World Literature Module 2020

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World Literature Module 2020
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English (Polytechnic University of the

Philippines)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Jay Rome Castillano ([email protected])
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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs
Santa Rosa Campus
_ _
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

WORLD LITERATURE
(GEED 10223)
COMPILED BY:
ROCIO MARIE M. TEJIDO

Instructor
PUP Santa Rosa Campus
June, 2020

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Unit I INTRODUCTION TO L
Lesson 1 Meaning, Forms
Base of Literatu
Lesson 2 Guidelines in Int
And the Literary
Unit II POETRY
Lesson 3 Introduction to P
Lesson 4 Types of Poems
Lesson 5 Literary Selectio
Unit III PROSE: SHORT

STORY
Lesson 6
Introduction to the
Prose, Types of Prose,
and 127- 141
Elements
of Short
Story
Lesson 7 Literary
Selections: Short
Story… 142- 170
Unit IV PROSE:
ESSAYS
Lesson 8
Introduction to the
Essay 172-174
Lesson 9 Literary
Selections 175-184
Unit V PROSE: DRAMA

2

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Lesson 10 Introduction to Drama……………………………….……….

Lesson 11 Literary Selections ……………………………….…………..

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UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
OVERVIEW:
““Without literature, life is hell.”- Charles Bukowski
In today’s fast-paced time, the moment of silence and peace in the confines of one’s room is
but a luxury [it seems]. The continuous advancement in technology and the sciences seemed
proportional to the never-ending movement of man. This allows man no respite. As such, many
students of today do not see the importance of reading, especially of literature. Some students
would find literature a bore and though, they have read all assigned texts, they still could not
grasp the very essence of the reading of literature. They do not profit from the reading of
literature for they do not realize the meaning and value of literature in their lives. It is therefore
important for students to realize the profits of reading literature. To do this, students must learn
to read beyond the superficial phase of reading. They must undergo not only the learning
experience but also the “aesthetic satisfaction.”
This unit reintroduces students to the conventions of literature so that meaning spotting and
meaning making in literature becomes easier and appreciation be achieved. This unit would
cover the different definitions of literature and its different forms. It will also present the different
structure of these forms and guide the students in basic analysis using common literary
theories.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define literature and explain its structure and elements.

2. Distinguish between prose and poetry.
3. Define descriptive, narrative and expository prose.
4. Compare the different structure of literary forms.
5. Explain the structure of literature and its function in meaning making
6. Differentiate meaning spotting from meaning making
7. Explain and analyze the different literary theories.
8. Write critical analyses of literature using the different literary theories concepts

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 1 MEANING AND FORMS OF LITERATURE
LITERATURE
Countries all over the world have their own literatures, as in philosophical or historical
periods. In general, one can equate a literature with a collection of stories, poems and plays that
revolve around a particular topic. It may or may not have nationalistic implications (Viray et al,
2012).
For literature can apply to a broad scope of ideas, this lesson discusses the salient features
of literature to have at least a grasp of what it is.
WHAT IS LITERATURE?
To some, the term literature can apply to any symbolic record, which includes scriptures and
images, as well as letters. While to others, it must only include examples of text composed of
letters, or other narrowly defined examples of symbolic written language (i.e. hieroglyphs). Even
more conservation interpreters of the concept, would demand that the text must have a physical
form, usually on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital
media (Viray et al, 2012).
Today, with the varied forms that make up literature from cave paintings and inscribed
monuments to illustrated stories and hypertext, there truly came a need to push the boundaries
of the understanding of “literature.”
However, the problem lies with how one can define literature. Eagleton (2008) presented a
typical scenario of someone hiding what he reads, ashamed, for being called for what he reads
as not literature for its “un-literariness.”
Here are some common definitions of literature:
Meaning of Literature
 Literature cannot be conveniently caught in a pat definition. It is like asking the
question of ‘What is the truth?”.
 Often when we come face to face with truth and beauty that we get to know them. So
it is with literature: we understand the meaning of literature only by coming face to
face with literature itself and taking its measure.
Definitions of Literature
1. Literature can be defined as ‘pieces of writing that are valued as works of art,
especially novels, plays and poems’. (Oxford Advanced Learner’s English
Dictionary).
2. “…the body of written works produced in a particular language, country, or age, or
the body of writings on a particular subject (scientific, art, etc.)”. (Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary and Thesaurus).
3. Literature is the total of preserved writings belonging to a given language or people.

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4. Literature is the class or the total of writings, of a given country or period, is which
notable for literary form or expression, as distinguished, on the one hand, from works
merely of technical or erudite and, on the other, from journalistic or other ephemeral
writings.
5. Literature is Life. It is any form of writing which deals with the significant human
experience -- his society and his experiences -- which is artistically conceived for an
effect.
6. Literature is the art of written works. Literally translated, the word means
“acquaintance with letters”, and therefore the academic study of literature is known
as letters.
7. Literature is “a performance in words.” –Robert Frost
8. Literature consists of those writings which interpret the meanings of nature and life,
in words of charm and power, touched with the personality of the author, in artistic
forms of permanent interests. It is a product of life and about life. It uses language as
medium. – Henry Van Dyke
Laga (n,d) in his summary of Eagleton’s introduction to literary theory reiterated some points
to consider in defining literature. Specifically, he noted that Literature is (1) imaginative writing,
(2) extraordinary language, (3) pragmatic speech, and (4) good writing.
LITERATURE IS IMAGINATIVE WRITING
Some define literature as writing which is “imaginative” or fictive, as opposed to factual, true,
or historical. This seems reasonable until we realize that ...
(1) what counts as “fact” varies with cultures and time periods. Is the book of Genesis (and
the entire Bible for that matter) fact or fiction? Are the legends and myths of Greek,
Scandinavia, and Native Americans fact or fiction? Is Darwin’s Origin of Species fact or
fiction? Are news reports fact or fiction?
(2) What is clearly imaginative writing is often not considered literature. For example, comic
books, computer game stories, and Harlequin Romances are usually excluded from the
category of “literature” even though they are certainly imaginative.
(3) A lot of what we do consider literature is more like history (i.e. Boswell’s Biography of
Samuel Johnson, Claredon’s History of the Rebe!ion) or philosophy (i.e. the works of
Mill, Ruskin, Newman). In sum, fact vs. fiction is not a helpful way to distinguish between
what is literary and what is not. There are also a lot of “facts” in novels, and many novels
are based on real historical events (Laga, n.d.).
It is therefore safe to consider that the question of whether literature is fact or fiction is not a
point to consider, especially when the distinction between works written and/or as fact or fiction
or imaginative is blurry depending on culture.
So how do we look at literature to give it a definition?
Eagleton (2008) suggests that perhaps literature is “definable not according to whether it is
fictional or “imaginative’, but because it uses language in peculiar ways.

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LITERATURE IS EXTRAORDINARY LANGUAGE
“Habitualization devours objects, clothes, furniture, one’s wife, and the fear of war. If all the
complex lives of many people go on unconsciously, then such lives are as if they had never
been. Art exists to help us recover the sensation of life; it exists to make us feel things, to
make the stone stony. The end of art is to give a sensation of the object as seen, not as
recognized. The technique of art is to make objects ‘unfamiliar,’ to make forms difficult, to
increase the difficulty and length of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be
prolonged. Art is a way of experiencing the artfulness of an object; the object is not important.”
- Victor Shklovsky (early 20th century Russian formalist)
Perhaps it is the way we use language. As some argue, literature transforms and intensifies
ordinary language. If I say, “Thou still unravished bride of quietness,” then you know it’s
literature or you know that I’m using “literary” language. The language is different from everyday
speech in texture, rhythm and resonance. The sentence, “This is awfully squiggly handwriting!”
doesn’t sound literary, does it? However, there are also some problems.
(1) “Unordinary” speech depends upon a norm from which to deviate. But the specialized
vocabulary used in sports, dance, music, small town diners, Glaswegian dockworkers,
etc. or even everyday slang varies widely from the norm, but we don’t classify that
language as “literary.” For example, most if not all of our swear words employ
metaphorical/poetic language. Isn’t the sentence ‘You’re an asshole!” literary because of
its use of metaphor? The language “defamiliarizes” or “estranges” the ordinary.
(2) There isn’t a universal norm. One person’s norm may be another’s deviation.
“Shitkicker” for “cowboy boot” may be poetic to someone from New York, but it’s
everyday speech in Laramie. Many Americans think British words for everyday items
seem poetic. For example, I smiled at a sign posted in a shopping mall in Salisbury:
“Watch Out for Slow Moving Plants.” Apparently “plants” are forms of heavy equipment
or machinery. For Brits, this sign is rather literal, but I enjoyed the figurative language. I
won’t think of machinery or flowers in quite the same way.
(3) Finally, the sentence above “This is awfully squiggly handwriting!” doesn’t sound literary,
but it comes from Knut Hamsun’s novel Hunger. Therefore, what is literary depends
upon the context. Anything read in an English class could count as literature simply
because it is read for English (Laga, n.d.).
LITERATURE IS PRAGMATIC SPEECH

Perhaps literature is “non-useful” writing, writing that doesn’t help us do something
pragmatic. There are still several problems.
(1) One could read anything as “non-useful.” That is, I could easily read a shopping list and
point out the interesting metaphors, beautiful sounds, imagery, etc. or ...
(2) I could read Moby Dick to find out how to kill whales. In fact, I have used a novel about
sled dogs to train my own dogs. Is that book no longer “literature” once I turn it into a
“how-to” book? (Laga, n.d.).
LITERATURE IS “GOOD WRITING”

Perhaps something is literary because the text is the kind of writing we like to read; it’s a
highly valued kind of writing. In this case, anything can be literature, and anything can stop
being literature. The important implication is that we don’t get to decide what is literature
because our parents, teachers, exams, textbooks, etc. define that for us. We are trained to
value the kind of writing that they value. This doesn’t mean that we are empty vessels with no

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ability to think for ourselves. However, our “personal” values and criteria are not personal, but
social. These social institutions provide us with a range of possibilities, and social values are
notoriously difficult to change (Laga, n.d.).
CONCLUSIONS:
“Literature” and the “literary” then are highly subjective categories. We can’t decide whether or
not something is “literature” or “literary” simply by looking at its form or language. Shakespeare’s
works have not always been valued as literature, and his works may not be valued in the future.
THE PRESENTATION AND STRUCTURE OF LITERATURE

(from Tan, A., (2001). Introduction to Literature 4th edition)
Whatever the literary genre, each is corrector eyes by a particular manner of presentation
wherein we see clearly the relationship existing among the author the audience and the artwork
itself.
The Drama
In this literary genre, the artistic work is performed as an objective occurrence witnessed by
the audience. Since the drama is performed objectively before an audience, this literary genre
involves the presence of the audience and work but the artist, the author himself, is absent.
Usually, the author of the dramas pants concealed in the wings of the theater reunions until the
final cost tells him that his work has succeeded. Therefore, to this question: "Who is present at
the moment of the artistic experience?" we may answer, in the case of the drama that the
audience and the work are present by the artist or the author is absent.
The Novel and the Short Story
In the case of fiction made up of the novel and the short story, the audience or the readers
are present. Usually, the reader of the novel or the short story holds the literary work in his
hands. However, he does not experience the novel or the short story as something handheld,
nor as something looked that. He experiences the novel or the short story as events and
emotions that he participates in himself. The difference between fiction and the drama is that in
the drama or the play, the events are experienced as events observed for the reader
imaginatively produces and stages the play in his mind's eye. However, in fiction, the events
are experienced as something a reader may have lived through, not a something to be
witnessed from outside by the audience. The reader- audience participates vicariously in fiction
in a way that he does not in the other literary genres. For instance, when you read a poem, you
imagine a speaker but when you read a novel or a short story, you do not.
For this reason, in a novel or a short story, the audience or the reader is private, the work is
read, and the author is concealed.
Poetry
In view of the fact that poetry, specially lyric poetry, present oral-aural quality, oral delivery of
the poem is essential to the understanding of the relationship existing between the audience
and the artist and his work. In poetry, the poet does not addressed and audience but it speaks
continuously twin self or to the universe, or, perhaps, to an absent lover. In this sense, the
audience-reader (of whose presence the poet is aware when he recites) is presumed not to be
around at all. Thus, the audience-reader may be considered to over here the poem, rather than

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to be addressed by it, as in the epic. This is the reason why students are urged to read aloud
the poem so that they may assume the role of the poet or be the spokesman of the poet and
recite in a song like a manner the feelings and beliefs morally to an audience-reader who is
ignored. This outpouring of the feelings and beliefs of the poet to an audience-reader whose
presence he is aware but he ignores is the best quality of a lyric poem, not its versification
(rhyme, meter, stanza). The fact that poetry is presented on the printed page does not make its
typical form any less oral, just as the printing or recording of a play does not make it any less a
typically dramatic, presented, and enacted form. The drama is drama in so far as it is to be
performed. Similarly, the poem differs from fiction, epic, and drama in so far as it is to be heard
by an audience reader to whom it is not addressed. In this genre, the artists in the work are
present but not the audience. The poem itself is allegedly the outpouring of the artist's feelings
and beliefs, whether in the poet's own or fictional guise. The work is present because it is
offered as a formal entity, as a product, not because it is written down for the sake of pure self-
expression. Rather, the poet is perfectly aware that he is creating a monument that may be
appreciated by posterity, although not addressed to them.
The Essay
As a literary genre, the essay is a communication from the individual author, as a person, to
the audience (the reader). Like fiction, the essay is red rather than heard or seen and for this
reason, the author will, typically, identify himself as one addressing the audience. In view of the
fact that the essay is read from the printed page, it's real content is not objectively present. This
is also true in fiction. But we said that the author was absent in fiction. How, then, is the author
"present" in the case of the essay? Of course, literally, he's not crowding the reader out of his
armchair but imaginatively; however, the typical essay is thought of by the reader as a
communication from the author to himself. It is a verbal contract between two people and in this
sense, the essay involves the presence of the audience-reader and the author, who is a real
person, is communicating to the reader his own thoughts and experiences.
The Epic
This genre is now rare in a literal form, for today the epic is no longer recited to an audience
to by a bard. The ancient times, the epic, as a long dramatic narrative, was recited by a bard to
an audience to the accompaniment of a musical instrument, the lyre. Then, in those times, the
long narratives were recited to an audience by a bard who regarded himself as the author,
whether he was in fact or not. Frequently, in the epic, the author expresses his own views on
the meaning of what has happened. These remarks resume the presence of an audience with
whom the either artist is communicating. Unlike the essay, the epic form lays great emphasis
upon the objectively created story. The author regards himself as creating something
independent of its own attitudes and beliefs. Thus, the epic frequently has a mythic or partly
historical base, and a poetic form. So the epic is recited to an audience by the artist-poet, this
literary genre requires the presence of all three: the audience, the artist, and the work. However,
the genre of the epic died when the narratives were no longer formally recited to an audience.
Instead of the epic, the genre of the fiction was born to replace the epic.
GENRE AUDIENCE AUTHOR WORK
Drama Group Absent Performed
Epic Group Present Recited
Short Story Private Concealed Read
Novel Private Concealed Read
Poetry Ignored Present Recited (or sung)
Essay Private Implied Read

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The table above may be restated again as follows:
1. The drama is performed objectively before an audience, the actors being presumed to be
fictional characters themselves, not spokesman for the author. It is seen and heard.
2. The epic is recited to an audience by the author or spokesman for him. It is heard.
3. Short story and the novel are marked by the absence of the author and any actor or
expositor. They are read. Since they do not differ in this respect, both are simply called fiction.
4. Lastly, poetry is recited by the author or the spokesman for him but not to the audience.
Figuratively, therefore, poetry is overheard.
THE STRUCTURAL BASE OF THE LITERARY GENRES
With focus on the four genres: drama, fiction, poetry, and essay, this section discusses the
distinctive structural base of each genre.
•PLOT
DRAMA •Event
•CHARACTER'S
FICTION CONSCIOUSNESS
•consciousness
•TONE
POETRY •Sound
•Mood
ESSAY •THEME
•message
In literature, structure refers to the relationship among the parts of an artistic written work
while structural base means what defines a part. All types of literature – whether it is poetry,
drama, fiction, or essay – have four structural bases: tone, character, plot and the theme.
However, each genre is typically structured in terms of one of the four. In each case, the typical
structure derives from the presentation that defines the genre.

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Poetry is read, and, for this reason, its structural base is sound and what sound expresses,
mood. The two together constitute the tone of poetry. Drama is witnessed, and, therefore, its
structural base is event, the building blocks of the plot. On the other hand, fiction is the
vicariously experienced. Hence, it's a structural base is consciousness, the realm of the
characters. And lastly, the essay is communicated. Its structural base, then, is a message to be
understood, its theme.
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE
WHY STUDY LITERATURE?
Reading and studying Literature in very important for various reasons as outlined by
(Shimmer Chinodya, 1992:36)
1. Literature improves your command of language
2. It teaches you about the life, cultures and experiences of people in other parts of the
world.
3. It gives you information about other parts of the world which you may never be able
to visit in your lifetime.
4. It entertains you and provides useful occupation in your free time.
5. It makes you a wiser and more experienced person by forcing you to judge,
sympathize with, or criticize the characters you read about.
6. It gives information which may be useful in other subjects, for example, in
Geography, Science, History, Social Studies, and so on.
FORMS OF LITERATURE
POETRY
 …is a composition usually written in verse. Poems rely heavily on imagery, precise word
choice and metaphor; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of
stresses (metric feet) or of patterns of different-length syllables (as in classical prosody);
and they may or may not utilize rhyme.
 Poetry is a disciplined, compact verbal utterance, in some none/less musical mode,
dealing with aspects of internal or external reality on some meaningful way.
 A poem is formed by means of verses that are arranged into a stanza or stanzas, and
that are regulated in flow by meter and rhyme.
 Poetic License – the liberty given to poets t do whatever they want to do with the
language. It can violate the rules of grammar, insert new words and follow unusual
syntactical arrangements to meet the requirement of their poem.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN POETRY AND PROSE

(from eGyanKosh, 2017b)
1. Poetry is not prose
The essential difference between the two is that prose is the vehicle of reason while
poetry is the vehicle of emotion. This in no way suggests that prose excludes emotion and
poetry excludes reason. We all know that scientific discoveries, philosophical discourses, legal
exposition and literary theories employ the medium of prose and not of poetry. It is so because
all such writings demand reasoned argument and unambiguity in expression, which can be best
achieved only in prose.

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But poets do not believe exclusively in the primacy of reason. A poet is a person of strong
feelings and keenly developed sensibility. He is imaginative and has an intuitive response to all
that he sees and hears He sees objects not merely as sense impressions (as the eye perceives
them) but with the power of his imagination, he looks beyond the perceived object to discern its
existence in a world beyond the reach of his senses. For example, a rose is a rose to all of us,
but to the poet contemplating it, it becomes something more than a rose. Like anyone of us, he
also sees the rose with his eyes, smells its fragrance, discerns its color and shape and gets
pleasurable excitement. But the appeal of the rose does not stop here. It goes beyond his sense
and intellect to evoke in him an emotional response to its beauty.
Wordsworth, one of the greatest English poets, wrote these lines about a person who is
insensitive to nature's beauty.
"A primrose by a river's brim,

A yellow primrose was to him,
And it was nothing more"
But to Wordsworth, the same is more than a little flower; it evokes in him feelings of great joy
and exultation. This capacity for emotional response - what is known as sensibility - is related
to his imaginative perception to look into the inner life or spirit of the object perceived (e.g. the
rose). In other words, the poet creates a new world out of the object perceived - a world that
exists within his idea, his imagination and his vision. Poetry enables him to give expression to
this newly created world of his imagination that lies beyond the senses. But you must remember
that the poet's world is not dream world; it is as much rooted in the perceivable world except
that most of us do not have the poetic capability to express our feelings and emotions on seeing
something as beautiful as a rose. All poetry is a succession of experiences - sights and sounds,
thoughts, images and emotions. This, in essence, is the fundamental difference between prose
and poetry: while prose limits itself largely to the intellectual and the rational, poetry goes
deeper to dwell upon the imaginary and the visionary perceptions. The empirical and the
tangible reality is the domain of prose, while the suprasensible and the intangible fall within the
sphere of poetry.
2. Poetry is a Metrical Composition
Poetry expresses a rich imaginative awareness of experience through meaning, sound and
rhythm. These three components (meaning, sound and rhythm) essentially give poetry its,
musical quality. Poetry uses words which are expressions of both musical sound and
meaningful speech. The language of *try is the most expressive rhythmic language. Rhythm in
English is based on recurrence of strong and weak syllables in a pattern.
3. Poetry is an Organized Form

Poetry has a highly organised form, which is determined by the exigencies of metre and rhyme.
We use language in our ordinary speech for purposes of communication. The language that we
use expresses ideas and feelings necessary to our daily routine and whenever we wish to
infuse vital power into these words, we do so by a change in intonation of the voice or by an
emphasis on certain key words. When you look at verse written on a page, you recognise at
once that verse with its line-endings has a regular form. Poetry uses words in an organised
arrangement or pattern to express feelings, sensations, broad mental impressions and visions
which are often intellectually difficult to express.

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PROSE
Prose
Varieties of Prose Forms of Prose
Descrip- Exposi-
Fictional Non-Fictional
tiveNarrative tory
Biogra-
Letter &
Short
Novel Trave- logue Essayphy &Diary & AutobiogSpeech
Story raphy
Definitions:
 …consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than
simple grammar). It is spoken or written language without metrical structure as
distinguished from poetry
 Prose is any writing or speech in its normal continuous form, without the rhythmic or
visual line structure of poetry. It is divided into two classifications: fiction and non fiction
 Prose is discourse which uses sentences usually forming paragraphs to express ideas,
feelings and actions. In subject matter, prose generally concentrates on the familiar and
the ordinary. Prose is mainly concerned with the ordinary, but it may deal with subjects
such as heroism, beauty, love and the nobility of spirit which usually find the most
eloquent expression in poetry.
The word ‘prose’ is taken from the Latin ‘prose” which means ‘direct’ or ‘straight’. Broadly
speaking, prose is direct or straightforward writing. In poetry, which is generally written in verse,
a lot of things may be left to the imagination of the reader.
In ordinary prose, the aim is to communicate one's thoughts and feelings. What is important
then is (a)pwhat one wants to say, and (b) how one chooses to say it. What is said is the topic
or subject of the composition. How it is said is the style or manner in which the topic is
expressed. The style, of course, greatly depends upon who we are writing for and what sort of
personality we have. There are different topics and different styles. Whatever the number of
topics, they all come under one or another variety of prose and *each variety may have a
distinct style of its own. (IGNOU, 2017b)

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROSE AND POETRY
A French poet and critic, Paul Valeiy, compared prose to walking and poetry to dancing.
WALKING
 We walk in order to go from one place to another.
 We do it for a particular purpose.
 When we walk for exercise, we do it for the improvement of our health.
Therefore, walking is utilitarian, that is, it is something that I we do with a purpose in view.
ORDINARY PROSE is like walking.

 We use words to give information, to get something done, to make someone do what we
want him/her to do, and so on.
 In ordinary prose, what is important is the message. But this is not the primary
consideration in literary prose. What is important also is how language is used, how
ideas and emotions are communicated and how the style suits the content.
DANCING
 When you go to see a dance, you are not interested in seeking information. When you
see a good dance, you enjoy it.
 In other words, the objective is enjoyment and not mere information or instruction.
When you like a particular dance, you go and see that dance over and over again
because every time you see it, you get a new aesthetic experience.
 In the case of poetry and literary prose, you have what you call your favorite poem or
passage. You read it several times and are not tired of it. If it is an ordinary prose
passage, the moment you understand the meaning, you don't want to read it again.
 In literary prose as well as in poetry, it is not just the meaning that is important,
but also the medium. It is often difficult to say what is more important, the form or the
content. There is, however, an inseparability between the two, a togetherness. It is the
togetherness of the sound and the sense, it is the togetherness of form and content. This
is what is unique to great literature.
POETRY AND LITERARY PROSE

 Like in dancing where every gesture is important for the position that it occupies in that
particular dance and where each gesture contributes to the total effect of the dance; in
the same way, in a good poem or a piece of literary prose, every word is important for
the position it occupies in it, and contributes to its total effect.

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 Again, in a good dance, when the dance is on, you cannot distinguish the dancer from
the dance. In any great poem or passage of literary prose, it will be difficult to separate
the effect of the medium from the effect of the message. We do paraphrase a poem, but
the paraphrase of a poem is not the poem. A prose piece can be paraphrased,
summarized but not a poem. The meaning of the poem is the meaning that you
experience every time you read the poem and you cannot say of any poem that you've
exhausted it.
 The 'literariness' of a particular poem or prose piece lies partly in this quality. A literary
piece usually has layers of meaning, for the writer works through suggestion, allusion,
imagery and other such devices. The use of literary devices alone does not make a
piece "literary". What is important is the way in which they contribute to the unity and
thereby the final effect of the piece. Every time you go to it, you get a new meaning, a
new aesthetic delight. This is mainly because of the connotation of the words in poetry.
VARIETIES OF PROSE
(from eGyanKosh, 2017b)
Now let us examine the different varieties of prose.
A. Descriptive Prose
Descriptive writing describes things as they are or as they appear to be. It can be the
description of a person or a landscape or an event. In descriptive writing, we are able to see
things as they are or were seen or heard or imagined by the describer. A good description
translates the writer's observation into vivid details and creates an atmosphere of its own.
Through his/her description, the author tries to recreate what she has seen or imagined. A fine
description is a painting in words. Here is a description of Mr. Squeers in Charles Dickens'
Nicholas Nickleby (1838-39):
Mr. Squeers' appearance was not prepossessing. He had but

one eye, and the popular prejudice runs in favour of two. The eye
he had was unquestionably useful, but decidedly not ornamental:
being of a greenish grey, and in shape resembling the fan-light of
a street door. The blank side of his face was much wrinkled and
puckered up, which gave him a very sinister appearance,
especially when he smiled, at which times his expression
bordered closely on the villainous. His hair was very flat and
shiny, save at the ends, where it was brushed stiffly up from a
low protruding forehead, which assorted well with his harsh
voice and coarse manner. He was about two or three and fifty,
and a trifle below the middle size; he wore a white neckerchief
with long ends, and a suit of scholastic black; but his coat
sleeves being a great deal too long, and his trousers a great deal
too short, he appeared ill at ease in his clothes, and as if he were
in a perpetual state of astonishment at finding himself so
respectable.

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Vocabulary
prepossessing: inspiring
puckered up: full of folds and wrinkles
sinister: wicked, evil
protruding: jutting out, projecting
scholastic: formal, academic
This is a graphic description of the appearance of Mr. Squeers. The details are so sharp that
we can easily visualize the person. We are told about his height, his eye, his face, hair,
forehead and dress. A successful description, it enables us to picture the person vividly. It is
also a very enjoyable passage. Did you notice the irony in 'He had but one eye, and the popular
prejudice runs in favour of two'? The irony and subtle humour continue throughout the passage
so that the reader cannot help smiling to her himself. The eye is further likened to 'the fan-light
of a street door'- a very interesting and unusual analogy. You must also have noticed how
carefully Dickens chooses his words so that we can 'see' the hair that was 'very flat and shiny',
'hear' his 'harsh voice' and so on. These then are some of the devices that you will find used
effectively in literary prose.
Here is another example: The Corner Store (by Eudora Welty)

“Our Little Store rose right up from the sidewalk; standing in a
street of family houses, it alone hadn’t any yard in front, any tree
or flower bed. It was a plain frame building covered over with
brick. Above the door, a little railed porch ran across on an
upstairs level and four windows with shades were looking out.
But I didn’t catch on to those. Running in out of the sun, you met
what seemed total obscurity inside. There were almost tangible
smells — licorice recently sucked in a child’s cheek, dill pickle
brine1 that had leaked through a paper sack in a fresh trail
across the wooden floor, ammonia-loaded ice that had been
hoisted from wet croker sacks and slammed into the icebox with
its sweet butter at the door, and perhaps the smell of still
untrapped mice.”
This description of the “Little Store” is not only clear and concise, but also has images and
sensory information about the store building.
A successful description makes you visualize the scene or the person. Generally, description
is not an independent form of writing, that is, a whole book will not consist of descriptions alone.
It is often used as an aid to narrative or expository writing. Its main purpose is to describe a
sense impression or a mood.
B. Narrative Prose
A narrative tells us what happens or happened. It deals mainly with events. In other words a
narrative is a description of events. It may deal with external or internal events. By internal
events, we mean the thoughts, feelings and emotions of individuals. Narrative writing tries to
recreate an actual experience or an imaginary one in a way that we are able to experience it
mentally. We lose ourselves in the characters and events of the narrative temporarily.

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Narratives can deal with the facts or fiction. Autobiographies, biographies, letters, travelogues,
diaries and speeches are narratives of fact. The short story and novel come under the category
of narrative fiction.
In a narrative, we are carried along the stream of action. When we narrate a story, we
concentrate on the sequence of events. It is the action that grips the attention of the reader. The
Rarnayana and the Mahabharata are examples of narrative writing. Narration is concerned with
action and actors, it may make use of description but description is secondary. Action,
characters and setting are the elements that are woven into a pattern to make the narrative
interesting. Rudyard Kipling mentioned the ingredients of a narrative in the following verse:
I keep six honest-serving men

They taught me all I know:
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who
What happens? Why does it happen? When does it happen? How does it happen? Where
does it happen and to whom does it happen? All these questions are answered satisfactorily in
a narrative. What makes a narrative interesting is not just what is said but the way it is said.
Look at this passage from Charles Dickens' novel Oliver Twist (1837). Here we shall read about
the trial of the Artful Dodger when he is produced in court on charges of pickpocketing.
It was indeed Mr Dawkins, who, shuffling into the office with the
big coat sleeves tucked up as usual, his left hand in his pocket,
and his hat in his right hand, preceded the jailer, with a rolling gait
altogether indescribable, and, taking his place in the dock,
requested in an audible voice to know what he was placed in that
‘ere disgraceful sitivation for.
'Hold your tongue, will you?' said the jailer.
'I'm an Englishman, ain't I?' rejoined the Dodger; 'where are my
privileges?'
'You'll get your privileges soon enough,' retorted the jailer, 'and
pepper with ‘em.'
'We'll see wot the Secretary of State for the Home Affairs has got
to say to the beaks, if I don't', replied Mr Dawkins. 'Now then! Wot
is this here business? I shall thank the madg'strates
to dispose of this here little affair, and not to keep me while they
read the paper for I've got an appointment with a genelman in the
city, and as I'm a man of my word and very punctual in business
matters, he'll go away if I ain't there to my time, and then pr'aps
there won't be an action, for damage against as kept me away.
Oh, no, certainly not!' At this point the Dodger, with a show of
being very particular with a view to proceedings to be had
thereafter, desired the
jailer to communicate 'the names of them two files as was on the
bench', which so tickled the spectators, that they laughed almost
as heartily as Master Bates could have done if he had
heard the request.

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'Silence there!' cried the jailer.

'What is this?' inquired one of the magistrates.
'A pick-pocketing case, your worship.'
'Has the boy ever been here before?'
'He ought to have been, a many times,' replied the jailer. 'He
has been pretty well everywhere else. 1 know him well, your
worship.'
'Oh! You know me, do you?' cried the Artful, making a note
of the statement. 'Wery good. That's a case of deformation of
character anyway.'
Here there was another laugh, and another cry of silence.
'Now then, where are the witnesses?' said the clerk.
'Ah! That's right,' added the Dodger. 'Where are they? I should
like to see ‘em.' This wish was immediately gratified, for a
policeman stepped forward who had seen the prisoner attempt
the pocket of an unknown gentleman in a crowd, and indeed take
a handkerchief there from, which, being a very old one, he
deliberately put back again, after trying it on his own
countenance. For this reason, he took the Dodger into custody as
soon as he could get near him, and the said Dodger being
searched, had upon his person a silver snuff-box, with the
owner's name engraved upon the lid. This gentleman had been
discovered on reference to the Court Guide, and being then and
there present, swore that the snuff-box was his, and that he had
missed it on the previous day, the moment he had disengaged
himself from the crowd before referred to. He had also remarked
a young gentleman in the throng particularly active in making his
way about, and that young gentleman was the prisoner before
him.
'Have you anything to ask this witness, boy?' said the magistrate.
'I wouldn't abase myself by descending to hold no conversation
with him,' replied the Dodger.
'Have you anything to say at all?'
'Do you hear his worship ask if you have anything to say?'
inquired the jailer, nudging the silent Dodger with his elbow.
'I beg your pardon,' said the Dodger, looking up with an air of
abstraction. 'Did you redress yourself to me, my man?'
'I never see such an out-and-out young wagabond, your worship,'
observed the officer with a grin. 'Do you mean to say anything,
you young shaver?'
'No,' replied the Dodger, 'not here, for this ain't the shop for
justice; besides which, my attorney is a-breakfasting this morning
with the Wice-President of the House of Commons; but I shall
have something to say elsewhere, and so will he, and so will a
very numerous and ‘spectable circle of acquaintance as'll make
them beaks wish they'd never been born, or that they'd got their

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
footmen to hang ‘em up to their own hat-pegs afore they let ‘em
come out this morning to try it on upon me. I'll -'
'There! He's fully committed!' interposed the clerk. 'Take him
away.'
'Come on,' said the jailer.
'Oh, ah! I’ll come on,' replied the Dodger, brushing his hat with
the palm of his hand. 'Ah! (to the Bench), it's no use your looking
frightened; I won't show you no mercy, not a ha'porth of it. You'll
pay for this, my fine fellers. I wouldn't be you for something! I
wouldn't go free, now, if you was to fall down on your knees and
ask me. Here, carry me off to prison! Take me away!'
This is a hilarious passage that tells us about the Artful Dodger's defiant conduct at his trial
('I'm an Englishman: ain't I? ... where are my priweleges?'). We respond at one level to the
hilarious situation but at another we also wonder: what should the poor do against such
oppressive judicial systems? ('This aint the shop of justice'). We also get a clear picture of the
Artful Dodger: his 'coat-sleeves tucked up', his 'hand in his pocket' and his 'rollingr gait' are
described vividly at the outset. What then follows is a dialogue full of ironical, witty and quick
rejoinders by this habitual offender. This is alternated with third person narration: "At this point
the Dodger, with a show of being very particular with a view to proceedings to be had thereafter,
desired the jailer to communicate 'the names of them two files as was on the bench'; which so
tickled the spectators, that they laughed almost as heartily as Master Bates could have done if
he had heard the request". In short, what we wish to point out is that narrative writing makes use
of narration as well as description. In order to dramatize the situation, dialogues and
conversations are introduced so that the writer is able to recreate the situation and
communicate the experience.
To compare with descriptive prose we can say that a writer’s earliest literary impulse has
always been to report what he sees in the world around him. In “Description,” he endeavors to
portray the scene before his eyes; in “Narration,” he attempts to tell the story. These are two
very important elements in writing a story.
Some of our favorite authors have praised parts of their success on having learned to write
descriptive scenes and characters, but with lots of self-control.
Stephen King said, “In many cases when a reader puts a story aside because it ‘got boring,’
the boredom arose because the writer grew enchanted with his powers of description and lost
sight of his priority, which is to keep the ball rolling.” And Elmore Leonard, an American novelist
and screenwriter, said, “Don’t go into great detail describing places and things, unless you’re
Margaret Atwood and can paint scenes with language. You don’t want descriptions that bring
the action, the flow of the story, to a standstill.” (Freelance Writing, 2016).
C. Expository Prose
Expository writing deals in definition, explanation or interpretation. It includes writing on science,

law, philosophy, technology, political science, history and criticism. Exposition is a form of
logical presentation.

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Its primary object is to explain and clarify. It presents details concretely and exactly. Expository
writing is writing that explains. But we are not interested in writing that merely explains. We are
interested in expository writing that can be read as literature. The following is a piece of
expository prose:
In the leg there are two bones, the tibia and fibula. The tibia or
shin-bone is long and strong and bears the weight of the body.
The fibula or splint bone is an equally long but much slenderer
bone, and is attached to the tibia as a pin is to a brooch.
Leonard Hill, Manual of Human Physiology
This piece clearly defines the two bones, the tibia and the fibula. But can this be read as
literature? Now let us look at another piece of expository prose.
Now mark another big difference between the natural slavery of

man to Nature and the unnatural slavery of man to man. Nature is
kind to her slaves. If she forces you to eat and drink, she makes
eating and drinking so pleasant that when we can afford it we eat
and drink too much. We must sleep or go mad: but then sleep is
so pleasant that we have great difficulty in getting up in the
morning. And firesides and families seem so pleasant to the
young that they get married and join building societies to realize
their dreams. Thus, instead of resenting our natural wants as
slavery, we take the greatest pleasure in their satisfaction. We
write sentimental songs in praise of them. A tramp can earn his
supper by singing Home, Sweet Home.
The slavery of man to man is the very opposite of this. It is hateful
to the body and to the spirit. Our poets do not praise it; they
proclaim that no man is good enough to be another man's master.
The latest of the great Jewish prophets, a gentleman named Marx,
spent his life in proving that there is no extremity of selfish cruelty
at which the slavery of man to man will stop if it be not stopped by
law. You can see for yourself that it produces a state of continual
civil
war-called the class war-between the slaves and their masters,
organized as Trade Unions on one side and Employers'
Federations on the other.
(G.B. Shaw, 'Freedom'-one of a series of BBC Radio Talks-18 June, 1935 in

Modern Prose, .Michael Thorpe, pp 14748)
There is a clear difference between the two passages. Shaw puts across his argument logically
and convincingly. He first talks about the natural slavery of man to Nature by giving a series of
examples. He then contrasts this with unnatural slavery of man to man. By use of contrast, this
argument is further strengthened. The result is that difficult concepts like freedom and slavery
are readily understood. What is however, remarkable is that his use of simple language, tongue-
in-cheek manner and conversational style immediately strikes a sympathetic and receptive

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chord in the reader. These two passages must have given you some idea about the difference
between literary and non-literary expository writing.
READINGS
BOOK
1. Eagleton, T. (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction (3rd ed.). Univ Of Minnesota Press.
2. Martin, M., Guevarra, A., Del Campo, E., & Perez, M. (2016). English Communication
Arts and Skills Beyond Borders: Reading Literature in the 21st Century (1st ed.).
Quezon City: The Phoenix Publishing House, Inc
3. Tan, A. (2001). Introduction to Literature (4th ed.). Quezon City: Academic Publishing
Corporation.
4. Tomeldan, Y., Arambulo, T., Rivera, N., Alaras, C., Legasto, P., Mariño, P., & Peña, L.
(2010). PRSIM An Introduction to Literature (2nd ed.). Mandaluyong City: National
Bookstore.
5. Viray, Ligaya A. et al. (2012) World Literature. Grandwaters Publishing. Pateros, Metro
Manila
ONLINE ARTICLES
1. Freelance Writing. (2016, August 1). Narrative Prose: The Elements of Description and
Narration. https://www.freelancewriting.com/creative-writing/narrative-prose-elements/
2. IGNOU. (2017, May 23). eGyanKosh: Unit-1 Introduction to Poetry. EGyanKosh.
http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/27436
3. IGNOU. (2017b, May 23). eGyanKosh: Unit-1 “Understanding Prose”: An Introduction.
EGyanKosh. http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/27394
4. Laga, B. (n.d.-b). What is literature? Critical Reading. Retrieved August 15, 2020,
from http://org.coloradomesa.edu/%7Eblaga/Theory/Literary.html
5.
WATCH
1. Andrew Neuendorf. (2014, August 18). Introduction to Literature 1 [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rseiDyO1-QQ
2. Macat. (2016, April 14). An introduction to the discipline of Literature [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xz9rfDm1Wr4&t=29s
3. mayhstsy. (2008, June 12). Literature professor tells us why we should care [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-wv6DUKInE
4. StudioBinder. (2018, September 24). How to Pitch a TV Show Idea — TV Writing &
Development: Ep6 [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=175&v=hFL0qLOihzc&feature=emb_title
5. Upper Iowa University. (2014, December 9). Why Study Literature? by Dr. Thomas
Jordan [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iX21bKQmtlU

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ACTITVITIES/ASSESSMENT:
1. THINKING CAP- The Channel Pitch: Write a one-minute pitch for a

channel to create an episode to discuss literature and its values. Follow the basic
format for the pitch below.
Origin Characters Obstacles Open Road
Human Desires Highlights

Hook
Check this out: StudioBinder. (2018, September 24). How to Pitch a TV Show Idea —
TV Writing & Development: Ep6 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
time_continue=175&v=hFL0qLOihzc&feature=emb_title
2. Quiz: For online classes, quiz will be given through Google forms in Google classroom;
while for Modular mode, they will have the quiz file in their flash disk.

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 2 GUIDELINES IN INTERPRETING LITERARY TEXTS AND THE LITERARY
THEORIES
MINING LITERATURE FOR DEEPER MEANING
To have a general idea of what it means to interpret a literary text, watch the video from
TED-Ed: Mining literature for deeper meanings - Amy E. Harter [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eREopphW5Bw
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO INTERPRET A TEXT?

On Interpretation—A Proposal
“There are no hidden meanings. If such things as hidden meanings can be said to exist,
they are hidden by readers’ habits and prejudices (by readers’ assumptions that what they read
should tell them what they already know), or by readers’ timidity and passivity (by their
unwillingness to take the responsibility to speak their minds and say what they notice).” David
Bartholomae
Dr. Barry Laga in his article stated that to “interpret” something means to “make sense” of
something. It is that moment that we ask the questions, “What does it mean?” or the point that
we try to “understand” something that we experience that we find ourselves in the realm of
interpretation. “We order it, group it, and ultimately try to relate it to what we already know in an
effort to integrate it (texts that refuse to be integrated within our frame of reference remain “too
difficult” or “not understandable”). We don’t “discover” meaning as much as we “construct”
meaning, for the reader is the one who makes the connections. On the other hand, the author
provides a kind of “field” or parameters that the reader works with, so the text can’t just signify
“anything.” In this sense, Laga cites a comparison of a story to the night sky. He explains that
the configuration of stars is present, awaiting a reader, however it is the reader that makes the
connections to create meaningful constellations (Laga, n,d). In the same manner, Jose Garcia
Villa’s visual poems, ‘the emperor’s new sonnet’ and the ‘Bashful Ones’ are the same. These
visual poems allow the reader to make sense of the poem based from the given or missing
letters or words, structure and more.

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So as Robert Scholes points out, “the major function of interpretation is to say what a previous
text has left unsaid: to unravel its complications, to make explicit its implications, to raise its
concrete and specific details to a more abstract and general level.” In other words, when we
read a story about two kids in a forest who meet a lady who wants to eat them, we make sense
of that story by interpreting it. We say it is a story about poverty, justice, greed, feudal society,
hope and victory, childhood anxieties, or abuse, etc (Laga, n,d).
Interpretation is not just thinking hard or well. It is not even just a matter of “digging deeper”
or dissecting” a piece of text. Interpretation relies on METHODOLOGY or LENS (materials that
could be counted as evidence –what we see as relevant or important), PERSEPCTIVE, FRAME
OF REFERENCE, PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION, or INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK. All
of these allow a reader to see the text from different perspectives. In brief, a method is defined
by our goals and the questions we ask.
Now, why is it necessary to know about the questions that we ask when we do
interpretations?
Questions which share similar interest or concerns can often be grouped and labeled. In the
same way, questions that share similar interests are not only divided according to its topic or
subject (what we look at) but also by the relevant questions that we ask. Laga (n.d.) extends the
argument by stating that different disciplines may consider one question common (e.g. sex or
gender); however that same question may be asked differently depending on the field. Thus it
results to varied answers or conclusions. The kind of interpretation that we come up with
depends on the type of questions we ask and on the different lenses that we take. The lens that
we use allows us, reader, to open our perspective to something that another lens blinds us from.
To go back to Bartholomae’s assertion, meaning is “hidden” only because the lens we use often
makes us blind to a meaning, for the “meaning” may be absolutely obvious to another reader
with another lens.
In relation to this, questions that share interests or concerns are often labeled i.e. historical,
scientific, empirical, etc. but also terms like Formalist, Freudian, Marxist, feminist, Christian, etc
may be used. As Laga (n.d.) explained, “while this class will not insist on one method, we will
tend to use lenses which highlight relations of gender, class, race, and ideology. What is
important for you to keep in mind is that there is not just one approach which is the best.”
This simply mean that each approach offer insights as well as blind spots in interpretation. With
each approach, readers must understand that there are gains and limitations to the questions
and concerns that are posed. Furthermore, it is not simply a matter of “switching lenses.” The
lens we are most used to tend to color the one we are attempting to use.
Finally, many will say that we interpret too much or that we “read too much into” a story, a
movie, or TV program, but even that statement is a kind of interpretation, perhaps a lousy one.
Put another way, we are always interpreting/reading everything around us, even if we say, “Oh,
that’s just a cartoon. It doesn’t mean anything!” Most of the times we are blind to our own
methodology or way of seeing because it seem so “natural,” “commonsensical,” or “normal.”
Just because we are used to a way of seeing, just because our own perspective seems normal
or natural, does not mean that we are not using a specific kind of “lens.” It just means that we
are unwilling to admit it. Thus, when someone says, “You’re reading too much into it,” what they
are really saying is, “I don’t like the lens you’re looking through. Or, I don’t like your perspective
or vantage point. Or, I don’t like what your lens reveals because it disturbs me or threatens
my way of seeing.”

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PRELIMINARIES ON INTERPRETING LITERARY TEXTS
A. Meaning versus Significance
Viray, et al (2012) explains that in reading literature, what we actually get is not the meaning
of the text but its significance. Meaning resides only on the author, the very person who created
the work. As readers, we get significance that which is comprehensive to us, that which we think
the text is about. With this in mind, we must understand that as readers, we come to understand
the text’s significance from the hints given by the author or the lenses that we choose to use in
our analysis. We may never know what the author really meant unless he personally tells us the
meaning of the text.
B. Meaning spotting versus Meaning Making
When we read a text, we do not approach it empty handed, but we bring to it our own
emotional and intellectual baggage. Reading and interpreting literature does not mean
meaning spotting (Viray, et al, 2012). It is important to remember that interpreting literature is
not just dissecting the piece in hopes of finding hidden metaphors, allegory, theme or moral
value. As readers, we have an active role in the meaning making process. We readers make
something out of the text. Interpreting a text depends not only on the text itself but also on who
we are and what we bring to the reading. Not even writers can dictate what we shall make of the
literary piece.
C. Reading the different Genres
In reading any literary piece, it is important to identify its genre. Special conventions govern
and operate in a particular genre. This means we cannot read poetry, as we read a short story
or a novel or drama or essay. We must approach each genre differently as each is structured or
built differently.
LITERARY APPROACHES AND THEORIES
Literary theory refers to the study of the principles of literature, its categories, criteria and
more. Different theories offer different readings and interpretations to the text. These theories,
however, seek to make our reading and interpretation of literature richer and more meaningful, if
not more effective (Viray et al, 2012). These theories become our lenses that give us
perspectives by which we can begin to understand literature.
WATCH THESE:
1. What is Literary Criticism?
Tim Nance. (2015, February 25). What is Literary Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f31V4XiPBdI
2. Methodology: An Introduction to Literary Theory
The Nature of Writing. (2017, May 25). Methodology: An Introduction to Literary Theory [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hXLm3zZYhc0

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1. The Work and the world it imitates (The Classical Theory)

This theory is premised on the idea that literature is an imitation of life. It mirrors life, reality
as we know. To use this theory, here are the following guidelines:
a. Is it mimetic? – Mimesis is the Greek word for imitation. We try to see whether a piece of work is mimeti
CRITICAL THEORIES OF PLATO
 Theory of Inspiration
 The poet is a possessed creature by the Muses.
 The poet uses a divine language different from this used by ordinary human
beings.
 The poet is either a prophet or a mad man and sometimes both together.
 Theory of Imitation
The following article is taken from Barad, D. (n.d.)
 In his theory of Mimesis, Plato says that all art is mimetic by nature; art is an
imitation of life. He believed that ‘idea’ is the ultimate reality. Art imitates idea
and so it is imitation of reality. He gives an example of a carpenter and a chair.
The idea of ‘chair’ first came in the mind of carpenter. He gave physical shape to
his idea out of wood and created a chair. The painter imitated the chair of the
carpenter in his picture of chair. Thus, painter’s chair is twice removed from
reality. Hence, he believed that art is twice removed from reality. He gives first
importance to philosophy as philosophy deals with the ideas whereas poetry
deals with illusion – things which are twice removed from reality. So to Plato,
philosophy is superior to poetry. Plato rejected poetry as it is mimetic in nature on
the moral and philosophical grounds. On the contrary, Aristotle advocated poetry
as it is mimetic in nature. According to him, poetry is an imitation of an action and
his tool of enquiry is neither philosophical nor moral. He examines poetry as a
piece of art and not as a book of preaching or teaching.
Aristotle’s Reply to Plato’s Objection
 Aristotle replied to the charges made by his Guru Plato against poetry in
particular and art in general. He replied to them one by one in his defense of
poetry.
 Plato says that art being the imitation of the actual is removed from the
Truth. It only gives the likeness of a thing in concrete, and the likeness is always
less than real. But Plato fails to explain that art also gives something more which
is absent in the actual. The artist does not simply reflect the real in the manner of
a mirror. Art cannot be slavish imitation of reality. Literature is not the exact
reproduction of life in all its totality. It is the representation of selected events and
characters necessary in a coherent action for the realization of the artist’s
purpose. He even exalts, idealizes and imaginatively recreates a world which has
its own meaning and beauty. These elements, present in art, are absent in the
raw and rough real. While a poet creates something less than reality he at the
same times creates something more as well. He puts an idea of the reality which

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he perceives in an object. This ‘more’, this intuition and perception, is the aim of
the artist. Artistic creation cannot be fairly criticized on the ground that it is not the
creation in concrete terms of things and beings. Thus considered, it does not
take us away from the Truth but leads us to the essential reality of life.
 Plato again says that art is bad because it does not inspire virtue, does not
teach morality. But is teaching the function of art? Is it the aim of the artist? The
function of art is to provide aesthetic delight, communicate experience, express
emotions and represent life. It should never be confused with the function of
ethics which is simply to teach morality. If an artist succeeds in pleasing us in the
aesthetic sense, he is a good artist. If he fails in doing so, he is a bad artist.
There is no other criterion to judge his worth. R.A.Scott -James observes:
“Morality teaches. Art does not attempt to teach. It merely asserts it is thus or
thus that life is perceived to be. That is my bit of reality, says the artist. Take it or
leave it – draw any lessons you like from it – that is my account of things as they
are – if it has any value to you as evidence of teaching, use it, but that is not my
business: I have given you my rendering, my account, my vision, my dream, my
illusion – call it what you will. If there is any lesson in it, it is yours to draw, not
mine to preach.” Similarly, Plato’s charges on needless lamentations and
ecstasies at the imaginary events of sorrow and happiness encourage the
weaker part of the soul and numb the faculty of reason. These charges are
defended by Aristotle in his Theory of Catharsis. David Daiches summarizes
Aristotle’s views in reply to Plato’s charges in brief: “Tragedy (Art) gives new
knowledge, yields aesthetic satisfaction and produces a better state of mind.”
 Plato judges poetry now from the educational standpoint, now from the
philosophical one and then from the ethical one. But he does not care to consider
it from its own unique standpoint. He does not define its aims. He forgets that
everything should be judged in terms of its own aims and objectives, its own
criteria of merit and demerit. We cannot fairly maintain that music is bad because
it does not paint, or that painting is bad because it does not sing. Similarly, we
cannot say that poetry is bad because it does not teach philosophy or ethics. If
poetry, philosophy and ethics had identical function, how could they be different
subjects? To denounce poetry because it is not philosophy or ideal is clearly
absurd.
Aristotle’s Objection to the Theory of Mimesis
 Aristotle agrees with Plato in calling the poet an imitator and creative art,
imitation. He imitates one of the three objects – things as they were/are, things
as they are said/thought to be or things as they ought to be. In other words, he
imitates what is past or present, what is commonly believed and what is ideal.
Aristotle believes that there is natural pleasure in imitation which is an in-born
instinct in men. It is this pleasure in imitation that enables the child to learn his
earliest lessons in speech and conduct from those around him, because there is
a pleasure in doing so. In a grown-up child – a poet, there is another instinct,
helping him to make him a poet – the instinct for harmony and rhythm.

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 He does not agree with his teacher in – ‘poet’s imitation is twice removed form
reality and hence unreal/illusion of truth', to prove his point he compares poetry
with history. The poet and the historian differ not by their medium, but the true
difference is that the historian relates ‘what has happened’, the poet, ‘what
may/ought to have happened’ - the ideal. Poetry, therefore, is more
philosophical, and a higher thing than history because history expresses the
particular while poetry tends to express the universal. Therefore, the picture of
poetry pleases all and at all times.
 Aristotle does not agree with Plato in the function of poetry making people
weaker and emotional/too sentimental. For him, catharsis is ennobling and it
humbles a human being.
 So far as the moral nature of poetry is concerned, Aristotle believes that the end
of poetry is to please; however, teaching may be the byproduct of it. Such
pleasing is superior to the other pleasures because it teaches civic morality. So
all good literature gives pleasure, which is not divorced from moral lessons.
 Theory of Forms (The Allegory of the Cave)

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The Cave Analogy, The Allegory of the Cave from the Republic, Book VII.
What is the Story About?
• [Socrates:] … let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened: --
Behold! Human beings living in an underground den, which has a mouth open towards the
light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their
legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being
prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Behind them a fire is blazing at a
distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you
look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of
them, over which they show the puppets.
• [Glaucon:] I see.
• And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and
figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall?
Some of them are talking, others silent.
• You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.
• Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another,
which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?
• True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to
move their heads?
• And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?
• Yes, he said.
• And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were
naming what was actually before them?
• …
• No question, he replied.
• To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.
• That is certain.
ACTIVITY 1: CAVE ART

Check out the details of the activity at the end of the
lesson.

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WATCH THIS:
1. TED-Ed. (2015, March 17). Plato’s Allegory of the Cave - Alex Gendler [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RWOpQXTltA&feature=emb_title
b. What is the function of a literary text? – Function here refers to whether a piece of literature seeks to entert
LITERARY CRITICISM OF HORACE
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BCE- 8 BCE), more commonly known as Horace, was a
Roman poet, best known for his satires and his lyric odes. His letters in verse, particularly his
Ars Poetica: Epistle to the Pisos, outline his beliefs about the art and craft of poetry
(Mambrol, N., 2017). His distinct contribution to literary theory was his idea on the purpose of
poetry [literature]: it is dulce et utile, sweet and useful.
Dulce- pleasure
Utile –teach or instruct
Mambrol (2017) in his article explains that Horace insists that literature serves the didactic
purpose which had been Plato’s main concern, and that it provides pleasure; the two goals
are not incompatible, as Plato had feared. This means that Literature essentially must have
two functions and that one is not greater than the other.
Note: Literature must

have two (2) functions:
pleasure and teach/
He further explains that poetry is a useful teaching tool, precisely because it is

pleasurable. The pleasure of poetry makes it popular and accessible, and its lessons thus can
be widely learned. Like Plato, Horace sees nature as the primary source for poetry, but he
argues that poets should imitate other authors as well as imitating nature [Theory of Inspiration
and Imitation]. Horace, thus, establishes the importance of a poet knowing a literary
tradition, and respecting inherited forms and conventions; as well as creating new works
(Mambrol, 2017).
c. What is the style? – Style refers to whether a piece of literature is written in a low, middle or high style.
CRITICAL THEORY OF LONGINUS
Style refers to whether the literary work is written in a low (take the form of blogs, humor,
advertisements, and instant messaging), middle (word choice, sentence structures, and
delivery) or high style (heightened emotional tone, imposing diction, and highly ornate figures of
speech). Longinus also introduced the fourth style which he called sublime (grandeur of
thought, emotion, and spirit; a style of writing that elevates itself "above the ordinary").

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Key Parts of Literature’s Style
1. Diction: the style of the author’s word choice

2. Sentence structure: the way words are arranged in a sentence
3. Tone: the mood of the story; the feeling or attitude a work creates
4. Narrator: the person telling the story and the point – of – view it is told in
5. Grammar and the use of punctuation
6. Creative devices like symbolism, allegory, metaphor, rhyme, and so on.
What constitutes great writing?
Influenced by the works of Plato, Longinus developed a theory about the effect of art on the
reader. This can be found in his well-known treatise On the Sublime. In this work he poses a
rhetorical situation on his position on what constitutes greatness in writing. He mentions the five
stages from which a work can be considered great in writing. In the first chapter, Longinus
quickly concedes the topos [a literary theme or motif; a rhetorical convention or formula], or
commonplace, that “great passages have a high distinction of thought and expression to
which great writers owe their supremacy and their lasting renown.” What Longinus seeks
to argue, though, goes beyond this commonplace view. According to Longinus, greatness,
grandeur, excellence, nobleness, or sublimity in writing—the host of terms by which the
Greek word hypsos can be rendered—does not involve mere persuasion or skillful
arrangement of words and ideas for Longinus: “Great writing does not persuade; it takes the
reader out of himself. The startling and amazing is more powerful than the charming and
persuasive, ... [and] greatness appears suddenly; like a thunderbolt it carries all before it and
reveals the writer’s full power in a flash.” In offering his definition of great writing, Longinus here
departs dramatically from the rhetorician’s usual concern with skillful invention, careful
arrangement, and decorum (Poetry Foundation. n.d). This means that the merit of a sublime
work is that it causes a certain ‘transporting’ of the readers. The effect of the sublime work on
the reader is similar to the effect of lightning in the sky – a sudden illumination or enlightenment.
In other words, a sublime work transports a reader outside himself to a different world of
ecstasy.
Can greatness in writing be “a matter of art” and open to critical study under the terms
offered at the outset?
In the second stage of his rhetorical structure of On the Sublime, he addresses the question:
Can greatness in writing be “a matter of art” and can it be open to critical study under the terms
offered at the outset? In this stage, Longinus claims that the greatness, sudden and forceful,
and miraculous [great writing] remains opaque to study and critical understanding. Longinus
contends that “natural talent, though generally a law unto itself in passionate and distinguished
passages, is not usually random or altogether devoid of method.” Greatness involves “a
matter of art” because method or study trains talent to make the most of itself. The
neoclassical ideal of balance, of the judicious harmonizing of talent and method, nature and art,
genius and critical knowledge, finds an important pretext here in Longinus’s qualification of the
potential unruliness of his sense of great expressive power (Poetry Foundation, n.d).

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Further, Longinus expounds on the errors and faults that occur in writing that causes failure
to achieve greatness in writing. According to him, these kinds of writing appear turgid (having
boring quality or difficult to understand), puerile (immature, silly or childish; in writing, something
silly that children would enjoy and not adults), has false enthusiasm, and frigidity in
discourse (stiff or formal, unemotional or unimaginative; lacking passion, etc). This discussion,
though often overlooked, is important for here he discusses how some artistic methods failed to
nurture talent leading to hollow, even unseemly writing instead. It is hear that he argues the
need for a careful study of artistic expression. He argues that “clear knowledge and critical
judgment of what is truly great” allows the discerning writer and reader to make and to
understand effective rhetorical choices (Poetry Foundation, n.d).
What are the sources that produce sublimity or greatness in writing?
In the third stage, Longinus explores the possible sources of great expressive power of a
great writing. He classifies “five sources” that are “most productive of great writing”. He provided
three (3) experientially oriented tests for the presence of greatness. These are social value,
psychological impact, and canonical or institutional authority offer distinct ways in which to
probe for and recognize great writing.
Social value is implicated in the discerning judgment of great writing because a sound
pragmatic test for greatness follows a socially focused measure of moral value: “nothing
is noble which it is noble to despise.” Sheer wealth, social status, and political power, for
Longinus, do not embody greatness because “men admire those great souls who could
possess them but in fact disdain them.”
Whatever is memorable, whatever makes an enduring psychological impact upon a

hearer or reader constitutes great writing.
In addition to the test of memory, Longinus espouses a third pragmatic test—the long-
standing consensual agreement that tends to canonize or institutionalize writing as
great. Greatness in writing purportedly “satisfies all men at all times,” and “the agreed
verdict ... acquires an authority so strong that the object of its admiration is beyond
dispute.”
Longinus also lists the five sources of sublimity: (1) great thoughts, (2) strong emotions, (3)
certain figures of thought and speech, (4) noble diction, and (5) dignified word arrangement".
Longinus argues that the first two sources are attributed to “innate dispositions,” and they
involve “vigor of mental conception” and “strong and inspired emotion.” Longinus does not
discuss emotion further; his treatise ends just at the point where he turns to consider the topic of
the passions. However, his digression on Caecilius’s omission provides a clear sense of the
direction that he might have taken: “nothing contributes to greatness as much as noble passion
in the right place; it breathes the frenzied spirit of its inspiration upon the words and makes

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them, as it were, prophetic.” This passage becomes a touchstone for the Romantic conception
of sublimity as inspired diction and as a quality that is transcendental in import.
The three other sources of great writing for Longinus involve “artistic training” rather than
an innate temperament. All three also owe greatly to the sorts of categories often discussed by
classical rhetoricians. For Longinus “adequate fashioning of figures” (tropes), “nobility of diction”
(diction), and “dignified and distinguished word arrangement” (composition – music rhythm, and
word arrangement) all yield significant sources for the production of sublime writing. All three,
moreover, are studied at some length in subsequent chapters of the treatise. What Longinus
has nonetheless managed to establish in the seventh and eighth chapters—the third stage of
the rhetorical structure of his work—are forthright classifications of the possible tests and
sources of great expressive power.
What are the effects of sublime writing?
“Great writing does not persuade; it takes the reader out of himself.”
The effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to identification
with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion mixed in pleasure and
exaltation. An example of sublime (which the author quotes in the work) is a poem by Sappho,
the so-called Ode to Jealousy, defined as a "Sublime ode". A writer's goal is not so much to
express empty feelings, but to arouse emotion in her audience.
He emphasizes the experience of the sublime as a felt effect and as a show of great power
from without, from beyond the realm of the audience. However, Longinus also indicates the
lineaments of the particular kind of ecstasy and mastery that characterize the experience of the
sublime. The experience of great writing involves a sudden, ecstatic transport of the hearer or
reader; but this delightful uplifting turns upon an exchange of roles between the speaker and
listener, between the writer and reader. One who undergoes the experience of greatness is
moved and uplifted as if he or she has spoken or written the words that transported, as if he or
she were the creator of the words that are read or heard.
ur levels of meaning. One is purgation, another is purification, still another is clarification, and the last is structural. The idea of catharsis re
ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPT OF CATHARSIS IN TRAGEDY
Aristotle describes catharsis as the purging of the emotions of pity and fear that are aroused
in the viewer of a tragedy. Literary Devices Editors (2017) defined catharsis as an emotional
discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal, or achieve a
state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word meaning “cleansing.” In

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literature, it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other
radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person.
Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle, to explain the impact of
tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic
work, and that it marked its quality. He further said, in Poetics:
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain

magnitude; … through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation
[catharsis] of these emotions” (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2).
ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPT OF TRAGEDY
Metre or verse is not the only distinguishing feature of poetry or imaginative literature in
general. Anything can be written in verse. Editors of Poetry Foundation explained that even
scientific or medical treatises may be written in verses. “Even if a theory of medicine or physical
philosophy be put forth in a metrical form, it is usual to describe the writer in this way; Homer
and Empedocles, however, have really nothing in common apart from their metre; so that, if one
is to be called a poet, the other should be termed a physicist rather than a poet.” Then the
question is, if metre/verse does not distinguish poetry from other forms of art, how can we
classify the form of poetry along with other forms of art (Barad, n.d.)?
With this idea in mind, Aristotle classified various forms of art with the help of object, medium
and manner of imitation of life.
OBJECT: Which object of life is imitated determines the form of literature. If the Life of
great people is imitative it will make that work a Tragedy and if the life of mean people is
imitated it will make the work a Comedy. David Daiches (as cited in Poetry Foundation,
nd.) writes explaining the classification of poetry which is imitative: “We can classify
poetry according to the kinds of people it represents – they are either better than they
are in real life, or worse, or the same. One could present characters, that is, on the
grand or heroic scale; or could treat ironically or humorously the petty follies of men, or
one could aim at naturalism presenting men neither heightened nor trivialized …
Tragedy deals with men on a heroic scale, men better than they are in everyday life
whereas comedy deals with the more trivial aspects of human nature, with characters
‘worse’ than they are in real life.”
MEDIUM: What sort of medium is used to imitate life again determines the forms of
different arts. The painter uses the colours, and a musician will use the sound, but a poet
uses the words to represent the life. When words are used, how they are used and in
what manner or metre they are used further classifies a piece of literature in different
categories as a tragedy or a comedy or an epic.
The types of literature, says Aristotle, can be distinguished according to the medium of
representation as well as the manner of representation in a particular medium. The
difference of medium between a poet and a painter is clear; one uses words with their
denotative, connotative, rhythmic and musical aspects; the other uses forms and

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colours. Likewise, the tragedy writer may make use of one kind of metre, and the
comedy writer of another.
MANNER: In what manner the imitation of life is presented distinguishes the one form of
literature from another. How is the serious aspect of life imitated? For example, dramas
are always presented in action while epics are always in narration. In this way the kinds
of literature can be distinguished and determined according to the techniques they
employ. David Daiches says: “The poet can tell a story in narrative form and partly
through the speeches of the characters (as Homer does), or it can all be done in third-
person narrative, or the story can be presented dramatically, with no use of third person
narrative at all.”
THE DEFINITION OF TRAGEDY
“Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain

magnitude; in the language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds
being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and
fear effecting the proper purgation-catharsis of these and similar emotions.” (Poetics, P.10)
Explanation of the definition (from Barad, n.d):
The definition is compact. Every word of it is loaded with meaning

nitude; in the language
1. Allembellished with each kind
art is representation of artistic
(imitation) of ornament, the several
life, but none can kinds being found in separate parts of
represent life in its totality. Therefore, an artist has to be
selective in representation. He must aim at representing or
imitating an aspect of life or a fragment of life.
Action comprises all human activities including deeds, thoughts
and feelings. Therefore, we find soliloquies, choruses etc. in
tragedy.
The writer of ‘tragedy’ seeks to imitate the serious side of

life just as a writer of ‘comedy’ seeks to imitate only the
shallow and superficial side. The tragic section presented on the
stage in a drama should be complete or self contained with a
proper beginning, proper middle and proper end. A beginning is
that before which the audience or the reader does not need to be
told anything to understand the story. If something more is required
to understand the story than the beginning gives, it is
unsatisfactory. From it follows the middle. In their turn the events
from the middle lead to the end. Thus the story becomes a compact
and self sufficient one. It must not leave the impression that even
after the end the action is still to be continued, or that before the
action starts certain things remain to be known.
Tragedy must have close-knit unity with nothing that is

superfluous or unnecessary. Every episode, every character and a

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ent, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fe
dialogue in the play must carry step by step the action that is set
into motion to its logical dénouement. It must give the impression of
wholeness at the end.
The play must have, then, a definite magnitude, a proper size or

a reasonable length such as the mind may comprehend fully. That
is to say that it must have only necessary duration, it should
neither be too long to tire our patience nor be too short to make
effective representation impossible. Besides, a drama continuing for
hours – indefinitely may fail to keep the various parts of it together
into unity and wholeness in the spectator’s mind. The reasonable
duration enables the spectator to view the drama as a whole, to
remember its various episodes and to maintain interest. The
language employed here should be duly embellished and
beautified with various artistic ornaments (rhythm, harmony, song)
and figures of speech. The language of our daily affairs is not useful
here because tragedy has to present a heightened picture of life’s
serious side, and that is possible only if elevated language of poetry
is used. According to need, the writer makes use of songs, poetry,
poetic dialogue; simple conversation etc is various parts of the play.
Its manner of imitation should be action, not narration as in

epic, for it is meant to be a dramatic representation on the stage
and not a mere story-telling.
Then, for the function/aim of tragedy is to shake up in the soul the impulses of pity and
fear, to achieve what he calls Catharsis. The emotions of pity and fear find a full and free
outlet in tragedy. Their excess is purged and we are lifted out of our selves and emerges nobler
than before.
e. Should it be censored? – Censorship is an issue here since what is in literature might not be good for the readers.
Hicks (2012) summarized the arguments of Plato in censorship in his work The Republic. In
his article he explains that Plato makes a systematic case for censoring all arts. The task of the
Platonic philosopher is to take up the “ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry” [607b]
and to assert the State-enforced dominance of philosophy. To that end, The Republic as a
whole is a powerful integration of philosophy, religion, education, and politics, and its argument
for the political suppression of most art follows from that integrated system.
Rhetorically, Plato uses Socrates’ discussion with Glaucon and Adeimantus to list a series of
grievances against poetry, music, and painting:
 A good portrait of the gods and heroes will show them as worthy and exalted beings
— but poets such as Homer and Hesiod often tell tales of the gods and heroes
fighting and bickering and acting immorally [e.g., 390b-391e].
 A moral citizen’s soul will be composed and dignified — but many musical modes stir
us up inside and make us jangled and unsettled [398e-400d].

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 Good people and gods do not deceive — but painters constantly deceive us by trying
to make their fake imitations look real [598c, 602d]. (Meanwhile, Plato allows that
politicians (and only politicians) ought to be allowed to lie to their citizens [389b-c].)
 A strong and moral man will not grieve the death of a friend by moaning and wailing
like a woman — but poets regularly have their characters issue long, pathetic
lamentations [387d-388d].
 achilles* Courageous men are willing to die in battle — but the poets tell scary
stories about the afterlife and make us fear death [386b-d].
 A proper moral of the story will teach that good people meet good ends and bad men
meet bad ends [613d-614a] — but tragic poets have will often have bad men profit
and protagonists fail and suffer despite their virtues [392b].
 Decent people respect and strive for worthiness — but comic poets appeal to our
basest desires and mock and deride everything [e.g., 395d-e, 606c].
 And so on.
The Republic‘s overall argument for censorship thus combines a particular conception of
morality with religion and authoritarian politics. Formalizing the argument:
 To have a good society, we must have good citizens.

 To have good citizens, children must be well educated.
 plato3. To be well educated, children must be exposed to good material and shielded
from bad material [386a].
 So, to have a good society, children must be exposed to good material and shielded
from bad material.
 It is the obligation of the State to educate its citizens.
 So the State should allow only good material and suppress bad material.
 The State’s censorship applies also to art.
 So the State should allow only good art and suppress bad art [401b, 595a].
2. The work the its readers (Reader-Response Criticism)
This is based on the belief that each reader has the freedom to assess the coherence of a
writer’s work and interpret it in the light of his/ her own experience and attitudes to the world. It
also believes that the individual reading determines the “meaning” of a literary work. Further, it
believes that there is no exclusive right interpretation of a text (Viray, etal, 2012). The reader-
response criticism/ approach, according to Padgett (1997), takes the principle that literature”
exists not as an artifact upon a printed page but as a transaction between the physical
text and the mind of a reader. It attempts “to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while
interpreting a text” and reflects that reading, like writing, is a creative process. According to
reader-response critics, literary texts do not “contain” a meaning; meanings derive only from the
act of individual readings. Hence, two different readers may derive completely different
interpretations of the same literary text; likewise, a reader who re-reads a work years later may
find the work shockingly different. Reader-response criticism, then, emphasizes how
“religious, cultural, and social values affect readings; it also overlaps with gender

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criticism in exploring how men and women read the same text with different
assumptions.” Though this approach rejects the notion that a single “correct” reading exists for
a literary work, it does not consider all readings permissible: “Each text creates limits to its
possible interpretations.”
Another aspect of the reader-response criticism that must be remembered is that even
though it considers readers’ reactions to literature as vital to interpreting the meaning of the text,
it can take a number of different approaches. A critic using reader-response theory can use a
psychoanalytic lens, a feminist lens, or even a structuralist lens. What these different lenses
have in common when using a reader-response approach is they maintain "...that what a text
is cannot be separated from what it does" (Tyson 154 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab,-c).
Tyson further explains that "...reader-response theorists share two beliefs: 1) that the role of
the reader cannot be omitted from our understanding of literature and 2) that readers do
not passively consume the meaning presented to them by an objective literary text;
rather they actively make the meaning they find in literature" (154). In this sense, the
reader-response theory shares the same point of view as some deconstructionists when they
discuss about “the death of the author,” or the displacement of the author as the (author)itatian
figure in the text.
Typical questions asked:
a) How does the interaction of text and reader create meaning?

b) What does a phrase-by-phrase analysis of a short literary text, or a key portion of a
longer text, tell us about the reading experience prestructured by (built into) that text?
c) Do the sounds/shapes of the words as they appear on the page or how they are spoken
by the reader enhance or change the meaning of the word/work?
d) How might we interpret a literary text to show that the reader's response is, or is
analogous to, the topic of the story?
e) What does the body of criticism published about a literary text suggest about the critics
who interpreted that text and/or about the reading experience produced by that text?
(Tyson 191 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab, nd.-c)
Since reader-response suggests that the role of the reader is essential to the meaning of a
text, for only in the reading experience does the literary work come alive – like in Mary
Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818), the monster doesn’t exist, so to speak, until the
reader reads Frankenstein and reanimates it to life, becoming a co-creator of the text – it is
important to remember that one of the primary purpose of reading response is examining,
explaining, and defending your personal reaction to a text.
This means that a reader’s critical reading or analysis of a text allows the reader to explore
the reasons behind his like or dislike of the text; on why he agrees or disagrees with the author;
on what he thinks is the text’s purpose; and be able to critique the text.
In writing an analysis using the reader-response criticism, it is important that a reader
demonstrate an understanding of the reading and clearly explain and support his points and
reactions. A critical reading must not use standard approaches to writing like:
1. I liked this text because it is so cool and the ending made me feel happy,” or

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2. “I hated it because it was stupid, and had nothing at all to do with my life, and was too
negative and boring.”
In writing a response you may assume the reader has already read the text. Thus, do not
summarize the contents of the text at length. Instead, take a systematic, analytical approach to
the text. Write as a scholar addressing adults or fellow scholars.
Criticize with Examples
If you did not like a text, that is fine, but criticize it either from principle or form.
PRINCIPLE:
1. Is the text racist?
2. Does the text unreasonably puts down things, such as religion, or groups of people,
such as women or adolescents, conservatives or democrats, etc?
3. Does the text include factual errors or outright lies? It is too dark and despairing? Is it
falsely positive?
FORM:
1. Is the text poorly written?
2. Does it contain too much verbal “fat”?
3. Is it too emotional or too childish?
4. Does it have too many facts and figures?
5. Are there typos or other errors in the text?
6. Do the ideas wander around without making a point?
In each of these cases, do not simply criticize, but give examples. As a beginning scholar, be
cautious of criticizing any text as “confusing” or “crazy,” since readers might simply conclude
that you are too ignorant or slow to understand and appreciate it.
THE STRUCTURE OF A READER-RESPONSE ESSAY
Choosing a text to study is the first step in writing a reader-response essay. Once you have
chosen the text, your challenge is to connect with it and have a “conversation” with the text.
In the beginning paragraph of your reader-response essay, be sure to mention the following:
1. title of the work to which you are responding;
2. the author; and
3. the main thesis of the text.
Then, do your best to answer the questions below. Remember, however, that you are writing
an essay, not filling out a short-answer worksheet. You do not need to work through these
questions in order, one by one, in your essay. Rather, your paper as a whole should be sure to
address these questions in some way.
What does the text have to do with you, personally, and with your life (past, present or
future)? It is not acceptable to write that the text has NOTHING to do with you, since just about
everything humans can write has to do in some way with every other human.
How much does the text agree or clash with your view of the world, and what you consider
right and wrong? Use several quotes as examples of how it agrees with and supports what you
think about the world, about right and wrong, and about what you think it is to be human. Use
quotes and examples to discuss how the text disagrees with what you think about the world and
about right and wrong.

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What did you learn, and how much were your views and opinions challenged or changed by
this text, if at all? Did the text communicate with you? Why or why not? Give examples of how
your views might have changed or been strengthened (or perhaps, of why the text failed to
convince you, the way it is). Please do not write “I agree with everything the author wrote,” since
everybody disagrees about something, even if it is a tiny point. Use quotes to illustrate your
points of challenge, or where you were persuaded, or where it left you cold.
How well does the text address things that you, personally, care about and consider
important to the world? How does it address things that are important to your family, your
community, your ethnic group, to people of your economic or social class or background, or
your faith tradition? If not, who does or did the text serve? Did it pass the “Who cares?” test?
Use quotes from the text to illustrate.
What can you praise about the text? What problems did you have with it? Reading and
writing “critically” does not mean the same thing as “criticizing,” in everyday language
(complaining or griping, fault-finding, nit-picking). Your “critique” can and should be positive and
praise the text if possible, as well as pointing out problems, disagreements and shortcomings.
How well did you enjoy the text (or not) as entertainment or as a work of art? Use quotes or
examples to illustrate the quality of the text as art or entertainment. Of course, be aware that
some texts are not meant to be entertainment or art: a news report or textbook, for instance,
may be either entertaining or artistic, but may still be important and successful.
For the conclusion, you might want to discuss:
1. your overall reaction to the text;
2. whether you would read something else like this in the future;
3. whether you would read something else by this author; and
4. if would you recommend read this text to someone else and why.
WATCH THIS:
1. Tim Nance. (2015b, February 26). What is Reader Response? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnq1nD_bmlc&list=PLIlatssdqY5Na_a9r-
_Hl1SGmK5M3HJGv&index=3
2. MrNovackFFLD. (2013, October 24). Reader Response Theory [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrh0i1A1kik
Key Takeaways
1. In reader-response, the reader is essential to the meaning of a text for they bring the text
to life.
2. The purpose of a reading response is examining, explaining, and defending your
personal reaction to a text.
3. When writing a reader-response, write as an educated adult addressing other adults or
fellow scholars.
4. As a beginning scholar, be cautious of criticizing any text as “boring,” “crazy,” or “dull.” If
you do criticize, base your criticism on the principles and form of the text itself.
5. The challenge of a reader-response is to show how you connected with the text.
See an example of an essay written using the Reader-response criticism below. It has been
lifted from Lumen Learning

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Reader-Response Essay Example
To Misread or to Rebel: A Woman’s Reading of “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty”

At its simplest, reading is “an activity that is guided by the text; this must be processed by the reader
who is then, in turn, affected by what he has processed” (Iser 63). The text is the compass and map, the
reader is the explorer. However, the explorer cannot disregard those unexpected boulders in the path which he
or she encounters along the journey that are not written on the map. Likewise, the woman reader does not
come to the text without outside influences. She comes with her experiences as a woman—a professional
woman, a divorcée, a single mother. Her reading, then, is influenced by her experiences. So when she reads a
piece of literature like “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty” by James Thurber, which paints a highly negative
picture of Mitty’s wife, the woman reader is forced to either misread the story and accept Mrs. Mitty as a
domineering, mothering wife, or rebel against that picture and become angry at the society which sees her
that way.
Due to pre-existing sociosexual standards, women see characters, family structures, even societal
structures from the bottom as an oppressed group rather than from a powerful position on the top, as men
do. As Louise Rosenblatt states: a reader’s “tendency toward identification [with characters or events] will
certainly be guided by our preoccupations at the time we read. Our problems and needs may lead us to focus
on those characters and situations through which we may achieve the satisfactions, the balanced vision, or
perhaps merely the unequivocal motives unattained in our own lives” (38). A woman reader who feels chained
by her role as a housewife is more likely to identify with an individual who is oppressed or feels trapped than
the reader’s executive husband is. Likewise, a woman who is unable to have children might respond to a story
of a child’s death more emotionally than a woman who does not want children. However, if the perspective of
a woman does not match that of the male author whose work she is reading, a woman reader who has been
shaped by a male-dominated society is forced to misread the text, reacting to the “words on the page in one
way rather than another because she operates according to the same set of rules that the author used to
generate them” (Tompkins xvii). By accepting the author’s perspective and reading the text as he intended,
the woman reader is forced to disregard her own, female perspective. This, in turn, leads to a concept called
“asymmetrical contingency,” described by Iser as that which occurs “when Partner A gives up trying to
implement his own behavioral plan and without resistance follows that of Partner B. He adapts himself to and
is absorbed by the behavioral strategy of B” (164). Using this argument, it becomes clear that a woman reader
(Partner A) when faced with a text written by a man (Partner B) will most likely succumb to the perspective of
the writer and she is thus forced to misread the text. Or, she could rebel against the text and raise an angry,
feminist voice in protest.
James Thurber, in the eyes of most literary critics, is one of the foremost American humorists of the
20th century, and his short story “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty” is believed to have “ushered in a major
[literary] period … where the individual can maintain his self … an appropriate way of assaulting rigid forms”
(Elias 432). The rigid form in Thurber’s story is Mrs. Mitty, the main character’s wife. She is portrayed by
Walter Mitty as a horrible, mothering nag. As a way of escaping her constant griping, he imagines fantastic
daydreams which carry him away from Mrs. Mitty’s voice. Yet she repeatedly interrupts his reveries and Mitty
responds to her as though she is “grossly unfamiliar, like a strange woman who had yelled at him in the crowd”
(286). Not only is his wife annoying to him, but she is also distant and removed from what he cares about, like
a stranger. When she does speak to him, it seems reflective of the way a mother would speak to a child. For
example, Mrs. Mitty asks, “‘Why don’t you wear your gloves? Have you lost your gloves?’ Walter Mitty reached
in a pocket and brought out the gloves. He put them on, but after she had turned and gone into the building
and he had driven on to a red light, he took them off again” (286). Mrs. Mitty’s care for her husband’s health is
seen as nagging to Walter Mitty, and the audience is amused that he responds like a child and does the
opposite of what Mrs. Mitty asked of him. Finally, the clearest way in which Mrs. Mitty is

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Reader-Response Essay Example (con’t)

Finally, the clearest way in which Mrs. Mitty is portrayed as a burdensome wife is at the end of the
piece when Walter, waiting for his wife to exit the store, imagines that he is facing “the firing squad; erect and
motionless, proud and disdainful, Walter Mitty the Undefeated, inscrutable to the last” (289). Not only is Mrs.
Mitty portrayed as a mothering, bothersome hen, but she is ultimately described as that which will be the
death of Walter Mitty.
Mrs. Mitty is a direct literary descendant of the first woman to be stereotyped as a nagging wife,
Dame Van Winkle, the creation of the American writer, Washington Irving. Likewise, Walter Mitty is a reflection
of his dreaming predecessor, Rip Van Winkle, who falls into a deep sleep for a hundred years and awakes to the
relief of finding out that his nagging wife has died. Judith Fetterley explains in her book, The Resisting Reader,
how such a portrayal of women forces a woman who reads “Rip Van Winkle” and other such stories “to find
herself excluded from the experience of the story” so that she “cannot read the story without being assaulted
by the negative images of women it presents” (10). The result, it seems, is for a woman reader of a story like
“Rip Van Winkle” or “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty” to either be excluded from the text, or accept the
negative images of women the story puts forth. As Fetterley points out, “The consequence for the female
reader is a divided self. She is asked to identify with Rip and against herself, to scorn the amiable sex and act
just like it, to laugh at Dame Van Winkle and accept that she represents ‘woman,’ to be at once both repressor
and repressed, and ultimately to realize that she is neither” (11). Thus, a woman is forced to misread the text
and accept “woman as villain.” as Fetterley names it, or rebel against both the story and its message.
So how does a woman reader respond to this portrayal of Mrs. Mitty? If she were to follow Iser’s
claim, she would defer to the male point of view presented by the author. She would sympathize with Mitty,
as Thurber wants us to do, and see domineering women in her own life that resemble Mrs. Mitty. She may see
her mother and remember all the times that she nagged her about zipping up her coat against the bitter
winter wind. Or the female reader might identify Mrs. Mitty with her controlling mother-in-law and chuckle at
Mitty’s attempts to escape her control, just as her husband tries to escape the criticism and control of his own
mother. Iser’s ideal female reader would undoubtedly look at her own position as mother and wife and would
vow to never become such a domineering person. This reader would probably also agree with a critic who says
that “Mitty has a wife who embodies the authority of a society in which the husband cannot function”
(Lindner 440). She could see the faults in a relationship that is too controlled by a woman and recognize that a
man needs to feel important and dominant in his relationship with his wife. It could be said that the female
reader would agree completely with Thurber’s portrayal of the domineering wife. The female reader could
simply misread the text.
Or, the female reader could rebel against the text. She could see Mrs. Mitty as a woman who is trying
to do her best to keep her husband well and cared for. She could see Walter as a man with a fleeting grip on
reality who daydreams that he is a fighter pilot, a brilliant surgeon, a gun expert, or a military hero, when he
actually is a poor driver with a slow reaction time to a green traffic light. The female reader could read critics
of Thurber who say that by allowing his wife to dominate him, Mitty becomes a “non-hero in a civilization in
which women are winning the battle of the sexes” (Hasley 533) and become angry that a woman’s fight for
equality is seen merely as a battle between the sexes. She could read Walter’s daydreams as his attempt to
dominate his wife, since all of his fantasies center on him in traditional roles of power. This, for most women,
would cause anger at Mitty (and indirectly Thurber) for creating and promoting a society which believes that
women need to stay subservient to men. From a male point of view, it becomes a battle of the sexes. In a
woman’s eyes, her reading is simply a struggle for equality within the text and in the world outside that the
text reflects.

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Reader-Response Essay Example (con’t)

It is certain that women misread “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty.” I did. I found myself initially wishing
that Mrs. Mitty would just let Walter daydream in peace. But after reading the story again and paying attention
to the portrayal of Mrs. Mitty, I realized that it is imperative that women rebel against the texts that would
oppress them. By misreading a text, the woman reader understands it in a way that is conventional and
acceptable to the literary world. But in so doing, she is also distancing herself from the text, not fully
embracing it or its meaning in her life. By rebelling against the text, the female reader not only has to
understand the point of view of the author and the male audience, but she also has to formulate her own
opinions and create a sort of dialogue between the text and herself. Rebelling against the text and the
stereotypes encourages an active dialogue between the woman and the text which, in turn, guarantees an
active and (most likely) angry reader response. I became a resisting reader.
Works Cited
Elias, Robert H. “James Thurber: The Primitive, the Innocent, and the Individual.” Contemporary Literary
Criticism. Vol. 5. Ed. Dedria Bryfonski. Detroit: Gale Research, 1980. 431–32. Print.
Fetterley, Judith. The Resisting Reader. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1978. Print.
Hasley, Louis. “James Thurber: Artist in Humor.” Contemporary Literary Criticism. Vol. 11. Ed. Dedria Bryfonski.
Detroit: Gale Research, 1980. 532–34. Print.
Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1981. Print.
Lindner, Carl M. “Thurber’s Walter Mitty—The Underground American Hero.” Contemporary Literary
Criticism. Vol. 5. Ed. Dedria Bryfonski. Detroit: Gale Research, 1980. 440–41. Print.
Rosenblatt, Louise M. Literature as Exploration. New York: MLA, 1976. Print.
Thurber, James. “The Secret Life of Walter Mitty.” Literature: An Introduction to Critical Reading. Ed. William
Vesterman. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1993. 286–89. Print.
Tompkins, Jane P. “An Introduction to Reader-Response Criticism.” Reader Response Criticism: From
Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Ed. Jane P. Tompkins. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1980. ix-xxvi. Print.
3. The work and its author (Historical and Biographical Criticism; Moral Criticism and Philosophical Criticism)
This sees a literary work as a reflection of its author’s life and times, or the life and times of
the characters in the work. This view holds certain works that must be understood better by
readers if they know something about the author’s race, moment, and milieu. Moreover, this
seeks to explain a work’s being related to the author’s religion, family, education, political views,
sometimes even his/ her sickness (Viray et al, 2012). This approach may be called historical
criticism and biographical criticism.
Padgett (1997) describes historical criticism as the approach “seeks to understand a

literary work by investigating the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced

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it—a context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu.” A key goal for
historical critics is to understand the effect of a literary work upon its original readers.
WATCH THIS:
Tim Nance. (2015d, March 3). What is Historical Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMxkN81QhKw
On the other hand, he [Padgett, 1997] describes biographical criticism as the approach
that “begins with the simple but central insight that literature is written by actual people
and that understanding an author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend
the work.” Hence, it often affords a practical method by which readers can better understand a
text. However, a biographical critic must be careful not to take the biographical facts of a writer’s
life too far in criticizing the works of that writer: the biographical critic “focuses on explicating the
literary work by using the insight provided by knowledge of the author’s life [B]iographical
data should amplify the meaning of the text, not drown it out with irrelevant material.” The
Biographical approach is a kind of reading related to historical reading where the history of the
time period is considered. With historical readings, we could consider the history of the setting
of a work separate from the historical time period of the author who wrote the work. So even a
modern novel, written about a time in the past (historical novels), could still be read through a
historical lens.
It is, however, stressed that the biographical approach works better for some authors than
others. One editor from eNotes explains that the works of Charles Dickens are considered to
reflect very strongly the time period in which he was writing, and several of the novels reflect
Dickens's own experiences as a child and young adult. Shakespeare, on the other hand, is
nearly impossible to read this way. We know next to nothing about Shakespeare's personal life.
We have little way to connect the man himself to the works. We are able to do an historical
reading of Shakespeare's works because we can look to see how the Renaissance time period
of England is reflected in the attitudes and behavior of his characters, or we can read to see
how Shakespeare depicts an historical time period, such as ancient Rome in Julius Caesar or
early England in Henry IV.
The Historical-Biographical approach sees a literary work chiefly, if not exclusively, as a

reflection of its author’s life and times or the life and time of the characters in the work.
Note: Biographical Approach is not effective if there is little information about the author.
A historical novel is likely to be more meaningful when either its milieu or that of its author is
understood.
Note: Literature is an artifact of culture.
Examples of historical novels:
James Fenimore Cooper’s ‘The Last of the Mohicans,’ Sir Walter Scott’s ‘Ivanhoe,’ Charles
Dickens’ ‘ A Tale of Two Cities,’ and John Steinbeck’s ‘The Grapes of Wrath’ are certainly better
understood by readers familiar with the historical milieu of each novel.
Novels Milieu

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The Last of the Mohicans The American Frontier experience
Ivanhoe The Crusades
A Tale of Two Cities French Revolution
The Grapes of Wrath The American Depression
Novels tend themselves somewhat more readily than lyric poem to this particular interpretive
approach; they usually treat a broader range of experience than poems do and thus are affected
by more extrinsic factors. Writers could be regarded as historians, the interpreters of their
culture, or even prophets of their people.
Examples: Rizal’s Noli and Fili; Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories; Guy de Maupassant’s
short stories; Stevan Javellana’s Without Seeing the Dawn
Note: Do not over do the interpretation using Historical-Biographical Approach

In order to do a biographical reading of a piece of literature you will need to research the
author's life and look for ways in which his or her life is reflected in the piece. In order to do an
historical reading, you will need to research the time period of the setting of the novel, and
then determine what the story reveals about its time and place in history. To do a historical-
biographical reading, you must research the personal life and the historical time period of the
author to determine what ends up being reflected in the literature. All of these approaches to
reading aid in expanding our understanding of the significance of what we read
On the other hand the Moral – Philosophical approach emphasizes the idea that the
larger function of literature is to teach morality and probe philosophical issues. This
approach is useful for such works as Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Man," which does present
an obvious moral philosophy. It is also useful when considering the themes of works (for
example, man's inhumanity to man in Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn). Finally, it does not view
literature merely as "art" isolated from all moral implications; it recognizes that literature can
affect readers, whether subtly or directly, and that the message of a work--and not just
the decorous vehicle for that message--is important.
However detractors argue that such an approach can be too "judgmental." Some believe
literature should be judged primarily (if not solely) on its artistic merits, not its moral or
philosophical content.
Note: The ending of the story should have repentance from evil characters, if not, the
literature is bad.
Literature is interpreted within a context of the philosophical thought of the period or group.
Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus can be read profitably only if one understands
existentialism.

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Examples:
Gilan Cordero Fernando’s People in the War
Luigi Pirandello’s War
Jean Paul Sartre’s No Exit
To illustrate, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Scarlett Letter is seen as a study of the effects of secret
sin on a human soul, i.e. a sin that is confessed before both God and man. Another is Robert
Frost’s Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening suggests that duty takes precedence over
beauty and pleasure.
Critics from a moral bent are not unmindful of form, figurative language, and other purely
aesthetic considerations, but they consider those to be secondary. The important thing is the
moral or philosophical teaching, but it should not be superficially didactic. In the larger
sense, all great literature teaches. The critic who uses this approach insists on ascertaining and
stating what is taught by the text.
It seems reasonable to employ Historical-Biographical and Moral-Philosophical approaches

among others in getting at the total meaning of a literary work, when the work seems to call for
it. Any knowledge or insight from scholarly disciplines (history, philosophy, science, sociology,
art, and music) that can help to explain or clarify a literary work ought to be given the fullest
possible chance to do so.
Examples: Oedipus Rex by Sophocles; To his Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell; Young
Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne; The Stranger by Albert Camus; Frankenstein by
Mary Shelley
4. The work and other works
This believes that one way to understand a piece of literary work is by comparing or
contrasting it with other works from its own time or across time. Still, a work can be read and
interpreted by comparing and contrasting it with other works in terms of the theme or genre
(Viray, et al, 2012).
5. The work as an entity in itself (Formalism, New Criticism, Russian Formalism)
Padgett (1997) defined formalism as the approach that regards literature as “a unique form
of human knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms.” All the elements
necessary for understanding the work are contained within the work itself. Of particular interest
to the formalist critic are the elements of form—style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.—that are
found within the text. A primary goal for formalist critics is to determine how such elements work
together with the text’s content to shape its effects upon readers.

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Formalism, in its development, had created several theories or approaches adding and/or
eliminating some basic ideas from Formalism itself. Two of these are New Criticism and the
Russian Formalism.
1. New Criticism or American New Criticism rests on the belief that literature is an
organic unit. It is independent of its author or the time when it was written or the
historical context when or why it was written. It involves a close reading of the text.
Formalistic [New] critics believe that all information essential to the interpretation of a
work must be found within the work itself; there is no need to bring in outside information
about the history, politics, or society of the time, or about the author's life. Formalistic
critics (presumably) do not view works through the lens of feminism, psychology,
mythology, or any other such standpoint, and they are not interested in the work's affect
on the reader. Formalistic critics spend much time analyzing irony, paradox, imagery,
and metaphor. They are also interested in the work's setting, characters, symbols, and
point of view.
WATCH THIS:
Tim Nance. (2015, February 26). What is New Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aa0gxWjCOxQ
Some terms related to New Criticism

a. tension - the integral unity of the poem which results from the resolution of opposites,
often in irony of paradox
b. intentional fallacy - the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined
by the author's intention
c. affective fallacy - the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined
by its affect on the reader
d. external form - rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form, etc.
e. objective correlative - originated by T.S. Eliot, this term refers to a collection of
objects, situations, or events that instantly evoke a particular emotion.
2. Russian Formalism also sees a literary text as an entity in itself. This, however,
proceeds by looking at familiarization and the revelation of the plot. This theory
stresses that art is artificial and that a great deal of acquired skill goes into it as opposed
to the old classical maxim that true art conceals its art, “Art is artificial vs. Art conceals its
art.” It’s almost the same as American New Criticism since both came from the idea of
Formalism– that is focuses on the form).
- Russian Formalists, led by Viktor Shklovsky, aimed to establish a ‘science of
literature’- a complete knowledge of the formal effects (devices and techniques)
which together make-up what is called literature. They had literature to discover
its literariness– to highlight the devices and elements used by the writer to make
language literary. (It makes the ordinary language more literary). The language used
is not used in the ordinary life.

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Points of Russian Formalism
a. The desire for a science or ‘poetics’ of literature - “The so-called ‘formal method’
grew out of a struggle for a science of literature that would be both independent and
factual . . .” (Norton 1062).
b. “Literariness” as primary object of study - “Literariness”: what makes a given
work a literary work; what distinguishes literary study from other disciplines, such as
psychology, politics, and philosophy (Eichenbaum 7). The Formalists read literary
texts in order to discover their “literariness”—to highlight the devices and technical
elements introduced by writers in order to make language literary (Selden 38).
c. The autonomy of form - Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) distinguished between
“poetic” language and “practical” language
a) Practical language: Language resources (sounds, morphological segment,
and so forth) are merely a means of communication.
b) Poetic language: language resources have automatic value. (Eichenbaum 7-
8).
Identified literature as a verbal art; focused on the description of certain “dominant”
linguistic forms.
d. Form aims to defamiliarize - Victor Shklovsky (1893-1984) believes in “Art as
Technique” (1916). Defamiliarization: or “make it strange”. “Art is conceived as a way
of breaking down automatism in perception” (Eichenbaum 10).
e. The palpableness of form - Focuses on “motivation,” or the functional role of
literary devices. It tends to highlight “art which is not fully motivated or which
deliberately tears away motivation,” namely, laying bare its device, such as Laurence
Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. It’s a moment of the narrative self –reflexiveness
(Eichenbaum 11-12).
Some Key Ideas/ Techniques in Russian Formalism

a. Defamiliarization - This means making the familiar strange (estrangement).
Everything must be dwelt upon and described as if for the first time. Ordinary
language encourages the automatization of our perceptions and tends to diminish
our awareness of reality.
- Automatization leads us to see things as we know them- the leaves are green, the
birds fly, the table is rectangular, etc. Nothing is added to our perception of the world
when we reach the points of automatization. The Russian term for defamiliarization is
ostranenie.
o Examples:
o Stranger than Fiction, Back to the Future,
o The Truman Show, Bruce Almighty, Oh, God!
Note: If the poet describes things as it is then there is no defamiliarization but
automatization. The poet must add something new.
b. Retardation of the Narrative - This is a technique of delaying or protracting actions.
Familiar actions are defamiliarized by being slowed down, drawn out or interrupted.

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Digressions, displacement of the parts of the book, and extended descriptions are all
devices to make us attend to form.
o Examples:
o Tristam Shandy by Laurence Sterne
o Noli Me Tangere by Rizal
o The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
o Telenovelas
Note: In Noli, the retardation of the narrative occurs when the stories (chapters)
are not exactly connected to the next chapters.
Flashback and flash-forward, fore-shortening, fore-lengthening are examples of

retardation of the narrative
Examples:
o One Hundred Years of Solitude- flash-forward
o Manuel Arguilla uses fore-shortening and fore-lengthening
o Canterbury Tales uses Digressions
c. Barring the Device - This refers to the presentation of devices without any realistic
motivation- they are presented purely as devices. In literature, time is distorted in
various ways- flashback, flash-forward, foreshortening, skipping, expanding,
transposing, reversing, etc
o Examples:
o Tristam Shandy
o The Long Christmas Dinner by Thorton Wilder
o The Good Woman of Schezuan by Bertolt Brecht
d. Naturalization - This refers to how we endlessly become inventive in finding ways to
make sense of the most random and chaotic utterances or discourse. We refuse to
allow a text to remain alien and stay outside our frames of references- we insist on
naturalizing it.
o Examples:
o The Bashful One and Emperor’s New Sonnet by Jose Garcia Villa
o E.E. Cumming’s poems,
o Indie Films,
o Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll,
o the Matrix,
o Inception
e. Carnivalization - This is the term Mikhail Bakhtin uses to describe the shaping effect
of carnival on literary text. The festivities associated with the carnival are collective
and popular; hierarchies are turned on their heads (fools become wise, kings
become beggars); opposites are mingled (fact and fantasy, heaven and hell); the
sacred is profaned, the rigid or serious is subverted, mocked or loosed.
o Examples:
o Moulin Rouge,
o The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekov,
o The Caucasian Chalk Circle by Bertolt Brecht

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6. Psychological/ Psycho-analytical theory
Psycho-analytical critics tend to see all concave images used in literature like ponds, flowers,
cups, vases, and hollows as female or womb symbols. Meanwhile, all images whose length
exceeds their diameter like towers, mountain peaks, snakes, lances and swords are male or
phallic symbols. In addition, riding and flying are symbols of sexual pleasure (Viray, et al, 2012).
Psychoanalytical (Psychological) approach reflects the effect that modern psychology has had
upon both literature and literary criticism. Fundamental figures in psychological criticism include
Sigmund Freud, whose “psychoanalytic theories changed our notions of human behavior
by exploring new or controversial areas like wish-fulfilment, sexuality, the unconscious,
and repression” as well as expanding our understanding of how “language and symbols
operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or desires”; and Carl
Jung, whose theories about the unconscious are also a key foundation of Mythological Criticism
(Padgett, 1997).
Psychological criticism has a number of approaches, but in general, it usually employs one
(or more) of three approaches:
1. An investigation of “the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius
and how does it relate to normal mental functions?”
2. The psychological study of a particular artist, usually noting how an author’s biographical
circumstances affect or influence their motivations and/or behavior.
3. The analysis of fictional characters using the language and methods of psychology.
This theory encourages the reader/critic to be creative in speculating about the
character’s or author’s motivations, drives, fear, or desires. The belief is that creative
writing like dreaming– it disguises what cannot be confronted directly – the reader/ critic must
decode what is disguised.
The editors of Purdue Writing Lab stated that psychoanalytic criticism builds on Freudian
theories of psychology. Some of these theories include: the Unconscious, the Desires, and the
Defenses; The Id, Ego and Supergo and; the Oedipus Complex.
The Unconscious, the Desires, and the Defenses
d the actual thinking we do.
bout it; Freud believed these impulses were driven by sexuality, Jung believed they were driven by cultural archetypes, and some other ps

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When Freud began his psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral
disorders in his Viennese patients, he dubbed the disorders 'hysteria' and began treating them
by listening to his patients talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that
people's behavior is affected by their unconscious: "...the notion that human beings are
motivated, even driven, by desires, fears, needs, and conflicts of which they are
unaware..." (Tyson 14-15 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab-a).
Further, Freud believed that our unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud
organized these events into developmental stages involving relationships with parents and
drives of desire and pleasure where children focus "...on different parts of the body...starting
with the mouth...shifting to the oral, anal, and phallic phases..." (Richter 1015 as cited in Purdue
Writing Lab-a). These stages reflect base levels of desire, but they also involve fear of loss (loss
of genitals, loss of affection from parents, loss of life) and repression: "...the expunging from
consciousness of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson 15 as cited in Purdue Writing
Lab-a).
Tyson reminds us, however, that "...repression doesn't eliminate our painful experiences and
emotions...we unconsciously behave in ways that will allow us to 'play out'...our conflicted
feelings about the painful experiences and emotions we repress" (15). To keep all of this conflict
buried in our unconscious, Freud argued that we develop defenses: selective perception,
selective memory, denial, displacement, projection, regression, fear of intimacy, and fear of
death, among others.
Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud maintained that our desires and our unconscious conflicts give rise to three areas of
the mind that wrestle for dominance as we grow from infancy, to childhood, to adulthood:
id - "...the location of the drives" or libido (pleasure principle) - seeks pleasure and
avoids pain; we normally associate inborn instincts (such as the behaviors of an infant or
an animal) with the id.
ego - "...one of the major defenses against the power of the drives..." and home of the
defenses listed above (rational being) - seeks to placate the id, but in a way that will
ensure long-term benefits (such as trying to get what the id wants without breaking laws
or social standards). Ego mediates between the id and reality. It maintains our “self –
how we see our “self” and wish others to see it.
superego - the area of the unconscious that houses Judgment (of self and others) and
"...which begins to form during childhood as a result of the Oedipus complex" (Richter
1015-1016) (censuring principle) - is a lot like a conscience – it punishes misbehavior
with feelings of guilt. Since the super-ego is concerned with societal norms, it stands in
opposition to the id. The development of an individual’s super-ego replaces a parent’s
discipline.
Freudian Components of Personality

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Conscious - Current contents of your mind that you

actively think of; what we call working memory; easily
accessed all the time
Preconscious - Contents of the mind you are not

currently aware of; thoughts, memories, knowledge,
wishes, feelings; available for easy access when
needed.
Unconscious - Contents kept out of conscious

awareness; not accessible at all; processes that
actively keep these thoughts from awareness
Conflicts of Personality components come out in

various ways: slips of tongue (Freudian slip), dreams,
jokes, anxiety, and defense mechanisms.
Oedipus Complex
Freud believed that the Oedipus complex was

"...one of the most powerfully determinative elements in the growth of the child" (Richter 1016).
Essentially, the Oedipus complex involves children's need for their parents and the
conflict that arises as children mature and realize they are not the absolute focus of their
mother's attention: "the Oedipus complex begins in a late phase of infantile sexuality, between
the child's third and sixth year, and it takes a different form in males than it does in females"
(Richter 1016).
Freud argued that both boys and girls wish to possess their mothers, but as they grow older
"...they begin to sense that their claim to exclusive attention is thwarted by the mother's
attention to the father..." (1016). Children, Freud maintained, connect this conflict of attention to
the intimate relations between mother and father, relations from which the children are
excluded. Freud believed that "the result is a murderous rage against the father...and a desire to
possess the mother" (1016).
Freud pointed out, however, that "...the Oedipus complex differs in boys and girls...the
functioning of the related castration complex" (1016). In short, Freud thought that "...during the
Oedipal rivalry [between boys and their fathers], boys fantasized that punishment for their rage
will take the form of..." castration (1016). When boys effectively work through this anxiety, Freud
argued, "...the boy learns to identify with the father in the hope of someday possessing a
woman like his mother. In girls, the castration complex does not take the form of anxiety...the
result is a frustrated rage in which the girl shifts her sexual desire from the mother to the father"
(1016).
Freud believed that eventually, the girl's spurned advances toward the father give way to a
desire to possess a man like her father later in life. Freud believed that the impact of the
unconscious, id, ego, superego, the defenses, and the Oedipus complex was inescapable and

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that these elements of the mind influence all our behavior (and even our dreams) as adults - of
course this behavior involves what we write.
Freud and Literature
So what does all of this psychological business have to do with literature and the study of
literature? Put simply, some critics believe that we can "...read psychoanalytically...to see which
concepts are operating in the text in such a way as to enrich our understanding of the work and,
if we plan to write a paper about it, to yield a meaningful, coherent psychoanalytic interpretation"
(Tyson 29).
This criticism argues that literary texts, like dreams, express the secret unconscious
desires and anxieties of the author, that a literary work is a manifestation of the author's
own neuroses. It approaches an author’s work as a kind of textual “talk therapy”.
One may psychoanalyze a particular character within a literary work, but it is usually
assumed that all such characters are projections of the author's psyche. Like psychoanalysis
itself, this critical endeavor seeks evidence of unresolved emotions, psychological conflicts,
guilt, ambivalences, and so forth within the author’s literary work. The author's own childhood
traumas, family life, sexual conflicts, fixations, and such will be traceable within the behavior of
the characters in the literary work.
Despite the importance of the author here, psychoanalytic criticism is similar to New Criticism
in not concerning itself with "what the author intended." But what the author never intended
(that is, repressed) is sought. The unconscious material has been distorted by the censoring
conscious mind.
Psychoanalytic critics will ask such questions as, "What is Hamlet's problem?" or "Why can't
Brontë seem to portray any positive mother figures?"
Tyson provides some insightful and applicable questions to help guide our understanding of
psychoanalytic criticism.
Typical questions:
1. How do the operations of repression structure or inform the work?

2. Are there any Oedipal dynamics - or any other family dynamics - at work here?
3. How can characters' behavior, narrative events, and/or images be explained in terms of
psychoanalytic concepts of any kind (for example, fear or fascination with death,
sexuality - which includes love and romance as well as sexual behavior - as a primary
indicator of psychological identity or the operations of ego-id-superego)?
4. What does the work suggest about the psychological being of its author?
5. What might a given interpretation of a literary work suggest about the psychological
motives of the reader?
6. Are there prominent words in the piece that could have different or hidden meanings?
Could there be a subconscious reason for the author using these "problem words"?

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WATCH THIS:
Tim Nance. (2015c, February 27). What is Psychological Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4NXNfBEwZg&list=PLIlatssdqY5Na_a9r-
7. Mythological/ Archetypal Approach
This approach wishes to discover how certain works of literature, usually those that have
become, or promise to become “classics” image a kind of reality which readers give perennial
response. It looks into those mysterious elements that inform certain literary works, and that
elicit with almost uncanny force, dramatic and universal human reactions. This believes that the
study of myth reveals something about the mind and character of a people and myths are
symbolic projections of people's hopes, values, fears and aspirations.
Archetypes are motifs and images found among many different mythologies, and in the
myths of people widely separated in time and place, but tend to have a common meaning or
tend to elicit comparable psychological responses and to serve a similar cultural functions
(Viray, et al, 2012).
This approach emphasizes “the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary
works.” Combining the insights from anthropology, psychology, history, and comparative
religion, mythological criticism “explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the
individual imagination uses myths and symbols common to different cultures and epochs.” One
key concept in mythological criticism is the archetype, “a symbol, character, situation, or image
that evokes a deep universal response,” which entered literary criticism from Swiss psychologist
Carl Jung (Padgett1997). According to Jung, all individuals share a “‘collective unconscious,’ a
set of primal memories common to the human race, existing below each person’s conscious
mind”—often deriving from primordial phenomena such as the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood,
archetypes according to Jung “trigger the collective unconscious.” Editors of Purdue Writing Lab
quotes Richter as he explains that the collective unconscious is "...racial memory, through which
the spirit of the whole human species manifests itself" (Richter 504 as cited in Purdue Writing
Lab-b). Jungian criticism, which is closely related to Freudian theory because of its connection
to psychoanalysis, assumes that all stories and symbols are based on mythic models from
mankind’s past.
Based on these commonalities, Jung developed archetypal myths, the Syzygy: "...a
quaternion composing a whole, the unified self of which people are in search" (Richter 505 as
cited in Purdue Writing Lab-b). These archetypes are the Shadow, the Anima, the Animus, and
the Spirit: "...beneath...[the Shadow] is the Anima, the feminine side of the male Self, and the
Animus, the corresponding masculine side of the female Self" (Richter 505 as cited in Purdue
Writing Lab-b).

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Some archetypal images and their meaning
1. Water - mystery of creation, birth, death, resurrection, purification, fertility, and growth
2. Sun - creative energy, consciousness, female or mother principles, passage of time and
life
3. Colors - red: blood, sacrifice, violence, passion; blue: truth, security, religious feeling;
green: girls, sensation, fertility; black: chaos, mystery, death, the unknown evil,
melancholy; white: light, purity, in a sense, timelessness, death, terror, the supernatural
4. Circle - wideness, unity, eternity
5. Egg - mystery of life, forces of generation
6. Yin-Yang - masculine - feminine principle
7. Serpent - evil, corruption, sensuality, destruction, mystery, wisdom, the unconscious
8. Numbers - three: light, spiritual awareness; four: life circle; seven: perfect order
9. Archetypal woman - great mother - the mysteries of life, death, transformation
10. Wise old man - savior, redeemer, group, knowledge,
11. Garden - paradise, innocence, pristine, beauty
12. Tree - life, consistence, growth
13. Desert - spiritual aridity, death, nihilism, hopelessness
Some archetypal motifs/ patterns
1. Creation
2. Immortality
3. Hero archetypes: the quest, initiation, sacrificial scapegoats.
Another critic, Northrop Frye, defined archetypes in a more limited way as “a symbol,
usually an image, which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an
element of one’s literary experience as a whole.” Regardless of the definition of archetype
they use, mythological critics tend to view literary works in the broader context of works sharing
a similar pattern.
In literary analysis, a Jungian critic would look for archetypes (also see the discussion of
Northrop Frye in the Structuralism section) in creative works: "Jungian criticism is generally
involved with a search for the embodiment of these symbols within particular works of
art." (Richter 505). When dealing with this sort of criticism, it is often useful to keep a handbook
of mythology and a dictionary of symbols on hand.
Typical questions:
1. What connections can we make between elements of the text and the archetypes?
(Mask, Shadow, Anima, Animus)
2. How do the characters in the text mirror the archetypal figures? (Great Mother or
nurturing Mother, Whore, destroying Crone, Lover, Destroying Angel)
3. How does the text mirror the archetypal narrative patterns? (Quest, Night-Sea-Journey)
4. How symbolic is the imagery in the work?
5. How does the protagonist reflect the hero of myth?

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6. Does the “hero” embark on a journey in either a physical or spiritual sense?

7. Is there a journey to an underworld or land of the dead?
8. What trials or ordeals does the protagonist face? What is the reward for overcoming
them?
8. Theory of Fantastic
Viray et al (2012) explains that this theory posits the belief that all literature is fantastic, i.e.
"There's nothing real in literature." one idea that this theory holds that all literary text reflect only
to wishes:
a. sex
b. power
In addition, it believes that literature contains taboo things which are neatly or conveniently
camouflaged by the writers.
These taboo themes are as follows:
a. themes of self -
1. madness 5. drug abuse
2. psychosis 6. alcoholism
3. narcissism 7. schizophrenia
4. bestiality 8. pederasty
9.
b. themes of the other -
1. excessive sexuality 4. incest
2. homosexuality 5. necrophilia
3. love for several persons
at the same time
Tzvetan Todorov is a French and Bulgarian literary theorist and cultural critic who is best
known for his contribution to literary theory in the form of his definition of the Fantastic in
literature. As an important note, when Todorov discusses the fantastic, he is not discussing
fantasy literature. Though fantasy critics, theorists, novelists and fans will often refer to fantasy
tropes as fantastic, Todorov adopts the word as a term explicitly separate from fantasy. Instead,
Todorov’s theory of the fantastic refers to a much smaller canon of literary works (Gremlin,
2016).
The concept of the fantastic is to be defined in relation to those of the real and the imaginary:
and the latter deserve more than a mere mention.
"I nearly reached the point of believing": that is the formula which sums up the spirit of the
fantastic. Either total faith or total incredulity would lead us beyond the fantastic: it is hesitation
which sustains its life.
The fantastic therefore implies an integration of the reader into the world of the characters;
that world is defined by the reader's own ambiguous perception of the events

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narrated. It must be noted that we have in mind no actual reader, but the role of the reader
implicit on the text. The reader's hesitation is therefore the first condition of the fantastic.
There exist narratives which contain supernatural elements without the reader's ever
questioning their nature, for he realizes that he is not to take them literally. If animals speak in a
fable, doubt does not trouble the reader's mind: he knows that the words of the text are to be
taken in another sense, which we call allegorical. The converse situation applies to poetry. The
poetic text might often be judged fantastic, provided we required poetry to be representative.
In his book The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre, Todorov sets out to
define what he calls “the fantastic.” For Todorov, the fantastic is a subjective term referring to a
very small canon of literary works. It is a very specific term which stands between two other
literary genres: the uncanny and the marvelous. The uncanny is a term originating from the
German das unheimlich. In English, given that there is no clear English equivalent for the
German, is instead referred to as “the uncanny.” The uncanny is experienced upon
encountering something that is at once both strange and familiar. The marvelous, by
contrast, is the more traditional view of fantasy. Todorov argues that the uncanny is
characterized by a character’s response – often fear – towards something seemingly
inexplicable, or impossible. He argues that the marvelous does not require a response from a
character, only that the fantastic event occurs (Gremlin, 2016).
As mentioned previously, the fantastic is defined as a moment of hesitation between

belief and disbelief of the supernatural. It is a very fragile literary form, as it can all to easily
swing from one side to the other. Only that suspension between the two makes the literature
fantastic. As Todorov says
“The fantastic occupies the duration of this uncertainty. Once we choose one answer or the
other, we leave the fantastic for a neighboring genre, the uncanny or the marvelous. The
fantastic is that hesitation experienced by a person who knows only the laws of nature,
confronting an apparently supernatural event” (Todorov 25).
Essentially, to Todorov, the uncanny is the supernatural explained, and the marvelous is the
supernatural accepted as supernatural. Only in the hesitation between deciding which of those
two applies can the fantastic be found. To put it differently,
“‘I nearly reached the point of believing’: that is the formula which sums up the spirit of the
fantastic. Either total faith or total incredulity would lead us beyond the fantastic: it is hesitation
which sustains its life” (Todorov 31).
Fragility and specificity are the primary indicators of the fantastic.
The fantastic implies, then, not only the existence of an uncanny event, which provokes a
hesitation in the reader and the hero; but also a kind of reading, which we may for the
moment define negatively: it must be neither "poetic" nor "allegorical".
The fantastic requires the fulfillment of three conditions. First, the text must oblige the reader
to consider the world of the characters as a world of living persons and to hesitate between a
natural and a supernatural explanation of the events described. Second, this hesitation may

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also be experienced by a character. Third, the reader must adopt a certain attitude with regard
to the text: he will reject allegorical as well as "poetic" interpretations. These three requirements
do not have an equal value. The first and the third actually constitute the genre; the second may
not be fulfilled. Nonetheless, most examples satisfy all three conditions.
The fantastic, we have seen, lasts only as long as a certain hesitation: a hesitation common
to reader and character, who must decide whether or not what they perceive derives from
"reality" as it exists in the common opinion. At the story's end, the reader makes a decision even
if the character does not; he opts for one solution or the other, and thereby emerges from the
fantastic. If he decides that the laws of reality remain intact and permit an explanation of the
phenomena described, we say that the work belongs to another genre: the uncanny. If, on the
contrary, he decides that new laws of nature must be entertained to account for the phenomena,
we enter the genre of the marvelous.
The fantastic therefore leads a life full of dangers, and might evaporate at any moment. It
seems to be located on the frontier of two genres, the marvelous and the uncanny, rather than
to be an autonomous genre.
We cannot exclude from a scrutiny of the fantastic either the marvelous or the uncanny,
genres which it overlaps. Let us take a look at these two neighbors. We find that in each case, a
transitory sub-genre appears: between the fantastic and the uncanny on the other hand,
between the fantastic and the marvelous on the other. These sub-genres include works that
sustain the hesitation characteristic of the true fantastic for a long period, but that ultimately end
in the marvelous or in the uncanny. We may represent these sub-divisions with the help of the
following diagram:
Uncanny Fantastic-Uncanny Fantastic-Marvelous Marvelous
The fantastic in its pure state is represented here by the median line separating the fantastic-
uncanny from the fantastic-marvelous. This line corresponds perfectly to the nature of the
fantastic, a frontier between two adjacent realms.
Let us begin with the fantastic-uncanny. In this sub-genre events that seem supernatural
throughout a story receive a rational explanation at its end. If these events have long led the
character and the reader alike to believe in an intervention of the supernatural, it is because
they have an unaccustomed character. Criticism has described, and often condemned, this type
under the label of "the supernatural explained."
In addition to such cases as these, where we find ourselves in the uncanny rather in spite of
ourselves -in order to explain the fantastic- there also exists the uncanny in the pure state. In
works that belong to this genre, events are related which may be readily accounted for by the
laws of reason, but which are, in one way or another, incredible, extraordinary, chocking,
singular, disturbing or unexpected, and which thereby provoke in the character and in the reader
a reaction similar to that which works of the fantastic have made familiar. The definition is, as
we see, broad and vague, but so is the genre which it describes: the uncanny is ot a clea rly
delimited genre, unlike the fantastic. More precisely, it is limited on just one side, that of the

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fantastic; on the other, it dissolves into the general field of literature. The literature of horror in its
pure state belongs to the uncanny.
The uncanny realizes, as we see, only one of the conditions of the fantastic: the description
of certain reactions, especially of fear. It is uniquely linked to the sentiments of the characters
and not to a material event defying reason. (The marvelous, by way of contrast, may be
characterized by the mere presence of supernatural events, without implicating the reaction they
provoke in the characters.)
If we move to the other side of that median line which we have called the fantastic, we find
ourselves in the fantastic-marvelous, the class of narratives that are presented as fantastic and
that end with an acceptance of the supernatural. These are the narratives closest to the pure
fantastic, for the latter, by the very fact that it remains unexplained, unrationalized, suggests the
existence of the supernatural. The frontier between the two will therefore be uncertain;
nonetheless, the presence or absence of certain details will always allow us to decide.
There exists, finally, a form of the marvelous in the pure state which -just as in the case of
the uncanny in the pure state- has no distinct frontiers (we have seen that extremely diverse
works contain elements of the marvelous). In the case of the marvelous, supernatural elements
provoke no particular reaction either in the characters or in the implicit reader. It is not an
attitude toward the events described which characterizes the marvelous, but the nature of these
events.
In order to delimit the marvelous in the pure state, it is convenient to isolate it from several
types of narrative in which the supernatural is somewhat justified.
1. We may speak first of all hyperbolic marvelous. In it, phenomena are

supernatural only by virtue of their dimensions, which are superior to those that
are familiar to us.
2. Quite close to this first type of the marvelous is the exotic marvelous. In this type,
supernatural events are reported without being presented as such. The implicit
reader is supposed to be ignorant of the regions where the events take place,
and consequently he has no reason for calling them into question.
3. A third type of the marvelous might be called the instrumental marvelous. Here
we find the gadgets, technological developments unrealized in the period
described but, after all, quite possible.
4. The "instrumental marvelous" brings us very close to what in nineteenth-century
France was called the scientific marvelous, which today we call science fiction.
Here the supernatural is explained in a rational manner, but according to laws
which contemporary science does not acknowledge.
All these varieties of the marvelous -"excused," justified, and imperfect- stand in opposition to
the marvelous in its pure -unexplained- state.

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Conclusions
One of the main weaknesses of Todorov’s argument is that he makes no reference to any
literary works published after Edgar Allan Poe. Which is a real weakness, as this approach not
only seems painfully incomplete, but suggests that there has been no fantastic literature
produced after Poe. Obviously, this is false. Furthermore, his choice to utilize a term which was
already – and often still is – used to refer to fantasy literature is problematic on a number of
levels, not the least of which is the resultant confusion over terminological distinctions and
specifications. When someone refers to an event as “fantastic” or “fantastical,” chances are that
they are referring not to Todorov’s fantastic, but to fantasy in general. If anything, rather than
enlightening, Todorov’s theory has done little more than obfuscate. Nevertheless, his
contributions to the development of genre theory and methodology are vital, despite the work's
shortcomings.
9. Feminism
This theory holds that women have always been trivialized, marginalized, and seen as
stereotypes in literature and is concerned with "the ways in which literature (and other
cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and
psychological oppression of women" (Viray et al 2012 and Tyson as cited in Purdue Writing
Lab-a). The feminist perspective can best be understood in contrast to the traditional view, for
which arises from a dramatically different set of premises. The traditional view looks at the many
ways in which women differ from men and conclude that these differences reflect some basic
intrinsic difference that far transcends reproductive capabilities. The traditionalists note that
historically, women have always had less power, less influence, and fewer resources and then
men, and assume this must accord to some natural order. In addition, this school of theory looks
at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and aims to expose
misogyny in writing about women, which can take explicit and implicit forms. This misogyny,
Tyson reminds us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling
example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes
often have been tested on male subjects only" (Tyson 85 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab-a).
The feminist perspective looks at the many similarities between the sexes and
concludes that women and men have equal potential individual development. The basic
feminist idea is that with respect to their fundamental worth there is no difference between men
and women. At this level they're not male beings nor female beings, but only human beings are
persons. The nature and value of persons is independent of gender (Viray et al, 2012).
Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such
as the exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or
historical point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to underrepresent the contribution of
women writers" (Tyson 84).

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Common Space in Feminist Theories
Though a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of
commonality. This list is excerpted from Tyson (92):
1. Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and

psychologically; patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which women are
oppressed.
2. In every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined
only by her difference from male norms and values.
3. All of Western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for
example, in the Biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the world.
4. While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender
(scales of masculine and feminine).
5. All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate
goal to change the world by prompting gender equality.
6. Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience,
including the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware
of these issues or not.
Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of
feminism:
1. First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A
Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes.
Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's suffrage
movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing of the
Nineteenth Amendment.
2. Second Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working
conditions necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National
Organization for Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism.
Writers like Simone de Beauvoir (Le Deuxième Sexe, 1949) and Elaine Showalter
established the groundwork for the dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with
the American Civil Rights movement.
3. Third Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over
generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of
second wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and
contemporary gender and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized
populations' experiences. Writers like Alice Walker work to "...reconcile it [feminism] with
the concerns of the black community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her people,
men and women both, and for the promotion of dialog and community as well as for the
valorization of women and of all the varieties of work women perform" (Tyson 107).

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Typical questions:
10. How is the relationship between men and women portrayed?

11. What are the power relationships between men and women (or characters assuming
male/female roles)?
12. How are male and female roles defined?
13. What constitutes masculinity and femininity?
14. How do characters embody these traits?
15. Do characters take on traits from opposite genders? How so? How does this change
others’ reactions to them?
16. What does the work reveal about the operations (economically, politically, socially, or
psychologically) of patriarchy?
17. What does the work imply about the possibilities of sisterhood as a mode of resisting
patriarchy?
18. What does the work say about women's creativity?
19. What does the history of the work's reception by the public and by the critics tell us
about the operation of patriarchy?
20. What role does the work play in terms of women's literary history and literary tradition?
(Tyson)
WATCH THIS:
MrsSimmons. (2017, September 7). Feminist Criticism - One Approach to Literature [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6s1-_8sWutQ
Tim Nance. (2015, March 3). What is Feminist Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JHS9cYuJZA
21. Structuralism
Viray et al (2012) describes Structuralism as a theory that deals with looking for binary
oppositions in a text. Binary, according to this view, make up the structure of the world, like:
 sun - moon
 day- night
 man - woman
 light - dark
The left hand term is a privileged one in there must be a reason for making one element
more privileged then the other. It is also concerned with how readers naturalize the text to
create or make meaning. Naturalization of text involves being able to read or decode a literary
text based on what one knows about its structure.
This theory also deals with making conclusions about a nation's human
consciousness, through a study of the literature of that nation. It looks for the structure of
literature, how it parallels the structure of the human consciousness, or the human mind.
Patterns and Experience
Structuralists assert that, since language exists in patterns, certain underlying elements are
common to all human experiences. Structuralists believe we can observe these experiences

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through patterns: "...if you examine the physical structures of all buildings built in urban America
in 1850 to discover the underlying principles that govern their composition, for example,
principles of mechanical construction or of artistic form..." you are using a structuralist lens
(Tyson 197 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab-d).
Moreover, "you are also engaged in structuralist activity if you examine the structure of a
single building to discover how its composition demonstrates underlying principles of a structural
system. In the first example...you're generating a structural system of classification; in the
second, you're demonstrating that an individual item belongs to a particular structural class"
(Tyson 197 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab-d).
Structuralism in Literary Theory
Used as a literary theory, structuralism, for example, "...if you examine the structure of a
large number of short stories to discover the underlying principles that govern their
composition...principles of narrative progression...or of characterization...you are also engaged
in structuralist activity if you describe the structure of a single literary work to discover how its
composition demonstrates the underlying principles of a given structural system" (Tyson 197-
198 as cited in Purdue Writing Lab-d).
Northrop Frye, however, takes a different approach to structuralism by exploring ways in

which genres of Western literature fall into his four mythoi (also see Jungian criticism in the
Freudian Literary Criticism resource):
1. theory of modes, or historical criticism (tragic, comic, and thematic);

2. theory of symbols, or ethical criticism (literal/descriptive, formal, mythical, and anagogic);
3. theory of myths, or archetypal criticism (comedy, romance, tragedy, irony/satire);
4. theory of genres, or rhetorical criticism (epos, prose, drama, lyric) (Tyson 240).
Peirce and Saussure

Two important theorists form the framework of structuralism: Charles Sanders Peirce and
Ferdinand de Saussure. Peirce gave structuralism three important ideas for analyzing the sign
systems that permeate and define our experiences:
1. "iconic signs, in which the signifier resembles the thing signified (such as the stick
figures on washroom doors that signify 'Men' or 'Women';
2. indexes, in which the signifier is a reliable indicator of the presence of the signified (like
fire and smoke);
3. true symbols, in which the signifier's relation to the thing signified is completely arbitrary
and conventional [just as the sound /kat/ or the written word cat are conventional signs
for the familiar feline]" (Richter 810).
These elements become very important when we move into deconstruction in the
Postmodernism resource. Peirce also influenced the semiotic school of structuralist theory that
uses sign systems.

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Sign Systems
The discipline of semiotics plays an important role in structuralist literary theory and cultural
studies. Semioticians "...appl[y] structuralist insights to the study of...sign systems...a non-
linguistic object or behavior...that can be analyzed as if it were a language" (Tyson 205).
Specifically, "...semiotics examines the ways non-linguistic objects and behaviors 'tell' us
something.
For example, the picture of the reclining blond beauty in the skin-tight, black velvet dress on
the billboard...'tells' us that those who drink this whiskey (presumably male) will be attractive
to...beautiful women like the one displayed here" (Tyson 205). Lastly, Richter states, "semiotics
takes off from Peirce - for whom language is one of numerous sign systems - and structuralism
takes off from Saussure, for whom language was the sign system par excellence" (810).
Typical questions:
1. Using a specific structuralist framework (like Frye's mythoi)...how should the text be
classified in terms of its genre? In other words, what patterns exist within the text that
make it a part of other works like it?
2. Using a specific structuralist framework...analyze the text's narrative operations...can
you speculate about the relationship between the...[text]... and the culture from which
the text emerged? In other words, what patterns exist within the text that make it a
product of a larger culture?
3. What patterns exist within the text that connect it to the larger "human" experience? In
other words, can we connect patterns and elements within the text to other texts from
other cultures to map similarities that tell us more about the common human
experience? This is a liberal humanist move that assumes that since we are all human,
we all share basic human commonalities.
4. What rules or codes of interpretation must be internalized in order to 'make sense' of the
text?
5. What are the semiotics of a given category of cultural phenomena, or 'text,' such as
high-school football games, television and/or magazine ads for a particular brand of
perfume...or even media coverage of an historical event? (Tyson 225)
5. Deconstruction
Deconstruction believes that all language is self contradictory, self referring, that language
betrays its user or speaker. This also involves looking for binary oppositions, but after
discovering them, the binary relationship is broken and their hierarchy is revered (Viray et al
2012).
Moreover, Padgett (1997) states that this approach “rejects the traditional assumption
that language can accurately represent reality.” Deconstructionist critics regard language as
a fundamentally unstable medium—the words “tree” or “dog,” for instance, undoubtedly conjure
up different mental images for different people—and therefore, because literature is made up of
words, literature possesses no fixed, single meaning. According to critic Paul de Man,
deconstructionists insist on “the impossibility of making the actual expression coincide with what

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has to be expressed, of making the actual signs [i.e., words] coincide with what is signified.” As
a result, deconstructionist critics tend to emphasize not what is being said but how language is
used in a text. The methods of this approach tend to resemble those of formalist criticism, but
whereas formalists’ primary goal is to locate unity within a text, “how the diverse elements of a
text cohere into meaning,” deconstructionists try to show how the text “deconstructs,” “how it
can be broken down ... into mutually irreconcilable positions.” Other goals of deconstructionists
include (1) challenging the notion of authors’ “ownership” of texts they create (and their ability to
control the meaning of their texts) and (2) focusing on how language is used to achieve power,
as when they try to understand how a some interpretations of a literary work come to be
regarded as “truth.”
WATCH THIS:
Tim Nance. (2015a, February 26). What is Deconstruction? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cku46UJRlNo&t=42s
6. Marxist
The theories are based on the premise of that a work is determined by time, history, and
society. The theories study and analyze the superstructure in relation to the work.
Here are some of the Marxist literary theories:
1. The reflection model (George Lukacs)

Lukacs did not see literature as reflecting reality as a mirror reflects the objects
placed in front of a; literature is knowledge of reality, and knowledge is not a matter
of making one-to-one correspondence between things in the world outside and ideas
in the head. Reality is indeed out there before we know it, but it has shape... to be
reflected in literature, reality has to pass through the creative, form given work of the
writer. The result, in the case of a correctly formed work reflects the form of the
world.
2. The production model (Pierre Macherey)

Macherey sees literature as like a productive labor, where raw materials are worked
on to get a finished product. He sees the author as someone who works pre-existing
literature genres, conventions, language and ideology into end product: literary texts.
3. The genetic model (Lucien Goldmann)

Goldmann's alternative to the biographical approach of correlating the literary work
with the author's life and personality was not to center on the text but the correlate
the work's structure with what he calls the mental structure of the author's social
group. For Goldmann, literary works arise out of social consciousness and behavior,
and it was the way they are linked to society that he sought to establish. The literary
work is the expression not of the author's self but on the social class of which the
author is a member.

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4. The negative knowledge model (Theodore W. Adorno)

Adorno views art and reality as standing at a distance from each other and that this
distance gives a work of art a vantage point which it can criticize actuality. He adds
that a great modernist work is precisely that which manages to reveal the
contradiction between appearance and reality. The literary work does not give us a
neatly shaped reflection, and knowledge of reality but acts within reality to expose its
contradictions.
MAIN INGREDIENTS OF LITERATURE
Literature
POINT OF
SUBJECT FORM
VIEW
Fig.1 Main Ingredients of Literature
In presenting all the varied human experiences, the writer chooses a specific vehicle or
artistic structure to convey his meaning or value of the experience.
The writer also selects an angle of vision to present this human experience to his readers in
such a way that his readers become truly and personally involved in the experience, for when
they assume this angel of vision, they actually feel that they are the people performing the
experience being shown to them.
A. The subject of literature
Any work of literature is about something, and for this reason, it has a subject. A subject
may be treated in three levels: First level (basic description), Second level (generalizations
based on descriptions), and Third level (examination of the human condition and the system of
values the topic of the poem deals with). The third level is commonly known as the theme of the
work.
Generally literature invites its readers to make generalizations and this function of literature,
viz, to stimulate readers to generalize from descriptions of human situations, conditions, or
behaviors leads to the understanding of the value of a literary genre. For, approaching
literature through its subject will help in the realization of what a literary work means.
B. The Form of literature

The subject of literature is conveyed in some sort of vehicle. This vehicle used by literature
to communicate its subject is called form. Form is a verbal and artistic structuring of ideas, e.g.,
the thought in a sonnet is contained within fourteen lines of iambic pentameter. For beginning

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students of literature, a study of the form is an effective approach to the totality of the literary
effect. In fact, part of the reason that literature is literature resides in its form. For this reason a
good deal of a student’s understanding and appreciation of any literary work depends on his or
her understanding of the form.
“The form of literature is nothing more than the arousing and satisfying of appetites.”-
Kenneth Burke.
For example, when a writer writes a detective story, he might begin with a crime and arouse
the reader’s appetite for discovery and apprehension of an unknown criminal. Or he might, on
the other hand, identify the criminal immediately and arouse in the reader an appetite for his
apprehension. It appears therefore that form and subject a virtually one. However, this is
no quite so because the writer can shape a given subject in countless ways: the way
which he chooses is the form.
When a student reads a literary work, s/he must pay attention to the form primarily because
the work of art is in large part an aesthetically shaped structure. If one ignores the form, then
one miss a good deal of the delight inherent in the work of art. It is said that the readers of
literature can “sense” the form and understand almost by intuition how the artist has shaped his
work.
On the basic level, we speak of form in terms of stanzas, rhyme, meter for poetry; of
arrangement of incidents in a particular plot or of the sequence in which ideas are developed for
the novel; of the development and sequence of ideas for the essay. Therefore, form in literature
is always somehow connected with arrangement, and, in the larger sense, the satisfaction of
man’s desire for significant patterns.
C. The Point of View of literature

Traditionally, it is taken to mean the angel of vision of the narrator- first person, omniscient,
modified omniscient, etc. This is the traditional definition of the point of view. However, there is a
need to expand the general meaning of the term in order to include various attitudes toward the
subject of the work – that of the author, that of characters, and that of the reader. In this area we
are dealing with the tone of the utterance, that is, the sense that the reader gains of the
author’s attitude towards the subject; we are dealing with the problems of persons and irony
where the statements of characters and/or narrator are not necessarily those of the author; we
are dealing with the problems of persuasion, where the reader may or may not wish to accord
with the solicited response.
Because point of view is the most subjective area of the three approaches to literature, it is
the most difficult to define. But, point of view, as an effective medium of approaching literature,
will be students be aware of the fact that effective literature is affective, i.e. the author too has
a response to his subject and that he uses various techniques of structure and rhetoric to elicit a
response from his reader.

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ACTIVITY 2: TEXT DETECTIVE

lesson
ACTIVITY 3: THEORY WARS

lesson
READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
2. Todorov, Tzvetan. (1975). The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre.
Ithaca, New York: Cornell UP. Print.
3. Viray, L., Lim, M. C., Batino Jr., L., Seril, E., & Boja, J. (2012). World Literature.
Grandwater Publishing.
(Online)
4. Habib, M. A. R. (2008). Modern Literary Criticism and Theory: A History (1st ed.) [E-
book]. Wiley-Blackwell.
https://www.academia.edu/23676787/A_History_of_Literary_Criticism_and_Theory
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. Barad, D. (n.d.). Unit1: Plato and Aristotle - Literary Theory and Criticism. Literary
Theory and Criticism. Retrieved September 8, 2020, from
https://sites.google.com/site/nmeictproject/home
2. Gremlin, G. (2016, August 1). A Brief Overview of Tzvetan Todorov’s Theory of the
Fantastic. Owlcation - Education. https://owlcation.com/humanities/An-Overview-of-
Tzvetan-Todorovs-Theory-of-the- Fantastic#:%7E:text=The%20fantastic%20is%20that
%20hesitation,the%20supernatural
%20accepted%20as%20supernatural.
3. Hicks, S. (2012, January 21). Plato on censoring artists — a summary – Stephen Hicks,
Ph.D. Stephen Hicks, Ph.D. http://www.stephenhicks.org/2012/01/21/plato-on-censoring-
artists-a-summary/
4. Literary Devices Editors. (2017c, December 15). Catharsis - Examples and Definition of
Catharsis. Literary Devices. https://literarydevices.net/catharsis/
5. Mambrol, N. (2017, April 29). Literary Criticism of Horace. Literariness.Org.
https://literariness.org/2017/04/29/literary-criticism-of- horace/#:~:text=Like%20Plato%2C
%20Horace%20sees%20nature,well%20as%20creati ng%20new%20works.
6. Padgett, J. (1997). --- CRITICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE ---. English 205:
Masterworks of English Literature.
http://home.olemiss.edu/%7Eegjbp/spring97/litcrit.html
7. Poetry Foundation. (n.d.). Longinus. Retrieved September 10, 2020, from
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/longinus

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8. Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.-a). Feminist Criticism //. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_literature/literary_theory_a
nd_schools_of_criticism/feminist_criticism.html
9. Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.-b). Psychoanalytic Criticism //. Retrieved September 16, 2020,
from
nd_schools_of_criticism/psychoanalytic_criticism.html
10. Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.-c). Reader-Response Criticism //. Retrieved September 15,
2020, from
nd_schools_of_criticism/reader_response_criticism.html
11. Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.-d). Structuralism and Semiotics //. Retrieved September 18,
2020, from
nd_schools_of_criticism/structuralism_and_semiotics.html
12. What is meant by historical and biographical approaches? (2011, April 12). ENotes.
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-meant-by-historical-biographical-
approaches-253718
WATCH
1. MrNovackFFLD. (2013, October 24). Reader Response Theory [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrh0i1A1kik
2. MrsSimmons. (2017, September 7). Feminist Criticism - One Approach to Literature
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6s1-_8sWutQ
3. TED-Ed. (2013, May 31). Mining literature for deeper meanings - Amy E. Harter [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eREopphW5Bw
4. Tim Nance. (2015a, February 25). What is Literary Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f31V4XiPBdI
5. Tim Nance. (2015b, February 26). What is Deconstruction? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cku46UJRlNo&t=42s
6. Tim Nance. (2015c, February 26). What is New Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aa0gxWjCOxQ
7. Tim Nance. (2015d, February 26). What is Reader Response? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnq1nD_bmlc&list=PLIlatssdqY5Na_a9r-
8. Tim Nance. (2015e, February 27). What is Psychological Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4NXNfBEwZg&list=PLIlatssdqY5Na_a9r-
9. Tim Nance. (2015f, March 3). What is Feminist Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JHS9cYuJZA
10. Tim Nance. (2015g, March 3). What is Historical Criticism? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMxkN81QhKw
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT
1. ACTIVITY 1: CAVE ART
Based from the lesson on Classical Criticism, create an illustration of the cave from the
Allegory of the cave. You may utilize any material available to create the illustration (e.g.
bond paper and any drawing and coloring materials; digital art; and more). After creating

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
the illustration, write a 100 word paragraph that explains your work and your
understanding of the Allegory of the Cave.
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Prepare a digitized version of the Cave Art by taking a picture of the
art. Then submit the art through the online platform Google classroom or the official
class Facebook Group. Prepare to explain your Cave Art during the synchronous
session in a Student Talk Corner.
For Modular mode: Submit the illustration to your teacher. The 100 word paragraph will
serve as as your Student Talk Corner participation.
2. STUDENT TALK CORNER (One minute student participation in the synchronous

session)
Prepare a one minute talk explaining your understanding of the Allegory of the Cave
using the illustration that you have created from Activity 1: Cave Art. Make sure to
prepare a short presentation (Powerpoint) to show your art while you explain your art
and explain your key takeaways from the Classical Criticism.
3. ACTIVITY 2: TEXT DETECTIVE (Close Reading Activity)

Applying the New Criticism to the text, read and analyze the poem, Trees by Antonio
Carpio. Follow the step by step guide to the analysis. Then answer the questions that
follow.
Trees
Antonio
Carpio
I think that I shall not plant a

tree I shall not follow this decree
I’m neither cowardly nor
brave I just don’t wanna be a
slave Of any mortal same as
me!
God made us
free; and free I’ll
be!
Why should they rob me of the joy

I’ve known since I was still a boy?
The thrill of growing what I chose
— A pili, mango or a rose!
That’s why I will not plant a tree
I say—“to hell with that
decree!”
Why let the loggers roam at will

Denuding every virgin hill
Then let the burden on us fall?

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STEP GUIDE TO CLOSE READING: Prepare your different colored pens and highlighters
1. To begin, read your passage/ poem slowly.
2. Task 1: Circle any vocabulary you are unfamiliar with and look up the definition. Double
check that the definition makes sense in the context of the text. Write the word/s that you
are unsure. At this point
3. Task 2: Language Choice - underline any language that attracts your attention for any
reason. Why do you find it interesting? Jot down your reasons.
4. Task 3: Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. Highlight in different colours the ones you
find in the passage. What do you notice? Are there any patterns? Comment on your
findings.
5. Task 4: Predictions - what might happen next? Why?
6. Task 5: Opinions and reflections - what do you think of the story/narrators/characters?
7. Task 6: Connections - does the task remind you about your own experiences? Or other
books and films? What are the similarities?
8. Task 7: Questions - note them down, and remember there is no such thing as a stupid
question. Try to list more open questions than closed questions.
9. Task 8: What key themes from the novel/poem do you think are reflected in the
passage/lines?
Example Annotation:

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Here are some annotation symbols that may help you [although you may use your own
symbols]:
CLOSE READING QUESTIONS
SUBJECT:
First Level:
1. Who is the persona or speaker in the poem?
State your proof/s: (Cite word/s, line/s or stanzas to support your claim)
2. Who is the addressee in the poem?

Second Level:
3. What is the metaphor/s in the poem? (Metaphor can be described as figure of speech in
which a thing is referred to as being something that it resembles.)
4. What is the central metaphor in the poem?


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Third Level:
5. What is it about? (What emotions, feelings, relationships or ideas are represented in
the poem?)
FORM:How many stanza/s are present?

How many line/s are present per stanza?
Is there the presence of rhyme/s? What are
they? What is the meter of the poem?
POINT OF VIEW
What type of point of view was used?
What is the tone of the poem? (author’s attitude towards the subject)
Write your final Close Reading Analysis. Follow the format: Introduction with thesis statement (mostly
about the theme); Body (textual evidences to support the thesis statement); and Conclusion
(Title)
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Encode your answers on a Microsoft word document or Google
form. Then submit the analysis through the online platform Google classroom or the
official class Facebook Group.
For Modular mode: Submit the analysis to your teacher.

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4. ACTIVITY 3: THEORY WARS: Looking at The Lottery through Critical Lenses
A. Watch the 1969 film The Lottery based from the short story of Shirley Jackson:
(Chef Jay. (2016, September 28). The Lottery (Shirley Jackson) - 1969 Short Film
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQQoMCaUz5Y)
B. Read the short story: http://web1.nbed.nb.ca/sites/ASD- S/1820/J

%20Johnston/The_Lottery_with_questions_Shirley_Jackson.pdf
In your groups, discuss the questions below. You will be asked to share the fruits of your
discussion with the whole class in your symposium.
a. This story begins with a mood that is very different from the mood at the end of
the story. How are these two moods different? What specific words show this?
b. In the second paragraph of the story, the children are gathering stones,
seemingly just for fun. The end of the reading demonstrates why they were actually
gathering the stones. What literary device does this exemplify?
c. What does it say about the culture of this village that the lottery was conducted in
the same manner as “the square dances, the teen club, the Halloween program.”
d. The actual lottery happens on page four. The tone of the section is one of
anxiety. What specific words does the author use to show this feeling of worry?
e. Mr. Adams states that in a neighboring village they don’t even have a lottery. Old
Man Warner responds that those villagers are a “pack of crazy fools”. Why is this
ironic?
f. Why do you think the village has a lottery? Is it a good thing, or a bad thing?
g. Do you think it was right for the youth in this story to have been forced to
participate in the event?
h. Even though this story deals with a very violent event, there is very little
description of the violence.
i. Do you think the story would have been more or less effective if the author had
described the violence more?
j. In the story, the lottery is overall a rather relaxed, natural occurrence. How do
you think you would feel if you were there?
k. How did this story make you feel overall?
C. Read through the handout on literary theory. Select the two theories that you think
might be most helpful in illuminating the film. Write down the theories below.
1.
2.

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D. Now come up with some statements about the film for each of the theories you
named in question 3. For example, if you selected feminist criticism you might
discuss the lack of female characters and evaluate the role of Tessie Hutchinson
from a feminist perspective. If you chose reader response theory you might describe
how the film reminded each of you of a personal experience in your struggle with
good and evil. (Use loose-leaf paper— journal potential.)
E. After you discuss these interpretations, decide how to present them to the whole
class. Your presentation should be no more than about 10 minutes of your
symposium.
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Encode your answers on a Microsoft word document or Google
form. Then submit the analysis through the online platform Google classroom or the
For Modular mode: Submit the analysis to your teacher.
5. Quiz:
For online classes: Quiz will be given through Google forms in Google classroom or the
For Modular mode: Quiz file in their flash disk

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UNIT 2 – POETRY
OVERVIEW:
““More and more mankind will discover that we have to turn to poetry to interpret life for us,
to console us, to sustain us. Without poetry, our science will appear incomplete; and most of
what now passes with us for religion and philosophy will be replaced by poetry.”-Matthew Arnold
If someone would ask a student of how they feel about poetry, most students would say that
they are intimidated and daunted of the task of reading then deciphering the meaning behind
the lines. It is often perceived as something that is cryptic and beyond understanding. But there
are some pieces of information that can help us to grasp poetry whether we are just starting to
learn about analyzing poetry or trying to find our own poetic voice.
As an art form that has survived many thousands of years many students and professionals
who are not into humanities would see less importance for the study of not only literature but
specifically poetry. Since like any form of literature, poetry is something that cannot be read the
same way because the words mean something different to each of us; and even different from
ourselves in different times of our lives. Precisely because of this, poetry became an elusive art
form to many. But it is important to understand that despite the importance given to logic
through the sciences and technology, poetry has often reflected the voice of the time. Like any
form of literature that reflects the life and times as it change, poetry does the same. The
meaning, subject matter and language choices may change with whatever is considered an
everyday concern in the current society’s expectations. Not many contemporary poems will use
the same language as Shakespeare, but that does not mean that they are any less valid and
likewise, poetry that lasts through the transition of time still resonates with the reader in some
way.
This unit reintroduces students to the conventions of poetry so that students will have a
better grasp of understanding poetry through its elements and other contexts. This unit would
cover the different types, elements and literary devices used in poetry. This unit will also discuss
the different poems from the ancient times to the canons all around the world. These poems are
grouped according to its form, imagery, diction, and tone.
1. Distinguish poetry from other forms of writing

2. Interpret poem using poetic imagery, figurative language, and variations of tone
3. Differentiate meter, sound, and line formation.
4. Consider relationship of shape to meaning in poetry.
5. Apply close reading in poem analysis.
6. Survey traditional and contemporary nature poetry.
7. Examine the historical/ social and cultural context that influence the texts;
8. Examine the structure and elements of the texts for close reading analysis
9. Analyze selections using critical approaches to literature
10. Evaluate poems creatively.

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 3 INTRODUCTION TO POETRY AND ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Poetry may be something completely alien and incomprehensible for an ordinary person.
Marianne Moore, a poet herself says: "there are things that are important beyond all this fiddle."
Certainly, poetry cannot affect the world economy or build bridges. Yet poetry is and continues
to be. What is it about poetry that persists, despite the materialistic and practical concerns of
modern man? Perhaps has it contains and communicates that mysterious essential something
which is invisible to the eye as Saint Exupery puts it (Tomeldan et al, 2010).
Poetry, like a song, is an expression of a feeling, an insight, a discovery. Viray etal (2012)
explains that poetry it is a composition usually written in verse. Poems rely heavily on imagery,
precise word choice, and metaphor; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns
stresses (metric feet) or patterns of different lengths syllables (s in classical prosody); and they
may or may not utilize rhyme.
Poems are designed to be recited or read aloud. The recitation of the poem reveals its
rhythm (regular sound patterns) and thought units that help out a meaning it wishes to convey
(Montealegre et al, 2010).
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
A. Sense - It is revealed through the words, images, and symbols.
1. Diction – the denotative and connotative meanings of the words
 Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the
choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often
separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors.
Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be
appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words
should be such that the listener or reader understands easily (Literary
Devices Editors, 2018).
 Diction can have a great effect on the tone of a piece of literature, and how
readers perceive the characters (Literary Devices, 2015).
 Poetic diction refers to the operating language of poetry, language employed
in a manner that sets poetry apart from other kinds of speech or writing. It
involves the vocabulary, the phrasing, and the grammar considered
appropriate and inappropriate to poetry at different times (Poet.org, n.d.).
 In Poetic Diction: A Study in Meaning (1928) as cited in Poet.org., Owen
Barfield writes, “When words are selected and arranged in such a way that
their meaning either arouses, or is obviously intended to arouse, aesthetic
imagination, the result may be described as poetic diction.”
 Aristotle established poetic diction as a subject in the Poetics (350 BCE).
“Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or ornamental, or
newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered,” he declared, and he
then considered each type of word in turn. His overall concern was “how
poetry combines elevation of language with perspicuity.” Changes in poetic
fashion, reforms in poetry, often have to do with the effectiveness of poetic
diction, the magic of language. How, if at all, is poetic speech marked
differently than ordinary speech? “The weightiest theoretical legacy which
antiquity and the Renaissance passed on to neoclassicism was the
ornamental conception of poetic style,” Emerson Marks writes. “Till the dawn

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of Romanticism, writers continued to regard the characteristics of verse as

raiment adorning the ‘body’ of a poet’s thought.” In The Life of Dryden (1779–
1781), Samuel Johnson argued that before the time of Dryden, there was
simply
o no poetical diction: no system of words at once refined from the
grossness of domestic use and free from the harshness of terms
appropriated to particular arts. Words too familiar, or too remote,
defeat the purposes of a poet.
 In the preface to Lyrical Ballads (1802), William Wordsworth argued against
the ornate effects of his predecessors and insisted on the essential identity of
poetic and non-poetic language. He argued that poetry should employ “the
real language of men in any situation.” Wordsworth revolutionized the idea of
poetic diction by connecting it to speech. Poetry is linked to speech, to the
way that people actually talk at any given time, but it is also framed and
marked differently (Poet.org, n.d.).
 Diction or choice of words is of great importance in poetry, since
economy and precision characterize this genre. Words are combinations
of words are painstakingly chosen by the poet for their exactness as well as
suggestiveness. The connotative value of a word is particularly important to
the poet. A word may have a double meaning, as in the use of the word
"faithless" in "Lay Your Sleeping Head My Love." One has to look beyond the
literal meaning and try to unlock the hidden meaning in order to appreciate
the beauty of poetry (Tomeldan et al, 2010).
 The poet has what it what is known as poetic license, which means he can
coin new words or alter words to suit his purpose. Hopkins' use of the
word "unleaving" in "Spring and Fall," and, Cummings' use of the word
"manunkind" are examples of word coinages which are indicative of wit. No
matter how a poet uses of words, whether trims away the superfluous or
embellishes his poem with the weirdest combination of words the true poet
somehow knows how to make his brew so that the result is magically poetic
(Tomeldan et al, 2010).
COMMON EXAMPLES OF DICTION

We alter our diction all the time depending on the situation we are in.
Different communication styles are necessary at different times. We would
not address a stranger in the same way as a good friend, and we would not
address a boss in that same way as a child. These different choices are all
examples of diction.
 “Could you be so kind as to pass me the milk?” Vs. “Give me
that!”
 “I regret to inform you that that is not the case.” Vs. “You’re
wrong!”
 “It is a pleasure to see you again! How are you today?” Vs.
“Hey, what’s up?”
 “I’m a bit upset,” Vs. “I’m so pissed off.”
 “I would be delighted!” Vs. “Sure, why not?”
 “I’ll do it right away, sir,” Vs. “Yeah, just a sec.”

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TYPES OF DICTION
Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings.
Therefore, we come across various types of diction.
 Formal diction – formal words are used in formal situations,

such as press conferences and presentations.
 Informal diction – uses informal words and conversation,
such as writing or talking to friends.
 Colloquial diction – uses words common in everyday
speech, which may be different in different regions or
communities.
 Slang diction – is the use of words that are newly coined, or
even impolite.
SIGNIFICANCE OF DICTION IN LITERATURE

Authors make conscious and unconscious word choices all the time when
writing literature, just as we do when speaking to one another. The diction in
a piece establishes many different aspects of how we read the work of
literature, from its formality to its tone even to the type of story we are
reading. For example, there could be two practically identical spy novels, but
in one we are privileged to the main character’s innermost thoughts about the
situation while in the other we only see what the main character does. The
author has chosen verbs either of introspection or action, and this type of
diction thus determines what kind of story the book presents. This is the
difference between spy novels by, for example, John le Carré (Tinker, Tailor,
Solider, Spy; A Most Wanted Man) and Dan Brown (The Da Vinci Code;
Inferno).
Examples #1 (Macbeth by William Shakespeare)
MACBETH: Is this a dagger which I see before MACBETH: I have done the deed. – Didst thou not
me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me hear a noise?
clutch thee. LADY MACBETH: I heard the owl scream and the
I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. crickets cry.
Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible Did not you speak?
To feeling as to sight? Or art thou but MACBETH: When?
A dagger of the mind, a false LADY MACBETH:
creation, Now.
Proceeding from the heat-oppressèd brain? MACBETH: As I
descended? LADY
This is an interesting example of diction from Shakespeare’s famous tragedy
Macbeth. As modern readers, we often consider Shakespeare’s language
to be quite formal, as it is filled with words like “thou” and “thy” as well as
archaic syntax such as in Macbeth’s questions “Didst thou not hear a noise?”
However, there is striking difference in the diction between these two
passages. In the first, Macbeth is contemplating a murder in long, expressive
sentences. In the second excerpt, Macbeth has just committed a murder and
has a rapid-fire exchange with his wife, Lady Macbeth. The different word
choices that Shakespeare makes shows the different mental states that
Macbeth is in in these two nearby scenes.

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Examples #2 (The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle)

It seemed to me that a careful examination of the
This diction example is quite formal,
room and the lawn might possibly reveal some
even though Sherlock Holmes is
traces of this mysterious individual. You know my
methods, Watson. There was not one of them
speaking to his close friend Dr.
Watson. He speaks in very full
which I did not apply to the inquiry. And it ended by
sentences and with elevated language
my discovering traces, but very different ones from
those which I had expected. (“might possibly reveal some traces”
and “not one of them which I did not
apply to the inquiry”). When speaking to
such a close acquaintance, most people would choose other constructions
and less formal language. However, this diction employed by Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle shows that Sherlock Holmes is always a very formal
character, no matter the situation.
Examples #3 (Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats)
John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a
certain effect. He says:
“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on
…”
Notice the use of the formal “ye,” instead of the informal “you.” The formality
here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he
says:
“Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu.”
It is more formal to use “adieu” than to say “goodbye.”
Examples #4 (The Sun Rising by John Donne)
“Busy old fool, unruly Sun, In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne
Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?
uses colloquialism in his poem The
Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run? Sun Rising. Treating the sun as a real
Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide. “ human being in this excerpt, the poet
speaks to the sun in an informal way,
using
colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because it has appeared to spoil
the good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the “saucy
pedantic sun” to go away.
2. Images and Sense Impressions – the words used that appeal to the sense of sight,
smell, hearing, taste and touch
 Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and
ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses.
 Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create
visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word “imagery” is associated
with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be

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realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following
examples of imagery carefully:
 It was dark and dim in the forest.
o The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
 The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
o “Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or
auditory sense.
 He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.
o “Whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory
sense.
 Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor,
personification, and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses.
 As a literary device, imagery consists of descriptive language that can
function as a way for the reader to better imagine the world of the piece of
literature and also add symbolism to the work. Imagery draws on the five
senses, namely the details of taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound. Imagery
can also pertain to details about movement or a sense of a body in motion
(kinesthetic imagery) or the emotions or sensations of a person, such as fear
or hunger (organic imagery or subjective imagery). Using imagery helps the
reader develop a more fully realized understanding of the imaginary world
that the author has created.
 The use of figurative language - whether metaphor, simile, personification or
hyperbole - in poetry, contributes to its subtle or indirect mode of expression.
Of course, the figures of speech should be as fresh and unique as possible.
Trite, overworked to figures of speech make for bad poetry which appeals to
stock responses (Tomeldan et al, 2010).
COMMON EXAMPLES OF IMAGERY

We use imagery in everyday speech to convey our meaning. Here are some
examples of imagery from each of the five senses:
 Taste: The familiar tang of his grandmother’s cranberry sauce

reminded him of his youth.
 Sound: The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days
afterward.
 Sight: The sunset was the most gorgeous they’d ever seen;
the clouds were edged with pink and gold.
 Smell: After eating the curry, his breath reeked of garlic.
 Touch: The tree bark was rough against her skin.
SIGNIFICANCE OF IMAGERY IN LITERATURE

Imagery examples are prevalent in all types of literature from cultures
around the world. Poets, novelists, and playwrights use imagery for many
reasons. One of the key usages is that the imagery in a piece can help
create mood, such as the clichéd opening “It was a dark and stormy night.”
While this line is too hackneyed for any author to actually use it, it is a good
example of imagery in that the reader immediately pictures the kind of setting
in which the story may take place. This particular imagery also creates a
mood of foreboding. Indeed, even Shakespeare used this type of opening for

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his famous play Macbeth: the three witches in the beginning speak of the
“thunder, lightning [and] rain” and the “fog and filthy air.” (Literary Devices,
2015b).
While an author may use imagery just to help readers understand the fictive
world, details of imagery often can be read symbolically. In the previous
example of Macbeth, the thunder and lightning that open the play symbolize
both the storm that is already taking place in Scotland and the one that is
about to begin once Macbeth takes over the throne. Thus, when analyzing
literature it is important to consider the imagery used so as to
understand both the mood and the symbolism in the piece.
Examples #1 Taste (One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García

Márquez)
On rainy afternoons, embroidering with a group of friends on the begonia porch, she would
lose the thread of the conversation and a tear of nostalgia would salt her palate when she saw
the strips of damp earth and the piles of mud that the earthworms had pushed up in the
garden. Those secret tastes, defeated in the past by oranges and rhubarb, broke out into an
irrepressible urge when she began to weep. She went back to eating earth. The first time she
did it almost out of curiosity, sure that the bad taste would be the best cure for the temptation.
And, in fact, she could not bear the earth in her mouth. But she persevered, overcome by the
growing anxiety, and little by little she was getting back her ancestral appetite, the taste of
primary minerals, the unbridled satisfaction of what was the original food.
This passage from Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude
discusses one of the character’s pica eating disorder. There are many
examples of imagery using the sense of taste, including “a tear would salt her
palate,” “oranges and rhubarb,” and “the taste of primary minerals.” The
imagery in this excerpt makes the experience of an eating disorder much
more vivid and imaginable to the reader.
Examples #2 Sound (“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert

Frost)
When most people think of Robert Frost’s famous
My little horse must think it queer poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,”
To stop without a farmhouse near the final refrain comes to mind: “And miles to go
Between the woods and frozen before I sleep.” Yet the short poem contains many
lake The darkest evening of the imagery examples that are simple yet set the
year. scene well. In this excerpt, there is a juxtaposition
of two sounds: the bright noise of the horse’s
He gives his harness bells a
harness bells and the nearly silent sound of wind
shake To ask if there is some
mistake.
and snowflake. While the reader knows that this is
The only other sound’s the a dark night, the sense of sound makes the scene
even more realistic.

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Examples #3 Sight (1984 by George Orwell)
One of the central conceits Outside, even through the shut window-pane,
of George Orwell’s classic the world looked cold. Down in the street little
dystopian novel 1984 is the eddies of wind were whirling dust and torn
all-pervasive surveillance of paper into spirals, and though the sun was
this society. This is a world shining and the sky a harsh blue, there seemed
that has its eyes constantly to be no colour in anything, except the posters
open—“Big Brother is that were plastered everywhere. The black
watching you” is the motto mustachioed face gazed down from every
of the society—yet the commanding corner. There was one on the
world itself is almost house-front immediately opposite. BIG
colorless. All that the main BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, the caption
character, Winston, sees is said, while the dark eyes looked deep into
“whirling dust,” “torn paper,” Winston’s own.
and posters of a “black Down at street level another poster, torn at one
mustachioed face” with corner, flapped fitfully in the wind, alternately
“dark eyes.” These sensory covering and uncovering the single word
details contribute to a INGSOC. In the far distance a helicopter
general feeling of unease skimmed down between the roofs, hovered for
and foreshadow the way in an instant like a bluebottle, and darted away
which the world appears again with a curving flight
more chilling as the novel goes on.
In the period of which we speak, there reigned Examples #4 Smell (Perfume: The Story
in the cities a stench barely conceivable to us of a Murderer by Patrick Suskind)
modern men and women. The streets stank of
manure, the courtyards of urine, the stairwells Patrick Suskind’s novel Perfume: The
stank of moldering wood and rat droppings, the Story of a Murderer focuses on a
kitchens of spoiled cabbage and mutton fat; the character who has a very acute sense of
unaired parlors stank of stale dust, the smell. The novel, therefore, has
bedrooms of greasy sheets, damp featherbeds, numerous examples of imagery using
and the pungently sweet aroma of chamber descriptions of smell. This excerpt comes
pots. The stench of sulfur rose from the from the beginning of the novel where
chimneys, the stench of caustic lyes from the Suskind sets up the general palate of
tanneries, and from the slaughterhouses came smells in eighteenth-century Paris. Using
the stench of congealed blood. People stank of these smells as a backdrop, the reader is
sweat and unwashed clothes; from their better able to understand the importance
mouths came the stench of rotting teeth, from of the main character’s skill as a
their bellies that of onions, and from their perfumer. The reader is forced to imagine
bodies, if they were no longer very young, the range of smells in this novel’s era and
came the stench of rancid cheese and sour setting that no longer assault us on a daily
milk and tumorous disease. basis.
3. Figures of Speech – the creative use of words or expressions that a poet uses to
enhance the sense impression.
 A figure of speech is a word or phrase using figurative language—language
that has other meaning than its normal definition. In other words, figures of
speeches rely on implied or suggested meaning, rather than a dictionary
definition. We express and develop them through hundreds of different

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rhetorical techniques, from specific types like metaphors and similes, to more
general forms like sarcasm and slang (Literary Terms, 2017).
 Viray et al (2012) describes figure of speech as an utterance not in its literal
meaning but in its implication. Most of the figures of speech became idiomatic
expressions or idioms because they were widely used and became part of
the vocabulary. The main reasons why speakers, conversationalists, and
writers use figures of speech are:
o They make the language more colorful and interesting.
o They give more effect to the listener or to the reader.
o They give more vivid and concrete description.
B. Sound – This is the result of the creative combination of words. The poet may resort to
the use of alliteration, assonance, rhyme, repetition, and anaphora.
1. Rhythm – the ordered alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound
and silence.
 Like the beat in music, rhythm is the recurrence of pattern of sound. It is the
result of systematically stressing or accenting words and syllables (Viray et
al, 2012).
o I I
Example: “Blame nót my cheécks through pale with lóve they I I
bé.”
 The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, “measured
motion.” Rhythm is a literary device that demonstrates the long and short
patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in verse form
(Literary Devices, 2017).
TYPES OF RHYTHM (Poetic Feet)

English poetry makes use of five important rhythms. These rhythms are of
different patterns of stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. Each unit of
these types is called foot. Here are the five types of rhythm:
1. Iamb (x /)
This is the most commonly used rhythm. It consists of two syllables, the first
of which is not stressed, while the second syllable is stressed. Such as:
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” (Sonnet 18, by William Shakespeare)
2. Trochee (/ x)
A trochee is a type of poetic foot commonly used in English poetry. It has two
syllables, the first of which is strongly stressed, while the second syllable is
unstressed, as given below:
“Tell me not, in mournful numbers”

(Psalm of Life, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
3. Spondee (/ /)
Spondee is a poetic foot that has two syllables, which are consecutively
stressed. For example:

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I I
“White founts falling in the Courts I of the sun”
(Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton)
4. Dactyl (/ x x)
Dactyl is made up of three syllables. The first syllable is stressed, and the
remaining two syllables are not stressed, such as in the word “marvelous.”
For example:
I I
“This is the forest pri meval. The murmuring I I pines and the I
hemlocks,”
(Evangeline, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
This line consists of five dactyls and one spondee at the end.
5. Anapest (x x /)
Anapests are total opposites of dactyls. They have three syllables; where the
first two syllables are not stressed, and the last syllable is stressed. For
example:
I I
” ‘Twas the night before Christ mas, and all through the house,” I
(‘Twas the Night Before Christmas, by Clement Clarke Moore)
2. Meter – the duration, stress, or number of syllable per line

 It is the measure with which we count the beat or rhythm, it was taken from
the Greek word “metron” meaning “to measure.”It has a regular verse or line
pattern that the rhythm rises from one or two unstressed syllables to a
stressed syllable in a foot.
TYPES OF METER (Poetic Meter)

The most common number of feet found in lines of poetry are:
o Monometer (one foot)

o Dimeter (two feet)
o Trimeter (three feet)
o Tetrameter (four feet)
o Pentameter (five feet)
o Hexameter (six feet)
The name of a meter is based on the foot it uses (stated as an adjective, with
an "–ic" at the end), and the number of feet in the line. So a line with four
dactyls would be "dactylic tetrameter." Note that the total number of syllables
can be different even for lines that have the same number of feet, because
some feet have two syllables while others have three. A line of iambic
pentameter has 10 syllables, because it has five iambs, each of which have
two syllables. Dactylic pentameter has 15 syllables, because it has five
dactyls, each of which has three syllables.

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METERED POETRY AND FREE VERSE

Many poems include meter, but not all do. In fact, poetry can be broken
down into three types, based on whether it includes meter and rhyme. The
three main types of poetry are:
o Formal verse: Poetry that has both a strict meter and rhyme scheme.
o Blank verse: Poetry that has a strict meter, but doesn't have a rhyme
scheme.
o Free verse: Poetry that has neither any strict meter nor rhyme
scheme.
3. Rhyme – is the regular recurrence of similar sounds usually at the end of each line.
 A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. Rhyming is
particularly common in many types of poetry, especially at the ends of lines,
and is a requirement in formal verse.
 Rhyme is used in poetry, as well as in songwriting, not just because it's
pleasant to hear, but because the repetition of sounds (especially when it's
consistent) lends a sense of rhythm and order to the language.
TYPES OF RHYME (according to Stressed and Unstressed Syllables)

o Perfect Rhymes include words whose stressed syllables share
identical sounds, as do all sounds that follow the stressed syllable.
The words "compare" and "despair" are perfect rhymes because both
have final stressed syllables with identical sounds. The words
"plunder" and "thunder" are also perfect rhymes because both their
first stressed syllable and the syllable after it share common sounds.
o Imperfect Rhymes include words that rhyme the stressed syllable of
one word with the unstressed syllable of another word, as in "uptown"
and "frown," or "painting" and "ring."
TYPES OF RHYME (according to Sound)

o Assonance, while also sometimes defined as its own figure of
speech, assonance can also be described as a type of rhyme
involving the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds, as in
"roof" and "tooth," or "wow" and "sound."
o Consonance, like assonance, is often described as a figure of
speech in its own right. But it can also be described as a type of
rhyme involving the repetition of the same or similar consonant
sounds, as in "cut" and "mate," or "half" and "file."
o Alliteration is often treated as a figure of speech, but can also be
categorized as a type of rhyme. It is a specialized form of consonance
or assonance involving the repetition of the same sounds (consonant
or vowel) either at the beginning of words or in the stressed syllable of
words, as in "Peter Piper picked a pint of pickled peppers."
o Slant Rhyme is similar to consonance and assonance in that it
involves the repetition of similar consonants or vowel sounds, but
slant rhyme requires the repeated sounds to occur in the final
syllables of words, as in "poncho" and "crunchy," or "crate" and
"braid." This type of rhyme is a bit more technical in its definition than
this short description, so for a more in-depth understanding it might be
worthwhile to take a look at the entry on slant rhyme.

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o Pararhyme is defined as "perfect consonance," meaning that all the

consonants in two or more words are the same, as in "leaves" and
"loves."
o Forced rhyme is a type of "near-rhyme" that include words with a
close but imperfect match in sound in the final syllables, especially
when a word is spelled abnormally in order to make the rhyme work,
as in "truth" and "endu'th" (a contraction of "endureth"). Forced rhyme
tends to make use of other rhyming devices like assonance and
consonance, so it overlaps in many cases with the definition slant
rhyme, but forced rhyme is a much broader and loosely-defined term
that can be used to apply to any type of near-rhyme in the final
syllables of a word.
o The term "forced rhyme" is also sometimes used to refer to
rhymes that use an awkward or unnatural syntax in order
to "force" a rhyme at the end of a line. An example of this
is "I gave my love to you my dear, / Cruel words from me
you'll never hear" because the second line has so
obviously been rearranged in order to make the rhyme
work (the syntax we would expect to hear is "You'll never
hear cruel words from me").
o Semirhyme is a rhyme in which two words share an identical sound
but one of the words has an extra syllable at the end, as in "time" and
"climbing."
o Eye Rhymes don't actually share any of the same sounds, but they
look as though they should because they have the same spelling.
Examples of eye rhyme include any words that look the same but
sound different, as in "rough" and "cough," or "Christ" and "wrist."
o Identical Rhymes are just the opposite of eye rhymes: they include
words that sound exactly the same but look different, as in "two" and
"too," or "ball" and "bawl."
o Monorhyme is the term used for a poem that uses a single rhyme
throughout. In other words, the rhyme scheme for a monorhyming
poem would just be AAAA, etc
TYPES OF RHYME (according to Their Placement Within Lines)

o End rhyme is any rhyme that occurs at the end of a line of verse, in
the final word or syllables. This is by far the most common type of
rhyme used in poetry. An example would be, "Roses are red, violets
are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you."
o Internal rhymes are rhyming words that do not occur at the ends of
lines. An example would be "I drove myself to the lake / and dove into
the water."
o Broken rhymes are rhymes in which one word is divided across lines
(usually with a hyphen) in order to make it rhyme with another word.
This is pretty uncommon, but it's not unheard of.
o Cross rhyme is a rhyme where a word at the end of a line rhymes
with another word in the middle of a different line.

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4. Rhyme Scheme – the formal arrangement of rhymes in a stanza or in the whole

poem
 Rhyme scheme is the pattern pf rhyme that comes at the end of each verse
or line in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or
line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem. Many poems are
written in free verse style. Some other poems follow non-rhyming structures,
paying attention only to the number of syllables. The Japanese genre of
Haiku is a case in point. Thus, it shows that the poets write poems in a
specific type of rhyme scheme or rhyming pattern. There are several types of
rhyme schemes as given below.
TYPES OF RHYME SCHEME

There are a number of rhyme schemes used in poetry; some of the most
popular of which include:
o Alternate rhyme: It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes

as “ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH.”
o Ballade: It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of
“ABABBCBC” followed by “BCBC.”
o Monorhyme: It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme
scheme.
o Couplet: It contains two-line stanzas with the “AA” rhyme scheme,
which often appears as “AA BB CC and DD…”
o Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of “AAA.”
o Enclosed rhyme: It uses rhyme scheme of “ABBA”
o Terza rima rhyme scheme: It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its
interlocking pattern on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so
on.
o Keats Odes rhyme scheme: In his famous odes, Keats has used a
specific rhyme scheme, which is “ABABCDECDE.”
o Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of “AABBA.”
o Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final
quatrain. It uses a rhyme scheme of “A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1,
abA2, abA1A2.”
C. Structure – This refers to the arrangement of words and lines to fit together and the
organization of the parts to form the whole.
1. Word Order – the natural or unnatural arrangement of words
2. Ellipsis – omitting some words for economy or effect
3. Punctuation – abundance or lack of punctuation marks
4. Shape – contextual or visual design, omission of space, use of capitalization or
lower case
ACTIVITY 4: BLACKOUT POETRY

lesson

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READINGS
BOOK
1. Montealegre, M. A., Lares, N., Astete, L., De Asis, M. S., & Suatengco, R. (2010). World
Literature Across and Beyond. Suatengco Publishing House.
Corporation.
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. Literary Devices. (2015a, October 31). Diction Examples and
Definition. http://www.literarydevices.com/diction/
2. Literary Devices. (2015b, October 31). Imagery Examples and
Definition. http://www.literarydevices.com/imagery/
3. Literary Devices. (2017, August 31). Rhythm - Definition and Examples of Rhythm.
https://literarydevices.net/rhythm/
4. Literary Devices Editors. (2018, January 11). Diction - Examples and Definition of
Diction. Literary Devices. https://literarydevices.net/diction/
5. Literary Devices Editors. (2017b, August 15). Imagery - Examples and Definition
of Imagery. Literary Devices. https://literarydevices.net/imagery/
6. Literary Terms. (2017, September 5). Figures of Speech. https://literaryterms.net/figures-
of-speech/
7. Poets.org - Academy of American Poets. (n.d.). Poetic Diction. Academy of
American Poets. Retrieved September 20, 2020, from
https://poets.org/glossary/poetic-diction
1. ACTIVITY 4: BLACKOUT POETRY
It’s time to bring out those creative juices and make your own poem. Blackout poetry is when a
page of text — usually an article from a newspaper — is completely blacked out (colored over
with permanent marker so that it is no longer visible) except for a select few words. Follow the
steps to create your own poem:
a. Skim your page of words. Don't read carefully, as the point is just to grab an idea
from the words, not take them in. Find a word, phrase, or general theme that you
like.
b. Go through and lightly circle the words or phrases you might want to use. Grab a
blank piece of paper and write them down in order, then read through them.
Cross out the words you don't want. If you need a few connecting words (like "a",
"the", "it", etc.) then dive back in and see if you can find them between the words
you want to connect. You often can.
c. Go back through your poem and boldly box the words you are keeping with pen,
sharpie, dark pencil, etc. Erase any circles around words you don't want.

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d. Read through your final poem. Sketch in a few images or symbols on your page
that relate to the theme of your poem. Now it's time to start blackening. Using a
sharpie, pen, or pencil, black out everything that is NOT a word in your poem or
one of your own sketches.
e. Write out your final poem to display next to your blackout poetry. Add punctuation
if you wish.
Examples: Pack your bags and

we’ll follow the ocean
to the end of the world
A wind travelling about

in a cool December sky,
Swirled into nothingness
It gave way to a story
Deep in her heart
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Prepare a digitized version of the Blackout Poetry by taking a
picture of the poem. Then submit the art through the online platform Google classroom
or the official class Facebook Group. Prepare to share your poem during the
synchronous session in a Student Talk Corner.
For Modular mode: Submit the illustration to your teacher. Write a 50 word paragraph
to briefly explain your poem and this will serve as your Student Talk Corner participation.

session)
Prepare a one minute talk for sharing and explaining your blackout poetry from Activity
4. Make sure to prepare a short presentation (Powerpoint) to show your poem while you
explain your art and explain your key takeaways from the lesson on elements of poetry.
3. Quiz:
For Modular mode: Quiz file in your flash disk

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 4 TYPES OF POEMS AND LITERARY DEVICES IN POETRY
Literature can generally be classified into prose and poetry. Viray et al (2012) defines poetry
as a composition usually written in verse that relies heavily on imagery, precise word choice and
metaphor. However, what truly differentiates poetry from prose? Tan (2001) explains that:
First, a poem differs from a prose work in that it is to be read slowly, carefully, and
attentively. A poem is not to be read cursorily like the daily news. Of course, at first look, it may
appear to be difficult, but, later, it will begin to give promise of some future pleasure. You must
remember that not all poems are difficult. Some can even be understood and enjoyed on first
reading. But, all poems yield more, if read not only twice but several times.
Second, a poem recreates and experience. Just a snapshot can show us a scene, so a
poem can show us the poet's thoughts about that scene. A poem works by relating the meaning
of the words, by causing their sounds to echo one another, by creating imaginative images. This
combination of meaning, sound, and imagery creates the poets experience and evokes an
emotional reaction from the reader. It can help the reader to see a common incident in a new or
uncommon way.
Third, the subject matter of poetry can be found in everything that interests the human mind.
For instance, modern poetry may take a variety of subjects such as an aerial bombardment,
wheelbarrow, a campus on a hill, the death of a bombing victim, a groundhog, etc. But the
subject of poem is only a part of the meaning. The poet often uses a particular incident to make
a larger statement or ideas such as a love, war, joy, sad, heroism, fate, beauty, justice, or
patriotism. The central topic of the poem is its theme, an abstract idea that is illustrated
concretely in the subject of the poem. In learning what the poet thinks, in seeing how he
responds to an experience that may be similar to what we have known, we sharpen and deepen
our own concept of the meaning of life and our understanding of experiences, common to all
men.
Fourth, a poem presents a dramatic situation. It is told by a speaking voice that is not
necessarily the voice of the poet, even when he speaks as "I." Often the poet sets up a
character whose voice dramatizes what is up on the poet's mind. The poet may address a
particular person that could be another character or the reader as part of the audience.
Fifth, it is an act of speech that takes place in a particular setting on a particular occasion. It
is spoken by the poet or by someone who acts for him as a person. It's speaks in a particular
tone (joy, anger, sadness) and maybe a cry of anger, a song of joy, a statement of protest, a
profession of love.
TYPES OF POETRY
A. Lyric Poetry - It is revealed through the words, images, and symbols.
 It expresses the author's mood, emotion, and reflection in musical
language. It derives its name from the lyre, and was primarily intended to be
sung. Not all lyrics so are singable, but they are melodious (Montealegre et
al, 2010).
 Lyrical poetry is a poem that expresses the emotions, feelings and
observations of the writer. Unlike a narrative poem, it presents an
experience or single effect, but it does not tell a full story (Viray et al, 2012).
 The lyric is also the most subjective of the literary forms. It is the form
wherein the poet feels free to express his ideas, his sentiments, and his

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
reactions as he experienced to them. The freedom of the lyrics is also

apparent in the use of metaphor, imagery, and symbol. Prodded by his desire
to express his feelings or intuition, the poet will introduce one image, leap to
another, and then turn to a third without exhausting the implications of any.
Symbols used in lyric poems can be very personal and difficult to explicate.
Since the poem is so brief and the symbol seldom referred to more than
once, there is little basis for arriving at a clear conception of its meaning (Tan,
2001).
1. The ode – the most majestic type of lyric poem. It expresses enthusiasm, lofty praise
of some person, things, a deep reflection, or a restrained feeling. The author is in an
exalted mood. He/ She feels deeply what he/ she is saying, hence, the subject
matter can never be trivial (Montealegre et al, 2010).
 It is a long, formal lyric poem with a serious theme. It often honors people or
commemorates them (Viray et al, 2012).
2. The elegy – a lyric poem that can always be distinguished by its subject matter –
death. It may voice the author’s personal grief for a loved one, or a loss affecting the
public as a whole, or it may simply be meditation on death in general (Montealegre
et al, 2010).
 It is a solemn and formal poem about death and reflects a tragic theme (Viray
et al, 2012).
3. The sonnet – a lyric poem that can be distinguished by its form. It always consists of
14 iambic pentameter lines. The Shakespearean sonnet follows the rhyme scheme:
abab cdcd efef gg – the last two lines (called the couplet) rhyme consecutively
4. The simple lyric – the category of all those lyric poems that do not properly belong
under any of the other types of lyrics. The simple lyric touches on every mood and
emotion of the human heart (Montealegre et al, 2010).
B. Narrative Poetry – It tells a story of love, adventure or romance in verse form.

1. The epic - a long, narrative poem about the exploits of a supernatural hero. It retells
in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or
group of persons. It is considered as the oldest form of literature since its existence
is known to be the ancient history. Most of the epics were handed down orally from
generation to generation as part of the culture of a certain nation, told by their
forefathers until it is translated into writing. This might also be the reason why epic
became long. We could guess that as a story was handed down from generation to
the next, the narrator could have added or supplemented to the story. The next
generation narrator might have the freedom to modify or add to the story as he
pleased since he learned it from the source orally and nobody could check him
whether it was verbatimly duplicated. There could never be a standard length and
plot of the story until it was written as we have it today (Montealegre et al, 2010 and
Viray et al, 2012).
 Some examples;
o The Iliad and The Odyssey, The Aenid, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Song
of Roland (Chanson de Roland), The Nibelungenlied (Song of
Nibelungs), El Cid.
2. The Ballad - tells the story of ordinary people. It is a song like poem that tells a
story, which often deals with the dentures or romance. Many ballads employ a
repetition of a refrain or incremental repetition in which a refrain there is a slightly
time it appears an example of this is the "Lord Randall" (Montealegre et al, 2010
and Viray et al, 2012).

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3. The Metrical Tale - a story told in verse. It is a narrative poem that relates a real or
imaginary event and simple straightforward language from a wide range of subjects,
characters, life experiences, and emotional situations. The characters are ordinary
people concerned with ordinary events. A good example of this is a "Canterbury
Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer " (Montealegre et al, 2010 and Viray et al, 2012).
4. The Metrical Romance - A medieval verse tale based on legends, chivalric love and
adventure, or the supernatural. Is a long narrative poem that presents remote or
imaginative incidence rather than ordinary, realistic experience. The term romance
originally used to refer to medieval tales of the deeds and loves of the noble knights.
An example of this is a story of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" by the poet
Gawain and "Mort d' Arthur" by Thomas Malory (Montealegre et al, 2010 and Viray
et al, 2012).
LITERARY DEVICE IN POETRY

A. Figures of Speech
1. Simile – (from the Latin word simile which means similar) a composition of two things
that really are very different, but share a common element. It is introduced by using
the words like or as, or as if
 Examples:
o There is no frigate like a book.
o A poem as lovely as a tree.
o “… little star like a diamond sky”
o His mind is like a sponge.
2. Metaphor – (from the Greek verb methapherein which means to carry over) a
composition of two unlike things or ideas. It is a suggested or implied comparison
between two unlike things without the use of as, as if, and like.
 Examples:
o She is a Phantom of Delight.
o Character is a diamond that scratches every other stone.
o He is a walking encyclopedia.
o “She is the apple of his eyes.”
3. Personification – give human traits to inanimate object or ideas
 Examples:
o Can Honor’s voice provoke the silent dust?
o Only the moon was the witness in the incident.
o The volcano is angry.
o “As I entered my room, mosquitoes were rehearsing their war song.”
4. Synecdoche – (from the Greek phrases synecdochē and ekdechesthai, meaning “to
sense” and “to understand”) using part of the whole or a figure of speech which
allows a part to stand for a whole or for a whole to stand for a part.
 Example:
o No busy hand provoke a tear/ No roving foot shall crush thee there
o All hands on deck
5. Metonymy – (from the Greek prefix meta, which means change + the root onoma,
name + the noun suffix –y) using another word which is clear identifiable or
associated with the ideas referred to; consists of substitution of the literal noun for
another which it suggests because it is somehow associated with it; using one thing
to describe something related to it, such as referring to the Queen as simply "the
crown,"

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
 Examples:
o And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries
o Lend me your ears. (listen)
o The pen is mightier than the sword. (reading materials, armed forces)
o I give you my heart. (love)
6. Hyperbole – (from the Greek prefix hyper which means beyond + the root ballein, to
throw) is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration – not to deceive, but to
emphasize a statement – often for humorous effect.
 Examples:
o I breathed a song in the air/ It fell to earth/ I know not where;/ For who
has sight so keen and strong,/ That it can follow a flight of song
o She cried forever!
o He almost died laughing.
o I have been waiting for an eternity.
7. Apostrophe – a direct address to something inanimate or dead, or a dead person
(as if present), or an idea.
 Examples:
o Break, break, break,/ O thy cold grey stones, O sea!
o “O Death! Where is thy sting?”
o “Love, thy will be done.”
o “O captain, my captain! Our fearful trip is done.”
8. Oxymoron – using contradictory terms or ideas; combining contraries (opposites) to
portray a particular image or to produce a striking effect.
 Examples:
o O heavy lightness, serious vanity!
o Parting is such a sweet sorrow.
o Less is more.
o Sound of silence
9. Litotes – giving an assertion by means of negation or understatement
 Examples:
o I never saw a moor,/ I never saw the sea;/ Yet I know how the heather
looks,/ And what a wave must be.
o They do not seem the happiest couple around.
10. Allusion – refers to any scientific, historical, mythological, literary, or biblical event or
figure
 Examples:
o I am not Lazarus nor Prince Hamlet.
o There’s a civil war going on in my family regarding cousin marriage.
o She ran faster than Hermes.
o Something weird is going on – my spidey sense is tingling.
11. Paradox – a phrase or statement that on the surface seems contradictory, but
makes some kind of emotional sense; It is a statement that appears to be self-
contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate
an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often
used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
 Examples:
o You have to die or live.
o Truth is honey, which is bitter.
o “All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.” –
George Orwell’s Animal Farm

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
B. Sound Devices
1. Onomatopoeia – the use of words that imitate the sound of the idea it denotes.
 Examples:
o The fly buzzed in my ear
o “Bang!” to the sound of the clock
o “Tic, tac.” of the clock
2. Alliteration – the repetition of consonant sounds, especially in the initial position
 Example:
o The splendor falls on the castle walls/ Any snowy summits old in story
3. Assonance – the repetition of vowel sounds
 Example:
o Long, long afterward, in an oak
I found the arrow, still unbroke;
And the song, from beginning to end,
I found again in the heart of a friend.
4. Rhyme – the repetition of the same sound usually at the end of words
 Example:
o And what shoulder, and what art.
Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
And when thy heart began to beat,
What dread hand? and what dread feet?
5. Anaphora – the repetition of a word or words at the beginning of two or more
successive clauses or verses
 Example:
o Bring me my Bow of burning gold:
Bring me my arrows of desire:
Bring me my Spear: O clouds unfold!
Bring me my Chariot of fire!
ACTIVITY 5: POETRY SCRAP BOOK

lesson
READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
1. ACTIVITY 5: POETRY SCRAP BOOK
Using everything that you have learned from the types of poetry and the different literary
devices used in poetry, create your very own poetry scrap book. The objective of this
assignment is for you to compile a group of poems that you like. Choose five (5) published
poems of varying types and compos one (1) original poem. All of these must include
illustrations in a tasteful, decorative scrapbook or old notebook/ journal. You may also use
digital format through Microsoft Word, Publisher and other available formats for you. You need
to also design a cover or illustrate the cover.
Requirements:
a. Creatively bound and Illustrated Cover – 10 points
i. Front cover is decorated with illustrations
ii. Creative Title
iii. Make sure your name, date, and class period are on the inside of the
front cover
iv. Your back cover does not have to be illustrated
b. Table of Contents – 10 points
i. Give titles, authors, and page numbers
ii. This should be the first page in your scrapbook
c. Five poems plus one original composition – 60 points
i. Five poems must be from published works (do not print pages directly
from the internet – rewrite or retype) All published poems must be by
different authors.
ii. Your original composition must be well composed and insightful. It does
not have to rhyme but must be lyrically balanced.
iii. Copy the work and author’s name into your scrapbook 9including your
own)
iv. Each work must be illustrated. At least three of your works must be
illustrated with your own personal drawings. The other three may be
drawings, cut outs from magazines, or computer-generated designs.
Each work must have a border around the page and all illustrations must
be related to the poem (example: a poem about death might have
wreaths, caskets, and mourners as a theme – be creative)
v. Write one paragraph description for each poem concerning why you
selected this poem to include in your scrapbook. What is the poem’s
“emotional value” to you? Typed or printed – no cursive [unless using
digital format]. The paragraph must be on a separate page from the poem
itself. It must be bordered but does not have to be decorated. What you
choose to write may follow the theme of the work or what it might have
reminded you of something significant about the work or the author.
vi. Grade: 80 points for the requirements above. The other 20 points will
come from creativity, neatness, and appropriateness of illustrations
d. NOTE: If you choose to type [encode], there are no restrictions on font type and
size. Remember be creative.
Examples:

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SUBMISSION:
For online classes: If you have prepared a
physical scrap book, prepare a digitized version
of the Poetry Scrap Book by taking a picture of
the scrapbook and its contents. Then compile the
pictures to a PDFfile [preferably] or a WORD file.
Then submit the file through the online platform
Google classroom or the official class Facebook
Group. Prepare to share your original poem
during the synchronous session in a Student
Talk Corner.
For Modular mode: Submit the illustration to
your teacher. The one paragraph description will
serve as your Student Talk Corner participation.

session)
Prepare a one minute talk for sharing of your original poem from Activity 5. Make sure to
prepare a short presentation (Powerpoint) to show your poem while you explain your art
and explain your key takeaways from the lesson on elements of poetry.
3. Quiz:
For Modular mode: Quiz file in your flash disk

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 5 LITERARY SELECTIONS FOR POETRY
This lesson will cover selections of poetry from around the world. These poems have been
classified according to the ancient period and canons. The Canons are further divided to: Form
and Imagery to facilitate a further discussion of those particular elements of poetry.
Different activities and tasks are placed to aid in your understanding of the selected texts
before, during and after reading the texts. These activities can be found at the end of the list of
reading selections. Answer them earnestly to help you grasp not only the idea behind each text
but also the different elements and literary devices employed by the poets. You are free to
annotate on the text while you read using the spaces and margin available.
You may need to use the dictionary at times and do a brief research on the contexts of the
different poems. For this, your dictionary or mobile dictionary will be of great help.
ANCIENT POEMS
YOUR LOVE, DEAR MAN, IS AS LOVELY TO ME
(Egyptian Poem)
Your love, dear man, is as lovely to me

As sweet soothing oil to the limbs of the
restless, As clean ritual robes to the flesh of
gods,
As fragrance of incense to one coming home
Hot from the smells of the street.
It is like nipple-berries ripe in the hand,

Like the tang of grain meal mingled with beer,
Like wine to the palate when taken with white bread.
While unhurried days come and go,

Let us turn to each other in quiet affection,
Walk in peace to the edge of old age.
And I shall be with you each unhurried day,
A woman given her one wish; to see
For a lifetime the face of her Lord. (translated by John L. Foster)
HE IS MORE THAN A HERO

(Sappho)
He is more than a hero
he is a god in my eyes-- speak -- my tongue is broken;
the man who is allowed a thin flame runs under
to sit beside you -- he my skin; seeing nothing,
who listens intimately hearing only my own ears

to the sweet murmur of drumming, I drip with sweat;
your voice, the enticing trembling shakes my body
laughter that makes my own and I turn paler than

heart beat fast. If I meet dry grass. At such times
you suddenly, I can' death isn't far from me
(translated from Greek by Mary Bernard)

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PENELOPE RECOGNIZES ODYSSEUS

The Odyssey Book 23, (translated by A. T. Murray)
The hero of the epic is Odysseus, the most intelligent of the Greek chieftains. Driven out of his course
after he leaves Troy, Odysseus undergoes for ten years all kinds of perils and temptations before he's
able to return to his own kingdom, the island of Ithaca.
After years of traveling, he finally gets home and find his wife Penelope beset by suitors. Disguised as
a beggar he is able to get in the palace. With the aid of his son Telemachus, his slays all the suitors and
is united with his wife.
[1] Then the old dame went up to the upper chamber, laughing aloud, to tell her mistress that
her dear husband was in the house. Her knees moved nimbly, but her feet trotted along beneath
her; and she stood above her lady's head, and spoke to her, and said: “Awake, Penelope, dear
child, that with thine own eyes thou mayest see what thou desirest all thy days. Odysseus is
here, and has come home, late though his coming has been, and has slain the proud wooers
who vexed his house, and devoured his substance, and oppressed his son.”
[10] Then wise Penelope answered her: “Dear nurse, the gods have made thee mad, they
who can make foolish even one who is full wise, and set the simple-minded in the paths of
understanding; it is they that have marred thy wits, though heretofore thou wast sound of mind.
Why dost thou mock me, who have a heart full of sorrow, to tell me this wild tale, and dost rouse
me out of slumber, the sweet slumber that bound me and enfolded my eyelids? For never yet
have I slept so sound since the day when Odysseus went forth to see evil Ilios that should not
be named. Nay come now, go down and back to the women's hall, for if any other of the women
that are mine had come and told me this, and had roused me out of sleep, straightway would I
have sent her back in sorry wise to return again to the hall, but to thee old age shall bring this
profit.”
[25] Then the dear nurse Eurycleia answered her: “I mock thee not, dear child, but in very
truth Odysseus is here, and has come home, even as I tell thee. He is that stranger to whom all
men did dishonor in the halls. But Telemachus long ago knew that he was here, yet in his
prudence he hid the purpose of his father, till he should take vengeance on the violence of
overweening men.”
[31] So she spoke, and Penelope was glad, and she leapt from her bed and flung her arms
about the old woman and let the tears fall from her eyelids; and she spoke, and addressed her
with winged words: “Come now, dear nurse, I pray thee tell me truly, if verily he has come
home, as thou sayest, how he put forth his hands upon the shameless wooers, all alone as he
was, while they remained always in a body in the house.”
[39] Then the dear nurse Eurycleia answered her: “I saw not, I asked not; only I heard the
groaning of men that were being slain. As for us women, we sat terror-stricken in the innermost
part of our well-built chambers, and the close-fitting doors shut us in, until the hour when thy son
Telemachus called me from the hall, for his father had sent him forth to call me. Then I found
Odysseus standing among the bodies of the slain, and they, stretched all around him on the
hard floor, lay one upon the other; the sight would have warmed thy heart with cheer. And now
the bodies are all gathered together at the gates of the court, but he is purging the fair house
with sulphur, and has kindled a great fire, and sent me forth to call thee. Nay, come with me,
that the hearts of you two may enter into joy, for you have suffered many woes. But now at

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length has this thy long desire been fulfilled: he has come himself, alive to his own hearth, and
he has found both thee and his son in the halls; while as for those, even the wooers, who
wrought him evil, on them has he taken vengeance one and all in his house.”
[58] Then wise Penelope answered her: “Dear nurse, boast not yet loudly over them with
laughter. Thou knowest how welcome the sight of him in the halls would be to all, but above all
to me and to his son, born of us two. But this is no true tale, as thou tellest it; nay, some one of
the immortals has slain the lordly wooers in wrath at their grievous insolence and their evil
deeds. For they honored no one among men upon the earth, were he evil or good, whosoever
came among them; therefore it is through their own wanton folly that they have suffered evil. But
Odysseus far away has lost his return to the land of Achaea, and is lost himself.”
[69] Then the dear nurse Eurycleia answered her: “My child, what a word has escaped the
barrier of thy teeth, in that thou saidst that thy husband, who even now is here, at his own
hearth, would never more return! Thy heart is ever unbelieving. Nay come, I will tell thee a
manifest sign besides, even the scar of the wound which long ago the boar dealt him with his
white tusk. This I marked while I washed his feet, and was fain to tell it to thee as well, but he
laid his hand upon my mouth, and in the great wisdom of his heart would not suffer me to speak.
So come with me; but I will set my very life at stake that, if I deceive thee, thou shouldest slay
me by a most pitiful death.”
[80] Then wise Penelope answered her: “Dear nurse, it is hard for thee to comprehend the
counsels of the gods that are forever, how wise soever thou art. Nevertheless let us go to my
son, that I may see the wooers dead and him that slew them.”
[85] So saying, she went down from the upper chamber, and much her heart pondered
whether she should stand aloof and question her dear husband, or whether she should go up to
him, and clasp and kiss his head and hands. But when she had come in and had passed over
the stone threshold, she sat down opposite Odysseus in the light of the fire beside the further
wall; but he was sitting by a tall pillar, looking down, and waiting to see whether his noble wife
would say aught to him, when her eyes beheld him. Howbeit she sat long in silence, and
amazement came upon her soul; and now with her eyes she would look full upon his face, and
now again she would fail to know him, for that he had upon him mean raiment. But Telemachus
rebuked her, and spoke, and addressed her: “My mother, cruel mother, that hast an unyielding
heart, why dost thou thus hold aloof from my father, and dost not sit by his side and ask and
question him? No other woman would harden her heart as thou dost, and stand aloof from her
husband, who after many grievous toils had come back to her in the twentieth year to his native
land: but thy heart is ever harder than stone.”
[104] Then wise Penelope answered him: “My child, the heart in my breast is lost in wonder,
and I have no power to speak at all, nor to ask a question, nor to look him in the face. But if in
very truth he is Odysseus, and has come home, we two shall surely know one another more
certainly; for we have signs which we two alone know, signs hidden from others.”
[111] So she spoke, and the much-enduring, goodly Odysseus smiled, and straightway
spoke to Telemachus winged words: “Telemachus, suffer now thy mother to test me in the halls;
presently shall she win more certain knowledge. But now because I am foul, and am clad about
my body in mean clothing, she scorns me, and will not yet admit that I am he. But for us, let us
take thought how all may be the very best. For whoso has slain but one man in a land, even
though it be a man that leaves not many behind to avenge him, he goes into exile, and leaves

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his kindred and his native land; but we have slain those who were the very stay of the city, far
the noblest of the youths of Ithaca. Of this I bid thee take thought.”
[123] Then wise Telemachus answered him: “Do thou thyself look to this, dear father; for thy
counsel, they say, is the best among men, nor could any other of mortal men vie with thee. As
for us, we will follow with thee eagerly, nor methinks shall we be wanting in valor, so far as we
have strength.”
[129] Then Odysseus of many wiles answered him and said: “Then will I tell thee what
seems to me to be the best way. First bathe yourselves, and put on your tunics, and bid the
handmaids in the halls to take their raiment. But let the divine minstrel with his clear-toned lyre
in hand be our leader in the gladsome dance, that any man who hears the sound from without,
whether a passer-by or one of those who dwell around, may say that it is a wedding feast; and
so the rumor of the slaying of the wooers shall not be spread abroad throughout the city before
we go forth to our well-wooded farm. There shall we afterwards devise whatever advantage the
Olympian may vouchsafe us.”
[141] So he spoke, and they all readily hearkened and obeyed. First they bathed and put on
their tunics, and the women arrayed themselves, and the divine minstrel took the hollow lyre
and aroused in them the desire of sweet song and goodly dance. So the great hall resounded all
about with the tread of dancing men and of fair-girdled women; and thus would one speak who
heard the noise from without the house: “Aye, verily some one has wedded the queen wooed of
many. Cruel she was, nor had she the heart to keep the great house of her wedded husband to
the end, even till he should come.”
[152] So they would say, but they knew not how these things were. Meanwhile the housewife
Eurynome bathed the great-hearted Odysseus in his house, and anointed him with oil, and cast
about him a fair cloak and a tunic; and over his head Athena shed abundant beauty, making him
taller to look upon and mightier, and from his head she made locks to flow in curls like the
hyacinth flower. And as when a man overlays silver with gold, a cunning workman whom
Hephaestus and Pallas Athena have taught all manner of craft, and full of grace is the work he
produces, even so the goddess shed grace on his head and shoulders, and forth from the bath
he came, in form like unto the immortals. Then he sat down again on the chair from which he
had risen, opposite his wife; and he spoke to her and said: “Strange lady! to thee beyond all
women have the dwellers on Olympus given a heart that cannot be softened. No other woman
would harden her heart as thou dost, and stand aloof from her husband who after many
grievous toils had come to her in the twentieth year to his native land. Nay come, nurse, strew
me a couch, that all alone I may lay me down, for verily the heart in her breast is of iron.”
[173] Then wise Penelope answered him: “Strange sir, I am neither in any wise proud, nor do
I scorn thee, nor yet am I too greatly amazed, but right well do I know what manner of man thou
wast, when thou wentest forth from Ithaca on thy long-oared ship. Yet come, Eurycleia, strew for
him the stout bedstead outside the well-built bridal chamber which he made himself. Thither do
ye bring for him the stout bedstead, and cast upon it bedding, fleeces and cloaks and bright
coverlets.”
[181] So she spoke, and made trial of her husband. But Odysseus, in a burst of anger, spoke
to his true-hearted wife, and said: “Woman, truly this is a bitter word that thou hast spoken. Who
has set my bed elsewhere? Hard would it be for one, though never so skilled, unless a god
himself should come and easily by his will set it in another place. But of men there is no mortal

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that lives, be he never so young and strong, who could easily pry it from its place, for a great
token is wrought in the fashioned bed, and it was I that built it and none other. A bush of long-
leafed olive was growing within the court, strong and vigorous, and girth it was like a pillar.
Round about this I built my chamber, till I had finished it, with close-set stones, and I roofed it
over well, and added to it jointed doors, close-fitting. Thereafter I cut away the leafy branches of
the long-leafed olive, and, trimming the trunk from the root, I smoothed it around with the adze
well and cunningly, and made it straight to the line, thus fashioning the bed-post; and I bored it
all with the augur. Beginning with this I hewed out my bed, till I had finished it, inlaying it with
gold and silver and ivory, and I stretched on it a thong of ox-hide, bright with purple. Thus do I
declare to thee this token; but I know not, woman, whether my bedstead is still fast in its place,
or whether by now some man has cut from beneath the olive stump, and set the bedstead
elsewhere.”
[205] So he spoke, and her knees were loosened where she sat, and her heart melted, as
she knew the sure tokens which Odysseus told her. Then with a burst of tears she ran straight
toward him, and flung her arms about the neck of Odysseus, and kissed his head, and spoke,
saying: “Be not vexed with me, Odysseus, for in all else thou wast ever the wisest of men. It is
the gods that gave us sorrow, the gods who begrudged that we two should remain with each
other and enjoy our youth, and come to the threshold of old age. But be not now wroth with me
for this, nor full of indignation, because at the first, when I saw thee, I did not thus give thee
welcome. For always the heart in my breast was full of dread, lest some man should come and
beguile me with his words; for there are many that plan devices of evil. Nay, even Argive Helen,
daughter of Zeus, would not have lain in love with a man of another folk, had she known that the
warlike sons of the Achaeans were to bring her home again to her dear native land. Yet verily in
her case a god prompted her to work a shameful deed; nor until then did she lay up in her mind
the thought of that folly, the grievous folly from which at the first sorrow came upon us too. But
now, since thou hast told the clear tokens of our bed, which no mortal beside has ever seen
save thee and me alone and one single handmaid, the daughter of Actor, whom my father gave
me or ever I came hither, even her who kept the doors of our strong bridal chamber, lo, thou
dost convince my heart, unbending as it is.”
[231] So she spoke, and in his heart aroused yet more the desire for lamentation; and he
wept, holding in his arms his dear and true-hearted wife. And welcome as is the sight of land to
men that swim, whose well-built ship Poseidon has smitten on the sea as it was driven on by the
wind and the swollen wave, and but few have made their escape from the gray sea to the shore
by swimming, and thickly are their bodies crusted with brine, and gladly have they set foot on
the land and escaped from their evil case; even so welcome to her was her husband, as she
gazed upon him, and from his neck she could in no wise let her white arms go. And now would
the rosy-fingered Dawn have arisen upon their weeping, had not the goddess, flashing-eyed
Athena, taken other counsel. The long night she held back at the end of its course, and likewise
stayed the golden-throned Dawn at the streams of Oceanus, and would not suffer her to yoke
her swift-footed horses that bring light to men, Lampus and Phaethon, who are the colts that
bear the Dawn. Then to his wife said Odysseus of many wiles: “Wife, we have not yet come to
the end of all our trials, but still hereafter there is to be measureless toil, long and hard, which I
must fulfil to the end; for so did the spirit of Teiresias foretell to me on the day when I went down
into the house of Hades to enquire concerning the return of my comrades and myself. But
come, wife, let us to bed, that lulled now by sweet slumber we may take our joy of rest.”

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[256] Then wise Penelope answered him: “Thy bed shall be ready for thee whensoever thy
heart shall desire it, since the gods have indeed caused thee to come back to thy well-built
house and thy native land. But since thou hast bethought thee of this, and a god has put it into
thy heart, come, tell me of this trial, for in time to come, methinks, I shall learn of it, and to know
it at once is no whit worse.”
[263] And Odysseus of many wiles answered her, and said: “Strange lady! why dost thou
now so urgently bid me tell thee? Yet I will declare it, and will hide nothing. Verily thy heart shall
have no joy of it, even as I myself have none; for Teiresias bade me go forth to full many cities
of men, bearing a shapely oar in my hands, till I should come to men that know naught of the
sea, and eat not of food mingled with salt; aye, and they know naught of ships with purple
cheeks, or of shapely oars that serve as wings to ships. And he told me this sign, right manifest;
nor will I hide it from thee. When another wayfarer, on meeting me, should say that I had a
winnowing fan on my stout shoulder, then he bade me fix my oar in the earth, and make goodly
offerings to lord Poseidon—a ram and a bull and a boar, that mates with sows—and depart for
my home, and offer sacred hecatombs to the immortal gods, who hold broad heaven, to each
one in due order. And death shall come to me myself far from the sea, a death so gentle, that
shall lay me low, when I am overcome with sleek old age, and my people shall dwell in
prosperity around me. All this, he said, should I see fulfilled.”
[285] Then wise Penelope answered him: “If verily the gods are to bring about for thee a
happier old age, there is hope then that thou wilt find an escape from evil.”
[288] Thus they spoke to one another; and meanwhile Eurynome and the nurse made ready
the bed [290] of soft coverlets by the light of blazing torches. But when they had busily spread
the stout-built bedstead, the old nurse went back to her chamber to lie down, and Eurynome,
the maiden of the bedchamber, led them on their way to the couch with a torch in her hands;
and when she had led them to the bridal chamber, she went back. And they then gladly came to
the place of the couch that was theirs of old. But Telemachus and the neatherd and the
swineherd stayed their feet from dancing, and stayed the women, and themselves lay down to
sleep throughout the shadowy halls. But when the two had had their fill of the joy of love, they
took delight in tales, speaking each to the other. She, the fair lady, told of all that she had
endured in the halls, looking upon the destructive throng of the wooers, who for her sake slew
many beasts, cattle and goodly sheep; and great store of wine was drawn from the jars. But
Zeus-born Odysseus recounted all the woes that he had brought on men, and all the toil that in
his sorrow he had himself endured, and she was glad to listen, nor did sweet sleep fall upon her
eyelids, till he had told all the tale.
[310] He began by telling how at the first he overcame the Cicones, and then came to the
rich land of the Lotus-eaters, and all that the Cyclops wrought, and how he made him pay the
price for his mighty comrades, whom the Cyclops had eaten, and had shown no pity. Then how
he came to Aeolus, who received him with a ready heart, and sent him on his way; but it was
not yet his fate to come to his dear native land, nay, the storm-wind caught him up again, and
bore him over the teeming deep, groaning heavily. Next how he came to Telepylus of the
Laestrygonians, who destroyed his ships and his well-greaved comrades one and all, and
Odysseus alone escaped in his black ship. Then he told of all the wiles and craftiness of Circe,
and how in his benched ship he had gone to the dank house of Hades to consult the spirit of
Theban Teiresias, and had seen all his comrades and the mother who bore him and nursed
him, when a child. And how he heard the voice of the Sirens, who sing unceasingly, and had

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come to the Wandering Rocks, and to dread Charybdis, and to Scylla, from whom never yet had
men escaped unscathed. Then how his comrades slew the kine of Helios, and how Zeus, who
thunders on high, smote his swift ship with a flaming thunderbolt, and his goodly comrades
perished all together, while he alone escaped the evil fates. And how he came to the isle Ogygia
and to the nymph Calypso, who kept him there in her hollow caves, yearning that he should be
her husband, and tended him, and said that she would make him immortal and ageless all his
days; yet she could never persuade the heart in his breast. Then how he came after many toils
to the Phaeacians, who heartily showed him all honor, as if he were a god, and sent him in a
ship to his dear native land, after giving him stores of bronze and gold and raiment. This was the
end of the tale he told, when sweet sleep, that loosens the limbs of men, leapt upon him,
loosening the cares of his heart.
[344] Then again the goddess, flashing-eyed Athena, took other counsel. When she judged
that the heart of Odysseus had had its fill of dalliance with his wife and of sleep, straightway she
roused from Oceanus golden-throned Dawn to bring light to men; and Odysseus rose from his
soft couch, and gave charge to his wife, saying: “Wife, by now have we had our fill of many
trials, thou and I, thou here, mourning over my troublous journey home, while as for me, Zeus
and the other gods bound me fast in sorrows far from my native land, all eager as I was to
return. But now that we have both come to the couch of our desire, do thou care for the wealth
that I have within the halls; as for the flocks which the insolent wooers have wasted, I shall
myself get me many as booty, and others will the Achaeans give, until they fill all my folds; but I
verily will go to my well-wooded farm to see my noble father, who for my sake is sore
distressed, and on thee, wife, do I lay this charge, wise though thou art. Straightway at the rising
of the sun will report go abroad concerning the wooers whom I slew in the halls. Therefore go
thou up to thy upper chamber with thy handmaids, and abide there. Look thou on no man, nor
ask a question.”
[366] He spoke, and girt about his shoulders his beautiful armour, and roused Telemachus
and the neatherd and the swineherd, and bade them all take weapons of war in their hands.
They did not disobey, but clad themselves in bronze, and opened the doors, and went forth, and
Odysseus led the way. By now there was light over the earth, but Athena hid them in night, and
swiftly led them forth from the city.
I CROSSED MANY LANDS AND A LOT OF OCEANS

(Catullus)
I crossed many lands and a lot of ocean

to get to his painful ceremony, my brother,
so I could finally give you gifts for the dead,
and waste time talking to some silent ashes
being that you're not here yourself with me.
Fate did wrong, my brother, to tear us apart.
But I bring you this offerings now anyway,
after the old custom our parents taught us.
Take them, soaked with your brother tears,
and forever more, my brother, goodbye.
(translated by Carl Sesar)
CANONS A. FORM

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LAURA
(Francesco Petrarch)
She used to let her golden hair fly free

For the wind to toy and tangle and molest;
Her eyes were brighter than the radiant
west. (Seldom they shine so now.) I used to
see
Pity look out of those deep eyes on me.
("It was false pity," you would now protest.)
I had love's tinder heaped within my breast;
What wonder that the flame burned furiously?
She did not walk in any mortal way,
But with angelic progress; when she spoke,
Unearthly voices sang in unison,
She seemed divine among the dreary folk
Of earth. You say she is not so today?
Well, though the bow's unbent, the wound bleeds on.
(translated by Morris Bishop)
SONNET XVIII
(William Shakespeare)
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer's lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed,
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature's changing course untrimmed:
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,
Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his
shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can

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s e, So long lives this, and this gives life to

e thee.

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BATTER MY HEART, THREE PERSON’D GOD

(John Donne)
Batter my heart, three-person'd God, for you

As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend;
That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me, and bend
Your force to break, blow, burn, and make me new.
I, like an usurp'd town to another due,
Labor to admit you, but oh, to no end;
Reason, your viceroy in me, me should defend,
But is captiv'd, and proves weak or untrue.
Yet dearly I love you, and would be lov'd fain,
But am betroth'd unto your enemy;
Divorce me, untie or break that knot again,
Take me to you, imprison me, for I,
Except you enthrall me, never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me.
DO NOT GO GENTLE INTO THAT GOOD NIGHT

(Dylan Thomas)
Do not go gentle into that good night, (1)
Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight,
Old age should burn and rave at close of day;
And learn, too late, they grieve it on its way,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
Do not go gentle into that good night.
Though wise men at their end know dark is right,

Grave men, near death, who see with blinding
Because their words had forked no lightning sight
they
Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright

And you, my father, there on the sad height,
Their frail deeds might have danced in a green
Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I
bay,
pray.
Rage, rage against the dying of the light. (10)
Rage, rage against the dying of the light. (19)

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B. IMAGERY DESIGN 1
(Robert Frost)
[Stanza 1] [Stanza 2]
I found a dimpled spider, fat and white, What had that flower to do with being white,
On a white heal-all, holding up a moth The wayside blue and innocent heal-all?
Like a white piece of rigid satin cloth -- What brought the kindred spider to that height,
Assorted characters of death and blight Then steered the white moth thither in the night?
Mixed ready to begin the morning right, What but design of darkness to appall?--
Like the ingredients of a witches' broth -- If design govern in a thing so small.
A snow-drop spider, a flower like a froth,
And dead wings carried like a paper kite.
1 Summary of "The Argument from Design" by Thomas Aquinas

 All things have an order or arrangement, and work for an end.
 The order of the universe cannot be explained by chance, but only by design and purpose.
 Design and purpose is a product of intelligence.
 Therefore nature is directed by a Divine Intelligence or Great Designer
BECAUSE I COULD NOT STOP FOR DEATH

(Emily Dickinson)
[Stanza 1]
We slowly drove – He knew no haste
Because I could not stop for Death –
And I had put away
He kindly stopped for me –
My labor and my leisure too,
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
For His Civility –
And Immortality.

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[Stanza 3]
[Stanza 5]
We passed the School, where Children strove We paused before a House that seemed
At Recess – in the Ring – A Swelling of the Ground –
We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain – The Roof was scarcely visible –
We passed the Setting Sun – The Cornice – in the Ground –
Or rather – He passed Us – Since then – 'tis Centuries – and yet

The Dews drew quivering and Chill – Feels shorter than the Day
For only Gossamer, my Gown – I first surmised the Horses' Heads
My Tippet – only Tulle – Were toward Eternity –
HAIKU
A morning –glory!
And so today – may seem
My own life –story.
- Moritake
TWO HAIKUS
The summer grasses grow,
Of mighty warriors’ splendid dreams
the afterglow
- Basho
On a withered branch,
A crow has settled -
Autumn nightfall
- Basho
OTHER SUGGESTED POEMS FOR READING

5. Do’a (Prayer) by Sanusi Pane
1. Sonnet 43 –How Do I Love Thee? 6. Eulogy of Roaches (Bienvenido
From the Sonnet from the Lumbera)
Portuguese (Elizabeth Barrett 7. Ozymandias (Percy Bysshe Shelley)
Browning) 8. Ode to a Dead Millionaire (Pablo
2. She Was a Phantom of Delight by Neruda)
William Wordsworth 9. Dead Little Girl of Hiroshima (Nazem
3. Man and Woman by Victor Marie Hiknet)
Hugo 10. Trees (Antonio Carpio)
4. Africa by David Diop

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READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. Atsma, A. (n.d.). HOMER, ODYSSEY BOOK 23 - Theoi Classical Texts Library. Theoi.
Retrieved September 21, 2020, from https://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerOdyssey23.html
2. Grimes, L. S. (2020, April 29). An Ancient Egyptian Poem: “Your Love, Dear Man, Is as
Lovely to Me.” Owlcation - Education. https://owlcation.com/humanities/An-Ancient-
Egyptian-Poem-Your-Love-Dear-Man-is-as-Lovely-to-Me
3. Laura by Petrarch, Translated by Morris Bishop. (2011, March 28). Mr. D’s Literature
Class. http://dratnolscoolschool.blogspot.com/2011/03/laura-by-petrarch-translated-by-
morris.html
4. Oxquarry Books Ltd. (n.d.). Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Retrieved
September 22, 2020, from http://www.shakespeares-sonnets.com/sonnet/18
5. Poets.org - Academy of American Poets. (n.d.-a). Design. Poets.Org.
https://poets.org/poem/design
6. Poets.org - Academy of American Poets. (n.d.-b). Do not go gentle into that good night.
Poets.Org. Retrieved September 22, 2020, from https://poets.org/poem/do-not-go-
gentle-good-night
1. POEM 1: YOUR LOVE, DEAR MAN, IS AS LOVELY TO ME
A. DISCUSSION POINTS
1. To what does the female persona compare her love for the man? List each
image that is used in the simile. Then explain what each simile means or
suggests
LOVE

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Brief explanations:
1. (image) -
2. (image) -
3. (image) -
4. (image) -
5. (image) -
6. (image) -
2. What is the persona’s plea or loving request to the addressee in the third stanza?
3. What can you infer about the persona based one the way she expressess her
love?
4. What does the poem reveal about life in Egypt in the ancient times?
5. Find a similar poem that contains the same idea. Compare that with this Egyptian
poem.
B. ACTIVITY
1. Pick out the images in the poem which appeal to the different senses.
SIGHT HEARING SMELL TOUCH TASTE

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2. How do these images contribute to the persona’s definitoin of her love?
C. GROUP WORK (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual work)
1. Rewrite the poem by replacing the images using the Filipino culture as context.
Be ready to present your version of the poem to your classmates in a STUDENT
TALK SESSION.
2. POEM 2: HE IS MORE THAN A HERO

1. How does the persona regard the man she calls god?
2. Does she like the man? What lines will support your answer?
3. Is the man aware of the feelings of the persona? What lines will prove your
answer?

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4. Does the poem show a case of unattainable love?
5. What is the meaning of the last line (Line 9)? Does she really want to die?
B. ACTIVITY (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual work)

1. Research on the life and time of Sappho. Make the report visually interesting by
using photographs and graphics organizers ( e.g. grid, table, chart, etc)
2. The poem uses a lot of hyperbole. List down the lilnes that show the use of
hyperbole. Explain what each means.
Hyperbole Explanation
1. Make a survey through informal interview/ survey [may be done online] on how
many women have experienced an unattainable love and what they did to get
over such love.
2. Present the results of your survey in class. Use visual aids like a graph (line,
circle, or bar graphs) or a table in your group presentation in our STUDENT
TALK SESSION.
3. POEM 3: PENELOPE RECOGNIZES ODYSSEUS

1. Why does Penelope refuse to believe Eurycleia and Telemachus?

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2. How is she finally persuaded of the identity of Odysseus?
3. Point out some striking adjectives applied to Odysseus and Penelope. What
aspect/s of their character of their character is revealed by Homer’’s description?
4. How would you describe the reunion of Odysseus and Penelope?
5. How does Homer justify the killing of the suitors? What probably was the
unwritten law then in Homer’s time to justify such an action?
6. What makes Penelope one of the most famous characters in literature? Is her
kind a good or bad representation of women?
__
B. GROUP WORK (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual work)
1. With your group, choose one episode from the adventures of Odysseus. Make a
movie poster from the episode of your choice. Be ready to present it in class.
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Prepare a digitized version of the Movie poster by taking a
picture of the art. Then submit the art through the online platform Google

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classroom or the official class Facebook Group. Prepare to explain your movie
poster during the synchronous session in a Student Talk Corner.
For Modular mode: Submit the illustration to your teacher. The 50 word
paragraph will serve as as your Student Talk Corner participation.
4. POEM 4: I CROSSED MANY LANDS AND A LOT OF OCEAN

1. What is the painful ceremony the persona is referring to?
2. How does the persona honor his brother? Does he still find it meaningful to do
so? Why or why not?
3. Why is “Fate” personified in Line 6? Why is “Fate” to be blamed for what

happened to the persona’s brother?
4. What is the emotion evoked in the poem? What lines support your answer?
5. What is the overriding theme of the poem?

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5. POEM 5: LAURA
1. What are the qualities of Laura that the persona remembers? Is she beautiful?
2. Is the persona madly or hopelessly in love with Laura? What lines will support
your answer?
__
__
3. Does Laura reciprocate the love of the persona? What line/s will prove your
answer?
4. What figure of speech is used in Lines 9-12? How meaningful is the use of the
figure of speech?
5. What does the last line (Line 14) mean? What is the allusion of the ‘bow’?
B. ACTIVITY (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual work)

1. Research on the life and time of Petrarca or Petrarch. Find out who Laura is in
his life

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1. Make a print ad of a beauty product (e.g. soap, shampoo, make-up, perfume)
incorporating the ideas of the poem about a woman. Present the ad in front of the
class during the STUDENT TALK SESSION.
6. POEM 6: SONNET XVIII

1. What is a sonnet? What is Shakespeare’s contribution to the development of the
sonnet? How does a Shakespearen sonnet differe from a Petrarchan sonnet?
2. What does the first quatrain say about the addressee and a summer’s day? Fill in
the chart to complete the comparison.
Addressee Summer’s Day
3. The second quatrain continues the comparison. Explain the comparison.

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4. The third quatrain favors the addressee more than a summer’s day. What does
the persona say?
5. In the couplet, what does the persona say to support the third quatrain?
B. ACTIVITY
1. Research on the following figures of speech:
Figure of Speech Definition
Metaphor
Personification
Metonymy
2. Find lines in the poem that exemplify each figure of speech.

Metaphor Personification Metonymy

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7. POEM 7: BATTER MY HEART, THREE PERSON’D GOD

1. What are the characteristics of the Petrarchan sonnet as represented by this
poem?
2. In the first quatrain, the speaker implores the “three person’d God” to “batter” his
heart. Is the word “batter” well chosen? Explain the meaning of the phrase “three
person’d God” Comment on the comparison of God to a battering ram.
_
3. The poem is based on a paradox as summed up in the last four lines. Explain the
seeming contradiction.
4. What do the words “usurp’d” and “viceroy” suggest in the second quatrain? To
what does the speaker compare himself in the quatrain? How does the
comparison in the last section of the poem relate to other comparisons and to the
tone of the poem?
8. POEM 8: DO NOT GO GENTLE INTO THAT GOOD NIGHT

1. Who is the speaker? Who is the speaker addressing? Support your answer with
evidence.

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2. What is the speaker’s message to wise men? Good men? Wild men? Grave
men?
3. According to the speaker why don’t wise men “go gentle into that good night”?
Support your answer with evidence.
4. What does the night symbolize? Support your answer with evidence.
5. What is the rhyme scheme of this poem, and what is the effect of rhyme?
6. Explain the line, “Rage, rage against the dying of the light.” What do you think is
the speaker’s message in this line? What is the effect of repetition on this poem?
9. POEM 9 and 10: THE EMPEROR’S NEW SONNET; THE BASHFUL ONE
1. What is a concrete poem?

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2. What do you think the is meaning of the poems?
3. If you were a punctuation mark, which would you be and why?
4. How did the modern world affect the writings of modern man?
B. ACTIVITY
1. Make your own shape poetry.
2. Be prepared to present your shape poetry during the STUDENT TALK
SESSION.
Example:

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10. POEM 11: DESIGN

1. In what traditional form is the poem written? (Hint: it is a type of sonnet)
2. Identify and explain the functions of the two parts of this type of sonnet.
3. What else, ironically, could be described with the words “dimpled,” “fat,” and
“white”?
4. What is a heal-all? What color is it usually? How does the fact that this one is
white add to the atmosphere of the poem?
__
__
5. What image does the simile in line three emphasize?
6. What does the metaphor in line four suggest about the events described in the
stanza?
123

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7. How does the simile in line six contribute to the atmosphere and imagery of the
poem?
8. The first half of line seven is a metaphor. What things are being compared?
9. The second half of line seven is a simile. What image is suggested in the simile?
10. The final line of the first stanza contains two contradictory images. Explain. Are
there other contrasting images in the stanza?
11. What does the word “appall” mean in line thirteen?
12. The second stanza is a series of rhetorical questions about the first stanza. In
general, what is the speaker suggesting about fate, or design, in these
questions?

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13. The final line seems to contradict the ideas about fate and design posed in the
previous lines. How can this suggestion—that perhaps fate or design does not
play a role in human existence—be just as terrifying as if there is a
predetermined plan for all of us?
14. What do you think about fate, or design? Do we have free will or choice as
human beings? Do we have control over the events of our lives or do things
happen randomly often without any seeming reason or explanation?
15. What role does faith play in these types of questions? How do human beings use
religion to deal with the questions of fate or design?
11. POEM 12: BECAUSE I COULD NOT STOP FOR DEATH

1. Name three things that the persona passed while in the carriage.
2. What might the “house” described in the fourth stanza be? Support your answer
with evidence from the poem.
125

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B. ACTIVITY: Critical Paper

Compare Frost’s Design and Dickinson’s Because I Could not Stop for Death in
terms of the poets’ view of good and evil, life and death in a well-written essay.
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Submit your critical paper through the online platform
Google classroom or the official class Facebook Group.
For Modular mode: Submit your critical paper to your teacher.
12. POEM 13 -15: HAIKU (Maoritake and Basho)

1. What objects from nature did Moritake and Basho used to create images in our
minds?
2. What is Moritake’s haiku about?
3. What is Basho’s poem, “The summer grasses grow…” about?
4. What is Basho’s poem, “On a whitered branch…” about?

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B. MAJOR ACTIVITY (Read Aloud)

Choose one (1) poem from the selection and the suggested readings then practice
reading the poem aloud. Consider the elements of poetry and literary devices used,
as well as the meaning of the poem in your creative interpretation of the poem. Once
you are ready, record yourself reading it aloud. You may record a video of you
reading the poem or record your voice while reading the poem and edit it to create a
video presentation of your reading.
Rubric:
Preparation - Student is well prepared and it is obvious that she rehearsed her
poem thoroughly
Memorization - The student has memorized the entire poem and is able to present it
without error.
Pausing and Pacing - The student uses pauses and pace effectively to
communicate meaning and/or enhance dramatic impact of the poem.
Clarity and Expression - The student speaks clearly, distinctly, and with appropriate
and varied pitch and tone modulation. Student recites loudly enough for all to hear
throughout the presentation.
Video – Video quality is clear. Images used show great understanding of the poem.
Creativity – The video shows the creativity of the student.
C. Quiz
For online classes: Quiz will be given through Google forms in Google classroom or
the official class Facebook Group.

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UNIT 3 – PROSE: SHORT STORY
OVERVIEW:
“The short story is the art form that deals with the individual when there is no longer a
society to absorb him, and when he is compelled to exist, as it were, by his own inner
light.”-
Frank O’Connor
If poetry is sometimes shunned for its complexity and difficult diction, students often view
prose as the boring requirement in a humanities class. Just like poetry’s difficulty in diction and
use of language, the length of a prose that may range from few pages to as much as hundreds
contribute to the dislike in prose. However, it is also a fact that a good prose can immerse us to
a world of fiction beyond our imagination and evoke emotions and thoughts we never thought
we could have.
This unit reintroduces students to the conventions of prose so that students will have a better
grasp of understanding prose through its elements and other contexts. This unit would cover the
different types, elements and literary devices used in prose. This unit will also discuss the
different short stories from the ancient times to the canons all around the world.
1. Distinguish prose from other forms of writing

2. Interpret prose using the elements of s short story.
3. Explain how different types of prose convey stories or meanings.
4. Recognize relationship between ideas, events and facts.
5. Apply close reading in prose analysis.
6. Survey traditional and contemporary nature prose.
8. Examine the structure and elements of the texts for close reading analysis
10. Evaluate prose creatively.

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 6 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROSE, TYPES OF PROSE,
AND ELEMENTS OF SHORT STORY
Viray et al (2012) defined prose as a writing that does not adhere to any particular formal
structure (other than simple grammar). It is spoken or written language without metrical
structure as distinguished from poetry or verse. In this we can say that prose uses a
communicative style that sounds natural and uses grammatical structure that is opposite to that
of the verse or poetry which employs a rhythmic structure that does not mimic ordinary speech.
There is, however, some poetry called “prose poetry” that uses elements of prose while adding
in poetic techniques such as heightened emotional content, high frequency of metaphors, and
juxtaposition of contrasting images. Most forms of writing and speaking are done in prose,
including short stories and novels, journalism, academic writing, and regular conversations
(Literary Devices and Literary Devices Editors , 2019).
The word “prose” comes from the Latin expression prosa oratio, which means
straightforward or direct speech. Due to the definition of prose referring to straightforward
communication, “prosaic” has come to mean dull and commonplace discourse. When used as a
literary term, however, prose does not carry this connotation (Literary Devices, 2019).
Specific to the prose is the short story. Tan (2001) explains that as a latest of the major
literary types to evolve, the modern short story has an ancient lineage. Perhaps, the oldest
ancestors of the short story are the myths, the fables, the parables, and anecdotes which are all
the illustrations of the art of storytelling.
Further she explains that as the oldest and earliest form of the short story, the myth is a story
invented by the primitive peoples in order to explain the mysteries of existence and the origins
of the natural phenomena they witnessed, aside from the fact that they used the myth to explain
and interpret human motives and passions and their consequences in daily living.
On the other hand, the anecdote which is the most direct ancestor of the short story is an
illustrated story, straight to the point. The ancient parable and the table are starkly brief
narratives used to enforce some moral and spiritual truth, all of which anticipate the severe
brevity and unity of some short stories written today.
Introduction to the Short Story

The short story is a fictional narrative in prose consisting of a series of events designed to
create a single dominant effect. It is intended to be read in one sitting (Montealegre et al, 2010).
Some factors to increase our understanding and enjoyment of the short story are as follows:
First, a short story is a fictional narrative prose. A fiction is any imaginative recreation and
reconstruction of life. In this sense, the short story is fiction which presents human life on two
levels - the world of objective reality made up of human actions and experiences in the world of
subjective reality dealing with human apprehension and comprehension (Tan, 2001).
Second, the short story as a form of fictional literate attempts to recreate or represent
concrete human experience in such a way, and with such an impact, as to bring out
meanings invisible to the strictly scientific observer. The author of fiction seeks to convey
to his readers not only matters capable of verification but also the whole unseen but

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imaginatively perceived world of human motives, responses, desires, and energies. Its truth can
be apprehended more fully by imagination and intuition and so its communication to the readers
depends upon as skillful and imaginative use of language (Tan, 2001).
Third, perhaps, then, the best place to begin in understanding as storing is an
understanding of the most general aspects of fiction - subject and theme. The subject of a
work of fiction is almost always a place, a character, a situation, or a quality of life. On the other
hand the theme is derived from the total effects of all the elements of a story - character, tone,
thought, and the rest - but in many stories, the somatic burden is carried by some particular
device or character (Tan, 2001). This will be explored and the succeeding sections of the
lesson.
The following are the elements of a short story:

ELEMENTS OF SHORT STORY
A. Setting - The setting answers to questions where and when the story happens. It refers
to the place and time story (Montealegre et al 2010).
 In the Traditional short story the writer was primarily concerned with the
rendering detailed physical descriptions, such as all the landscape, a community,
a house or even rooms within a house. But in the more modern short stories, the
setting is no longer confined to the physical environment but may include, if not
concentrate, on metaphorical aspects, wherein the setting suggest psychological
aspects of the characters or the thing.
 Furthermore, setting in the modern context is of primary importance as it helps

generate mood, atmosphere, and tone which in turn, either influence or reflect
character. Tomeldan et al (2010) uses Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of
the House of Usher to illustrate this. According to Tomeldan Edgar Allan Poe's
short stories provide us with excellent examples of such use of setting. Still other
stories take place in the mind of the main character; but even here, time and
space still provide the background of poor what flashes at room that character's
consciousness.
Examples of Setting in Literature:

#1: Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte
In Emily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights, its setting plays a vital role, as it reflects the
mood of major characters and their actions, while contributing to its overall
atmosphere. The novel has three main settings:
The Moors
Wuthering Heights
Thrushcross
Grange
The Moors symbolize wilderness and freedom, as nobody owns them, and everyone can
freely move about anytime. Wuthering Heights depicts weather around this house, which
is stormy and gloomy. The characters are cruel and extremely passionate. Thrushcross
Grange, on the other hand, is contrary to Wuthering Heights because its weather is calm,
while its inhabitants are dull and weak.
(taken from Literary Devices.net)

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# 2: Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

In Joseph Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness, the leading character Marlow goes to
different places and settings that influence his imagination, which adds to the themes of
the story. The title, Heart of Darkness, refers to the center of the jungle on the African
continent, where Marlowe travels to find Kurtz. The darkness not only applies to the
shadowy jungle, but also to the behavior and actions of the civilized people it affects, and
they become savage like Kurtz. The setting is also symbolic of imperialistic forces that
have made black men their slaves.
# 3: Lord of the Flies by William Golding

In William Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies, weather plays a very important role, as it
represents mood, behavior, and attitudes of young boys throughout the storyline. During
the day, the beach looks bright, while the ocean is calm, and there is no conflict. The
author describes the dense areas of the jungle as scary and dark. One night, when
Simon is killed, there comes a violent storm, and the ocean looks very rough in the black
night. Thus, its setting includes weather conditions, and the ocean representing dark
forces of nature present in human nature.
Function of Setting
The function of setting in a fictional, poetic, and prose work is of great

importance. It has immense effect on plots and characters, as it could act as
an antagonist, post a conflict that characters need to resolve, or shed light upon
characters. It can also present symbolic persons, objects, place, action, or
situations. Setting can establish the mood or atmosphere of a scene or
story, and develop the plot into a more realistic form, resulting in more
convincing characters. By establishing mood, setting also helps the audience
relate themselves to the characters in a story.
B. Character/s -This element answers the question who takes part in the action. The
character may be people, animals or animated objects such as plants, books, toys, and
the like. Abstract ideas like virtues and vices may also act as characters (Montealegre et
al, 2010).
 Characters can be classified in various ways: as protagonist or antagonist; as
round or black; as dynamic or static (flat / static characters maybe caricatures or
abstract of idealization); stereotypes or individuals from a column as main or
subordinate, to name a few (Tomeldan et al, 2010).

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Examples of Setting in Literature:

#1: The Lord of the Rings Trilogy by J.R.R. Tolkein
In The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, Frodo and his friend Sam discover their unexpected
personal commitment, emotional and physical strength, and dedication to the cause.
Gandalf discovers that his trust was broken by his fellow wizards, thus he transforms into
a magician with a stronger character. Aragorn, an heir to line of kings, gives up his title;
however, over the period of time he discovers his leadership skills, and decides to regain
his crown. All of these characters provide us with good examples of round characters,
each having depth of personality, and abilities to surprise the readers.
#2: A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens
In Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a tightfisted person. He

forces his workers to work hard, but gives them peanuts in return. However, after
undergoing some very strange and disturbing experiences with the ghosts, he changes
his ways – paying his employees more than their fair wages, giving them days off work,
and even gives gifts. This transformation makes him fit into the role of a dynamic
character.
Function of Character
The main function of a character in a story is to extend or prolong the plot,

make it readable and interesting. Many stories use multiple characters, and
every story has a main character that affects the plot a great deal. The main
character could be a protagonist, an antagonist, a dynamic, a static, a flat, or a
round character. Readers feel that the characters given in the literary pieces
exist, and they enjoy reading their real and lifelike figures and actions.
C. Characterization - It is revealed through the words, images, and symbols.

 To characterize is to delineate a character or projecting his or her strong and
weak points. Thus, a character is described as sympathetic, evil, respectable,
affectionate, sincere, etc. (Montealegre et al, 2010).
 Analysis of the short story includes characterization, a term which can refer either
to an analysis of the personalities of the characters in the story, or to a study of
the presentation and development of these characters for the short story writer.
Characterization may be direct or indirect. In indirect characterization, the reader
sees and listens to the character and consequently knows what he is like, or
what he has become. The reader sees the other characters act towards and
react to the character understudy; the reader listens to what the other characters
saying or seeing how they feel about him. Indirect characterization also makes
use of symbolism for an oblique portrayal of characters. Direct characterization
consists of outright statements or comments the author makes with regard to a
character.

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Examples of Characterization in Literature:

#1: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitgerald
There are many examples of characterization in literature. The Great Gatsby, is probably
the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of each
character. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich, but he does
not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom
is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now
and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice “full of money.”
Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas
that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which
is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the
gap between Jay’s and Daisy’s social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that
Tom, Jordan, and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg,
which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is
reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folk.
Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of
certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known
by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune, but failed
to get him into the upper class of New York society. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair
job of a “bond man” that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson, who fixes rich
people’s cars, befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a
dishonest golf pro.
Function of Characterization
Characterization is an essential component in writing good literature. Modern

fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage of this literary device.
Understanding the role of characterization in storytelling is very important for any
writer. To put it briefly, it helps us make sense of the behavior of any
character in a story by helping us understand their thought processes. A
good use of characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate
better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very important
role in developing a character, because they give us an opportunity to examine
the motivations and actions of the characters more deeply.
D. Plot - This element answers to question what happens in the story. It is the sequence of
the actions and events in a story. Since of every story, true or fictional, portrays human
beings engaged in an action and participating in events, it follows that every story has a
plot, one that can be stretched in a summary or outline. Some stories however, are
plotless (Montealegre, 2010).
 The parts of the plot
o Introduction (exposition): presents the necessary knowledge about the main
characters and situations existing prior to the action proper.
o Beginning of the action (complication): the character meets his first
important brush with a series of events. It is also commonly known as rising

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action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The
main characters are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs,
and at the same time, events begin to get complicated. It is during this part of
a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is encountered
o Middle of the Action (climax): this is the highest point of interest, also known
as the height of the conflict. It leaves the reader wondering what is going to
happen next.
o End of the Action (falling action): also known as the point of no return, it
signals the falling action of the story. It occurs when events and complications
begin to resolve. The results of the actions of the main characters are put
forward.
o Conclusion (resolution, denouement, aftermath): rounds off action,
underlying its point. It is when conflicts are resolved and the story concludes.
 This sequence of episodes or incidents may be chronological in which case

it depends on the time element, whether or not the incidents are narrated in the
order in which they happen in time. Or, as with some of the current stories, this
order may not take chronological time into consideration; the incidents may be
arranged according to their significances to and impact on the
consciousness of a character or characters. And then again, the plot may
not follow a logical order but may conform to a symbolic order. Regardless
of the readers sees in the plot the conflict crucial to the short story.
 A short story usually makes use of different narrative devices to present

the action into the story forward. The fiction writer may alternate between
straight narration (in which the writer states, rather than shows to the reader,
what happens) and dramatic presentation (through dialogue and dramatization of
action), some writers using one technique more than they do the other.
 The use of other plot devices may make the short story even more interesting,
aside from contributing to structural organization. Such would be the frame-story
device (the story within a story) as in Joseph Conrad's The Lagoon; or the
journey device as in John Steinbeck's Flight, and Gregorio Brillantes' Faith,
Love, Time and Dr. Lazaro.
 One narrative device which gained impetus from the interest in and popularity of
Freudian psychology is a stream-of-consciousness technique which Virginia
Woolf employs in The New Dress. An unusual writing technique, this narrative
mode is, at the same time, the most effective method of characterization.
The stream-of-consciousness technique, which can be traced back to such
earlier forms as the soliloquy and the interior monologue, can be described as
the "direct introduction of the reader into the interior life of the character,
without any interventions in the way of explanation or commentary on the
part of the author... and as the expression of the most intimate thoughts,
those which lie nearest the unconscious." (Tomeldan et al, 2010).

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Examples of Plot in Literature:

#1: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone by J.K Rowling
Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
is probably the most familiar to both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story
begins when Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer’s Stone. The
Professor lets loose a troll, who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds
out that Hagrid let out the secret of the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon,
which means that Snape can now reach the Sorcerer’s Stone.
#2: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austin
A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by
Jane Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie’s sister, Jane, falls in love with
Darcy’s friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in Mr. Wickham, who
accuses Darcy of destroying him financially.
When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie
rejects. She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back,
clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham,
and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be.
Function of Plot
A plot is one of the most important parts of a story, and has many different
purposes. Firstly, the plot focuses attention on the important characters and
their roles in the story. It motivates the characters to affect the story, and
connects the events in an orderly manner. The plot creates a desire for the
reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the story, ensuring
they want to know what happens next.
The plot leads to the climax, but by gradually releasing the story in
order to maintain readers’ interest. During the plot of a book, a reader gets
emotionally involved, connecting with the book, not allowing himself to put the
book down. Eventually, the plot reveals the entire story, giving the reader a
sense of completion that he has finished the story and reached a
conclusion.
The plot is what forms a memory in readers’ minds, allowing them to think
about the book and even making them want to read it again. By identifying
and understanding the plot, the reader is able to understand the message being
conveyed by the author, and the explicit or implicit moral of the story.

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E. Theme - This is the controlling idea or central idea around which the plot revolves. It
should not be confused with a moral of the story. Some examples of themes are: a)
Good always wins over evil; b) Slavery is bad so it should be abolished; c) Man must
know his limits Montealegre et al, 2010).
 After reading short story, one asks himself the question "so what? What is the
significance, its meaning?" The answer to these questions is the theme of the
story, the "so what" of the story. Isn't supposed to be meaningless, even
nonsensical story, has its significance, it's a sense. The thing is the reason the
story depicts its particular "slice of life" and not another. In the traditional short
story, the theme is equivalent to the moral (i.e. lesson) of the story, explicitly
stated either in the beginning or somewhere towards the end of the story. The
modern short stories many more subtle about expressing the theme. Although
theme maybe indicative of a certain philosophy of life, a particular world-view,
one must not, however, make the mistake of always it waiting a short stories
same with the writer’s personal beliefs (Tomeldan et al, 2010).
 A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may
express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he
has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and
conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main
character in the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally,
the actions and events taking place in a narrative are consequential in
determining its theme (Literary Devices, 2020).
Examples of Theme in Literature:
#1 War Themes
The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. literary woks
utilizing this theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary
works portray war as a curse for humanity, due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous
examples include:
 Iliad and Odyssey by Homer
 War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy
 Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell
 A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway
 Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw
 A Band of Brothers: Stories from Vietnam by Walter McDonald.
#2 Crime and Mystery Themes
Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include sub-
themes, such as “crimes cannot be hidden,” “evil is always punished,” and others. Some
well-known crime and mystery theme examples include:
 The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe
 Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle
 Bleak House by Charles Dickens
 Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie
 Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown.

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F. Conflict - This is the element that message not interested because it involves the
tension or struggle between two opposing forces fighting the protagonist character finds
himself or herself in opposition to another person for the antagonist. Sometimes two
conflicting forces is within a character his self or herself or it against nature or society
 Conflict generates tension necessary to all art. It can be external: pitting man
against his god, nature, other man; or it can be internal: pitting man against
himself. Conflict may be resolved at the end or be left unresolved. Some short
stories contain in addition to a major conflict, other minor conflicts (Tomeldan et
al, 2010).
Examples of Conflict in Literature:

#1 Hamlet by William Shakespeare
Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main driver in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet.” It
decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3,
Scene 1 of the play:
“To be, or not to be – that is the question:

Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”
The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but he also
looks for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved
ones. Due to his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and
sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits
suicide.
Hamlet’s indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution
came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked
for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with
his uncle Claudius.
#2 Lord of the Flies by William Golding

The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles
against another character physically. In William Golding’s novel The Lord of the Flies, for
example, Ralph (the leader of the “good guys”) steadily comes into conflict with Jack – a
bully who later forms a “tribe” of hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage
instinct, and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph.

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G. Point of View - This refers to the storyteller. The story may be told from the First Person
point of view ("I" is the story teller-does not necessarily have to be the author himself),
Third Person point of view (author is a mere observer to events); Omniscient point of
view (the narrator assumes an all-knowing stance) telling the story from the points of
view of all characters.
 Point of view is the consciousness through which the story is told. Point of view is
a term used to describe the way the actions of the story are reported to the
reader. It is the perspective on the narrator towards the materials of the story that
determines what information the reader is given, in what order, with emphasis,
and in what tone.
 In the analysis of fiction point of view refers to the person or narrator through
whose eyes we observe the characters and actions of the story. It also refers to
the position from which the narrator views the action - detached or involved,
inside or outside, or any stage between. Understanding point of view demands,
then, awareness not only who the narrator is but, also of where he stands in
relation to the story he is narrating. And in responding to the story's point of view,
a reader is reacting first to a speaking voice (the narrator), secondly to the
material that voice provides (events, characters, description, commentary), and
finally to the "distance" between the narrator and his material. Point of view
determines the extent to which a reader become intimately involved in the action
of the story and with the characters, or the extent to which he stands, like a
spectator, separated from the story.
 When view is classified in terms of person. Stories are told either in the first
person or third person. In the first person point of view, the narrator is sometimes
a participant in the action he relates. Sometimes, he is the protagonist and
sometimes he is simply an observer or reporter of the central action. Thus, we
refer to first person participant and first person observer points of view. The
reliability of a first person narrator observations and judgments is, once again,
critical. It defines the distance between the reader and the "I" of the story. It
determines the reader's perceptions of all characters, including the narrator.
Consideration or first person points of view, then, involves determining the
speaker's position in his story as a participant or observer, and judging his merits
as an observer and commentator on himself and others.
 Third person narration can be classified according to the range of knowledge,

readiness to pass judgment, and focus on character. First, the knowledge of a
third person narrator may be "omniscient" (all knowing), or "limited" to ordinary
human powers of observation and report, or somewhere between these two
extremes. Second, a third person narrator may choose to pass judgment to his
characters (third person editorial) or to withhold judgment (third person
objective). Finally, the third-person narrator may focus his interest and ours on a
single character - a so-called point of view character - or he may focus attention
on more than one, on the relationship, for example between two characters.
Similarly, and more especially, a third person omniscient narrator may, with his
god-like powers on seeing into the minds of characters, reveal the thoughts and
feelings of several of his characters, or, once again, direct his powers toward a
central point of view character.

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Examples of Point of View in Literature:

#1 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
“When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in
her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she
admired him.”
“He is just what a young man ought to be,” said she, “sensible, good humoured,
lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect
good breeding!”
These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third-person point of view. The excerpt shows
the reader two different ways of using third person point of view. Jane Austen first
presents two leading characters –Jane and Elizabeth – from the third-person point of
view, and then shows us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own
third-person point of view. This can be a good example of the use of dual third person
point of view – first by the author, and then by the characters.
#2 The Sun also Rises by Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which
is peculiar to his style.
“I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my

friends. We went out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the
evening crowd on the Boulevard.”
The use of two first person pronouns, “I” and “we,” gives these lines the quality of having
a first person point of view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue
directly from the characters..
Function of Point of View
Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author’s hands to

portray personal emotions or characters’ feelings about an experience or
situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to
convey to their readers.

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H. Atmosphere - This refers to the predominant mood or feeling projected by the story.
Thus a story may be tragic, pathetic, comic, and the like (Montealegre et al, 2010).
 A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a
narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects, and
foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle for establishing atmosphere. In
literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an author conveys to
his readers through description of objects and settings, such as in J. K. Rowling’s
Harry Potter tales, in which she spins a whimsical and enthralling atmosphere.
Bear in mind that atmosphere may vary throughout a literary piece (Literary
Devices, 2017).
 Most people confuse the terms mood, atmosphere and tone and use the terms
interchangeably. Tone is the attitude of the author towards a subject and is
mainly created by diction and details. Mood is the feeling or emotional setting
created by a piece of literary work. It is created by setting, imagery, and diction.
In comparison to the mood, atmosphere is a broader term (Literary Devices,
2017).
Examples of Point of View in Literature:
#1 The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe
“Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore –
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door –
“Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door –
Only this and nothing more.”
In this excerpt, the experience of readers is suspenseful and exciting, as they anticipate
horror due to feelings within the narrative. As we see, this character hears tapping on the
door and, when opens it, he finds nobody there, only darkness; making the atmosphere
fearful and tense.
Function of Atmosphere
The purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It

makes a literary work lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping the audience
more engaged. It appeals to the readers’ senses by making the story more real,
allowing them to comprehend the idea easily. Since atmosphere makes the
audience feel in an indirect way, writers can convey harsh feelings with less
severity. Writers control the impact of prevailing atmosphere by changing the
description of settings and objects.
WATCH THIS:
Samantha Clair. (2017, September 3). Learn Plot Diagram Using Disney and Pixar
Movie Clips [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yzY6buMflo

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
WATCH THIS:
Mindset. (2014c, May 10). Setting and character [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3sY5mt0zAo
Shoomp. (2015, March 25). Power in Literature, Short Stories Part 4: Plot [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvFB6XVbSAY
ClickView. (2014, May 22). Elements Of Narratives: Tone, Mood And Setting [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZXemI1sbWbw
Mindset. (2014, May 8). Mood and atmosphere [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OM_BsivQCYU
ACTIVITY 6: SHORT FILM ANALYSIS

lesson
TYPES OF PROSE
1. FICTION – Is a prose writing that tells about imaginary characters and events. Some
writers of fiction, base their stories on real people and events, while others rely on
their imagination.
i. Short Story- It is a brief prose or narrative that is usually read in one sitting. It
contains few characters and single plot that revolves around the main character.
ii. Novel - It consists simply of a long narrative. It has more characters with several
sub-plots and settings
iii. Drama - It is also called a play. It is a narrative written in scripted form and
played on stage by the actors or performers
iv. Fable - It is a brief story usually with animal characters that teaches a lesson.
v. Parable - It is a short narrative that is at least in part allegorical and that
illustrates a moral or spiritual lesson.
vi. Legend - It is a story that reflects the people’s identity or cultural values,
generally with more historical significance and less emphasis on the
supernatural.
vii. Myth - It is a fictional tale originally with religious significance that explains the
actions of gods or heroes, the cause of natural phenomena or both.
viii. Folktale - It is a story featuring folkloric characters such as fairies, goblins, elves,
talking animals and others. (fairy tale is a sub-class of folk tale)
ix. Fairytale – is a sub class of the folktale and the stories usually have a happy
ending.
2. NON-FICTION – is a prose writing that presents and explains ideas or tells about real
people, places, objects, and events
i. Autobiography - from G. ‘auton’ meaning self ‘bios’ meaning life and ‘graphein’
meaning to write. It is therefore a biography written by the author about himself.
ii. Biography - It is a genre of literature based on the written accounts of individual
lives.
iii. Essay - It is the most common and easiest form of literature to read and write.

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iv. Diary or Journal - It is a book for writing discrete entries arranged by date;
reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period
READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. Literary Devices Editors. (2019, October 22). Prose - Examples and Definition of Prose.
https://literarydevices.net/prose/
2. Literary Devices. (2017d, October 14). Atmosphere - Examples and Definition
of Atmosphere. https://literarydevices.net/atmosphere/
3. Literary Devices. (2017, April 28). Character - Examples and Definition of Character.
https://literarydevices.net/character/
4. Literary Devices. (2017, December 19). Characterization - Examples and Definition.
https://literarydevices.net/characterization/#
5. Literary Devices. (2018, November 1). Conflict - Examples and Definition of
Conflict. https://literarydevices.net/conflict/
6. Literary Devices. (2017, November 25). Plot - Examples and Definition of Plot.
https://literarydevices.net/plot/
7. Literary Devices. (2017e, November 26). Point of View - Examples and Definition
of Point of View. https://literarydevices.net/point-of-view/
8. Literary Devices. (2019, October 22). Prose Examples and Definition.
http://www.literarydevices.com/prose/
9. Literary Devices. (2017, October 10). Setting - Examples and Definition of Setting.
https://literarydevices.net/setting/#
10. Literary Devices. (2020, September 16). Theme - Examples and Definition of Theme.
https://literarydevices.net/theme/
WATCH
1. Bissigo Ricco. (2009, December 22). Alma [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irbFBgI0jhM&list=PLHKcLUdboNB1pREwDBOQJGa
p7h3NAlIg8&index=1
2. Samantha Clair. (2017, September 3). Learn Plot Diagram Using Disney and Pixar
Movie Clips [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yzY6buMflo

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
3. Mindset. (2014c, May 10). Setting and character [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l3sY5mt0zAo
4. Shoomp. (2015, March 25). Power in Literature, Short Stories Part 4: Plot [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvFB6XVbSAY
5. ClickView. (2014, May 22). Elements Of Narratives: Tone, Mood And Setting [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZXemI1sbWbw
6. Mindset. (2014, May 8). Mood and atmosphere [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OM_BsivQCYU
1. ACTIVITY 6: SHORT FILM ANALYSIS (Critical Analysis)
Watch the Short Film “Alma” then write an essay analyzing the structure of the story
using the knowledge you have learned from the elements of the short story.
SUBMISSION:
For online classes: Submit your critical paper through the online platform
Google classroom or the official class Facebook Group.
For Modular mode: Submit your critical paper to your teacher.
2. Quiz

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 7 LITERARY SELECTIONS: SHORT STORY
This lesson will cover selections of prose, specifically of short story from around the
world. These short stories cover will aid you in further understanding the elements of the short
story: plot, character, theme, setting and more.
but also the different elements and literary devices employed by the authors. You are free to
different poems. For this, your dictionary or mobile dictionary will be of great help. Due to the
length of the stories, a limited number of stories will be placed in the module. Some links will be
provided, while the rest will be placed under suggested reading.
THE YELLOW SHAWL

Francisco Arellana
Republic Period
I. The Man's Story (1953)
PEPE HAS a new place; but it wasn't hard to find. It is only a block away from Taft Avenue and
about a hundred yards off San Andres corner. The street is not a first class street, it is
practically a dirt road, but it is very quiet. You wouldn't believe it is within a stone's throw of the
city's great south national highway.
The place is impressive. It is an apartment building that doesn't look like one at all. It looks more
like a mansion. That is probably what it was, a rich man's home, before it was converted to a
hostelry.
A wall almost a man's height surrounds it. The gate, two panels of very heavy wood with inlaid
beated brass filigree work, this afternoon was ajar - open only wide enough of admit one person
at a time.
In the courtyard was a eucalyptus with liana vines, a fountain, a lot of ferns and flowering plants
in huge pots, and a square lawn of thick Bermuda grass that has begun to bulge in places.
A concrete driveway leads beneath a porte-cochere, up beside the building, and disappears into
the back.
I saw two entrances, a wider side entrance and a front one. I used the front entrance.
A flight of three concrete steps leads to an exposed square concrete landing. The door is tall,
the lower third stout oakwood, the upper two-thirds of Florentine glass and ironwork.
Inside, it was very cool. And it wasn't dim at all. Light came from the front door and the open
side entrance. There was a central skylight above the system of stairs.
The paneling and the parquet flooring are all strong rich brown oakwood. Against the wall near
the foot of the first flight of steps are the mail boxes with name cards and the black buttons with,
above them, the cut out brass letters from A to G.

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The first stairs are wide and carpeted. Opening on to the landing, also covered with a rug, are
three doors-these are Apartments A, B, and C.
Two narrow flights ascend from the first landing on either side of the first stairs. A long strip of
rug covers all seven steps.
The second square landing ends in a tall window also of Florentine glass. Two narrow
passageways, railed off from the stairwell, connect the landing with a long hall.
Four doors, two on either side, open onto this hall-Apartments D and E towards the rear and
Apartments F and G forward. The hall is dominated by another window, again of Florentine
glass.
Apartment F is Pepe's.
When I pushed the door in, I saw in the wall facing me, even as the door swung open, another
door opening, swinging outward, toward where I stood, out in the hall before the apartment. The
doors came to a standstill simultaneously I noticed a man before the farther side of the inner
door. I stood and waited. It seemed the man could sustain silence and stillness longer that I
could, so I decided to call out to him. Before I did so, I stepped over the threshold. When I saw
him stride to the inner door the same time I crossed the threshold, I realized it was a mirror
before me, a tall wall mirror.
The vestibule was bare.
The mirror was in the front room, set in a wall section directly facing the entranceway from the
vestibule into the front room.
The front room was long and rectangular. There was a wide square back room. I went to the
backroom. I sat on Pepe's bed. I took off my shoes but left my feet socked. I stretched out on
the bed to wait.
I hadn't had lunch and I was very tired but I wanted to be sure to be there when she arrived. I
looked at my wristwatch. It was quarter to two.
She didn't come until about three hours later. I waited, lying in Pepe's bed. The apartments were
quiet. In the silence I could barely make out the hum of the traffic a block way. The afternoon
was warm but it was very cool in the apartment. There was a window in the front room, the only
one in the apartment, but it was a tall massive window; it looked as if all of the front walls have
been knocked out for it. The window was completely covered by drawn blinds. There were
concealed ventilators. I could sense rather that hear them but I didn't bother to find out where
they were.
A hoe drummed the earth in the public garden across the street. Water was run into pails and
then after a while sprinkled on earth. Children laughed and shouted in the schoolyard a block
away in the direction of the church and the sea. Even the sighing of the surf in the sea, I
imagined, came to me.
Every time I heard a car turning into the street I sat up in bed. As the car approached I would
swing out of bed and run to the window, I would pull back the blinds and, through the gad
between the side of the blinds and the window jamb, I would look into the streets below, I did
not leave the window until after each car left.
To and from the window, I passed the mirror every time. From the corner of my eye, I would
catch a glimpse of my image as it entered, momentarily occupied, then left the silver frame.
Not so many cars turned into Indiana Street that afternoon. But even so, sometime during my
vigil, I lost count. I decided she was probably not showing up at all. Every time I came away
from the window I would tell myself that if she weren't in the next car I would leave. But I never
did. I had borrowed the apartment for the afternoon and the afternoon was not over yet.

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The children were not in the school grounds any more and I could hear the sea very clearly
when she came.
I swung out of bed when I heard the car turning into the street. I was feeling weak and a little
light-headed. I sat on the edge of the bed and held on the thickness of the mattress to keep
from keeling forward.
I rose my feet unsteadily when I heard the car slowing down.
I was already in the front room when the sound of the tires gripping the gravel reached
me. I was striding past the mirror as the car screeched to a stop.
I reached the window, pulled back the blinds, and looked down into the street. The cab was
drawn up before the gate, its engine running.
The cab door swung open.
I was leaning against the window jamb. Suddenly, above the purring of the idling engine, I could
hear my rasping breath.
I saw her foot as it settled upon the car door sill. It was in a yellow sandal. I caught a glimpse of
the swish of the hem of a yellow dress.
The late afternoon sun was sudden, caught in her gleaming hair. Golden was the sunlight upon
her yellow shawl. She was in a yellow dress but I didn't know which one.
I didn't notice when the cab drove away.
She stood in the sidewalk before the gate, hugging her handbag - it was the square reed bag -
to her body and I could see her plain and plain and whole. It was like the first time I ever saw
her and I could hear my booming heart.
Then she raised her face.
I stepped back, away from the window but only far enough not to be seen. Now I could see her
face clearly: I saw her brow and her very fine eyes and very fine nose and mouth; I saw her very
white throat: how flowerlike her face was, how like a flowerstalk her throat.
I moved to the window again when she dropped her eyes.
She slipped through the gate, her shawl barely touching either panel. She walked up the
concrete driveway. She crossed the lawn and disappeared beneath the green and rust-colored
canvas awning of the porte-cochere.
I let the blinds go: now she is going up the steps to the side entrance.
I noticed that I have fallen forward against the window sill and that the pale green slats of the
blinds were almost against my face; now she is looking at the mail boxes and the name cards
and the black buttons and the cut-outs brass letters.
Then I felt my forehead hurting; I had leaned my head too heavily against the sharp concrete
edge of the window jamb: now she has found the bell to the apartment.
I pushed myself away from the window; abstractedly I lifted my right hand and rubbed my brow
where it hurt: now she is going to ring.
Something had come off my temple to my hand - gritty bits - and I was rolling the stuff
absentmindedly between my thumb and fore and middle fingers; I had lifted my hand and was
looking at what I was kneading there when the doorbell rang.
It wasn't really a bell: they were musical chimes. They were not meant to startle but I startled at
their sound. I looked at my thumb and fingers and saw the bits of stucco there: now she is going
up the first flight steps.

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I didn't know, as I stood up, that I was swaying until I saw the stucco in my reeling hand: now
she on the first landing, looking at the cut-out brass letters on the doors; she will stop only long
enough to know how the apartments are arranged and then she will not stop again.
I reeled away from the window and started weaving up the room: now she is going up the room:
now she is going up one of the two second stairs.
Between the front room and the vestibule I caught at the door jamb and held myself there with
my right hand: now she is on the second landing.
My hand held me trembling to the entranceway: now she is walking up the passageway
between the railing and the wall.
It was then I felt the eyes upon me, the eyes watching me; and I began to wheel around.
When I saw the seeking stricken eyes, I didn't know it was the mirror and I didn't recognize them
for my own; I looked a long time at the long thin man with the wild wandering eyes and the
drawn ruined face before I realized it was my own reflection.
Now she is in the hall outside the door. Now she is at the door.
I lurched into the vestibule and staggered to the apartment door. I broke my precipitate
movement by left straight-arming the wall beside the door and catching at the brass door knob
with my right hand.
When I pulled the door in she was there. Now I see you face to face; now I see your small white
hands: how flowerlike your face is, how small and flowerlike you hands.
She was in the yellow dress with a square neckline and the short puffed sleeves. She was
smiling; her eyes were bright and shining; and she was humming to herself.
II. The Girl's Story
He stood before me, holding the door open, his hand resting upon the door knob as if he held
himself up that way. When I saw his soft hurt eyes and his pale thin face and his shock of hair, I
thought that perhaps I shouldn't have come.
He looked at me a long time without saying anything as if he couldn't believe I was there. I said
"Hellow". He didn't answer.
When he spoke, it was to say my name.
Then he stepped aside, away from the doorway. I walked into the small bare anteroom, I saw
the tall wall mirror in the inner room facing the entranceway from the outer room and the
apartment door.
I walked to the middle of the anteroom and stood there with my back towards him. In the mirror I
saw how slowly he shut the door after me, leaned back upon it as if he was very tired, slowly
lifted his right hand to rub his forehead with his palm and sweep back his uncombed hair with
his fingers. I turned around and faced him when I saw his hurt unguarded hopeless eyes.
He pushed himself forward away from the door and walked towards me in the middle of the
anteroom. As he passed me, he asked for my handbag and my yellow shawl. I fell in step
beside him and, as we walked to the living room, I slipped the shawl off my shoulders and
passed my bag and the shawl to him. We entered the living room. I saw in the looming mirror
how he carried the shawl in one hand held stiffly up before him and the other which swung
listless by his side.
He stopped as soon as we crossed the doorway. I walked on the middle of the room and stood
before the mirror with my back towards him. In the mirror I saw him place the bag on top of a

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wall table beside the doorway and then raise his arms and very carefully drape the shawl so it
wouldn't rumple over the topmost arm of the coatstand to one side of the doorway beside the
wall table.
I turned around and faced as he walked towards me in the middle of the long room. He stood
before me, his eyes upon me, as if he saw for the first time, not saying anything. Then his eyes
fell away. He looked around, swept up a chair by its back, set it right behind me where I stood
before the mirror, and asked me to sit down.
I sat down and told him that I couldn't stay very long.
He stood before me, behind him loomed the mirror. In the mirror above him I could see the
reflection of my yellow shawl.
"Yes, of course," he said.
Then he began to speak, he walked as he talked, his words sprang from his mouth like birds.
He swung his arms; they beat like wings.
He paced up and down the long room from the window to the back room door and I followed
him with my eyes.
He stopped at the door into the back room and stood there; then he turned and, looking at me,
said: "I can't get you out of my heart any more: I can't unlove you."
He walked down the long room and, as he crossed between me and the mirror and I saw in the
mirror the reflection or the shawl spread like a wing above him, he said: "You are all the girls I
have ever loved."
He stopped at the window and stood there. A breeze was blowing, the pale green blinds very
near his face were beginning to stir. He walked up the long room and as he crossed between
me and the mirror and I saw the shawl spread above him like a wing, he said: "Marriages are
made in heaven. Marriages are made in hell. This is one marriage that shall never be, on earth,
in heaven or in hell."
He stopped at the back room door and stood there; then he turned and, looking at me, said:
"Love is dead: love doesn't hear. Love is dumb; love doesn't understand. It is exactly like talking
to God."
He walked down the long room and as he crossed between me in the mirror I saw the shawl like
a wing spread above him, he said: "It is like knocking on a door that shall never open. It is like
storming a wall that shall never fall."
He stopped at the window and stood there. He lifted his face as if to smell the sea, as if to listen
to the sea. The pale, green blinds almost against his eyes were rustling in the evening wind that
was blowing from the sea laden with sea-scent and sea-sound. Then he turned and, looking at
me, said: " I lost you even before I found you."
He was crossing between me and the mirror when he stopped and turned to me and stood
before me, between me and the mirror.
I was looking up at him and I was looking at his reflection in the mirror too and I saw him as he
was, as he stood rocking before me, and I saw him as his reflection also in the mirror that
loomed large behind him when he said: "I might as well live as I might as well die."
Then he turned away from me.
I saw his face as he turned away, I saw in the mirror the reflection of his face as he turned
towards the mirror, I saw his tortured twisted face.
It was not so much his face as it was the face of loss.

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I saw in the mirror the yellow shawl hovering above him. I saw the yellow wing brooding over
him.
Then the wing began to beat and to churn the air.
Then the wing lifted, living the air clear and shaken, filled with a yellow light.
Suddenly it wasn't early evening anymore but deep night. It wasn't now but nine years back. It
wasn't an apartment on Indiana Street but the Japanese garrison halfway between Valencia and
Garcia Hernandez.
It wasn't he who stood rocking beneath the yellow shawl before me but my father.
And the yellow shawl that beat above him like a wing was not mine any more but my mother's.
I raised my hands and jammed the heels of my palms against my ears. But I heard again and
couldn't shut out my mother's screams and father's anguish cry.
He sat on his heels before me, wavering. His hands were on my shaking shoulders. His face,
suffering and startled, was very near my eyes: it was clear and blurred by turns.
I didn't know that I was crying until I heard what he was saying over and over again.
"Please don't cry," he said. "How I love you! Don't - don't cry."
But I couldn't stop crying.
III. The Yellow Shawl (1944)
The child woke up when her father lifted her from the bed. She knew it wasn't morning yet
because the lights were on and they were very bright. She was already ten and she didn't like
being carried anymore, not even by her father. She tried to wriggle lose from her father's arms
but found that she couldn't. She saw that she had been bundled up in bedclothes. She was
turning in her father's arm to ask him where they were going when she saw the many silent
Japanese. She couldn't ask any more. Then she saw her mother: how pale she was, and
distraught. Her father told her to go to sleep right in his arms. She tried to but couldn't. The
Japanese said: "Come." At the door, her mother saw the lovely vivid yellow shawl and her
mother asked the Japanese if she might not take it along with her. The Japanese said: "All
right." Her mother wrapped the shawl about her; the night was cold, the air struck at her face
where it was exposed. It became even harder to try to get to sleep. She watched the many
silent Japanese from her father's shoulder. They walked a long time; they reached a big house.
The Japanese took them to a large room and left them there. In the room it was very bright; it
was also very bare. There was nothing in it except a cot which was set against the wall facing
the door. Her mother took the shawl off her. Her father sat her down in the cot and told her to go
to sleep. She tried to but couldn't. She watched he mother walk around the enormous room. Her
mother stopped beside the door and stood in tiptoe and reached her arms to hang the shawl
from a peg high up on the wall. Then she tired looking without blinking at the big bulb hanging
by a cord from the room. Her eyes hurt. She tried to sleep but couldn't sleep. She told her
father, then her mother, that she couldn't sleep. They sat on a cot beside her to lull her to sleep.
The light was too bright; the room was big and strange. Then the Japanese returned. Her
mother stood up, stooped and kissed her, told her to be a good girls and sleep; and left with the
Japanese. She looked at the shawl on the peg high up on the wall beside the shut door. Then
her father told her to go to sleep. She heard her mother scream. It was so loud she thought her
mother was back in the room with them. Suddenly her father was no longer beside her but was
pacing up and down the middle of the room from the window to the wall. Every time her father
crossed the room she saw how the shawl beat like a wing in the garish light above his head. Her

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mother stopped screaming and her father stopped pacing and stood still and tense, waiting. Her
mother screamed again and her father fell to pacing the floor once more and every time he
crossed the room he walked beneath her mother's shawl that hovered like a wing above him;
her mother stopped and her father stopped pacing and stood transfixed and tense, waiting. Her
mother screamed again and her father, released lurched up and down the enormous room
again. The screams came and went, grew fainter and fainter, and then the child couldn't her
them any more. Her father stood beneath the shawl that brodded like a wing over him, still and
tense and waiting, but the screams didn't come again. The child stared, sleepless, at her father
petrified beneath the yellow shawl. She saw her father sway and rock; she saw his incredibly
coherent face break and crumble. The child didn't even start at the sound of the animal cry that
tore savagely through her father's body and his throat. She watched her father fold and fall. She
heard him whimper. Her eyes were wild and wide upon her father's body broken beneath the
shadow of the yellow shawl when the Japanese came and carried her father's body away. She
felt very wide awake. Her sleepless eyes hurt and felt very dry. She blinked her wakeful eyes
long and hard many times trying to make the tears come down but the tears wouldn't come no
matter how hard and how long she tried.
THE HANDSOMEST DROWNED MAN IN THE WORLD

By Gabriel García Márquez
Gregory Rabassa, Translator
THE FIRST CHILDREN who saw the dark and slinky bulge approaching through the sea let
themselves think it was an enemy ship. Then they saw it had no flags or masts and they thought
it was a whale. But when it washed up on the beach, they removed the clumps of seaweed, the
jellyfish tentacles, and the remains of fish and flotsam, and only then did they see that it was a
drowned man.
They had been playing with him all afternoon, burying him in the sand and digging him up again,
when someone chanced to see them and spread the alarm in the village. The men who carried
him to the nearest house noticed that he weighed more than any dead man they had ever
known, almost as much as a horse, and they said to each other that maybe he'd been floating
too long and the water had got into his bones. When they laid him on the floor they said he'd
been taller than all other men because there was barely enough room for him in the house, but
they thought that maybe the ability to keep on growing after death was part of the nature of
certain drowned men. He had the smell of the sea about him and only his shape gave one to
suppose that it was the corpse of a human being, because the skin was covered with a crust of
mud and scales.
They did not even have to clean off his face to know that the dead man was a stranger. The
village was made up of only twenty-odd wooden houses that had stone courtyards with no
flowers and which were spread about on the end of a desertlike cape. There was so little land
that mothers always went about with the fear that the wind would carry off their children and the
few dead that the years had caused among them had to be thrown off the cliffs. But the sea was
calm and bountiful and all the men fitted into seven boats. So when they found the drowned
man they simply had to look at one another to see that they were all there.

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That night they did not go out to work at sea. While the men went to find out if anyone was
missing in neighboring villages, the women stayed behind to care for the drowned man. They
took the mud off with grass swabs, they removed the underwater stones entangled in his hair,
and they scraped the crust off with tools used for scaling fish. As they were doing that they
noticed that the vegetation on him came from faraway oceans and deep water and that his
clothes were in tatters, as if he had sailed through labyrinths of coral. They noticed too that he
bore his death with pride, for he did not have the lonely look of other drowned men who came
out of the sea or that haggard, needy look of men who drowned in rivers. But only when they
finished cleaning him off did they become aware of the kind of man he was and it left them
breathless. Not only was he the tallest, strongest, most virile, and best built man they had ever
seen, but even though they were looking at him there was no room for him in their imagination.
They could not find a bed in the village large enough to lay him on nor was there a table solid
enough to use for his wake. The tallest men's holiday pants would not fit him, nor the fattest
ones' Sunday shirts, nor the shoes of the one with the biggest feet. Fascinated by his huge size
and his beauty, the women then decided to make him some pants from a large piece of sail and
a shirt from some bridal linen so that he could continue through his death with dignity. As they
sewed, sitting in a circle and gazing at the corpse between stitches, it seemed to them that the
wind had never been so steady nor the sea so restless as on that night and they supposed that
the change had something to do with the dead man. They thought that if that magnificent man
had lived in the village, his house would have had the widest doors, the highest ceiling, and the
strongest floor, his bedstead would have been made from a midship frame held together by iron
bolts, and his wife would have been the happiest woman. They thought that he would have had
so much authority that he could have drawn fish out of the sea simply by calling their names and
that he would have put so much work into his land that springs would have burst forth from
among the rocks so that he would have been able to plant flowers on the cliffs. They secretly
compared hom to their own men, thinking that for all their lives theirs were incapable of doing
what he could do in one night, and they ended up dismissing them deep in their hearts as the
weakest, meanest and most useless creatures on earth. They were wandering through that
maze of fantasy when the oldest woman, who as the oldest had looked upon the drowned man
with more compassion than passion, sighed: 'He has the face of someone called Esteban.'
It was true. Most of them had only to take another look at him to see that he could not have any
other name. The more stubborn among them, who were the youngest, still lived for a few hours
with the illusion that when they put his clothes on and he lay among the flowers in patent leather
shoes his name might be Lautaro. But it was a vain illusion. There had not been enough
canvas, the poorly cut and worse sewn pants were too tight, and the hidden strength of his heart
popped the buttons on his shirt. After midnight the whistling of the wind died down and the sea
fell into its Wednesday drowsiness. The silence put an end to any last doubts: he was Esteban.
The women who had dressed him, who had combed his hair, had cut his nails and shaved him
were unable to hold back a shudder of pity when they had to resign themselves to his being
dragged along the ground. It was then that they understood how unhappy he must have been
with that huge body since it bothered him even after death. They could see him in life,
condemned to going through doors sideways, cracking his head on crossbeams, remaining on
his feet during visits, not knowing what to do with his soft, pink, sea lion hands while the lady of
the house looked for her most resistant chair and begged him, frightened to death, sit here,
Esteban, please, and he, leaning against the wall, smiling, don't bother, ma'am, I'm fine where I
am, his heels raw and his back roasted from having done the same thing so many times
whenever he paid a visit, don't bother, ma'am, I'm fine where I am, just to avoid the

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embarrassment of breaking up the chair, and never knowing perhaps that the ones who said
don't go, Esteban, at least wait till the coffee's ready, were the ones who later on would whisper
the big boob finally left, how nice, the handsome fool has gone. That was what the women were
thinking beside the body a little before dawn. Later, when they covered his face with a
handkerchief so that the light would not bother him, he looked so forever dead, so defenseless,
so much like their men that the first furrows of tears opened in their hearts. It was one of the
younger ones who began the weeping. The others, coming to, went from sighs to wails, and the
more they sobbed the more they felt like weeping, because the drowned man was becoming all
the more Esteban for them, and so they wept so much, for he was the more destitute, most
peaceful, and most obliging man on earth, poor Esteban. So when the men returned with the
news that the drowned man was not from the neighboring villages either, the women felt an
opening of jubilation in the midst of their tears.
'Praise the Lord,' they sighed, 'he's ours!'
The men thought the fuss was only womanish frivolity. Fatigued because of the difficult
nighttime inquiries, all they wanted was to get rid of the bother of the newcomer once and for all
before the sun grew strong on that arid, windless day. They improvised a litter with the remains
of foremasts and gaffs, tying it together with rigging so that it would bear the weight of the body
until they reached the cliffs. They wanted to tie the anchor from a cargo ship to him so that he
would sink easily into the deepest waves, where fish are blind and divers die of nostalgia, and
bad currents would not bring him back to shore, as had happened with other bodies. But the
more they hurried, the more the women thought of ways to waste time. They walked about like
startled hens, pecking with the sea charms on their breasts, some interfering on one side to put
a scapular of the good wind on the drowned man, some on the other side to put a wrist
compass on him , and after a great deal of get away from there, woman, stay out of the way,
look, you almost made me fall on top of the dead man, the men began to feel mistrust in their
livers and started grumbling about why so many main-altar decorations for a stranger, because
no matter how many nails and holy-water jars he had on him, the sharks would chew him all the
same, but the women kept piling on their junk relics, running back and forth, stumbling, while
they released in sighs what they did not in tears, so that the men finally exploded with since
when has there ever been such a fuss over a drifting corpse, a drowned nobody, a piece of cold
Wednesday meat. One of the women, mortified by so much lack of care, then removed the
handkerchief from the dead man's face and the men were left breathless too.
He was Esteban. It was not necessary to repeat it for them to recognize him. If they had been
told Sir Walter Raleigh, even they might have been impressed with his gringo accent, the
macaw on his shoulder, his cannibal-killing blunderbuss, but there could be only one Esteban in
the world and there he was, stretched out like a sperm whale, shoeless, wearing the pants of an
undersized child, and with those stony nails that had to be cut with a knife. They only had to
take the handkerchief off his face to see that he was ashamed, that it was not his fault that he
was so big or so heavy or so handsome, and if he had known that this was going to happen, he
would have looked for a more discreet place to drown in, seriously, I even would have tied the
anchor off a galleon around my nick and staggered off a cliff like someone who doesn't like
things in order not to be upsetting people now with this Wednesday dead body, as you people
say, in order not to be bothering anyone with this filthy piece of cold meat that doesn't have
anything to do with me. There was so much truth in his manner taht even the most mistrustful
men, the ones who felt the bitterness of endless nights at sea fearing that their women would
tire of dreaming about them and begin to dream of drowned men, even they and others who
were harder still shuddered in the marrow of their bones at Esteban's sincerity.

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That was how they came to hold the most splendid funeral they could ever conceive of for an
abandoned drowned man. Some women who had gone to get flowers in the neighboring
villages returned with other women who could not believe what they had been told, and those
women went back for more flowers when they saw the dead man, and they brought more and
more until there were so many flowers and so many people that it was hard to walk about. At
the final moment it pained them to return him to the waters as an orphan and they chose a
father and mother from among the best people, and aunts and uncles and cousins, so that
through him all the inhabitants of the village became kinsmen. Some sailors who heard the
weeping from a distance went off course and people heard of one who had himself tied to the
mainmast, remembering ancient fables about sirens. While they fought for the privilege of
carrying him on their shoulders along the steep escarpment by the cliffs, men and women
became aware for the first time of the desolation of their streets, the dryness of their courtyards,
the narrowness of their dreams as they faced the splendor and beauty of their drowned man.
They let him go without an anchor so that he could come back if he wished and whenever he
wished, and they all held their breath for the fraction of centuries the body took to fall into the
abyss. They did not need to look at one another to realize that they were no longer all present,
that they would never be. But they also knew that everything would be different from then on,
that their houses would have wider doors, higher ceilings, and stronger floors so that Esteban's
memory could go everywhere without bumping into beams and so that no one in the future
would dare whisper the big boob finally died, too bad, the handsome fool has finally died,
because they were going to paint their house fronts gay colors to make Esteban's memory
eternal and they were going to break their backs digging for springs among the stones and
planting flowers on the cliffs so that in future years at dawn the passengers on great liners
would awaken, suffocated by the smell of gardens on the high seas, and the captain would have
to come down from the bridge in his dress uniform, with his astrolabe, his pole star, and his row
of war medals and, pointing to the promontory of roses on the horizon, he would say in fourteen
languages, look there, where the wind is so peaceful now that it's gone to sleep beneath the
beds, over there, where the sun's so bright that the sunflowers don't know which way to turn,
yes, over there, that's Esteban's village.
THE LAST RITE

Lee Yu-Hwa
Chou Nan-an reached home before sunset. In the first courtyard he did not meet anyone. At
the threshold of the second court his heart beat faster. The place looked unusually empty
without his grandmother sitting in the low bamboo chair on the broad veranda. A pungent
sensation crept up his nose. As long as he could remember she had been sitting there, rain or
shine, ready to greet anyone who walked into the court. In his childhood this was the heart of
the house. He was always sure that his grandmother would be there to receive him, and inside
the wide folds of her sleeves, he would find cookies, candies or fruits of the season.
He ran through the stone-paved courtyard and up the few steps to the raised veranda. He
was met by his mother who had just come out of the room to the right of the center altar room.
“Is she…” he asked.
She nodded and held him for a moment to look at him; she had not seen him in three years.
His grandmother’s bedroom seemed full of silent women, her kinfolk, there to sit with her,
according to custom, taking turns at night, until she either recovered or passed away in their
loving care. The women all looked up when he entered. He followed his mother on tiptoe to the

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big built-in by an oil lamp on a nearby table. His grandmother was resting with her eyes closed.
Her brown face was furrowed and her features sunken.
It seemed a long time before his grandmother stirred and asked for tea. Someone quickly
handed his mother a bowl of the pale clear reddish broth of dried dates, believed to have the
power of fortifying a weakened life. His mother kneeled on the low bench in front of the bed to
feed the broth to the old woman. The old woman drank the broth with her eyes closed. After a
few spoonfuls she asked, “Has my son come home yet?”
“Not yet. Shio-An-Erh is here. He has come home to see you, grandma.”
The old woman opened her eyes slowly. Chou’s mother got up quickly and stepping back,
pushed her son to the foreground. He knelt on the low bench and took his grandmother’s hand.
“I am home, grandma.”
“Shio-An-Erh, I did not think I would see you again. You took a long time to come home.”
She spoke slowly and with great effort, then she nodded agreeably and closed her eyes, her
hand clasping his.
His grandmother fell asleep with his hand in hers. He patiently kept his kneeling pose so as
not to disturb her sleep. He loved his grandmother more dearly than he did his parents. In his
childhood his mother was always too busy with housework to play with him, and his father had
always treated him in the traditional way, serving as his strict disciplinarian. His grandmother
had for him all the leisure and the unrestrained affection privileged to grandparents. It was to
his grandmother he had made his childish vows to love her always. The memories of these
vows brought him back home to her bedside. Watching the old woman sleeping with a sweet
smile on her face, he was glad that he had come home.
In her sleep his grandmother frowned, made a little frightened sound and grasped his hand
hard as if she had had a bad dream. Chou patted her hand with his free hand. She opened her
eyes with a far-away look and when she finally focused them on him, she smiled. “I knew you
would come home, I told them so,” she said, pleased and somewhat boastfully.
In the evening his father walked in, still in his street robe, and kneeled on the low bench to
have a look at his grandmother who was now asleep. When his father got up, his eyes swept
about the room for Chou. He nodded to Chou and went out.
Chou delayed as long as possible leaving his grandmother to go to his father as requested
by that look. He had hoped that his grandmother would wake up in time to furnish an excuse for
him to postpone seeing his father alone. But since his grandmother went on sleeping peacefully
and his mother kept casting worried glances at him, he got up and left.
As he came down the steps of the raised veranda and drew close to his father’s room, Chou
became panicky. He was seized by that old familiar fear that he was not going to be able to
speak clearly. Words would get stuck in his throat as in the old days whenever his father
shouted at him. And his conversation with his father had never failed to produce thunder.
Yet in the years he had been away he had come to see his father in a different light. His
father was not, as he had thought, his tormentor, nor was his father so staunch a believer in the
old system. He did not oppose the new ways and the new people for what they were. He had
not really had a taste of the good old days under the rule of the emperor. Just under twenty
when the revolution of 1911 broke out, he had never had the chance to take the Imperial Civil
Service Examinations and be appointed to an office, the first proof of a man’s ability in his times
and the first reward for his years of diligent study. The overthrow of the emperor nipped his
budding dream of a useful successful life. If the revolutionists had made Sun Yat-Sen an
emperor, things would have been fine, his father had often said. When Chou had been away
from home, away from his father, he read a deeper meaning into this comment of his father’s.

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His father did not really care that the emperor had been overthrown or that the revolution had
taken place. All he wanted was that there should be another emperor to hold the world together
which he was born to and educated for. The personal disappointment made him hostile to the
new world and the new people of whom Chou was one. It was a very tragic thing that happened
to his father; the revolution had reduced him from a young man with as big a future as he could
make it to a man who spent his life taking care of the family land. “A housekeeper,” his father
often called himself. When he understood this, Chou was sorry for his father and forgave him for
the unfair treatment he had suffered at his hand.
During the last two days on the boat trip home Chou often thought that with this new
understanding of his father he would have known how to handle him. In a way his father was
like a disturbed youth who had not yet out-grown his young manhood’s disappointment. Chou
even went further towards this dream of reconciliation with his father. He had imagined many
dialogues to convert his father, keyed to the various philosophical views of his father’s that were
familiar to him. Now in the grips of his fear to meet his father alone, he hoped only to summon
enough courage to lift up the door drape and step over the threshold, let alone engage in
conversation.
His father was in the study, actually the bookkeeping room where he went over the domestic
accounts with the servants and kept no books worth reading. He had removed his street robe,
rolled the sleeves of his white silk undergarment above the elbows, and was washing his face
and hands in a porcelain basin. He dried his face with a plain cotton cloth. His eyes were
bloodshot and his square jaw jutted out under the two strokes of a black mustache. He studied
his son attentively.
Dinner was set in the center of a long table, at one end of which were a blue cloth-bound
ledger, abacus, brushes and an inkstone. His father sat at the table and rolled down his
sleeves. At a slight motion of his hand, Chou hurried forward to pour tea, holding the cup
respectfully in both hands and at chest-level while his father took his time fastening the top
button of his under-jacket and gave his collar a few pulls to make it stand upright. When he took
the cup his head bent a trifle to acknowledge the courtesy his son had shown him.
“Sit down,” his father said as he picked up his chopsticks.
In the silent room the clinking of chinaware was exaggeratedly and uncomfortably loud. Chou
sat straight on the edge of his chair. He wanted to lean back but could not move. His body
seemed to be better disciplined than his mind; in the presence of his father, it behaved
independently from his will, in compliance with his childhood training. He remained sitting
respectfully on the edge of his chair.
His father did not seem to enjoy his dinner. He ate absentmindedly, absorbed in his own
thoughts. Occasionally his eyes would rest on his son, but gave no indication of recognition.
When he finished his dinner, Chou, again according to custom, got up and poured him fresh tea.
His father’s intent stare made him tremble and spill some tea in the saucer.
“What did they teach you in the last three years?” his father asked, sipping his
tea. “English, chemistry, physics…”
Before he could finish recounting the curriculum, his father waved for him to stop. He was not
impressed by the titles of these strange foreign studies.
“I mean what have you learned? What knowledge is taught in the modern school?”
“It is complicated to explain…” The frown on his father’s face cut Chou short. He paused and
thought for a second. “In the modern school knowledge is much broader. The students are
taught a general understanding of the cultures of various peoples and a fundamental knowledge

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
of science – studies made on the natural aspects of the universe. And then the student
proceeds to specialize in a branch of study chosen according to his interests and ability.”
“Complicated and broader! Hern!” His father sneered. “What can be more complicated than
to live the life of a man? Incidentally, in case they did not tell you this at school, let me tell you
that the old-fashioned Chinese education teaches one to be a man.”
Chou did not retort; again he had to face up to the impossibility of discussing anything with his
father.
“We were taught our duties, duties to the emperor and duties to our parents. And we live by
them.” His father waited and then impatiently shouted, “What do you have to say for yourself?”
“Things are changing…” Chou faltered.
“What is changing and who does the changing? The same things go on? Spring planting,
fall harvest, rent collecting, paying taxes, feeding the family and going to the post office to send
you money. Nothing is changing here.”
Chou withdrew to greater depths of silence.
“You have been gone three years and you come home without learning a thing. If good
money was wasted to buy you common sense, I will teach you myself. The first duty you owe to
me and to the old woman, who is lying there dying, waiting for you, is to get yourself married. I
do not want to remind you of the agony and humiliation you have inflicted upon your fiancée and
her family because you do not understand – you never had any understanding.”
“I cannot…” Chou’s voice failed him in the middle of the sentence.
“I know. You never could do a good thing.” His father snorted. “But you do not have to
trouble yourself. I have taken care of everything, and I have checked the calendar, too. The
day after tomorrow is a fair day and I only hope your grandmother can last that long to see you
married.” His father dismissed him with a wave of his hand.
Next morning after breakfast his sister came to see him. She filled in the details of the wedding
arrangements. The family had been waiting for him to come home after the alarming telegram
about their grandmother’s illness had been sent to him. They had prepared everything, since it
was also the grandmother’s wish for him to get married on the first propitious day after his
arrival. There would be no celebration or wedding party. These would follow either when his
grandmother got well or on the hundredth day after her funeral. The east wing chambers were
decorated as a bridal suite. From his room he could see that the windows were done up in red
paper.
“Why are you so excited?” he said.
“I shall have someone to talk to and to sew with. She is so very nice, she really is.”
“What do you know about her? You hardly ever had a chance to see her.” Chou was
surprised, since according to tradition his fiancée should not have come in contact with any
member of his family until the wedding.
“But I do know her well,” his sister said. “Since last year we have been going to the same
school.”
“School! What for?”
“What does anyone go to school for?” Her voice came quick and angry.
He ignored her anger, since they both knew his fiancée’s purpose in obtaining an education was
to raise his estimation of her.
“She wants me to give you this.” His sister pointed to the package which she had put on his
desk when she came in.

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Shooting a glance at the tissue-wrapped package he said, “I cannot marry her. Doesn’t anyone
understand that is why I have not come home in three years?”
“What should she do?”
“It is not my concern!”
“She is your fiancée.”
“You, too! Have you forgotten what we used to talk about before I went away?”
“I remember. But I have grown up and understand things better. She is your fiancée, you have
responsibilities towards her.”
“Responsibilities and duties! That is all I have been hearing. And false responsibilities and
duties at that! Of course, I have a great sense of responsibility and duty; but only to myself, as
an individual, and to a better future for mankind. My outmost responsibility and duty are to
destroy your type of responsibility and duty.”
“But why destroy her?”
“She must fight her own way out!”
“How?”
“First and foremost, by freeing herself from this feudalistic culture, rejecting the teachings and
patterns of living formed and arranged for her before she was born and then by finally insisting
on her individual rights.”
“Do not make speeches! You are not on a platform,” his sister said. “Just tell me how is she
going to accomplish all this? She cannot set foot outside her house without her parents’
permission.”
“They have done a lot of harm to you. You have learned to yield and to compromise,” Chou
said regretfully. “I will take you with me this time when I leave. I shall introduce you to new
friends who will help you to consolidate your thinking.”
For reply, his sister looked at her bound feet. “Their feet are not like mine.”
An awkward moment lapsed as Chou was reminded of this overlooked impediment to his
sister’s emancipation.
“Mind is more important that physical appearance. You must not let this small hindrance
prevent you from living a full life.”
“Without this small hindrance, your fiancée would stand more of a chance to please you.”
“Your mind is poisoned. I do not wish to marry her because she is not the type of woman I
would choose.” His voice was raised to the pitch of impatience and temper, characteristics of
student debates. “I do not care for women who consider uppermost the task of pleasing their
husbands.”
“But you can teach her new ways and new ideas. She is just as bright and willing to learn as I
am.”
“It is not a question of my willingness to help her. I would like to help her if at the same time I
can preserve my independence, my freedom and my integrity.”
“I used to think new ways and people with new ideas were better. But now I am grateful that my
fiancé does not mind my bound feet and wants to marry me.” She burst into tears and ran out of
the room.
His talk with his sister was not what he had expected. He had counted on her as a mediator
between him and his parents. And if that were to fail, he had taken it for granted that she would
help him run away.

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His father had taken, as expected, the precaution of posting a servant near him. On the pretext
of being waited upon, he founded that he was not left alone. While he was in his room the
servant stayed in the room next to his, and when he walked about the house, he was followed.
A servant brought him a silk robe and said that his father wished him to wear it. He removed his
student’s cotton suit. He came out to the courtyard, went up to the broad veranda and lingered
a moment near his grandmother’s chair, his early refuge. Thousands of times he had run here
to enlist her power against unpleasant orders from his parents. He touched the worn arm of the
low chair and wished that once more his grandmother would exercise that authority on his
behalf.
He sat down in her chair, the big square courtyard bare before his eyes. He saw every open
and shut window and door and anyone who came in or went out of the gate. He realized that
this was how the feeble old woman had participated in the activities of her household and knew
so much about them.
His eyes dwelt upon the suite of three rooms at the upper end of the east chambers. How many
hours, he asked himself, had his grandmother spent looking at the lattice windows and hoped to
see them papered red.
His mother came out to the veranda and took the low roomy cushioned chair of the
grandmother which he vacated for the stool that used to be his mother’s.
“Grandmother’s is taking a nap. You have done her good. The doctor said this morning that
her pulse is stronger.”
“Good! Then we do not have to rush into this thing.”
“It will be tomorrow. Your grandmother and father agreed,” his mother said gravely. “It is not
rushing. Your fiancée’s getting to be an old maid. Eighteen years old and still she stays at
home and braids her hair. Besides, there is your sister. You are holding up her wedding, too.
Her fiancé’s family is anxious to have a daughter-in-law.”
His mother looked at him curiously and warily.
“No one wants to listen to me. I cannot marry this girl because I am already married. Now, do
you understand?”
“Married,” his mother repeated dubiously and then corrected him, “you mean you have taken a
woman.”
“I said I am married, married to a girl who goes to the same college with me.”
“Ah, a modern girl,” his mother said. She looked thoughtful. He waited impatiently for the
serious nature of his marriage to penetrate her mind. “Do not tell your father,” she said finally,
“till this is over.” She jutted her chin towards the red-papered lattice windows.
He walked angrily away from his mother. He had been away too long and had forgotten the
paradoxical aspects of their morality. Laxity and indulgence loop-holed a rigid code of behavior.
His mother’s attitude represented that of his family. To divulge his marriage to them would not
matter in the least so far as their preparations to celebrate his wedding were concerned. A
marriage which was not arranged by the family was not a marriage. And a girl, despite her
upbringing and the prestige of her family, was not respectable if she entered into marriage
unauthorized and unrecognized by the families of both sides. The most his wife could hope for
was to come and beg humbly for recognition as his second wife.
His talk with his mother ended all hope of understanding from his family. Were he to tell his
father of his marital status, his father would ignore him and send him tomorrow anyhow, on
schedule, in a green sedan to bring home his childhood betrothed.

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He had not written his family earlier of his marriage because he had thought it was the only
way to avoid a break in relations – his father would instantly have cabled back cutting off his
allowance and threatening to disown him. But as he now realized, it was a dimly felt distrust of
his family that had prevented him from announcing the marriage. The repercussions of this
great offense and disobedience, he must have subconsciously felt, would be more than
disinheritance. His marriage could not alter the fact, in his parents’ eyes, that he, their son, was
meant to fit in their scheme of things and should be brought around to marry the girl they had
engaged him to in his childhood. And his father was capable and unscrupulous. He had not
been able to score an easy victory over him.
In the evening Chou had dinner with his cousins. One of them brought along a jug of wine. The
excuse for their merry-making was that their grandmother rejoiced in it, too. After dinner, they
all crowded into the grandmother’s room. The old woman looked over the Chou descendants
and signaled Chou to come forward. He knelt on the low bench, but his grandmother gestured
for him to sit on the edge of her bed.
“They say I have spoiled you, but I know you will make up for everything. I will hang on –“ she
pointed in mid-air as if her life were being dispersed there, “till tomorrow.”
“Do not talk like that! You will live for many, many years yet.”
Tears rushed down Chou’s cheeks.
“Not many years but…” The old woman paused to gather strength and smiled sweetly at her last
wish. “The last banquet and all the friends and relatives to celebrate it.”
Chou nodded; he had lost his voice.
He was sent to sleep in his own room and did not stay up to care for the sick woman. The
lingering effects of the dinner wine made him sleep soundly.
In the morning when he woke up he noticed the package on the desk. He picked it up and
opened it. It was an embroidered writing brush-holder, a pet souvenir women gave to men.
Inside the brush-holder he found a letter from his fiancee. She acknowledged her awareness of
his reluctance to marry her, begged for tolerance and thanked him for being merciful to allow
her to assume his name. “I know only,” she wrote, “of the traditional way of living. I shall be
obedient to you as I am obedient to my parents. And I shall not question the propriety of
anything you do since I cannot question what I do not understand.”
He put the letter aside and concluded that she was a cunning woman. She pleaded for his
sympathy and affection and at the same time hinted that he was free; she would not hold him to
the conventional responsibility of a husband.
There was much activity in the suite with the red-papered lattice windows. The door was open
and the windows propped up. The servants kept going in and out.
After his visit to his grandmother he was sent to bathe and dress in formal gowns. At the
propitious hour he was carried in a green sedan to his bride’s house and came home followed
by her red sedan. They held a simple ceremony without music. Afterwards, when they went to
the grandmother’s room, the sick old woman was propped up on pillows to receive them.
Chou’s parents stood by the bed and behind them stood the uncles, aunts, and cousins. The
crowded room was hushed; only the sound of the dangling pearls of the bride’s headdress and
the rustling of her stiff brocade were heard when they kowtowed to the grandmother.
During dinner he drank rounds of drinks with his cousins. Tottering, he was helped into the
bridal chamber. He sat down in a red-lacquered armchair by a long red-lacquered table on
which two thick red columnar candles were burning. The candles were to last out the night. So
was the oil lamp under the bed. They were symbols of their long life together. Placed around
the oil lamp were five kinds of nuts, symbolic of their prosperity. A red silk quilt was spread on

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
the bed. His bride, still in her wedding gown, sat on the edge of the bed, her head bowed a
little. A servant brought in strong tea, good for sobering up, and fastened the door on the
outside. Chou drank two cups of tea.
“Go to sleep.” He said to the girl who sat so still amidst the blazing red of the room. This
was the one thing they could not force him to do, he said to himself. Yung-Chu, his wife by
choice, might understand, he persuaded himself, if he held out at the last step and proved that
he gave in to his family only on superficial grounds. He fulfilled his obligation to them as their
son to take this woman into their house to be their daughter-in-law. She was as much his wife
as he was their son, by circumstances and not by affection or choice.
Besides there was no other way for him to leave home and to go back to the city except through
this compromise. But compromise was one word that Yung-Chu was afraid of. One
compromise led to another, she had often warned him. She, too, was a student from a distant
country who had come to the city to study. Like many young people around her, she lived as
though she had no family and no awareness of the society around her. She cared for her
approval of herself and for the approval of those who shared similar rebellious thoughts with
her. When he first knew her, he was awed and, in turn, admired her for her advanced views
and her resolution and courage to act upon them. When she found herself responding to his
love, she came to live with him. There was no fuss and no bother about the significance of their
union in relation to society. She did not tell him whether she had written her family about her
marriage nor did she inquire about what he had done concerning his. The Chinese family, to
her, was the remnant of a bankrupt society and the last restraint to young Chinese attempting to
find a new life for themselves. When he showed her the telegram about this grandmother’s
illness, she merely looked at him, offended, and said in a challenging tone, “You must deal with
it yourself. It is your own affair.”
Chou understood and approved of his wife’s attitude but at the same time he could not
pretend that he was not hurt by it nor could he pretend that it was easy to live with a woman
who constantly imposed upon themselves such unprecedented views. With her he had had
some of the grandest moments of his life. Their visions of live conveyed him to a state in which
he believed that life as it ought to be was within their reach, were the ones to live this good life,
although in reality his life with Yung-Chu vas very painful. When they were not talking about
ideas, they seemed to be lost. They did not know how to do the least little thing without getting
into a serious argument with each other. She refused to be addressed as Mrs. Chou, using only
her own name, Lu Yung-Chu, if she had to assume a family name, and as a result involved
themselves in needless and endless explanations to the conventional. She did the cooking and
cleaning one week and he did it the next. The judicious distribution of housework afforded a
good source of friction and Yung-Chu fought vigorous and valiant battles against the opposite
sex in her own home. But all in all, she was the woman he loved and valued and he had
admitted that these conventional male prerogatives were much at fault for the difficulties in his
life with a woman like Yung-Chu. There was no doubt in his mind that she was the woman he
wanted to go back to and the life with her was what he had chosen through his own free will.
Turning his chair away from the woman dressed in red who sat on the bed spread with red
silk, he cushioned his head with his folded arms on the table and calculated the earliest possible
date when he could leave. His grandmother was expected to die within a few days—the family
had prepared for his wedding in the first and second main courts while in the third court
preparations for the funeral went on steadily. In that case he had no choice but to wait till she
died. But if the doctor gave a contrary prediction, then he would leave as soon as he could
persuade his parents of his urgent desire to go back to school. He expected them to be lenient
since he had compromised in marrying this woman, even though his father had hinted that he
needed someone to help him manage the family estate and that his son had had enough

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
education. Chou took this as another outburst of his father’s hostility towards the new world;
without the emperor there was no career worthwhile for a man to work at.
The sooner he could get back to the city, the better chance Chou had to explain to Yung-
Chu what had happened. It would not be an easy task. He did not see how he could manage
to convey to her his intricate relationship with his family, no more that he could explain to his
family how he and Yung-Chu were just as dogmatic as his father. She would judge him harshly
and call his sympathy and love for his family cowardice. If she should condemn him as a
coward and a renegade to their ideas, she would leave him. She and the friends they both had
were, so he often wore blinders in order to pursue without distraction their single minded
purpose of finding a new pattern of living for China. They would have wanted him to ignore, to
destroy and to deny his feelings for everybody in this house where an old woman lay dying and
a young girl waited to be made into a woman. But he did have feelings for them all, even for
this girl whom he had just turned his back on. He was responsible for her, as his sister had
said. If he did not go to take her home in the red sedan today he would have abandoned her to
the sad life of an old maid. She would never be able to marry again and would be disgraced all
her life through no fault of her own.
He turned around and saw that his bride had not moved. She sat in exactly the same pose,
almost a part of the red decorations of the room, as though she were going to sit there guarding
the edge of the bed throughout the night.
The red candles flickered and he had an impulse to blow them out. But this would have given
alarm if someone were watching his windows.
“Go to sleep,” he said.
The girl in red did not move.
Fine obedience! Chou was getting angry at her. It was not only his name she wanted, she was
waiting for him to lift her headdress, to exercise his right as her husband.
“I said go to sleep!”
She trembled but made no move. The pearl curtain of her jeweled headdress was shaking.
He went to her and parted the strings of pearls hanging down from her headdress. She was
weeping quietly. Her eyes were downcast and tears were streaming down her powdered and
rouged cheeks. She looked exceedingly beautiful in the candle light.
He let fall the strings of pearls and walked away from her. He knew that she was worrying
about the next morning’s questioning by her mother-in-law of the evidence of premarital
chastity. He went back to her and took off her jeweled headdress. She had not raised her eyes
but her tears had stopped, her lips were parted slightly and the rouge on her cheeks had
deepened in color. His hand touched her black silky hair, which, for the first time in her life, was
combed back and knotted into chignon, and he felt for the essential gold pin that held the
chignon in place. When he pulled the gold pin her hair fell loose and hung down her back,
scattering the rest of the ornamental jeweled pins on the embroidered red silk quilt.
KARMA
Khushwant Singh
Sir Mohan Lal looked at himself in the mirror of a first class waiting room at the railway station.
The mirror was obviously made in India. The red oxide at its back had come off at several
places and long lines of translucent glass cut across its surface. Sir Mohan smiled at the mirror
with an air of pity and patronage.

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
'You are so very much like everything else in this country, inefficient, dirty, indifferent,' he
murmured.
The mirror smiled back at Sir Mohan.
'You are a bit of all right, old chap,' it said. 'Distinguished, efficient - even handsome. That
neatly-trimmed moustache - the suit from Saville Row with the carnation in the buttonhole - the
aroma of eau de cologne, talcum powder and scented soap all about you ! Yes, old fellow, you
are a bit of all right.'
Sir Mohan threw out his chest, smoothed his Balliol tie for the umpteenth time and waved a
goodbye to the mirror.
He glanced at his watch. There was still time for a quick

one. 'Koi Hai !'
A bearer in white livery appeared through a wire gauze door.
'Ek Chota,' ordered Sir Mohan, and sank into a large cane chair to drink and ruminate.
Outside the waiting room, Sir Mohan Lal's luggage lay piled along the wall. On a small grey
steel trunk, Lachmi, Lady Mohan Lal, sat chewing a betel leaf and fanning herself with a
newspaper. She was short and fat and in her middle forties.
She wore a dirty white sari with a red border. On one side of her nose glistened a diamond
nose-ring, and she had several gold bangles on her arms. She had been talking to the bearer
until Sir Mohan had summoned him inside. As soon as he had gone, she hailed a passing
railway coolie.
'Where does the zenana stop ?'

'Right at the end of the
platform.'
The coolie flattened his turban to make a cushion, hoisted the steel trunk on his head, and
moved down the platform. Lady Lal picked up her brass tiffin carrier and ambled along behind
him. On the way she stopped by a hawker's stall to replenish her silver betel leaf case, and then
joined the coolie. She sat down on her steel trunk (which the coolie had put down) and started
talking to him.
"Are the trains very crowded on these lines ?"

'These days all trains are crowded, but you'll find room in the
zenana.' 'Then I might as well get over the bother of eating.'
Lady Lal opened the brass carrier and took out a bundle of cramped chapatties and some
mango pickle. While she ate, the coolie sat opposite her on his haunches, drawing lines in the
gravel with his finger.

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
'Are you travelling alone, sister ?'

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
'No, I am with my master, brother. He is in the waiting room. He travels first class. He is a vizier
and a barrister, and meets so many officers and Englishmen in the trains - and I am only a
native woman. I can't understand English and don't know their ways, so I keep to my zenana
inter-class.'
Lachmi chatted away merrily. She was fond of a little gossip and had no one to talk to at home.
Her husband never had any time to spare for her. She lived in the upper storey of the house and
he on the ground floor. He did not like her poor illiterate relatives hanging around his bungalow,
so they never came. He came up to her once in a while at night and stayed for a few minutes.
He just ordered her about in anglicised Hindustani, and she obeyed passively. These nocturnal
visits had, however, borne no fruit.
The signal came down and the clanging of the bell announced the approaching train. Lady Lal
hurriedly finished off her meal. She got up, still licking the stone of the pickled mango. She
emitted a long, loud belch as she went to the public tap to rinse her mouth and wash her hands.
After washing she dried her mouth and hands with the loose end of her sari, and walked back to
her steel trunk, belching and thanking the Gods for the favour of a filling meal.
The train steamed in. Lachmi found herself facing an almost empty inter-class zenana
compartment next to the guard's van, at the tail end of the train. The rest of the train was
packed. She heaved her squat, bulky frame through the door and found a seat by the window.
She produced a two-anna bit from a knot in her sari and dismissed the coolie. She then opened
her betel case and made herself two betel leaves charged with a red and white paste, minced
betelnuts and cardamoms. These she thrust into her mouth till her cheeks bulged on both sides.
Then she rested her chin on her hands and sat gazing idly at the jostling crowd on the platform.
The arrival of the train did not disturb Sir Mohan Lal's sang-froid. He continued to sip his scotch
and ordered the bearer to tell him when he had moved the luggage to a first class compartment.
Excitement, bustle and hurry were exhibitions of bad breeding, and Sir Mohan was eminently
well-bred. He wanted everything 'tickety-boo' and orderly. In his five years abroad, Sir Mohan
had acquired the manners and attitudes of the upper classes. He rarely spoke Hindustani.
When he did, it was like an Englishman's - only the very necessary words and properly
anglicised. But he fancied his English, finished and refined at no less a place than the University
of Oxford. He was fond of conversation, and like a cultured Englishman, he could talk on almost
any subject - books, politics, people. How frequently had he heard English people say that he
spoke like an Englishman !
Sir Mohan wondered if he would be travelling alone. It was a Cantonment and some English
officers might be on the train. His heart warmed at the prospect of an impressive conversation.
He never showed any sign of eagerness to talk to the English as most Indians did. Nor was he
loud, aggressive and opinionated like them. He went about his business with an expressionless
matter-of-factness. He would retire to his corner by the window and get out a copy of The
Times. He would fold it in a way in which the name of the paper was visible to others while he
did the crossword puzzle. The Times always attracted attention. Someone would like to borrow
it when he put it aside with a gesture signifying 'I've finished with it.' Perhaps someone would
recognize his Balliol tie which he always wore while travelling. That would open a vista leading
to a fairy-land of Oxford colleges, masters, dons, tutors, boat-races and rugger matches. If both
The Times and the tie failed, Sir Mohan would 'Koi Hai' his bearer to get the Scotch out.
Whiskey never failed with Englishmen. Then followed Sir Mohan's handsome gold cigarette

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
case filled with English cigarettes. English cigarettes in India ? How on earth did he get them ?
Sure he didn't mind ? And Sir Mohan's understanding smile - of course he didn't. But could he
use the
Englishman as a medium to commune with his dear old England ? Those five years of grey
bags and gowns, of sports blazers and mixed doubles, of dinners at the inns of Court and nights
with Piccadilly prostitutes. Five years of a crowded glorious life. Worth far more than the forty-
five in India with his dirty, vulgar countrymen, with sordid details of the road to success, of
nocturnal visits to the upper storey and all-too-brief sexual acts with obese old Lachmi, smelling
of sweat and raw onions.
Sir Mohan's thoughts were disturbed by the bearer announcing the installation of the Sahib's
luggage in a first class coupe next to the engine. Sir Mohan walked to his coupe with a studied
gait. He was dismayed. The compartment was empty. With a sigh he sat down in a corner and
opened the copy of 'The Times', he had read several times before.
Sir Mohan looked out of the window down the crowded platform. His face lit up as he saw two
English soldiers trudging along, looking in all the compartments for room. They had their
haversacks slung behind their backs and walked unsteadily. Sir Mohan decided to welcome
them, even though they were entitled to travel only second class. He would speak to the guard.
One of the soldiers came up to the last compartment and stuck his face through the window. He
surveyed the compartment and noticed the unoccupied berth.
'Ere, Bill, he shouted, 'one ere.'

His companion came up, also looked in, and looked at Sir Mohan.
'Get the nigger out,' he muttered to his companion.
They opened the door , and turned to the half-smiling, half-protesting Sir Mohan.
'Reserved !' yelled Bill.
'Janta - Reserved. Army - Fauj,' exclaimed Jim, pointing to his khaki shirt.
'Ek Dum jao - get out !"
'I say, I say, surely,' protested Sir Mohan in his Oxford accent. The soldiers paused. It almost
sounded like English, but they knew better than to trust their inebriated ears. The engine
whistled and the guard waved his green flag.
They picked up Sir Mohan's suitcase and flung it on to the platform. Then followed his thermos
flask, briefcase, bedding and The Times. Sir Mohan was livid with rage.
'Preposterous, preposterous,' he shouted, hoarse with anger.
I'll have you arrested - guard, guard !'
Bill and Jim paused again. It did sound like English, but it was too much of the King's for them.
'Keep yer ruddy mouth shut !' And Jim struck Sir Mohan flat on the face.

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
The engine gave another short whistle and the train began to move. The soldiers caught Sir
Mohan by the arms and flung him out of the train. He reeled backwards, tripped on his bedding,
and landed on the suitcase.
'Toodle-oo !'
Sir Mohan's feet were glued to the earth and he lost his speech. He stared at the lighted
windows of the train going past him in quickening tempo. The tail-end of the train appeared with
a red light and the guard standing in the open doorway with the flags in his hands.
In the inter-class zenana compartment was Lachmi, fair and fat, on whose nose the diamond
nose-ring glistened against the station lights. Her mouth was bloated with betel saliva which she
had been storing up to spit as soon as the train had cleared the station. As the train sped past
the lighted part of the platform, Lady Lal spat and sent a jet of red dribble flying across like a
dart.
OTHER STORIES:
1. A Clean Well-lighted Plance by Ernest Hemingway -
https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/samuel.huntington/engl1302/materials-for-the-8-
week-cinco-ranch-section/additional-readings-and-handouts/a-clean-well-lighted-
place-by-ernest-hemingway/view
2. Araby by James Joyce - https://www.plato-philosophy.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/Araby.pdf
3. Feast of the Dead by Cevdet Kudret - http://timeforpleasure-
christ.blogspot.com/2011/03/feast-of-dead-by-cednet-kudret.html
4. In Exile by Anton Chekov - http://pioneer.chula.ac.th/~pukrit/bba/exile.pdf
5. Marriage a la Mode by Katherine Mansfield -
http://www.katherinemansfieldsociety.org/assets/KM-Stories/MARRIAGE-LA-
MODE1921.pdf
6. The Cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allan Poe -
https://poestories.com/read/amontillado
7. The Horse Dealer’s Daughter by D.H. Lawrence -
https://opentextbc.ca/englishliterature/chapter/the-horse-dealers-daughter/
8. The New Dress by Virginia Woolf - http://keever.us/newdress.pdf
9. The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin -
https://archive.vcu.edu/english/engweb/webtexts/hour/
10. The Summer Solstice by Nick Joaquin - http://malacanang.gov.ph/75510-the-
summer-solstice-by-nick-joaquin/
11. The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman -
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/theliteratureofprescription/exhibitionAssets/digital
Docs/The-Yellow-Wall-Paper.pdf
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Inem (Pramoedya Ananta Toer)
2. Chief Sekoto Holds Court (Bessie Head)
3. The Lagoon (Joseph Conrad)
4. The Spider’s Thread (Ryunosuke Akutagawa)
5. The Necklace (Guy de Maupassant)

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READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. A Clean Well-lighted Plance by Ernest Hemingway -
https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/samuel.huntington/engl1302/materials-for-the-8-week-
cinco-ranch-section/additional-readings-and-handouts/a-clean-well-lighted-place-by-
ernest-hemingway/view
2. Araby by James Joyce - https://www.plato-philosophy.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/Araby.pdf
3. Feast of the Dead by Cevdet Kudret - http://timeforpleasure-
christ.blogspot.com/2011/03/feast-of-dead-by-cednet-kudret.html
4. In Exile by Anton Chekov - http://pioneer.chula.ac.th/~pukrit/bba/exile.pdf
5. Marriage a la Mode by Katherine Mansfield -
http://www.katherinemansfieldsociety.org/assets/KM-Stories/MARRIAGE-LA-
MODE1921.pdf
6. The Cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allan Poe - https://poestories.com/read/amontillado
7. The Horse Dealer’s Daughter by D.H. Lawrence -
https://opentextbc.ca/englishliterature/chapter/the-horse-dealers-daughter/
8. The New Dress by Virginia Woolf - http://keever.us/newdress.pdf
9. The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin -
https://archive.vcu.edu/english/engweb/webtexts/hour/
10. The Summer Solstice by Nick Joaquin - http://malacanang.gov.ph/75510-the-summer-
solstice-by-nick-joaquin/
11. The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman -
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/theliteratureofprescription/exhibitionAssets/digitalDoc
s/The-Yellow-Wall-Paper.pdf
1. SHORT STORY 1: THE YELLOW SHAWL
1. Discuss the significance of the epigraph from Baudelaire in relation to the story?

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2. The story starts with a very objective, almost impersonal description of the
setting. The succession of short paragraphs with equally short sentences
establishes a quiet tension felt working its way through the objectivity, the
impersonality of the prose. Even when the “I” person is already in the room, he
concentrates on the sights and sounds outside the house. What are the effects
created by this stylistic device?
.
3. How does Arcellana use the mirror for dramatic effect? For symbolic effect?
4. Do you think the confrontation scene between the two characters suffers from the
use of cliches (on love)? Or do they add to the impact of that scene?
.
5. The third section is written in a completely different way. What is the effect of this
change of style? What is the significance of the flashback on the story of the girl
and boy?
6. Illustrate the plot of the story in a diagram.

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2. SHORT STORY: THE HANDSOMEST DROWNED MAN IN THE WORLD

1. Discuss the physical environment of the village before and after the dead man’s
arrival?
2. What effect does the drowned man have on the people of the village? Why do
the women name the drowned man Esteban? What is the men’s attitude toward
the drowned man?
.
3. What is the significance of the drowned man’s funeral? How does his presence
transform the village and villagers?
4. Is the story realistic or fantastic? Explain your answer/
.
5. What does the story remind you? Can you say it is similar to the coming of Christ
to the pagan world?
B. ACTIVITY: PAIR WORK (For online: pre-arranged pairing; For modular: individual)
1. What is magic realism? Make a report on magic realism. Find out also who
began it, when it appeared in literature, and other information about it.
2. Discuss the use of magic realism in The Handsomest Drowned Man in the World.

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3. SHORT STORY: THE LAST RITE

1. The story is told from the main character's point of view. Does this concentration
on Chou work to the advantage of the theme development, or does it limit our
understanding of the theme, because the story is confined to Chou's
perspective?
2. Among the more interesting features of the story are the following: the
development of Chou's character; the local color elements of depicting the
traditional Chinese customs; the use of parallel episodes in the plot structure.
Discuss these elements at work in thee story.
.
3. Conflict in the story arises between the traditional Chinese way of life, as
exemplified by the father, the grandmother, the sister, the mother and the
fiancee; and the modern, post revolution awareness, as seen in Chou's reaction
to them. But another conflict develops, and that is the conflict within Chou
himself. Discuss the interrelationship between these two conflicts and the way
this moves the story forward. Take special note of the way the author works
towards the revelation of the second conflict in the last incidents. It initially comes
as a surprise to Chou and the reader, but in retrospect, this internal conflict is
subtly suggested and develop throughout the story.
4. What is the last rite?

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4. SHORT STORY: KARMA

1. Discuss the characterization of Sir Mohan. Contrast him with his wife, Lachmi.
.
2. Refer to examples of the colonial mentality Sir Mohan is suffering from. How
does he exhibit a patronizing attitude towards his own countrymen?
.
3. In spite of Lachmi's obvious lack of my manners, what endears her to the reader?
.
4. Why does the sound of Sir Mohan's English accent infuriate the soldiers? What is
meant by the line, "It did sound like English, but it is too much of the King's for
them."?
.
5. Discuss the use of irony in the story. How does Sir Mohan get his just deserts?
.
6. What immediate, dramatic and final effect does the last paragraph create?

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B. ACTIVITY: DRAMATIC READING OF A SHORT STORY

Showcase your understanding of the elements of a short story and the theme in a
dramatic reading of a short story assigned in the module.
Requirements:
1. Choose any short story from the module.
2. Record your voice through a mobile phone of a computer microphone.
3. Create a presentation for the final product. This may be a Power Point
presentation with the full text of the story and/ or images carefully chosen that
reflect the events of the story or theme.
4. Then attach your recording to a presentation.
5. Export the presentation to become a video file.
4 3 2 1
CRITERIA Advanced Proficient Approaching Developing
Proficiency Proficiency Proficiency
Volume Can be heard by all Can be heard by all Can be heard by all Can be heard by
100% of the time 80% of the time 60% of the time all 50% or less of
the time
Pacing Student read the Student read the Student read the Student read a
passage at a ate passage at a rate passage too fast or passage too fast
that was neither too that was neither too too slow but or too slow and
fast nor too slow; fast nor too slow but attempted to use made no attempt
used the pace to add didn't use the pace pace to convey the to use pace to help
meaning to the poem as means to convey meaning of the convey the
(slowing down for meaning in the passage meaning of the
dramatic effect or poem/ story (for passage
speeding up when dramatic effect)
appropriate based on
content
Preparedness Student is completely Student seems Student is Student does not

prepared and has prepared but might somewhat prepared, seem at all
obviously rehearsed have needed a but it is clear that prepared to
couple more rehearsal was present/record
rehearsal lacking
Speaks Speaker pronounced Speaker business Speaker misses Speaker

Clearly 100% of the words between 1% to 10% between 11% to mispronounces
correctly and speak of the words and/or 25% of the words over 25% of the
clearly and distinctly does not speak and/ or does not words and/or does
the whole time clearly the whole speak clearly about not speak clearly
time 50% of the time about 75 to 100%
of the time
Expression Student uses tone of Changes in tone Changes in tone Tone of voice was
voice effectively to and expression and expressions or not used to convey
convey emotions; were used but we're rarely used; the emotion or
student successfully not exactly fitting for student wasn't able meaning
read the passage the passage to read the passage
with feeling and with feeling and

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meaning meaning
Understanding It is clear that the The speaker may The speaker seems The speaker does
speaker understood have misunderstood not to understand not seem to know
the whole passage a few lines in the about half of the what is going on in
passage lines the passage -
doesn't sufficiently
convey meaning
Final Product The video uses video The video uses The clips and The video shows
(video) clips/ images that some clips or images dos not help lack of
help convey the images that may not convey the meaning understanding of
meaning od the be related to the the passage.
dramatic reading passage
WATCH these examples:
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnHFMAxACnM
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyacybTW-So
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_utA6j3Oc8
C. Quiz

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UNIT 4 – PROSE: ESSAY
OVERVIEW:
“The essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything.”
-Aldous Huxley
Prose writing is not just focused on the fictional way of conveying ideas but also in a non
fictional presentation. One kind of this nonfiction is the essay. An essay is a short academic
composition. The word “essay” is derived from a French word “essai” or “essayer,” which mean
“trail.” In composition, however, an essay is a piece of non-fiction writing that talks or discusses
a specific topic. As part of the current curriculum, it is important that students understand how to
present and explain their ideas in one of the most academically accepted form of writing.
This unit reintroduces students to the conventions of prose, specifically the essay so that
students will have a better grasp of understanding the essay through its types. This unit would
cover the different types and devices used in essay. This unit will also discuss the different
essay from the ancient times to the canons all around the world.
1. Distinguish prose from other forms of writing

2. Interpret prose [essay] using the conventions of an essay.
3. Explain how different types of essay convey stories or meanings.
4. Recognize relationship between ideas, events and facts.
5. Apply close reading in essay analysis [structure].
7. Write essays following the conventions of essay writing

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE ESSAY
Most genre courses include essay as a literary genre for the reason that the essay is used
primarily as a foil to make the nature of literature clearer by contrast.
As a literary genre, the essay is a communication from the individual author, as a person, to
the audience (the reader). Like fiction, the essay is read rather than heard or seen for this
reason, the author will, typically, identify himself as one addressing the audience. In view of the
fact that the essay is read from the printed page, its real content is not objectively present. This
is also true of fiction. But we said that the author was absent in fiction. How, then, is the author
present in the case of the essay? Of course, literally, he's not crowding the reader out of his
armchair but imaginatively; however, the typical essay is thought of by the reader as a
communication from the author to himself. It is a verbal contract between two people and in this
sense, the essay involves the presence of the audience-reader and the author, who as a real
person, is communicating to the reader his own thoughts and experiences (Tan, 2001).
Further, Montealegre et al (2010) describes the essay as a "prose composition with a
focused subject of discussion" or a "long, systematic discourse." The word essay is taken from
the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt." Michel Montaigne was the first author to
popularize this genre by describing his work as essays (Montealegre et al, 2010). The word
ESSAY has a cognate ASSAY which means "to test" or "to evaluate". When the term essay was
first attached to the works of Francis Bacon and Michel de Montaigne in the 16th century, it
meant "an attempt," "a test," "a trial." For this reason, the Essays of Montaigne and Bacon were
intended to test ideas, weigh insights, probe traditional definitions. Therefore, an essay is a
prose composition of any length intended to present a tentative exploration or evaluation of a
subject. A prose composition is not an essay if it attempts to present its viewpoint as a last word
or all that can be said on a particular subject.
Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, argues that an essay has a three-poled frame of
reference:
 Personal and autobiographical essays: these use "fragments of reflective autobiography"
 Objective and factual: these essays, the authors "do not speak directly of themselves,
but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme"
 Abstract - universal: these essays make the best... "of all the three worlds in which it is
possible for the assay to exist."
As a form of literature, the essay provides us with an opportunity to examine the importance
of expressing ideas in form. Considered the simplest of the literary form, the essay has only a
minimum number of parts - the beginning, the middle, and an end. It is also almost without any
of the kinds of conventional introductions, development, and conclusions which one associates
with the epics and tragedies (Tan, 2001).
In an essay, the length of a beginning or introduction should be proportionate to the length of
the essay as a whole. When the entire essay is short, the introduction must be limited to a
sentence or two. If the entire essay is quite long, the introduction may consist of several
paragraphs. But, whether the beginning is limited to one sentence or runs on for several
paragraphs, it tends to serve three purposes (with varying emphases): to introduce the subject
of the essay; to suggest the importance of the subject; to stimulate the desire to read further.

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The concluding section or ending of an essay may be as short as a single sentence or as

long as several paragraphs. The usual function of the conclusion is to restate and summarize
the central idea of the entire essay. The conclusion can also be used to point to some of the
applications of the ideas discussed in the body of the essay.
In addition to being proportionate to the length of the essay as a whole, the beginning and
ending of an essay should also be appropriate in tone to the rest of the essay.
The body or the main part of the essay is a section where the writer can develop and explain
his ideas. His development and explanation, however, should be controlled by a singleness of
purpose, a unity of intention. The most important single characteristic of a good essay is that it
is unified by a single controlling purpose. There should be nothing in an essay which is not
essential information, and nothing should be omitted from the essay which is essential to
achieving its purpose. One way of determining whether or not an essay is unified is to apply the
test of removability. The student should ask of every part of an essay - can this part be removed
without preventing the essay from achieving its purpose? If a part can be removed, then, it is not
necessary, and an essay with unnecessary parts lacks unity.
TYPES OF ESSAYS
1. Persuasive or argumentative essay - this makes a clean or presents a position and
supports such claim or position with quotes from experts, fact, substantial information,
and supportive evidences.
2. Comparison and contrast essay - this type of essay shows the similarities and
differences between two topics, objects, and ideas. It demonstrates similarities and
differences between two topics.
3. Descriptive essay - this type of essay provides explanation on the "what, why, how,
when, and where" of a topic. Usually, it is characterized by the use of sensory details
that appeal to the senses and reader's sensibilities.
4. Narrative essay - it tells a story in logical sequence. A narrative essay may employ
flashback, transition, or suspense. The focus is the totality of the sequence of events,
usually arranged chronologically.
5. Cause and effect - the main feature of the cause and effect essay is the casual
connections, careful language and a chronological or emphatic order. In writing this type
of essay, a writer considers the subject, identifies the purpose, considers the audience,
takes a critical stance about different causes or consequences, thinks of a thesis
statement, arranges the parts in a logical order, and employs appropriate language and
presents a conclusion.
6. Classification and division - the classification essay focuses on the categorization of

objects, things and ideas into a larger whole, while the essay division breaks down a
larger whole into smaller parts.
7. Definition - this assay provides an extensive definition of a term through giving of

examples, contrasting, or giving historical background.

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8. Dialectic - this type of essay is usually used in philosophy. The writer makes a thesis or
argument, then analyzes the argument [with a counterargument], then counters the
counterargument with a final and novel argument.
READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
1. Quiz

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 9 LITERARY SELECTIONS: ESSAY
This lesson will cover selections of prose, specifically of the essay from around the world.
These essays will aid you in further understanding the different types of essay as utilized by
different essayists. It will also allow you to examine the parts of an essay.
different essays. For this, your dictionary or mobile dictionary will be of great help. Due to the
length of the essays, a limited number will be placed in the module. Some links will be provided,
while the rest will be placed under suggested reading
THE ONE GREAT HEART

Alexander Solzhenitsyn
I am, however, encouraged by a keen sense of WORLD LITERATURE as the one great heart
that beats for the cares and misfortunes of our world, even though each corner sees and
experiences them in a different way.
In past times, also, besides age-old national literatures there existed a concept of world
literature as the link between the summits of national literatures and as the aggregate of
reciprocal literary influences. But there was a time lag: readers and writers came to know
foreign writers only belatedly, sometimes centuries later, so that mutual influences were delayed
and the network of national literary high points was visible not to contemporaries but to later
generations.
Today, between writers of one country and the readers and writers of another, there is an
almost instantaneous reciprocity, as I myself know. My books, unpublished, alas, in my own
country, despite hasty and often bad translations have quickly found a responsive world
readership. Critical analysis of them has been undertaken by such leading Western writers as
Heinrich Böll. During all these recent years, when against the laws of gravity they held on
seemingly in thin air, seemingly ON NOTHING, on the invisible, mute surface tension of
sympathetic people, with warm gratitude I learned, to my complete surprise, of the support of
the world's writing fraternity. On my fifteenth birthday I was astonished to receive greetings from
well-known European writers. No pressure put on my now passed unnoticed. During the
dangerous weeks when I was being expelled from the Writers' Union, THE PROTECTIVE WALL
put forward by the prominent writers of the world saved me from worse persecution, and
Norwegian writers and artists hospitably prepared shelter for me in the event that I was exiled
from my country. Finally, my being nominated for a Nobel Prize was originated not in the land
where I live and write but by François Mauriac and his colleagues. Afterward, national writers'
organizations expressed unanimous support for me.
As I have understood it and experienced it myself, world literature is no longer an abstraction
or a generalized concept invented by literary critics, but a common body and common spirit, a
living, heartfelt unity reflecting the growing spiritual unity of mankind. State borders still turn
crimson, heated red-hot by electric fences and machine-gun fire; some ministries of internal

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
affairs still suppose that literature is "an internal affair" of the countries under their jurisdiction;
and newspaper headlines still herald, "They have no right to interfere in our internal affairs!"
Meanwhile, no such thing as INTERNAL AFFAIRS remains on our crowded Earth. Mankind's
salvation lies exclusively in everyone's making everything his business, in the people of the East
being anything but different to what is thought in the West, and in the people of the West being
anything but different to what happens in the East. Literature, one of the most sensitive and
responsive tools of human existence, has been the first to pick up, adopt, and assimilate this
sense of the growing unity of mankind. I therefore confidently turn to the world literature of the
present, to hundreds of friends of whom I have not met face to face and perhaps will never see.
My friends! Let us try to be helpful, if we are worth anything. In our own countries, torn by
differences among parties, movements, castes, and groups, who for ages past has been not the
dividing but the uniting force? This, essentially, is the position of writers, spokesmen of a
national language, of the chief tie binding the nation, the very soil which the people inhabit, and,
in fortunate circumstances, the nation's spirit too.
I think that world literature has the power in these frightening times to help mankind see itself
accurately despite what is advocated by partisans and by parties. It has the power to transmit
the condensed experience of one region to another, so that different scales of values are
combined, and so that one people accurately and concisely knows the true history of another
with a power of recognition and acute awareness as if it had lived through that history itself—
and could thus be spared repeating old mistakes. At the same time, perhaps we ourselves may
succeed in developing our own WORLDWIDE VIEW, like any man, with the center of the eye
seeing what is nearby but the periphery of vision taking in what is happening in the rest of the
world. We still make correlations and maintain worldwide standards.
Who, if not writers, are to condemn their own unsuccessful governments (in some states this
is the easiest way to make a living; everyone who is too lazy does it) as well as society itself,
whether for its cowardly humiliation or for its self-satisfied weakness, or the lightheaded
escapades of the young, or the youthful pirates brandishing knives?
We will be told: What can literature do against the pitiless onslaught of naked violence? Let
us not forget that violence does not and cannot flourish by itself; it is inevitably intertwined with
LYING. Between them there is the closest, the most profound and natural bond: nothing
screens violence except lies, and the only way lies can hold out is by violence. Whoever has
once announced violence as his METHOD must inexorably choose lying as his PRINCIPLE. At
birth, violence behaves openly and even proudly. But as soon as it becomes stronger and firmly
established, it senses the thinning of the air around it and cannot go on without befogging itself
in lies, coating itself with lying's sugary oratory. It does not always or necessarily go straight for
the gullet; usually it demands of its victims only allegiance to the lie, only complicity in the lie.
The simple act of an ordinary courageous man is not to take part, not to support lies! Let that
come into the world and even reign over it, but not through me. Writers and artists can do more:
they can VANQUISH LIES! In the struggle against lies, art has always won and always will.
Conspicuously, incontestably for everyone. Lies can stand up against much in the world, but not
against art.
Once lies have been dispelled, the repulsive nakedness of violence will be exposed—and
hollow violence will collapse.
That, my friends, is why I think we can help the world in its red-hot hour: not by the nay-
saying of having no arguments, not by abandoning oneself to the carefree life, but by going into
battle!

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In Russian, proverbs about TRUTH are favorites. They persistently express the
considerable, bitter, grim experience of the people, often astonishingly:
ONE WORD OF TRUTH OUTWEIGHS THE WORLD.
On such a seemingly fantastic violation of the law of the conservation of mass and energy
are based both on my own activities and my appeal to the writers of the whole world.
(translated by F.D. Reeve)
NOBEL PRIZE ACCEPTANCE SPEECH

Albert Camus
(translation)
In receiving the distinction with which your free Academy has so generously honoured me,
my gratitude has been profound, particularly when I consider the extent to which this
recompense has surpassed my personal merits. Every man, and for stronger reasons, every
artist, wants to be recognized. So do I. But I have not been able to learn of your decision without
comparing its repercussions to what I really am. A man almost young, rich only in his doubts
and with his work still in progress, accustomed to living in the solitude of work or in the retreats
of friendship: how would he not feel a kind of panic at hearing the decree that transports him all
of a sudden, alone and reduced to himself, to the centre of a glaring light? And with what
feelings could he accept this honour at a time when other writers in Europe, among them the
very greatest, are condemned to silence, and even at a time when the country of his birth is
going through unending misery?
I felt that shock and inner turmoil. In order to regain peace I have had, in short, to come to
terms with a too generous fortune. And since I cannot live up to it by merely resting on my
achievement, I have found nothing to support me but what has supported me through all my life,
even in the most contrary circumstances: the idea that I have of my art and of the role of the
writer. Let me only tell you, in a spirit of gratitude and friendship, as simply as I can, what this
idea is.
For myself, I cannot live without my art. But I have never placed it above everything. If, on
the other hand, I need it, it is because it cannot be separated from my fellow men, and it allows
me to live, such as I am, on one level with them. It is a means of stirring the greatest number of
people by offering them a privileged picture of common joys and sufferings. It obliges the artist
not to keep himself apart; it subjects him to the most humble and the most universal truth. And
often he who has chosen the fate of the artist because he felt himself to be different soon
realizes that he can maintain neither his art nor his difference unless he admits that he is like
the others. The artist forges himself to the others, midway between the beauty he cannot do
without and the community he cannot tear himself away from. That is why true artists scorn
nothing: they are obliged to understand rather than to judge. And if they have to take sides in
this world, they can perhaps side only with that society in which, according to Nietzsche’s great
words, not the judge but the creator will rule, whether he be a worker or an intellectual.

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By the same token, the writer’s role is not free from difficult duties. By definition he cannot
put himself today in the service of those who make history; he is at the service of those who
suffer it. Otherwise, he will be alone and deprived of his art. Not all the armies of tyranny with
their millions of men will free him from his isolation, even and particularly if he falls into step with
them. But the silence of an unknown prisoner, abandoned to humiliations at the other end of the
world, is enough to draw the writer out of his exile, at least whenever, in the midst of the
privileges of freedom, he manages not to forget that silence, and to transmit it in order to make it
resound by means of his art.
None of us is great enough for such a task. But in all circumstances of life, in obscurity or
temporary fame, cast in the irons of tyranny or for a time free to express himself, the writer can
win the heart of a living community that will justify him, on the one condition that he will accept
to the limit of his abilities the two tasks that constitute the greatness of his craft: the service of
truth and the service of liberty. Because his task is to unite the greatest possible number of
people, his art must not compromise with lies and servitude which, wherever they rule, breed
solitude. Whatever our personal weaknesses may be, the nobility of our craft will always be
rooted in two commitments, difficult to maintain: the refusal to lie about what one knows and the
resistance to oppression.
For more than twenty years of an insane history, hopelessly lost like all the men of my
generation in the convulsions of time, I have been supported by one thing: by the hidden feeling
that to write today was an honour because this activity was a commitment – and a commitment
not only to write. Specifically, in view of my powers and my state of being, it was a commitment
to bear, together with all those who were living through the same history, the misery and the
hope we shared. These men, who were born at the beginning of the First World War, who were
twenty when Hitler came to power and the first revolutionary trials were beginning, who were
then confronted as a completion of their education with the Spanish Civil War, the Second
World War, the world of concentration camps, a Europe of torture and prisons – these men must
today rear their sons and create their works in a world threatened by nuclear destruction.
Nobody, I think, can ask them to be optimists. And I even think that we should understand –
without ceasing to fight it – the error of those who in an excess of despair have asserted their
right to dishonour and have rushed into the nihilism of the era. But the fact remains that most of
us, in my country and in Europe, have refused this nihilism and have engaged upon a quest for
legitimacy. They have had to forge for themselves an art of living in times of catastrophe in
order to be born a second time and to fight openly against the instinct of death at work in our
history.
Each generation doubtless feels called upon to reform the world. Mine knows that it will not
reform it, but its task is perhaps even greater. It consists in preventing the world from destroying
itself. Heir to a corrupt history, in which are mingled fallen revolutions, technology gone mad,
dead gods, and worn-out ideologies, where mediocre powers can destroy all yet no longer know
how to convince, where intelligence has debased itself to become the servant of hatred and
oppression, this generation starting from its own negations has had to re-establish, both within
and without, a little of that which constitutes the dignity of life and death. In a world threatened

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by disintegration, in which our grand inquisitors run the risk of establishing forever the kingdom
of death, it knows that it should, in an insane race against the clock, restore among the nations
a peace that is not servitude, reconcile anew labour and culture, and remake with all men the
Ark of the Covenant. It is not certain that this generation will ever be able to accomplish this
immense task, but already it is rising everywhere in the world to the double challenge of truth
and liberty and, if necessary, knows how to die for it without hate. Wherever it is found, it
deserves to be saluted and encouraged, particularly where it is sacrificing itself. In any event,
certain of your complete approval, it is to this generation that I should like to pass on the honour
that you have just given me.
At the same time, after having outlined the nobility of the writer’s craft, I should have put him
in his proper place. He has no other claims but those which he shares with his comrades in
arms: vulnerable but obstinate, unjust but impassioned for justice, doing his work without shame
or pride in view of everybody, not ceasing to be divided between sorrow and beauty, and
devoted finally to drawing from his double existence the creations that he obstinately tries to
erect in the destructive movement of history. Who after all this can expect from him complete
solutions and high morals? Truth is mysterious, elusive, always to be conquered. Liberty is
dangerous, as hard to live with as it is elating. We must march toward these two goals, painfully
but resolutely, certain in advance of our failings on so long a road. What writer would from now
on in good conscience dare set himself up as a preacher of virtue? For myself, I must state
once more that I am not of this kind. I have never been able to renounce the light, the pleasure
of being, and the freedom in which I grew up. But although this nostalgia explains many of my
errors and my faults, it has doubtless helped me toward a better understanding of my craft. It is
helping me still to support unquestioningly all those silent men who sustain the life made for
them in the world only through memory of the return of brief and free happiness.
Thus reduced to what I really am, to my limits and debts as well as to my difficult creed, I feel
freer, in concluding, to comment upon the extent and the generosity of the honour you have just
bestowed upon me, freer also to tell you that I would receive it as an homage rendered to all
those who, sharing in the same fight, have not received any privilege, but have on the contrary
known misery and persecution. It remains for me to thank you from the bottom of my heart and
to make before you publicly, as a personal sign of my gratitude, the same and ancient promise
of faithfulness which every true artist repeats to himself in silence every day.
SHAKESPEARE’S SISTER
Excerpt from A Room of One’s Own
(1929) Virginia Woolf
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) was a hugely influential modernist novelist and intellectual. A Room of One’s Own is
a book-length philosophical essay that remains a foundational text for feminist thinkers today. In Woolf’s time, people
assumed that most of the recognized “great” writers were men because men were more intelligent and creative than
women. Woolf argues that in order to create great art, an artist needs material conditions (such as a private room and
free time) that were not available to women. In this section, Woolf speculates what would have become of a woman
with Shakespeare’s genius in Shakespeare’s time.

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[It] would have been impossible, completely and entirely, for any woman to have written the
plays of Shakespeare in the age of Shakespeare. Let me imagine, since facts are so hard to
come by, what would have happened had Shakespeare had a wonderfully gifted sister, called
Judith, let us say. Shakespeare himself went, very probably—his mother was an heiress—to the
grammar school, where he may have learnt Latin—Ovid,Virgil, and Horace—and the elements
of grammar and logic. He was, it is well known, a wild boy who poached rabbits, perhaps shot a
deer, and had, rather sooner than he should have done, to marry a woman in the neighborhood,
who bore him a child rather quicker than was right. That escapade sent him to seek his fortune
in London. He had, it seemed, a taste for the theater; he began by holding horses at the stage
door. Very soon he got work in the theater, became a successful actor, and lived at the hub of
the universe, meeting everybody, knowing everybody, practicing his art on the boards,
exercising his wits in the streets, and even getting access to the palace of the queen.
Meanwhile his extraordinarily gifted sister, let us suppose, remained at home. She was as
adventurous, as imaginative, as agog to see the world as he was. But she was not sent to
school. She had no chance of learning grammar and logic, let alone of reading Horace and
Virgil. She picked up a book now and then, one of her brother’s perhaps, and read a few pages.
But then her parents came in and told her to mend the stockings or mind the stew and not moon
about with books and papers. They would have spoken sharply but kindly, for they were
substantial people who knew the conditions of life for a woman and loved their daughter—
indeed, more likely than not she was the apple of her father’s eye. Perhaps she scribbled some
pages up in an apple loft on the sly, but was careful to hide them or set fire to them. Soon,
however, before she was out of her teens, she was to be betrothed to the son of a neighboring
wool stapler. She cried out that marriage was hateful to her, and for that she was severely
beaten by her father. Then he ceased to scold her. He begged her instead not to hurt him, not to
shame him in this matter of her marriage. He would give her a chain of beads or a fine petticoat,
he said; and there were tears in his eyes. How could she disobey him? How could she break his
heart? The force of her own gift alone drove her to it. She made up a small parcel of her
belongings, let herself down by a rope one summer’s night, and took the road to London. She
was not seventeen. The birds that sang in the hedge were not more musical than she was. She
had the quickest fancy, a gift like her brother’s, for the tune of words. Like him, she had a taste
for the theater. She stood at the stage door; she wanted to act, she said. Men laughed in her
face. The manager—a fat, loose-lipped man—guffawed. He bellowed something about poodles
dancing and women acting—no woman, he said, could possibly be an actress. He hinted—you
can imagine what. She could get no training in her craft. Could she even seek her dinner in a
tavern or roam the streets at midnight? Yet her genius was for fiction and lusted to feed
abundantly upon the lives of men and women and the study of their ways. At last—for she was
very young, oddly like Shakespeare the poet in her face, with the same gray eyes and rounded
brows—at last Nick Greene the actor-manager took pity on her; she found herself with child by
that gentleman and so—who shall measure the heat and violence of the poet’s heart when
caught and tangled in a woman’s body?—killed herself one winter’s night and lies buried at
some crossroads where the omnibuses now stop outside the Elephant and Castle.
That, more or less, is how the story would run, I think, if a woman in Shakespeare’s day had
had Shakespeare’s genius. But for my part, I agree with the deceased bishop, if such he was—

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it is unthinkable that any woman in Shakespeare’s day should have had Shakespeare’s genius.
For genius like Shakespeare’s is not born among laboring, uneducated, servile people. It was
not born in England among the Saxons and the Britons. It is not born today among the working
classes. How, then, could it have been born among women whose work began, according to
Professor Trevelyan, almost before they were out of the nursery, who were forced to it by their
parents and held to it by all the power of law and custom? Yet genius of a sort must have
existed among women as it must have existed among the working classes. Now and again an
Emily Brontë or a Robert Burns blazes out and proves its presence. But certainly it never got
itself onto paper. When, however, one reads of a witch being ducked, of a woman possessed by
devils, of a wise woman selling herbs, or even of a very remarkable man who had a mother,
then I think we are on the track of a lost novelist, a suppressed poet, of some mute and
inglorious Jane Austen, some Emily Brontë who dashed her brains out on the moor or mopped
and mowed about the highways crazed with the torture that her gift had put her to. Indeed, I
would venture to guess that Anon, who wrote so many poems without signing them, was often a
woman. It was a woman Edward Fitzgerald, I think, suggested who made the ballads and the
folk songs, crooning them to her children, beguiling her spinning with them, or the length of the
winter’s night. This may be true or it may be false—who can say?—but what is true in it, so it
seemed to me, reviewing the story of Shakespeare’s sister as I had made it, is that any woman
born with a great gift in the sixteenth century would certainly have gone crazed, shot herself, or
ended her days in some lonely cottage outside the village, half witch, half wizard, feared and
mocked at. For it needs little skill in psychology to be sure that a highly gifted girl who had tried
to use her gift for poetry would have been so thwarted and hindered by other people, so tortured
and pulled asunder by her own contrary instincts, that she must have lost her health and sanity
to a certainty. No girl could have walked to London and stood at a stage door and forced her
way into the presence of actor-managers without doing herself a violence and suffering an
anguish which may have been irrational—for chastity may be a fetish invented by certain
societies for unknown reasons—but were nonetheless inevitable. Chastity had then, it has even
now, a religious importance in a woman’s life, and has so wrapped itself round with nerves and
instincts that to cut it free and bring it to the light of day demands courage of the rarest. To have
lived a free life in London in the sixteenth century would have meant for a woman who was poet
and playwright a nervous stress and dilemma which might well have killed her. Had she
survived, whatever she had written would have been twisted and deformed, issuing from a
strained and morbid imagination. And undoubtedly, I thought, looking at the shelf where there
are no plays by women, her work would have gone unsigned. That refuge she would have
sought certainly.
SUGGESTED READINGS:
1. Of Age (Michel de Montaigne)

2. Man and the Universe (Blaise Pascal)
3. Essays in Idleness (Yoshida Kenko)

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READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
1. ESSAY #1: ONE GREAT HEART
1. Why does the author consider “World Literature” as “One Great Heart?
2. Share one argument presented by the author. Do you agree or disagree?

Why?
3. What is the theme of the essay? Explain your answer
4. Explain the meaning of the Russian proverb, “One World of Truth Outweighs
the World” based on how it is presented in the essay.
5. How can world literature help promote unity among the peoples of the world?

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B. ACTIVITY
Research on the life and time of Solzhenitsyn and complete the table below. Be
able to show how history could have influnced his writing.
AUTHOR’S LIFE AND TIME HISTORICAL EVENT/S
2. ESSAY #2: NOBEL PRIZE ACCEPTANCE SPEECH (Albert Camus)

1. According to Camus, what si the role of a writer?
2. How does Camus describe a ‘true artist’?
3. How can literature be a weapon to fight for truth? To fight for violence?
_
4. How does his experience in life shape his views on being a writer?
__
B. GROUP WORK (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual

work)
Look for speeches of other writer who won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Compare their views on literature and the arts to Camus’ views on being a writer.

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Prepare a presentation of your findings and be ready to present it during the

STUDENT TALK SESSION.
3. ESSAY #3: SHAKESPEARE’S SISTER

1. According to Woolf, if Shakespeare has a sister what kind of education would
she have had? Would she have the same privilege as a man?
2. What kind of life awaited women in Shakespeare’s time?
3. Based on Woolf’s essay, how were women treated during Shakespeare’s

time?
4. Who are Emily Bronte and Jane Austen mentioned in the essay? Why are
they used as examples in the essay?
5. Is the society of Shakespeare’s time ready for a woman-artist? Explain your

answer.
B. ACTIVITY (Pair Work or Individual Work)

Research about a famous woman artist who had struggle to become an artist.
Share your findings in class during the STUDENT TALK SESSION.
C. GROUP WORK (for online - pre-arranged members; for modular – individual

work)
Make a mini survey in class on how women are regarded in their families.
Prepare a presentation of your findings and be ready to present it during the
STUDENT TALK SESSION.

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UNIT 4 – DRAMA
OVERVIEW:
“A good drama critic is one who perceives what is happening in the theatre of his time. A
great drama critic also perceives what is not happening.”
-Kenneth Tynan
The artistic work in the drama is performed as an objective occurrence witnessed by the
audience. Since the drama is performed objectively before an audience, and this literary genre
involves the presence of the audience and the work but the artists, the author himself, is absent.
Usually, the author of the drama stents concealed in the wings of the theater wringing his hands
until the final applause tells him that his work has exceeded. Therefore, to this question: "Who
was present at the moment of the artistic experience?" we may answer, in this case of the
drama that the audience and the work are present but the artist or the author is absent.
This unit reintroduces students to the conventions of the drama, so that students will have a
better grasp of understanding the drama through its types and elements. This unit would cover
the different types and devices used in drama. This unit will also discuss the different drama
from the ancient times to the canons all around the world.
1. Distinguish drama from other forms of writing

2. Interpret drama using the conventions and literary devices used in drama.
3. Explain how different the literary devices function to convey stories or meanings.
4. Apply close reading in drama analysis [structure].

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COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 10 INTRODUCTION TO DRAMA
Tan (2001) and Montealegre et al (2010) describe drama as a form of fiction that is
represented in performance. Drama is enacted in theater or stage by actors before an audience.
The literary composition includes of conflict, action crisis and atmosphere. Among the art forms,
from is considered the most dependent. A drama cannot be complete or staged without a
director, the actors, a scene and a costume designer. Hence the structure of traumatic text is
heavily influenced by the collaborative production and collective reception.
Drama is represented by the traditional generic division between comedy and tragedy which
are symbols of the ancient Greek muses Thalia and Melpomene. Thalia is the Muse of comedy
or the laughing face while Melpomene is a muse of tragedy or the weeping face.
Drama is often combined with music and dance: the drama and opera is so throughout;
musicals include spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama have regular musical
accompaniment.
The drama employs many techniques common to the other genres of fiction it also
necessitates important differences, which can be understood by examining the possibilities and
limitations that exists for a writer of novels or short stories and a writer of the drama. Though
each tells a story, he does so in a different way.
The narrative fiction writer may use dramatic techniques but he's telling a story that each of
us will sit and read alone. And the narrative fiction, the writer sets up a voice to speak for him, a
narrator, take part in the action, or who may stand outside a story yet know all that needs to be
known. The narrative writer can tell us what people look like what they think, what tones they
speak in, and what they are doing. He can describe places and can take us quickly to another
scene. By manipulating the time scheme, he can let us know what is happening in two different
places at the same time. After beginning at one point in time, he can manipulate a flash back to
a previous time. Above all he can focus our attention on one person or one thing. He can easily
move his focus to point out actions or things that some characters may overlook, or he can
move in for close-ups; also, he can stop at anytime to summarize the action.
A playwright has fewer options. He puts down words that actors would interpret, as a
composer writes the notes that a violinist will play. In a drama, all the action must be shown.
The usual method is a create a setting of a three-sided room, with a fourth wall open to the
audience; or the scene may be set out of doors. These obvious and simple facts have a great
effect on what the playwright can and cannot do. The author remains outside the action of the
play. Characterization in the drama is accomplished by speech and by whatever actions add to
the interpretation. Since the means of characterization are somewhat limited, the writer of and
sets up a contrasting character to bring out the qualities of the major character. The tone of a
line will be part of its meaning. The tempo of a scene will be determined partly by the length of
speeches and by implied pauses. No words can be wasted. Each speech must move the play
along lines suggested by the set central theme. What a person is thinking can be suggested by
the way he says a line and what he does as he say it. The mood can also be affected by stage
lighting.
A playwright must compress his action. Even as three or five act play will take a little longer
than two hours. Exposition must be succinct, and characterization drawn in broad strokes. What
may seem to be a trivial action must have importance in the meaning of the whole. Repeated
phrases, metaphors, or symbols must be obvious and connected to the meaning of the play.

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In a drama, the action must be unified in terms of time and space. The stage itself is limited
to at most two or three changes in setting and often there will be only a single setting. What
happens offstage is described by one of the actors. The time span can be limited. The play
begins in the middle of a situation, as close to the end as possible. The "end" means the final
action; "as possible" means only that the motivation is supplied for the big climactic scene, the
denouement, the point at which you can see how things will turn out.
The writer must also keep the audience's attention where he wants it. Small objects are not
seen unless they are pointed at. Letters must be read aloud. If a character is to be stabbed with
a letter opener, someone must pick it up early in the play and comment on how dangerous it is.
After the crime, someone must say that the weapon is the same one shown earlier.
The fact of an audience makes a play a group experience. The action cannot be as subtle as
that in fiction. Lines must carry meaning when they are first heard. A funny line may seem
funnier because a group is reacting to it, and the individual is reacting to the group. Watching
something happened also makes the place seemed real because actors are living out their faith
on the stage before us. Though we are only watching, we cannot help but participate by
identifying with someone who represents our own fears, hopes, or beliefs.
TYPES OF DRAMA
A. Tragedy – This involves the demise of the leading characters
- A play in which the main character experiences disaster, but faces this downfall in
such a way as to attain heroic stature.*
- Even though Tragedies are “gloomy” they are triumphant, because they inspire
exaltation at the greatness human beings can attain even in defeat
B. Comedy – This is a lighter drama in which the leading characters surpass the obstacles
which beset them.
- Comedy closes with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict.*
o High Comedy: The humor arises from subtle characterization, social satire,
and sophisticated wit.
o Low Comedy: Emphasizes absurd dialogue, bawdy jokes, visual gags, and
physical humor.*
TYPES OF COMEDY
 Romantic Comedy: The main characters are lovers, and the plot
tends to follow the pattern of “boy gets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl
again.”
 Satiric Comedy: Uses humor to ridicule foolish ideas or customs with
the purpose of improving society.
 Comedy of Manners: Satirizes the vices and follies of the upper
class.*
C. Problem Play – This is a drama on social commentaries – focusing on social, economic,
or political problems by means of a play.
- It is a type of drama that developed in the 19th century to deal with controversial
social issues in a realistic manner, to expose social ills, and to stimulate thought and
discussion on the part of the audience. The genre had its beginnings in the work of
the French dramatists Alexandre Dumas fils and Émile Augier, who adapted the then-
popular formula of Eugène Scribe’s “well-made play” (q.v.) to serious subjects,
creating somewhat simplistic, didactic thesis plays on subjects such as prostitution,
business ethics, illegitimacy, and female emancipation. The problem play reached its
maturity in the works of the Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, whose works had

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artistic merit as well as topical relevance. His first experiment in the genre was
Love’s Comedy (published 1862), a critical study of contemporary marriage. He went
on to expose the hypocrisy, greed, and hidden corruption of his society in a number
of masterly plays: A Doll’s House portrays a woman’s escape from her childish,
subservient role as a bourgeois wife; Ghosts attacks the convention that even
loveless and unhappy marriages are sacred; The Wild Duck shows the
consequences of an egotistical idealism; An Enemy of the People reveals the
expedient morality of respectable provincial townspeople (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1998).
- Ibsen’s influence helped encourage the writing of problem plays throughout Europe.
Other Scandinavian playwrights, among them August Strindberg, discussed sexual
roles and the emancipation of women from both liberal and conservative viewpoints.
Eugène Brieux attacked the French judicial system in The Red Robe. In England,
George Bernard Shaw brought the problem play to its intellectual peak, both with his
plays and with their long and witty prefaces (The Editors of Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1998).
D. Farce – This is a comedy involving silly and funny obstacles and situations without
consideration for human values.
- Relies on exaggeration, absurdity, and slapstick
WATCH THIS:
CrashCourse. (2018, February 9). What Is Theater? Crash Course Theater #1
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNWrOuwzax8
Ross Wells. (2011, March 6). An Introduction to Drama: The Essential Elements
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcRv-BVsOT8
LITERARY TERMS ASSOCIATED TO DRAMA
A. Aside – these are lines whispered to the audience or to another character on stage but
should not be heard by other characters.
B. Catastrophe - this is the final sequence in a drama which could be a death (in a tragedy)
or marriage (in a comedy).
C. Comedy – this is a light play with a happy ending
D. Comic Relief – a comedy is sometimes incorporated in a serious play to relieve the
tension of tragic events.
E. Crisis or Climax – This is the turning point in the plot which occurs when the characters
have to make a critical decision.
F. Foreshadowing – This refers to the lines or events that give a clue to future events
G. Nemesis – He is the agent of retribution or the person who punishes.
H. Tragedy –a serious play with an unhappy ending.
TYPES OF STAGE
A. Proscenium Stage. In a proscenium stage, the wings are spaces on either side,
extending off-stage. The scenery surrounds the acting area on all sides except towards
the audience, who watches the play through a frame opening.
B. Thrust theatre – This is a type of stage where the audience are on three sides while the
fourth side serves as the background.
C. Arena Theatre – a central stage surrounded by the audience on all sides. The stage
area is often raised to improved sightlines

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READINGS
BOOK
Corporation.
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Problem play | drama.
Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/problem-play
WATCH
1. CrashCourse. (2018, February 9). What Is Theater? Crash Course Theater #1 [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNWrOuwzax8
2. Ross Wells. (2011, March 6). An Introduction to Drama: The Essential Elements [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcRv-BVsOT8
3. Shereen Hamdy. (2015, July 19). Waiting for Godot with English & Arabic Subtitles
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izX5dIzI2RE
1. ACTIVITY 7: UNDERSTANDING DRAMA: HOTSEATING BECKETT
Watch the full play, Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett. Then complete the worksheet
below.
WATCH: Shereen Hamdy. (2015, July 19). Waiting for Godot with English & Arabic
Subtitles [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izX5dIzI2RE
Directions: In an online session, the class will be divided to groups. Each group will
assign a student who will play as the playwright, Samuel Beckett while the rest will play
as interviewers and audiences in a forum. Each group will be given 5 minutes to conduct
the forum. The context is a forum after the performance of the play. The audience will
participate in the discussion by asking questions and giving opinions of the play. You
might like to choose a range of characters for your audience members, such as:
a. school student
b. drama teacher
c. actor
d. granny on a birthday outing (who thought that the play was going to be a musical).
You will each need to prepare questions, answers, and opinions to use as your lines
during the forum. You will need to do some planning as a group, then rehearse your
roles and lines. Present your version of the forum to your classmates.

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 11 LITERARY SELECTIONS: DRAMA
This lesson will cover selections of drama from around the world. These dramas will aid you
in further understanding the conventions of the drama as different from the ordinary fiction.
different drama. For this, your dictionary or mobile dictionary will be of great help. Due to the
length of the dramas, a limited number will be placed in the module or links will be provided.
Some video links may be provided for further analysis of the dramas. The rest will be placed
under suggested reading.
IKUTA
by: Zembo Motoyaso (1453-1532)
This English translation by Arthur Waley was published in The No
Plays of Japan. New York: Grove Press, 1920.
PERSONS IN THE PLAY

PRIEST (a follower of Honen Shonin)
ATSUMORI
ATSUMORI'S CHILD
CHORUS
PRIEST.
I am one that serves Honen Shonin of Kurodani; and as for this child here,--once when Honen
was on a visit to the Temple of Kamo he saw a box lying under a trailing fir-tree; and when he
raised the lid, what should he find inside but a lovely man-child one year old! It did not seem to
be more than a common foundling, but my master in his compassion took the infant home with
him. Ever since then he has had it in his care, doing all that was needful for it; and now the boy
is over ten years old.
But it is a hard thing to have no father or mother, so one day after his preaching the
Shonin told the child's story. And sure enough a young woman stepped out from
among the hearers and said it was her child. And when he took her aside and
questioned her, he found that the child's father was Taira no Atsumori, who had fallen
in battle at Ichi-no-Tani years ago. When the boy was told of this, he longed earnestly
to see his father's face, were it but a dream, and the Shonin bade him go and pray at
the shrine of Kamo. He was to go every day for a week, and this is the last day.
That is why I have brought him out with me.

But here we are at the Kamo Shrine.
Pray well, boy, pray well!

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BOY.
How fills my heart with awe
When I behold the crimson palisade
Of this abode of gods!
Oh may my heart be clean
As the River of Ablution; [1]
And the God's kindness deep
As its unfathomed waters. Show to me,
Though it were but in dream,
My father's face and form.
Is not my heart so ground away with prayer,
So smooth that it will slip
Unfelt into the favour of the gods?
But thou too, Censor of our prayers,
God of Tadasu, [2] on the gods prevail
That what I crave may be!
How strange! While I was praying I fell half-asleep and had a wonderful dream.
PRIEST.
Tell me your wonderful dream.
BOY.
A strange voice spoke to me from within the Treasure Hall, saying, "If you are wanting, though it
were but in a dream, to see your father's face, go down from here to the woods of Ikuta in the
country of Settsu." That is the marvellous dream I had.
PRIEST.
It is indeed a wonderful message that the God has sent you. And why should I go back at once
to Kurodani? I had best take you straight to the forest if Ikuta. Let us be going.
(describing the journey)

From the shrine of Kamo,
From under the shadow of the hills,
We set out swiftly;
Past Yamazaki to the fog-bound
Shores of Minasé;
And onward where the gale
Tears travellers' coats and winds about their bones.
"Autumn has come to woods where yesterday
We might have plucked the green." [3]
To Settsu, to those woods of Ikuta
Lo! we are come.
We have gone so fast that here we are already at the woods of Ikuta in the country of Settsu. I
have heard tell in the Capital of the beauty of these woods and the river that runs through them.
But what I see no surpasses all that I have heard.
Look! Those meadows must be the Downs of Ikuta. Let us go nearer and admire them.
But while we have been going about looking at one view and another, the day has dusked.

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I think I see a light over there. There must be a house. Let us go to it and ask for lodging.
ATSUMORI (speaking from inside a hut).

Beauty, perception, knowledge, motion, consciousness,--
The Five Attributes of Being,--
All are vain mockery.
How comes it that men prize
So weak a thing as body?
For the soul that guards it from corruption
Suddenly to the night-moon flies,
And the poor naked ghost wails desolate
In the autumn wind.
Oh! I am lonely! I am lonely!
PRIEST.
How strange! Inside that grass-hut I see a young soldier dressed in helmet and breastplate.
What can he be doing here?
ATSUMORI.
Oh foolish men, was it not to meet me that you came to this place? I am--oh! I am ashamed to
say it,--I am the ghost of what once was . . . Atsumori.
BOY.
Atsumori? My father . . .
CHORUS.
And lightly he ran,
Plucked at the warrior's sleeve,
And though his tears might seem like the long woe
Of nightingales that weep,
Yet were they tears of meeting-joy,
Of happiness too great for human heart.
So think we, yet oh that we might change
This fragile dream of joy
Into the lasting love of waking life!
ATSUMORI.
Oh pitiful!
To see this child, born after me,
Darling that should be gay as a flower,
Walking in tattered coat of old black cloth.
Alas!
Child, when your love of me
Led you to Kamo shrine, praying to the God
That, though but in a dream,
You might behold my face,
The God of Kamo, full of pity, came
To Yama, king of Hell.
King Yama listened and ordained for me

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A moment's respite, but hereafter, never.
CHORUS.
"The moon is sinking.
Come while the night is dark," he said,
"I will tell my tale."
ATSUMORI.
When the house of Taira was in its pride,
When its glory was young,
Among the flowers we sported,
Among birds, wind and moonlight;
With pipes and strings, with song and verse
We welcomed Springs and Autumns.
Till at last, because our time was come,
Across the bridges of Kiso a host unseen
Swept and devoured us.
Then the whole clan
Our lord leading
Fled from the City of Flowers.
By paths untrodden
To the Western Sea our journey brought us.
Lakes and hills we crossed
Till we ourselves grew to be like wild men.
At last by mountain ways--
We too tossed hither and thither like its waves--
To Suma came we,
To the First Valley and the woods of Ikuta.
And now while all of us,
We children of Taira, were light of heart
Because our homes were near,
Suddenly our foes in great strength appeared.
CHORUS.
Noriyori, Yoshitsune,--their hosts like clouds,
Like mists of spring.
For a little while we fought them,
But the day of our House was ended,
Our hearts weakened
That had been swift as arrows from the bowstring,
We scattered, scattered; till at last
To the deep waters of the Field of Life [4]
We came, but how we found there Death, not Life,
What profit were it to tell?
ATSUMORI.
Who is that?
(Pointing in terror at a figure which he sees off the stage.)

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Can it be Yama's messenger? He comes to tell me that I have outstayed my time. The Lord of
Hell is angry: he asks why I am late?
CHORUS.
So he spoke. But behold
Suddenly black clouds rise,
Earth and sky resound with the clash of arms;
War-demons innumerable
Flash fierce sparks from brandished spears.
ATSUMORI.
The Shura foes who night and day
Come thick about me!
CHORUS.
He waves his sword and rushes among them,
Hither and Thither he runs slashing furiously;
Fire glints upon the steel.
But in a little while
The dark clouds recede;
The demons have vanished,
The moon shines unsullied;
The sky is ready for dawn.
ATSUMORI.
Oh! I am ashamed . . .
And the child to see me so . . . .
CHORUS.
"To see my misery!
I must go back.
Oh pray for me; pray for me
When I am gone," he said,
And weeping, weeping,
Dropped the child's hand.
He has faded; he dwindles
Like the dew from rush-leaves
Of hazy meadows.
His form has vanished.
CURTAIN
1 The name given to streams which flow through temples. In this case the River Kamo.
2 Tadasu means to "straighten," "correct." The shrine of Kamo lay in the forest of Tadasu.
3 Adapted from a poem in the Shin Kokinshu.
4 Ikuta means "Field of Life."

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LINKS:
1. AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE
Ibsen, H. (2019, May 1). The Project Gutenberg E-text of An Enemy of the People, by Henrik
Ibsen. The Project Gutenberg EBook. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2446/2446-h/2446-h.htm
VIDEO:
charliekerper. (2017, January 19). An Enemy of the People - Henrik Ibsen [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KfhoOavvI4
2. THE BEAR
Chekhov, A. (n.d.). Anton Chekhov (Ft. AK Grizz) – The Bear (Full Text). Genius. Retrieved
September 25, 2020, from https://genius.com/Anton-chekhov-the-bear-full-text-annotated
VIDEO:
Lorelei Loveridge. (2018, January 5). The Bear by Anton Chekhov Directed by Lorelei Loveridge
[Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qa_52TsdrSE&list=PL_QwgwbTGTtnO5ze2Lk1PqNBBHmm
WRqC0&index=29
SUGGESTED READINGS:
1. The Bird-Catcher in Hades (Esashi Juo
2. Faust (Johann Wolfgang)
3. The Magic Pool (Kuldip Sondhi)
4. Shadow and Solitude (Claro M. Recto)
READINGS
BOOK
Bookstore.
ONLINE ARTICLE
1. Chekhov, A. (n.d.). Anton Chekhov (Ft. AK Grizz) – The Bear (Full Text). Genius.
Retrieved September 25, 2020, from https://genius.com/Anton-chekhov-the-bear-full-
text-annotated
2. Ibsen, H. (2019, May 1). The Project Gutenberg E-text of An Enemy of the People, by
Henrik Ibsen. The Project Gutenberg EBook. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2446/2446-
h/2446-h.htm
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Problem play | drama.
Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/problem-play
4. Theatre History. (2000). Ikuta, by Zembo Motoyaso.
http://www.theatrehistory.com/plays/ikuta
WATCH
1. charliekerper. (2017, January 19). An Enemy of the People - Henrik Ibsen [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KfhoOavvI4

lOMoARcPSD|19563346
2. Lorelei Loveridge. (2018, January 5). The Bear by Anton Chekhov Directed by Lorelei
Loveridge [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qa_52TsdrSE&list=PL_QwgwbTGTtnO5ze2Lk1PqN
BBHmmWRqC0&index=29
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT: IKUTA
1. DRAMA: IKUTA
1. Explain how filial piety played in the story.
2. Explain the the importance of the characters in the development of the theme
of the story.

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World Literature Module 2020

Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English (Polytechnic University of the

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Republic of the Philippines

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

ROCIO MARIE M. TEJIDO

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Unit III PROSE: SHORT

Unit V PROSE: DRAMA

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Lesson 10 Introduction to Drama……………………………….……….

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UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

1. Define literature and explain its structure and elements.

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LITERATURE IS IMAGINATIVE WRITING

So how do we look at literature to give it a definition?

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LITERATURE IS EXTRAORDINARY LANGUAGE

LITERATURE IS PRAGMATIC SPEECH

LITERATURE IS “GOOD WRITING”

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THE PRESENTATION AND STRUCTURE OF LITERATURE

The Novel and the Short Story

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The table above may be restated again as follows:

THE STRUCTURAL BASE OF THE LITERARY GENRES

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WHY STUDY LITERATURE?

DISTINCTION BETWEEN POETRY AND PROSE

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"A primrose by a river's brim,

2. Poetry is a Metrical Composition

3. Poetry is an Organized Form

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROSE AND POETRY

ORDINARY PROSE is like walking.

POETRY AND LITERARY PROSE

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Mr. Squeers' appearance was not prepossessing. He had but

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Here is another example: The Corner Store (by Eudora Welty)

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I keep six honest-serving men

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'Silence there!' cried the jailer.

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Expository writing deals in definition, explanation or interpretation. It includes writing on science,

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Now mark another big difference between the natural slavery of

(G.B. Shaw, 'Freedom'-one of a series of BBC Radio Talks-18 June, 1935 in

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1. THINKING CAP- The Channel Pitch: Write a one-minute pitch for a

Origin Characters Obstacles Open Road