INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS In Ethics, values are taught, too, not

because students are expected for

What is Ethics?
abide by them unquestioningly but
- The word “ethics” comes from the primarily because they are invited to
Greek word “ethos” which means talk about these values and to explore
“customs, usage or character”. their meaning, students are not simply
- Ethics refers to the philosophical study asked to accept values but to critically
of morality, of what is right and wrong. evaluate them.
That is why it is often interchanged with
the term “moral philosophy.” 2. Ethics should not be confused with
- Ethics is the branch of philosophy that moral psychology.
deals with how we ought to live, with o Moral psychology are the moral values
the idea of the Good, and with such that people actually believe and
concepts as right and wrong. follow, whether they are
independently true or not. Ethics, on
Ethics as a Practical Study
the other hand, does not engage of
- By “practical,” we mean not in the what people think to be right or
pragmatic sense that it is convenient or wrong. Rather, its subject matter
useful, but in the sense of “praxis” concerns what people morally ought to
which means “action.” It means that do, not as a fact but as an ideal.
ethics is a theoretical enterprise
oriented towards action. 3. Ethics should not be confused with
etiquette.
Ethics as a Normative Study o Etiquette consists of those standards of
- There are technical norms. These proper behavior particular to a given
norms tell us what we ought to do culture. They do not involve morality.
when we encounter technical To behave properly means to follow the
problems. Then, there are aesthetic etiquette prescribed by the culture.
norms, these norms are standards of Ethics, on the other hand, cuts across
beauty or art. Finally, there are moral cultures. Standards of moral behavior
norms, the proper subject matter of are treated as true not only according
ethics. These are norms that tell us to the perspective of one group of
what is right and what is wrong and people but universally.
guide towards doing the right thing.
4. Ethics is not a subjective intellectual
activity.
WHAT ETHICS IS NOT o Intellectual activity is merely personal
opinions of people about what is right
1. Ethics should not be confused with and wrong. Ethics cannot be reduced
values education. to the study what people actually
o In values education, students are taught believe. What is people’s moral belief is
about values which they are expected not necessarily what ought to be.
to follow and what to do and what to
avoid doing in the given circumstances.
 5. Ethics is not a “minor” subject. The First, the process of psychological
word “minor” maturation eventually involves
o To call Ethics as minor subject is the appropriation, the “making our
therefore a misnomer. It should rather own,” the moral tradition that
be called with its proper label, which is we inherit. What merely traditional
that it is a “general education subject.” ways and external moral precepts and
Ethics may not make one an engineer, a impositions become internalized, and
teacher, a nurse or an accountant but it become moral convictions and reflected
can certainly help one become a better positions.
engineer, better teacher, better nurse,
better accountant, better human Second, the very nature of ethical or
being. moral experience leads to
moral reflection. Moral experience,
Human Acts vs. Acts of Man
signifies some kind of an absolute
- Because the subject matter of ethics is demand or obligation, as an “I,” as a
morality, it follows that ethics only being of intellect and will, who reflects
deals with human actions. the imperative of action. The
- Only human actions can be morally imperative of action means basically
judged to be right or wrong. This is an initiative, a movement originating
because only humans are capable of from the human individual himself.
doing things with intelligence and Therefore, it implies some reflection
freedom of the will). and freedom.
- Human acts pertain to those things we
do with intelligence and will. Acts of Third, in its history, the community
man, on the other hand, are those eventually encounters other
actions that lack any of these qualities. cultures and thus, other moral or
ethical traditions. The moral tradition
Why Do We Need to Study Ethics? that we inherit cannot remain for long
- Ethics hinges on the importance of as purely “traditional,” or merely
morality in human life. According to “what our elders have taught us.” In
Pojman (2005), morality is the order for us to remain faithful to this
foundation of society itself. Without moral tradition that we inherit, we
morality, society will fall apart. It does soon find ourselves necessarily
not only keep society intact. It also reflecting upon it, deepening our grasp
forms our identity as human beings. of it, and taking seriously its profound
- Morality does not begin as an idea or meaning and implications for our
theory of a moral philosopher. It is existence.
essential a dimension of man’s
existence as a socio-historical being.
 STEPS IN MORAL REASONING Fourth: Identify the ethical issue at hand.

- Identify the ethical issue at hand. There

First step: Determine your level of involvement are several types of ethical problems or
in the case at hand. issues: a. the agent needs to clarify
whether a certain action is morally
- Determine the level of involvement in
right or morally wrong.
the case at hand. Does she need to
b. determining whether a particular
make a moral decision in a situation
action in question can be identified
that needs action on her part? Or is she
with a generally accepted ethical
trying to determine the right thing to do
perspective.
in a particular situation being
c. an ethical dilemma. Dilemmas
discussed?
are ethical situations in which there are
Second step: Establish the facts. competing values that seem to
have equal worth. The problem can be
- After one ascertains her involvement in concerned either with a choice
the potential moral situation, she then between two competing moral goods or
needs to make sure of the facts. The between two evils.
first fact that the individual needs to
establish is whether she is faced with a Fifth step: Make an ethical conclusion or
moral situation or not. She must set decision.
aside all the details that have no
- The individual to make her ethical
connection to the situation. This is
conclusion or decision, whether in
where such things as “fake news” and
judging what ought to be done in a
“alternative facts” have to be weeded
given case or in coming up with a
out.
concrete action she must actually
Third step: Identify the stakeholders. perform. Real ethical decisions are
often very difficult enough to make, and
- For the individual to identify all the for so many different reasons.
people who may potentially be
affected by the implications of a moral MORAL THEORIES
situation or by the concrete choice of
Moral opinions vary. Consider the case of
action. These people are called the
abortion. On the one side of the pole is the
stakeholders in the particular case.
view that life of one prevails over the choice of
Identifying these stakeholders forces
another. On the other side is the view that the
the moral agent to give consideration
choice of one over her body prevails over the
to people aside from yourself.
life of another. Each of these views finds its
justification in some theory of morality. Such a
theory is what provides the standard of what
counts as right and wrong.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM required; actions that God forbids us to do are
morally wrong; and all other actions are
According to Cultural Relativism, the only
morally neutral. This theory has a number of
measure of right and wrong is the standards of
advantages. For one, it immediately solves the
one’s society: “The notion of right is in the
old problem of the objectivity of ethics.
folkways. It is not outside of them, of
independent origin, and brought to test them.
In the folkways, whatever is, is right.”
OBJECTIONS TO DIVINE COMMAND THEORY:
1. We could no longer say that the
Socrates’s question is about whether God
customs of other societies are morally
makes the moral truths true or whether he
inferior to our own. This is one of the
merely recognizes their truth. This question
main points stressed by Cultural
poses a dilemma, and each option leads to
Relativism—that we should never
trouble.
condemn a society merely because it is
“different.” 1. This conception of morality is
2. We could no longer criticize the code of mysterious. What does it mean to say
our own society. Cultural Relativism that God “makes” truthfulness right? It
suggests a simple test for determining is easy enough to understand how
what is right and what is wrong: All we physical objects are made, at least in
need to do is ask whether the action is principle. Making truthfulness right is
in line with the code of the society in not like that; it could not be done by
which it occurs. rearranging things in the physical
3. The idea of moral progress is called into environment.
doubt. We think that at least some 2. This conception of morality makes
social changes are for the better. But God’s commands arbitrary.
by what standard can a Cultural Divine Command Theory sees God as
Relativist judge the new ways as better? being like such a parent. Rather than
If the old ways conformed to the offering a reason for his commands,
standards of their time, then Cultural God merely says, “Because I said so.”
Relativists could not condemn them. God’s commands also seem arbitrary
After all, those old ways or traditions because he always could have
“had their own time and place,” and commanded the opposite.
we should not judge them by our 3. This conception of morality provides
standards. the wrong reasons for moral
principles.
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
We may say that God commands us to
Christians, Jews, and Muslims all believe that do certain things because they are
God has told us to obey certain rules of right. God, who is infinitely wise,
conduct. God does not force these rules on us. recognizes that truthfulness is better
He created us as free agents; so, we may than deceitfulness, just as he recognizes
choose what to do. But if we live as we should, in Genesis
then we must follow God’s laws. Actions that that the light he sees is good. For this
God commands us to do are morally reason, God commands us to be
truthful.