no signs of
a shear surface until the mica content of the
mixtures approached 40%. A well-formed, single
shear surface was developed with a mica content
between 60% and 70%. Transitional behaviour, as
indicated on Fig. 8, occurred in between these two
limiting states, over a range of mica content of
about 30%
Particle size ( mm) Accurate measurements of the porosity of the
fmcfmc
specimens were difficult to make. The best averaged
estimates for the sand-mica mixtures, expressed as
Silt Sand
water contents of the saturated specimens, are
Fig. 14. Gradings of Happisbnrgh clay, London clay and shown in Fig. 12. The accuracy is thought to be
mixtures; test numbers refer to Table 4 within 5%. The relative residual strength R, (equa-
Table 4. Ring shear tests on Happisburgh clay-London clay mixtures
Normal
effective Peak Residual Failure
Clay Liquid Plasticity stress, friction friction water
Test fraction; limit, index, 0,‘: coefficient, coefficient, content
no. Soil % WL: % I,: % kPa rplu.l r&J” U’r
Sand fraction- 0 N.P. N.P. 352 0.793 0640

Happisburgh clay 176 0.729 0.625
352 0.669 0640 17.7
Happisburgh clay 20 24 12 878 Consolic ion only
352 0606 0601
176 0.923 0,570
352 0.577 14.7
75% Happisburghl 27 36 22 352 0.477 0.475
25% London 176 0.622 0.486 18.6
50% Happisburghl 34 51 33 352 0447 0400
50% London 176 0.479 0.414 23.6
25% Happisburghl 40 65 45 352 0404 0.249
75% London 176 0.275 0.255 28.6
London clay 48 73 49 220 0400 0.135
352 0.119
176 O-116 0.116
352 0.107 34.0
London clay 36 57 36 878 Consolidation only
352
176 I;{! 1 ii;:
352 25.8
tion (1)) is shown in Fig. 13, plotted against the The loading stages of the tests were specifically
value of the volume ratio rVc which has been designed to examine the nature of the shear zones
calculated from the water contents shown in Fig. formed, in the manner described by Hight et al.
12. There is good agreement with the results of (1979). The method adopted is illustrated in Fig. 15.
Kenney. The results for the residual strengths ofthe The simple model of normal and overconsolidated
unmixed mica powders are consistent with those of soil behaviour of classical soil mechanics, formu-
La Gatta (1970) who quoted &’ in the range lated more completely in the concepts of critical
15”-17” for Muscovite mica powder tested in the state theory, does not include the effect of loss of
ring shear apparatus, and with those of Horn & strength due to preferred particle orientation. It
Deere (1962) who quoted 16” for Muscovite mica predicts that if a specimen of clay is normally
powder from shear box tests with a restricted consolidated and sheared in a shear box, it will
shearing displacement. behave as shown by path OABB, in Fig. 15, being
non-brittle in shear. More specifically, this be-
Tests on Happisburgh claq”london clay mixtures haviour can be expected provided the specimen
(Table 4) strain-hardens, implying contraction during
A number of essentially natural clays were drained plastic shearing. Observations of contrac-
manufactured by mixing Happisburgh clay (part of tion and dilation can be made in the shear box or
the Lower Cromer till; Hight et al., 1979) with ring shear apparatus, at least qualitatively. A shear
London clay from South Ockendon, Essex (Apted, zone may possibly form, but, if so, it should be a
1977). The clays were thoroughly mixed in the dry zone of different water content rather than of
powdered state in various proportions. The sand different particle orientation.
component of the Happisburgh clay was separated If the sample is overconsolidated, and in the ring
by wet sieving. The gradings of the resulting soils shear apparatus this is conveniently achieved by
are shown in Fig. 14, and the index tests and the unloading a snecimen which has been sheared to
sequence of shear tests performed in the ring shear residual previouslv. and it is then sheared to
apparatus are summarized in Table 4. residual from the overconsolidated state. the be-
Stage 2 Stage 1
A
I
’ over-consolidated
El B,
z Normally-conso!rdated
a,
5 peak. Also residual \
v)
2
aJ
D ‘\
6
’ -.--
> ----- F $
HL
Normal effective stress 0,’ Shear displacement 6
Stage Shear behaviour
No orientation Orientation
1. Normally consof- Turbulent shear; Sliding shear;

idated; strain non-brittle; brittle; low
hardening high friction residual friction
angle angle
2. Over consol- Brittle and dil- Non-brittle; fric-

idated atant; residual tion angle same as
friction angle stage 1 residual Fig. 15. Idealized behaviour in the ring
same as stage 1 shear test according to loading sequence and
mode of residual behaviour
I I 1 I I I I I
?& _
u”‘= 352 kPo
0.G -
1
! &z_____
-_____
--------_
7-SILTY LONXN CLAY
L ?I__--_- L 5 _rr_i
6 -___
0 I I I I I , I I
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 IO 100 ioco
displacement (mm)
(a) 1st Loading stage - Controctive 1b) 2nd Loading stage-Over- consolidated
Fig. 16. Stress rathdisplacement curves--first and second loading stages for tests on Happisburgl&ondon clay
mixtures; test numbers refer to Table 4
1.0- pure turbulent shear behaviour, without preferred

particle orientation and sliding.
t Supposing that the soil suffers orientation and a
\.-Peak strength complete change from turbulent to sliding be-
Stage 2 haviour as the residual state is approached, then the
i \ first shearing stage of the test previously described
should be as path OABF in Fig. 15. Post-peak
particle orientation will occur in a narrow shear
zone and it will be accompanied by a drop in
shearing resistance until a low residual strength is
reached. If the specimen is unloaded to C and
resheared, the orientated shear zone will still exist,
and the specimen will again fail on it in the manner
shown by path CGG,. Volume changes during
shearing should be small. In a two-stage test of the
type described, the two types of residual behaviour
should give rise to the difference in behaviour
01 between the two shearing stages which are sum-
0 20 40 60 80 marized below Fig. 15. A similar test on a soil in
Clay fraction (%) which residual shear involves both the turbulent
and the sliding mode of behaviour might be
Fig. 17. HappisburgkLondon clay and mixtures peak
expected to show aspects of both mechanisms.
and residual friction coefficients against clay fraction: test
numbers refer to Table 4
Tests as previously described were performed on
all the soils prepared, and the results of the first
shearing stage are shown in Fig. 16(a). The limited
haviour as illustrated by path BACDE in Fig. 15 depth of specimen in the ring shear apparatus did
should result. The water content in the shear zone not permit consolidation of plastic clays from a
previously formed will have been modified by slurry. The specimens were placed initially in a
overconsolidation, the specimen should dilate dur- remoulded state, as wet as practicable. The volume
ing shear and it should show brittle behaviour. The changes during shear (not shown) indicated that all
strength should drop to a residual value, reached the specimens contracted during shear, except the
when dilation is complete, which should be equiva- sand which had been separated from the Happis-
lent to the non-brittle strength of a specimen burgh clay and which could not be placed loosely
normally consolidated and sheared at the same enough to meet this requirement (test 1). The first
normal stress. This overall behaviour would be shearing stage therefore showed brittleness. After
expected for a sand, if it could be placed loosely the second shearing stage the shear stress was
enough to contract throughout first shearing, and it removed, the normal stress increased again and the
can therefore be supposed to be compatible with specimen resheared. The result of this third shear-
Test Clay Thin section Description

no. fraction: %
2 No separation on shear zone. Thin section

showed no preferred orientation of the clay matrix
(Figs 19,ZO)
3 27 No separation on shear zoae. Thin section

showed no preferred orientation of the clay matrix
t
4
4 34 No separation on shear zone. Thin section

showed shearzoneabout 1.5 mmthickcontaining
discontinuous shear surfaces parallel to the
direction of shear
c
4
5 40 Specimen separated on heavily striated
(slickensided) shearsurface.Thinsectionshowed
two continuous shear surfaces, undulating in the
direction of shear, about 2.5 mm apart. Clay
particles between them orientaied O-45’ to
direction of shear (Fig. 23)
6 Specimen separated on shear surface, more

polished than test 5, with less well developed
striations and no undulations in direction of shear.
Thissurface boundedonesideofzoneofstrongly
orientated clay052.0 mm thick: otherside bounded
by less well developed shear surface. Clay on
either side of this zone showed partial orientation
(Figs 21, 22)
c
Fig. 18. HappisburgCLondon clay mixtures: summary of post-failure structure
ing stage is shown in Fig. 16(a). It shows slight about 30% (&’ = 24”). An increase in brittleness
brittleness, which is consistent with the slight with increasing clay fraction is demonstrated by the
dilation observed during shear. It seemed that the remaining tests, indicating an increase in the role of
contraction in volume when the shear stress applied particle orientation and sliding in the residual
during the second stage was removed was sufficient failure mechanism.
to make the next shearing stage slightly dilatant, The second shearing stage, after unloading and
despite the increase in normal stress. The Happis- swelling, is shown in Fig. 16(b). As predicted by the
burgh clay, unmixed, showed no brittleness, indi- initial hypothesis, the situation shown by the first
eating pure turbulent behaviour. By interpolation, shearing stages is reversed, with brittleness a maxi-
brittleness first occurred with a clay fraction of mum for the least plastic soil. It decreased to zero
DRAINED RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF COHESWES SOILS 203
Table 5. Ring shear tests on sand-bentonite mixtures
Normal
effective Peak Residual Failure
Clay Liquid Plasticity stress, friction friction water
Tes fraction: limit, index, 0,‘: coefficient, coefficient, content,
no. Soil % WL: % I,: % kPa Q”’ GJ~’ Wf
Sand 0 N.P. N.P. 352 0612 0.589

117 0.695 0.577
352 @618 0.589 24.0
85% sand/ 13 38 17 352 0.627 0.587

15% bentonite 177 0.784 0.577 23.7
70% sand/ 26 56 36 352 0.488 0.439

30% bentonite 177 0.554 0.399 29.1
55% sand/ 40 80 51 352 0.420 0,300

45% bentonite 177 0,307 0.249 40.2
40% sand/ 53 114 86 352 @346 0.116

60% bentonite 177 0.075 0.075 52.6
25% sand/ 66 140 104 352 0.380 0,100

75% bentonite 177 0.065 PO65 62.8
Bentonite 88 184 136 703 Consc ation

352 0,382 0.110
177 0.089 0.089
352 0,103 0,103 74.7
Failure water contents corrected to normal stress of 177 kPa.
Table 6. Sand-bentonite mixtures: post-failure structure observed in test specimens
Zlay fraction:
Test no. % Structure observed after test
2 13 Specimen would not separate on shear zone. Thin section showed no orientation ofclay
particles.
3 26 Specimen would not separate on shear zone. No thin section. Shear zone 4 mm thick
observed when specimen cut
4 40 Specimen would not separate on shear zone. Thin section showed shear zone 4 mm
thick containing partly orientated clay
5 53 Specimen separated on shear surface which was polished and striated (slickensided).
No thin section
6 66 Specimen separated on polished and striated shear surface. Striations less pronounced
than for test 5
7 88 Specimen separated on polished shear surface which was without striations
sand could not be placed loosely enough to achieve reducing stress. The bentonite used was a factory-
this; as with the sand from the Happisburgh clay, prepared sodium montmorillonite (‘Berkbent’)
the result of the third loading stage is shown in Fig. which contained sodium salts. No attempt was
26(b). This stage was still slightly dilatant. The made to balance the chemistry of the pore water
mixture containing 15% bentonite was dilating with the distilled water in the water bath of the
slightly when the small peak strength was observed. apparatus, as this would have caused corrosion
A significant drop in the residual friction problems. There may have been a slow reduction in
coefficient from stage 1 to stage 2 occurred in tests the salt content of the pore water by diffusion as each
3-6, which was opposite to the usual effect of test progressed. Kenney (1977) showed that this
I I I I
‘C
b
p 0.6
1
E
.o,
i
g 04
u
.-s
5 0.2
I I
0 ’ I/ I I J I;
X02
f
HI6
Silt
02
Particle
c
06
size I mm 1
f
.2
Sand
6
c
2
0 -c 0
Clay
LO
fraction
60
(%)
80
+
100
Fig. 25. Gradings of sand, bentonite and mixtures; test Fig. 27. Sand-bentonite mixtures; peak and residual
numbers refer to Table 5 friction coefficients against clay fraction; teat numbers refer
to Table 5
could have resulted in a reduction in residual

strength, as was observed. It should have occurred orientated clay were observed for tests 5-7.
only when residual failure involved sliding, and the The strengths observed are plotted against clay
results show that only transitional and full sliding fraction in Fig. 27. The brittleness exhibited in first
behaviour were effected. The time elapsing between shearing in test 2 is consistent with the small
the determination of the first and second residuals dilation observed. That exhibited in test 3 is greater
was between 2 and 4 weeks. The index tests given in than can be readily explained by the chemical
Table 5 were performed before shearing. Liquid changes previously described. The tests with higher
limit tests made on the specimens from tests 2 and 4 clay fractions showed a major brittleness in first
after shearing showed that the liquid limits had shear. Tests 24 showed brittleness in second shear,
increased by 21% and 60% respectively. and there is less room for ambiguity in these
The structure of the post-failure test specimens measurements due to chemical effects, since the
was examined primarily by visual examination. delay between determining the residual in the first
Only two thin sections were made successfully. The stage and the peak in the second stage was short.
results are shown in Table 6. Evidence of an The brittleness shown in test 4 is very slight. Tests
imperfectly formed shear zone was observed for 5-7 did not show brittleness in second shearing. All
tests 3 and 4. Single shear surfaces of highly the observations are consistent with transitional
I I 1 I I I I I
90,
C&’ 352 k Pa
q $= 177 kPa
0.G
0.60
___
100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000

displacement (mm)
(a) 1st Loading stage-Contractive (b) 2nd Loading stage - Over-consotidated
Fig. 26. Stress ratiwdisplacement curves-first and second loading stages for tests on sand-bentonite mixtures; test
numbers refer to Table 5
shearing behaviour being shown by tests 3 and 4, If a soil which would normally show residual
and over a range of clay fractions between about behaviour of the turbulent type is sheared against a
23% and 43% (Fig. 27). The relationship between smooth surface which locally reduces interlocking
residual friction angle and plasticity index is shown and interference, then, following the results of
in Fig. 6. The relationship between relative residual Skinner (1969) for glass ballotini, partial sliding on
strength R, and volume ratio rvcis shown in Fig. 13. the boundary might occur, with local orientation of
The trends are similar to those for the other soils. the platy particles and a low residual strength. This
situation has not been demonstrated experi-
DISCUSSION mentally. Turbulent behaviour may occur despite a
The tests on soil mixtures show that three types preponderance of platy particles, if the coefficient of
of residual shear behaviour can occur, depending interparticle friction 4, is high enough for the
on the proportions of platy, low friction particles resistance in the sliding mode to be greater than
and rotund particles present. The transition from that due to turbulent shear. Such behaviour has not
one to the other is then considered in terms of been positively demonstrated. However, the
particle packing, and the use of index properties as Studenterlunden clay (test 38 in Table 2), as
a guide to residual strength is reviewed. reported by Bishop et al. (1971), showed slight
brittleness for first time shear after normal
Turbulent shear behaviour consolidation (A&’ - l.l”), slightly greater brittle-
Soils exhibiting turbulent shear behaviour show ness when tested again with small degrees of over-
a high residual strength, typically with $a’ greater consolidation (A# - 1.5”) and very small displace-
than 25”. The residual state involves shear at ments to reach the residual state. This behaviour is
constant volume without orientation, as is consistent with turbulent shear, with perhaps slight
supposed in the classical models of soil behaviour, indications of transitional behaviour, despite a high
and this state is reached at small shear displace- content of platy particles (58% clay content, 38%
ments. When the proportion of platy particles is clay fraction; chlorite and hydrous mica). Kenney
very low the residual strength is essentially that of (1977) showed that in soils of this type a high salt
the rotund particles alone. A higher proportion of content can lead to unusually high residual
platy particles, perhaps involving separation of the strengths, and it may be that c$,, was sufficiently
contacts between the rotund particles, results in a high for failure to be in the turbulent mode, despite
reduction in strength, although still without the high proportion of platy particles.
preferred orientation of the clay. If the result of
Sliding shear behaviour
Skinner (1969) that the residual shearing resistance
of a granular soil is independent of 4, is true, then Sliding shear behaviour, in which the proportion
the reduction in strength due to the increase in clay of platy, low-friction particles is sufficiently high for
content should be due to the increased separation a well-formed, polished sliding surface of strongly
of the rotund particles, rather than to a reduction in orientated clay to develop, is well established in the
the sliding resistance between them due to inter- literature. The tests on the mica powders presented
vening clay particles which would be a function of here show that the residual friction angle is related
clay mineralogy and pore water chemistry. Ramiah to the coefficient of interparticle friction c$,,
et al. (1970) found that a change in pore-water although 4s’ is slightly greater than $,,, indicating
chemistry from flocculated to dispersed conditions that failure is not by pure sliding. Typically, 4s’ for
reduced ~$a’as measured by reversal box tests on a natural soils which show this behaviour is in the
silty clay from 33” to 28”. However, they do not give range 5” to 20”. Kenney (1977) showed that the
post-shear water contents, and the difference in +a’ residual strength in this mode of failure is strongly
may have been due to differences in granular void dependent on the mineralogy of the platy particles
ratio of the rotund particles rather than to a change and on the pore-water chemistry.4 The mineralogy
in shearing resistance of the clay between them. of the natural soils tested, where this is known, is
If a shear zone is formed it will exist essentially as given by Lupini (1980). Typically, among the tests
a zone of different water content. Overconsolida- which show low residual friction angles, these
tion will increase the peak strength of this layer angles are lowest for montmorillonitic soils, and
above the residual strength, and if stress changes highest when the mineralogy is dominated by illites
make the water content of such a zone the same as and kaolinites. For instance, tests 32 and 33 (Table
that of the surrounding soil, then its influence as a 2) are on Gault clay. The first sample contained
plane of weakness will be removed entirely. Since predominantly montmorillonite and illite, the
residual strength will be high and may be modified 4The effect of changes of pore-water chemistry on the
by subsequent stress history, the effect of pre- strength ofa sliding surface in clay may be relevant to the
existing shear surfaces within a soil which exhibits use of cement grouting and lime as a treatment for
the turbulent mode of residual shear will be limited. landslips.
T = end of transition
mtxtures
sand / mica
mixtures
0 1 I I I
b
I I I I
0 1 2 3 L 5 6 7 8
Granular void ratio eg
Fig. 28. Relative residual strength, R,, versus granular void ratio, e,, for various soil mixtures
second predominantly illite and kaolinite. The than to changes in intrinsic friction between the
residual friction angles at a normal effective stress particles. ’
of 200 kPa are 7” and 12” respectively, despite the The test results suggest that there may be two
second sample having a slightly higher clay sub-modes of sliding shear. With a proportion of
fraction. However, such a relationship is not always platy particles just sufficient to allow a complete
true. Of three samples of London clay, test 18, with sliding surface to form, there may be sufficient
montmorillonite constituting 42% of the clay rotund particles present to cause the sliding surface
content, gave &’ = 7”, test 21, with 17% mont- to deviate from the plane, both normal to the
morillonite, gave &’ = 9”, and test 26, with 25% direction of shear (striations) and in the direction of
montmorillonite, gave &’ = 11”. shear. The residual friction angle for such a surface
As is demonstrated by the tests reported here, an may be higher than for a planar surface, which may
orientated shear surface, once formed, is a perma- form as the proportion of rotund particles
nent feature of the soil and is substantially decreases. Once such a planar surface has formed a
unaffected by subsequent stress history. Since resi- further decrease in rotund particles will have no
dual strength is likely to be low, such surfaces will influence on the residual shearing angle. This is
have a significant influence on the bulk properties illustrated by the tests on sand-bentonite mixtures.
of the soil. Thus in soils which exhibit sliding shear
residual behaviour, the possible presence of such Transitional shear behaviour
surfaces is a hazard which requires careful Observations of post-shear structure indicate
investigation. When sliding occurs the residual that transitional behaviour involves discontinuous
friction angle is quite strongly dependent on sliding shear surfaces and pockets of soil behaving
normal effective stress, particularly in the low stress in the turbulent mode, both contained within a
range. Chandler (1977) showed that a small thick shear zone. If the grading of a soil is such that
increase in shear displacement is required to it is behaving, or is close to behaving, in the
establish the new residual strength on a surface pre- transitional mode, then its residual strength is likely
sheared to the residual state, if the normal effective to be sensitive to small changes in grading. It will
stress acting on it has been changed. The stressdis- exhibit the behaviour observed for both the turbu-
placement curve becomes brittle when the effective lent and sliding modes, although in muted form. In
stress has been increased. This small displacement
suggests that the structure of the shear surface 5This argument is supported by Cotecchia & Federico
requires modification for the new residual strength (1980), who showed electron micrographs of shear sur-
to be established, and that the effect ofnormal stress faces formed in reversal shear box tests on a plastic clay.
on the residual friction angle is due to changes in These show that the clay becomes more ordered when
structure and interference between particles, rather sheared at higher normal stresses.
’I
0 i I I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
2d
D
Fig. 29. Uniform spherical particles: particle separation as a function of granular void ratio
particular, the effects of increasing normal stress densest is tetrahedral which, when the spheres are in
will be to reduce the residual friction angle in sliding contact, gives eg values of0.91 and 0.34 respectively.
and at the same time to cause a denser packing ofthe If the spheres are separated, then the relationships
round particles and more interference between between eg and separation between the particles d,
them. The total effect of increasing stress on residual defined as the thickness of a plane layer which can
friction angle may thus be a product oftwo opposing be inserted between the spheres, is as given in Fig.
mechanisms. 29. The thickness of this layer should indicate the
probability of a failure surface forming in a soil
Residual shear behaviour in relation to particle without interference from the rotund particles
packing present.
Kenney (1977) recognized the significance of the The values of ep for the transitions in residual
proportion of platy particles in controlling residual behaviour which were observed for the three mix-
friction angle and correlated this angle with the tures are shown in Fig. 29. The layer separations
volume ratio rVCdefined in equation (2). From the indicated by the simple packing model vary from
preceding arguments, residual strength should -0.02 to 0.03 particle diameters for the turbulent
depend on the interference between the rotund transitions, and from 0.1 to 0.4 for the sliding
particles present in the soil, and this should be transitions. These values are reasonable. However,
reflected more directly by the void ratio of the the range of these results and the scatter obtained
granular phase of the soil e, where when R, is plotted against e, (Fig. 28) or against rVC
(Fig. 13) for the different soils suggests that eB is not
volume of platy particles and water sufficient to distinguish the changes in type of
eg =
volume of rotund particles residual behaviour in general. Other factors are
likely to be involved, such as the grading of the
= rJ(l -I,,) (3) granular soil fraction, and the relative size of
The parameter eBreflects changes in packing due to granular and platy particles. It is likely that a well-
compression directly. The relative residual strength graded granular fraction will give lower values of eg
R, for the three mixtures is shown plotted against eB for the transitions in behaviour than a uniform one;
in Fig. 28. Average results for the mixtures tested by and that, if the platy particles are much smaller than
Kenney (1977) are also shown. It is noticeable that the rotund ones, then a shear surface could form
R, changes continuously with egr and that the with smaller rotund particle separations and
relationship does not reflect the transitions in smaller values of e8 than if the platy and rotund
residual behaviour observed in the tests, which are particles are of similar size.
indicated in Fig. 28. The results support this hypothesis. The
It is useful to consider interference in an ideal soil sand-mica mixtures, in which the platy and rotund
consisting of equally sized spherical particles, in particles are of similar size and the rotund particle
symmetrical arrays, within a clay-water matrix. fraction is quite uniform, give the highest values of
The loosest packing of the spheres is cubic and the e8 for the transitions. In the sand-bentonite mix-
I-I sand / mica

Range of transition
I sand / bentonite
for mixtures
M Happisburgh / London
r’
Studenterlundon Cloy
1 o-
:lay mixtures
Unknown
Turbulent behaviour
# Transitional behaviour
Sliding behaviour
,-$ o I , , , , oi=lOO-200 kPa
0 2 L 6 8
Granular void ratio, e,
Fig. 30. Residualfriction coefficient for natural soils as a function of the packing of the granular soil fraction
tures the bentonite particles are much smaller than turbulent or sliding behaviour. Where water
the sand particles but the sand is again quite contents for the natural soils are unknown or are
uniform. The values of eg are smaller. In the thought to be unreliable, the water content wr has
Happisburgh-London clay mixtures the granular been calculated from the expression
fraction is a well-graded sand-silt and the platy
particles are much smaller than the granular wr = w,-I
log (P,‘) - loi3tPmLI)
(4)
fraction. The values of eg are smaller again. p log (P,P’)- lO8(P,,‘)
Kenney’s results also offer some support. He used a where pmL’is the mean effective stress at the liquid
fine quartz powder (2 < 6 < 60 urn) for his mixtures limit, taken to be 5.5 kPa, and pm< is the mean
which was comparable in uniformity to the sands effective stress at the plastic limit, taken to be
used for the mica and bentonite mixes just des- 550 kPa, and pm’ is the mean effective stress in the
cribed. When mixed with montmorillonite (much test, taken to be the vertical applied stress. The
smaller than the quartz powder) his results, shown derivation of this expression is similar to that of
in Fig. 29, coincide with the sand-bentonite mix- Wroth (1979). It gives good agreement with mea-
tures, and when mixed with kaolin, which was sured water contents where these are known.
nearer in particle size to the quartz powders, his The natural soils fit the transition values for the
results coincide with sand-mica mixtures. Happisburgh-London clay mixtures quite well and
However, his results for quartz-grundite mixtures do not fit the transitions for the other two mixtures.
coincide with the quartz-kaolin mixtures, despite Four of the natural soils are known to have
the grundite (mainly hydrous mica) being appar- exhibited transitional behaviour. The silty London
ently finer than the kaolin. clay (test 20, also given in Table 4) fits the middle of
Typical natural cohesive soils, at least when their the range. The Cowden till (test 41) showed turbu-
gradings put their residual behaviour close to the lent behaviour during testing, but a post-failure
transitional range, contain a reasonably well- thin section showed a shear zone to be present, with
graded granular fraction with platy particles much slight orientation of the clay within it. Both the
smaller than the rotund granular particles. Thus Penwortham till (test 45) and the Trevor Bay till
the relationship between R, and eg observed for the (test 47) showed similar shear zones when examined
Happisburgh clay-London clay mixtures should in thin section. The Bingley and Cow Green tills
be more typical for the natural soils. The relative showed results which should fall just within the
residual strength cannot be defined from single tests range of transitional behaviour, but this cannot be
on natural soils. Thus in Fig. 30, ~,JQ,,’ is plotted confirmed as no thin sections or studies of brittle-
against eB.The results for the natural soils shown in ness were made. The Studenterlunden clay (test 38)
Table 2 are shown, together with the results for the showed shear characteristics typical of the
Happisburgh-London clay mixtures. The values turbulent mode of residual shear, despite a prepon-
for e8 at the transitions in behaviour of the other derance of platy clay particles and a high value of e,.
two mixtures are also shown. The results for the The residual soil from Fiji (test 52), which con-
natural soils are divided according to known tained disordered kaolinite, showed an unusually
lY 0 I I I I I
0 2 L 6 6 10
Granular void ratio , eg
T Turbulent shear
Turbulent shear for platy panicles if @ > @‘,,. Also for soils
Tt
containing non-platy clay particles if t&se are excluded from
the volume of rotund panicles in calculating eo
s Sliding shear
Possible sliding shear when soil is failed against a smooth
Sl
interface
Transitional shear. Part turbulent and part sliding. Location of
TR
a particular soil within this zone depends on residual friction
factors of rotund and platy particles, tested separately, and
on soil grading. Platy clay panicles mixed with well-graded
sand/silt rotund particles fall to left of zone. Gap graded fine
clay and sand mixtures fall further right in direction of arrow.
Mixtures of platy and rotund panicles of comparable size fall
to right of zone
Fig. 31. Residual shear mechanisms as a function of particle packing: summary of conclusions
high residual strength despite exhibiting clear slid- (4 soils which contain allophane, halloysite,
ing behaviour during testing. attapulgite and other non-platy clay minerals, if
Figure 30 indicates that, for natural cohesive these are included in the definition of eB
soils which (‘4 soils containing coarse, low-friction platy par-
ticles; even if these particles are recognized and
(4 contain a well-graded granular fraction of
included in the definition of e8, transitions in
rotund particles of quartz or other massive
behaviour may occur at higher values of eB
minerals
contain platy clay minerals of low friction in (4 soils containing a high proportion of very fine
(‘4 rotund particles of comparable size to the platy
water of the same chemistry as the pore water
clay minerals present; higher values of e8 are
(4 have clay minerals of significantly smaller size
likely to be required for transitions in behaviour
than the rotund particles
to occur
the values of eg for the Happisburgh-London clay (4 soils containing platy particles which have a
mixtures should be a useful guide to the type of high interparticle friction angle 4, perhaps due
residual behaviour. If e, is less that 1.0 then to a high salt concentration in the pore water;
turbulent behaviour should occur and if e8 is such soils will show turbulent shear behaviour
greater than 2.2 then sliding behaviour should irrespective of the value of e8
occur. In between the behaviour should be transi- (4 soils derived from cemented marls,-mudstones
tional. The change in behaviour is progressive and shales and formed from rotund particles of
across the transition zone, and soils near the ends of these materials, but in which platy clay particles
the transition range will show residual behaviour may be generated by degradation during shear;
which, in engineering terms, is similar to the non- in these soils the definitions of eB and clay
transitional modes. content are ambiguous, as they depend on the
The following types of soil cannot be expected to degree of breakdown; if initially rotund par-
fit these limits ticles predominate, then shear will be turbulent,
with considerable particle movements within constant mineralogy but varying grading, tests may
the soil, and shearing may not be concentrated be performed on specimens covering the range of
within a narrow zone; thus very large displace- gradings present, enabling a simple correlation to
ments may be required to produce sufficient be established. Alternatively, the grading of the soil
clay particles in a concentrated zone for a full may be varied artificially by sedimentation,
sliding residual shear mechanism to develop; provided the pore water chemistry is controlled.
this may not apply when shearing is against a The occurrence of transitional behaviour, which
hard smooth surface, and apparently does not will lead to a high sensitivity of residual strength to
apply in the shear of intact mudstone in which a small changes in grading, can be examined by the
continuous shear surface forms (Spears & type of test illustrated in Fig. 15, and by post-failure
Taylor, 1972) examination of the specimens. The direct shear box
The tests reported in Fig. 30 are all on soils test with reversals may be adequate to determine
containing no particles coarser than sand. Glacial the mode of residual behaviour, at least approxi-
tills often contain much coarser particles, and the mately. The boundaries in terms of eg and index
full grading cannot be tested. It is probable for such properties which define the range of transitional
soils that the critical transitional values of eB if the behaviour can then be established.
full grading is considered will be lower than the
CONCLUSIONS
values for the soil with the larger sized particles
excluded. Three modes of residual shear behaviour are
Soils tested against a smooth interface may be recognized; a turbulent mode, a transitional mode
expected to show different behaviour. Even with and a sliding mode, the mode depending on
rotund particles only, Skinner (1969) showed that dominant particle shape and on the coefficient of
partial sliding could occur in these circumstances, interparticle friction.
with 4,“’ dependent on 4,,. If rotund particles are The turbulent mode occurs when behaviour is
separated from the smooth interface by clay dominated by rotund particles, or, possibly, in soils
particles, then a low shearing resistance controlled dominated by platy particles, when the coefficient
by partial sliding of the clay is likely, largely of interparticle friction between these particles is
independent of the value of e,,. high. Residual strength is high, no preferred particle
The possible zones of residual behaviour, in orientation occurs and brittleness is due to dilatant
terms of friction coefficient and eB, are summarized behaviour only. The residual friction angle depends
in Fig. 31. The materials with degradable particles primarily on the shape and packing of the rotund
are excluded from this summary. The wide particles and not on the coefficient of interparticle
variation in friction coefficient possible within a friction. A shear zone, once formed, is a zone of
particular mode of failure is noticeable. different porosity only and it is considerably
modified by subsequent stress history.
The use of index tests in the study of the residual The sliding mode occurs when behaviour is
strength of natural soil deposits dominated by platy, low-friction particles. A low-
The use of index tests such as Atterberg limits strength shear surface of strongly orientated platy
and clay fraction (as conventionally defined) for the particles then develops. The residual friction angle
prediction of residual strength will only be success- depends primarily on mineralogy, pore water
ful in as far as their results reflect the mechanisms chemistry and on the coefficient of interparticle
discussed previously. The mineralogy of the clay friction. A shear surface, once formed, is not
particles and the influence of pore water chemistry, significantly affected by subsequent stress history.
which control the shearing resistance in the sliding Brittleness during first shearing is due primarily to
type of residual behaviour, in particular may not be preferred particle orientation.
reflected in a systematic way by these tests (Kenney, The transitional mode occurs when there is no
1967). However, in a cohesive soil deposit in which dominant particle shape, and involves turbulent
pore water chemistry is constant, residual strength and sliding behaviour in different parts of a shear
in the sliding mode is likely to correlate with clay zone. The properties of the soil in residual shear
fraction and activity. If the clay mineralogy is change progressively across the transitional range
constant, residual strength should correlate with from those typical of turbulent shear to those
clay fraction, and also with plasticity index, since typical of sliding shear. In this mode the residual
this will be proportional to clay fraction. The tests friction angle is sensitive to small changes in
on soil mixtures correlate well when plotted in this grading of the soil, and the changes in grading
way. The use of correlations based on eg should be required to cross this range entirely are, typically,
more powerful, particularly where turbulent shear small.
is involved. A soil which will fail internally in turbulent shear
In a study of the residual strength of soil strata of may fail at least partly in sliding if it is sheared
against a smooth, hard interface. supported throughout by the Fundacion Gran

The type of shearing mode can be determined by Mariscal de Ayacucho, Venezuela.
examining brittleness with a special sequence of
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Lupini Et Al. (1981) - The Drained Residual Strength of Cohesive Soils

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LUPINI,J. F.

The drained residual strength of cohesive soils

J. F. LUPINI,* A. E. SKINNER* and P. R. VAUGHAN*

Fig. 1. Residual strength: correlations with clay fraction

- Vaughan et al (1978) 0,‘: 130 -180 kPa

Fig. 2. Residual strength: correlations with plasticity index

Table 1. Four possible modes of residual shearing

Rotund’ Turbulent Turbulent 0.6

r Needle-shaped clay minerals such as halloysite seem to

mechanisms and examination of the transition

The ring shear apparatus used in the tests 0.2

drop in residual friction coefficient with increasing

Mudstones, marls, clay-shales and other degradable materials

Aberfan Carboniferous shale

TESTS TO EXAMINE MECHANISMS OF be determined independently, and it also allowed

Fig. 7. Gradings of sand and mica powders

1 0 100 879 Consolidation

3 A 25 75 89 0.686 0.516 6, = 1OOmm

6 A 50 50 89 0.725 0.479 6, = 1OOmm

7 A 60 40 89 0652 0.427 6, = IOOmm

8 A 70 30 89 n.m. 0.372 6,=2OOmm

9 A 100 879 Consolidation

11 A 100 264 0,499 n.m. I un’ change

12 B 100 550 Consolidation

o,_,‘= ‘200 kPa

Sand -mica mixtures

Happisburgh -London clay

e, = clay void ratio

Fig. 13. Relative residual strength against volume ratio

Table 4. Ring shear tests on Happisburgh clay-London clay mixtures

Sand fraction- 0 N.P. N.P. 352 0.793 0640

Stage Shear behaviour

1. Normally consof- Turbulent shear; Sliding shear;

2. Over consol- Brittle and dil- Non-brittle; fric-

1.0- pure turbulent shear behaviour, without preferred

Test Clay Thin section Description

2 No separation on shear zone. Thin section

3 27 No separation on shear zoae. Thin section

4 34 No separation on shear zone. Thin section

6 Specimen separated on shear surface, more

Fig. 18. HappisburgCLondon clay mixtures: summary of post-failure structure

Table 5. Ring shear tests on sand-bentonite mixtures

Sand 0 N.P. N.P. 352 0612 0.589

85% sand/ 13 38 17 352 0.627 0.587

70% sand/ 26 56 36 352 0.488 0.439

55% sand/ 40 80 51 352 0.420 0,300

40% sand/ 53 114 86 352 @346 0.116

25% sand/ 66 140 104 352 0.380 0,100

Bentonite 88 184 136 703 Consc ation

Failure water contents corrected to normal stress of 177 kPa.

Table 6. Sand-bentonite mixtures: post-failure structure observed in test specimens

7 88 Specimen separated on polished shear surface which was without striations

could have resulted in a reduction in residual

100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000

(a) 1st Loading stage-Contractive (b) 2nd Loading stage - Over-consotidated

I-I sand / mica

,-$ o I , , , , oi=lOO-200 kPa

against a smooth, hard interface. supported throughout by the Fundacion Gran