Electrical Components

Electrical components: The resistor, inductor and capacitor are the three basic
components of electrical circuit.

1. Resistance (R): The relationship between the current and the applied voltage (or
voltage difference) is given by:
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅

2. Inductance (L): In this case the relationship is given by:

𝑑𝐼
𝐸=𝐿 = 𝐿𝐷𝐼
𝑑𝑡

3. Capacitance (C): The relationship is given by:

𝑑𝐸
𝐼=𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷𝐸
𝑑𝑡

Series and Parallel Combination of Elements:

Often, many elements are connected in either a series or a parallel arrangement.

Series Electrical Circuits: A general series connection is shown in the figure:

In a series Circuit, the total voltage drop E is the sum of individual voltage drop across
each element and the same current I flow through each element.
1 1
𝐸 = (𝐿1 𝐷 + 𝐿2 𝐷 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + + ) ∗ 𝐼 = 𝑍𝐼
𝐶1 𝐷 𝐶2 𝐷

Thus, the equivalent impedance Z for elements in series is:

1 1
𝑍 = (𝐿1 𝐷 + 𝐿2 𝐷 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + + )
𝐶1 𝐷 𝐶2 𝐷
Parallel Electrical Circuits: A general combination of electrical elements in parallel is
shown in the figure. The total currents I flowing in to the system is the sum of the
currents flowing through each element.

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐼= + + + + +
𝐿1 𝐷 𝐿2 𝐷 𝑅1 𝑅2 1⁄𝐶1 𝐷 1⁄𝐶2 𝐷
1
𝑂𝑅 𝐸 = ∗ 𝐼 = 𝑍𝐼
1⁄𝐿1 𝐷 + 1⁄𝐿2 𝐷 + 1⁄𝑅1 + 1⁄𝑅2 + 𝐶1 𝐷 + 𝐶2 𝐷

Thus, the equivalent impedance Z for elements in parallel is:

1
𝑍=
1⁄𝐿1 𝐷 + 1⁄𝐿2 𝐷 + 1⁄𝑅1 + 1⁄𝑅2 + 𝐶1 𝐷 + 𝐶2 𝐷

Example #1: Determine the transfer function (𝐼⁄𝐸 ) for the following circuit.

R L
I

Solution:

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐿

𝐸 = 𝑅𝐼 + 𝐿𝐷𝐼 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝐿𝐷)

𝐼 1 1 1
∴ = =
𝐸 𝑅+𝐿𝐷 𝑅 1+𝜏𝐷

Where; 𝜏 = 𝐿⁄𝑅
Example #2: I
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 IR IL
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠) = + V R L
𝑅 𝐿𝑠

1 1
∴ 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠) [ + ]
𝑅 𝐿𝑠

𝐿𝑠+𝑅
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠) [ ]
𝑅𝐿𝑠

Example #3: For the circuit shown in the figure, determine the equation relating the
output voltage (E2) to the input voltage (E1).

Solution:

The parallel combination of (R1) and (C1) is in series with (R2), so that the total
impedance Z is:
1 𝑅1
𝑍 = 𝑍1 + 𝑅2 = + 𝑅2 = + 𝑅2
1⁄𝑅1 + 𝐶1 𝐷 1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐷

The voltage (E1) is given by equation:

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐷
𝐸1 = 𝑍𝐼 = ∗𝐼 … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐷

And similarly (E2) is: 𝐸2 = 𝑅2 𝐼 … … … … … … … … … . . (2)

Subs. Of (I) from equation (1) into equation (2), we get:

𝑅2 (1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐷)
𝐸2 = 𝐸
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐷 1
 Fluid System Components
In working with fluid systems. It is necessary to distinguish if the fluid is incompressible
(work with volume rate of flow) or compressible (work with mass rate of flow).

Incompressible fluids:

when the pressure difference across a flow restriction is small, the volume rate of flow Q
is proportional to the pressure drop (P1 – P) across the restriction.
𝑃1 −𝑃
Q = f (P1 – P) then….. 𝑄=
𝑅𝑓

Where: RF is the equivalent fluid resistance.

The rate of flow into a tank, such as that shown if figure (1), is equal to cross sectional
area
A of the tank times the rate of change of height.
dH A
Q=A = ADH = DP = Cf DP
dt ρg

Where: (ρ) is the density of the fluid

(H) is the head (m).

A
(Cf = ) = equivalent of fluid capacitance.
ρg

The equation of operation for fluid system of figure (1) is:

𝑃1 − 𝑃
𝑄= = 𝐶𝑓 𝐷𝑃
𝑅𝑓
 𝑃1
Solving for (P) gives: 𝑃=
1+(𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 )𝐷

𝑃 1 1
∴ = = , where: (𝜏) is the time constant.
𝑃1 1+(𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 )𝐷 1+𝜏𝐷

Compressible Fluid:

Liquid-Level System with Interaction

If there is more than one tank, then the dynamics of the two (or more) tanks will interact.
The transfer function is NOT the PRODUCT of the two first-order transfer functions. For
the two tanks system shown, assume only small variations of the variables from the
steady-state values. Using the symbols
q = liquid flow rate, m3/s
h1 = Liquid level of tank 1, m
h2 = Liquid level of tank 2, m

FOR TANK 1
ℎ1 − ℎ2 1
= 𝑞1 ≫≫≫ 𝑄1 (𝑠) = [𝐻1 (𝑠) − 𝐻2 (𝑠)] ∗
𝑅1 𝑅1

𝑑ℎ1 1
𝐶1 = 𝑞 − 𝑞1 ≫≫≫ 𝐻1 (𝑠) = [𝑄(𝑠) − 𝑄1 (𝑠)] ∗
𝑑𝑡 𝐶1 𝑠

FOR TANK 2
ℎ2 1
= 𝑞2 ≫≫≫ 𝑄2 (𝑠) = ∗ ℎ2 (𝑠)
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑑ℎ2 1
𝐶2 = 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 ≫≫≫ 𝐻2 (𝑠) = [𝑄1 (𝑠) − 𝑄2 (𝑠)] ∗
𝑑𝑡 𝐶2 𝑠
 Thermal Components

Thermal Resistance: for small temperature difference, the rate of heat transferred into a
body is proportional to the temperature difference across the body.
(𝑇1 − 𝑇) (𝑇1 − 𝑇)
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇) = =
1 𝑅𝑇
ℎ𝐴

Where: q = Rate of heat flow.

h = Coefficient of heat transfer.

A = Surface Area.

T = The temperature of the body.

T1 = Temperature of the surrounding medium.

RT = Equivalent thermal resistance.

Thermal capacitance: the rate of change of temperature of the body (dT/dt =DT) is
related to the rate of heat transfer in to the body by the expression:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑇 𝐷𝑇
𝑑𝑡
In this case, the mass (m) and its specific heat (cp) are combined to form the equivalent
thermal capacitive effect such that: 𝐶𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝.
However, thermal components appear combined in practice like in the following
example.

Example: A mass (m) with some (cp) is located in a hot oven of temperature (Ts),
𝑇
assuming that the mass is heated by convection only. Find the transfer function ( ).
𝑇𝑠

Solution:

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇) … … … … … … . … . . (1)
𝑑𝑇
Also, 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 = m𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑇 … … . . (2)
𝑑𝑡

By equations (1) and (2), we get:

ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇) = m𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑇

ℎ𝐴𝑇𝑠 − ℎ𝐴𝑇 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑇

ℎ𝐴𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇(ℎ𝐴 + 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐷)

𝑇 ℎ𝐴 1
= =
𝑇𝑠 (ℎ𝐴 + 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐷) 1 + 𝜏𝐷

Where: (𝜏) is the time constant.

Ts T
Q 𝑇ሶ 1
1
ℎ𝐴 + 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐷
-
hAT T
ℎ𝐴
 Tutorial Sheet No. 1
𝑋 𝑋
Q1. For a single degree of freedom, find: ( ) , ( ) , and draw a functional block
𝑓 1 𝐹 2
diagram.

𝜃 𝑦
Q2. Determine the transfer functions (𝑇. 𝐹)1 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑇. 𝐹)2 = ( ) for the system
𝐹 𝑥

shown in the figure assuming small angular motion (𝜃) of the rod, (L) is the length and
(I) is the mass moment of inertia.
Q3. Consider a double tank system, as shown in the figure, where h1 and h2 representing
two tank height, and R1and R2 representing the two valves’ resistances. Find the transfer
𝑞0
function .
𝑞

Q4. Consider a thermometer placed in a water bath having temperature (𝜃𝑖 ), as shown,
and (𝜃𝑜 ) is the temperature indicated by the thermometer. Calculate the transfer function
of (𝜃𝑜 /𝜃𝑖 ) and draw the functional block diagram for the system.