Content Introduction 1

1. Overview of Wine Making 3

2. Composition and Quality of Grapes and
Wine 4
3. Making Red Table Wines 7
Crushing and stemming
11.7.0*(1. Adding sulfur dioxide
Adding pure wine yeast starter cultures
Alcoholic fermentation
Pressing
lill11111111111 Malolactic fermentation
Completing alcoholic fermentation
Racking
Aging and topping
Bottling
Making rose or pink table wines
4. Making White Table Wines 18
Crushing, stemming, and pressing
Adding sulfur dioxide, settling, adding yeast, and fermentation
Racking, topping, aging, and bottling
5. Potential Spoilage and Stability
Problems 22
Acetification and oxidation
Hydrogen sulfide (H 2S)
Cloudiness and deposits
Other clarifying and fining agents \
Vine filtration
6. Analyzing Juice and Wine 25
Wine acidity and pH
Keeping records
Soluble solids (°Brix)
Reducing sugar
Titratable acidity
Total and free sulfur dioxide
Malic acid
7. Evaluating Wine Quality 30
8. The Wine Making Facility 32
The processing work area
The wine aging and storage areas
Equipment and supplies
Cleaning and sanitizing
Cleaning and maintaining of wooden cooperage
Afterword 37
Helpful Sources and Information 38
Selected references
Sources of equipment and supplies for home wine making
Additional sources of information and assistance

iu
Federal regulations pertinent to home wine making
Glossary 42
 1

Overview of Wine
Making

en processing operations 5. Pressing.

are common to making Skins and seeds are
white and red table separated from the juice
wines. However, they are at the beginning in the
not all performed in the case of white wine and
same order: after some fermentation
on the skins in the case
1. Stemming and of red.
crushing. Stems are
separated from grape 6. Fermenting.
berries, the skins of Yeast converts sugar to
which are broken to free alcohol and carbon
the juice. The mixture dioxide.
of juice, skins, seeds,
and pulp is called must. 7. Racking wine
from lees. The clear
2. Determining wine is separated from
sugar and acidity of the spent yeast cells and
juice. Sugar content is other solids after
approximately equal to fermentation.
percent soluble solids (°
Brix). 8. Adjusting SO2
content. Prevents
3. Adding sulfur spoilage and oxidation.
dioxide (50 2). Needed
to inhibit growth of 9. Aging/topping
spoilage organisms and and/or clarification.
prevent oxidation.
10. Bottling.
4. Adding pure These 10 wine making
wine yeast starter steps may appear relatively easy
cultures. Facilitates a to the experienced winemaker.
clean, consistent, and The inexperienced winemaker,
complete fermentation. however, must learn to check
details, such as topping in a evaporation. (See sections on
timely manner, using a pure racking and aging of red wines.)
yeast wine starter culture, or
properly using 50 2 , to avoid
wine spoilage. For several
reasons, good quality red table
wines are easier for the beginner
to make than are white wines,
mostly because white wines are
more subject to oxidation and
browning. Therefore, start with
red table wines to gain
experience.
The major difference
between red and white wines is
that, after stemming and
crushing, the juice of the must
for red wines is fermented on
the skins for several days to
extract their red pigments. In
white wines, only the clear juice
is fermented to minimize
extraction of tannins from
skins and seeds. Other
significant differences:

1. White wines
should be fermented at
cooler temperatures
than are reds to achieve
the best quality.
2. Red wines gain
in quality and
complexity by aging in
oak barrels.
3. White wines
generally are made
without wood aging and
are consumed when
they are relatively
young; thus, they retain
fresh and fruity aromas
and flavors.

For both red and white

wines the volume of wine made
must be larger than the total
storage capacity of the aging or
storage containers—glass
carboys, gallon jugs, or barrels
—because additional wine will
be needed to replace the volume
lost to lees after fermentation,
and for topping during aging to
replace wine lost to ullage or
 2

Composition and Quality

of Grapes and Wine

T he home winemaker has a choice of three raw

materials for wine: freshly picked grapes, grape
juice concentrate, or frozen must or juice. Of the
three, it is generally recognized that the first offers the
The best raw material: fresh grapes
Fresh, ripe, varietal wine grapes remain the best
raw material for making wine. Some home wine shops
will accept orders for fresh varietal vinifera grapes be-
greatest quality potential and the second offers the most
fore the harvest season. Home winemakers located near
convenience. Both red and white grape juice concen-
California's many coastal and foothill vineyards can pur-
trate is available from most vendors of home wine mak-
chase fresh wine grapes directly from a grower or from
ing supplies and is readily reconstituted by diluting
growers through wine grape grower associations. Grow-
with water. Follow the suppliers' directions to obtain
ers can also be contacted through many University of
juice of the desired strength. Varietal concentrate or the
California Cooperative Extension county farm advisor
concentrated juice of different wine grape varieties is
offices. A description of wine grape varieties, including
also available for home wine making. A few firms in
usual harvest period, may be found in UC Publication
California sell fresh frozen vinifera varietal grape must
4069 (see Selected References). Place orders and make
or juice. Limited evaluations suggest that wines made
arrangements for delivery or pickup 3 months in ad-
from frozen juice or must can be of acceptable quality
vance (usually in June) to insure getting the quantity of
when compared with wines made from fresh grapes.
each varietal desired.
The obvious advantage to making wines from reconsti-
tuted grape concentrate or frozen must or juice is that In planning grape purchases, be aware that many
they can be made at times other than the usual fall grape growers who sell small quantities of grapes for home
harvest. wine making pick into lug boxes that hold about 50

4
 Which variety to select?
Distinctiveness or intensity of grape aroma varies
widely between varieties of Vitis vinifera and within a
variety
pounds of depending upon Thus,
grapes each. climate, 1ripeness
ton ofofgrapes
the grapes,
will re - Table 1. Desired sugar, acidity, and pH levels in ripe wine grapes
crop size, and other factors. Below is a listing of some
quire 40 boxes. Some growers may require a deposit
well known and important varieties grouped according Optimum Titratable
for the lugpotential
to their boxesintensity
or youof may
varietalhave
aroma:to provide your Wine type sugar acidity* pH+
own picking containers. Make this arrangement at
Distinctive
the time whitealways
of your order; wine types.
return Muscat blanc
lug boxes clean White wine grapes 20.5-22° Brix 8-10 g/L 3.2-3.4
(Muscat Canelli, Muscat Frontignan), Muscat of Alexan-
and dria,
dry; Orange
large Muscat,
plasticSymphony,
tubs canWhitebe Riesling
substituted
(Jo - for
Red wine grapes 22.5-24.5° Brix 6-8 g/L 3.3-3.5
wooden boxes.Riesling),
hannisberg Depending upon theSauvignon
Chardonnay, variety blanc,
and other
factors, the home
Semilion, winemaker
Emerald can usually expect
Riesling, Gewiirztraminer, that 1
Sylvaner, *Values expressed as g tartaric acid per L.
ton of
Greygrapes forPinot
Riesling, white
blanc,wine will
Chenin yield about 100 to
blanc
+
A measure of free hydrogen (acid) ions in a solution.
120 Distinctive
gallons of wine;red wine 1 ton of red
types. wineSauvignon,
Cabernet grapes will +
A measurement of soluble solids, roughly equal to percent sugar
yieldCarmine,
about Barbera,
120 to Centurion,
150 gallons of wine
Pinot noir (Gamay(the
Beau-more content.
pressjolais),
wine Merlot,
used, the higherZinfandel,
Nebbiolo, the yield).
Ruby Cabernet,
Grenache, Carnelian, Petite Sirah (Durif), Napa Gamay
Aside from the form
Nondistinctive of raw
white material
wine types.itself, several
Aligote,
important types, tannins and color are retained at higher, more
Burger,factors influence
Thompson Seedless, wine quality.
Colombard Foremost:
(French Colom- Good
winesbard),
canGreen
onlyHungarian,
be made from good grapes! Grape
Palomino desirable levels. These compounds are directly
Nondistinctive
quality red wine
is directly related types.
to the composition
Carignane,of the
related to wine quality. Table 1 shows the amounts of
fruitMission,
when itCharbono,
is harvested.
Emperor,In turn,
Flame grape
Tokay, composition
Refosco, is certain components of white and red wine grapes that
Red Malaga, Valdepefias
influenced by climate. Premium wine grape varieties, are generally considered to be desirable for good
such as Chardonnay, White Riesling, Gewarztraminer, quality wines.
Pinot noir, and Cabernet Sauvignon, are obtained from Of interest to the winemaker are these major grape
the cooler north, central, and south coastal California components: grape sugars, organic acids, aroma and
counties. Many foothill vineyards, as in California's flavor compounds, polyphenolic compounds or tannins,
Amador and El Dorado counties, yield good quality certain amino acids, and certain metallic ions, such as
Zinfandel, Sauvignon blanc, French Colombard, potassium. Fully mature or ripe grapes contain
Chenin blanc, Petite Sirah, and Barbera. Extensive about an equal concentration of glucose and
research concludes that climate is the single most fructose, which are the simple sugars yeast ferment to
important factor affecting the composition and quality form alcohol and carbon dioxide. Ripe grapes contain
of California's wine grapes and hence the composition from 70 to 80 percent water by weight.
and quality of its wines. Specifically, in cooler climates, Depending upon the variety, the predominant or-
more grape acids, varietal grape aroma, and flavor ganic acids in grapes are tartaric and malic acids. In
compounds develop and, in the case of red addition to their contribution to the flavor and
balance of wine, tartaric acid is involved in wine
stability, while malic acid is involved in the
malolactic fermentation (see Glossary). The complex
nature of grapes and wine has been verified by the
isolation and identification of more than 400 aroma
and flavor compounds present. Such polyphenolic
compounds as tannins are also important to wine
flavor, stability, and aging, particularly in red wines.
Certain amino acids have been shown to influence
wine quality, but they are perhaps more important as
a source of nitrogen for yeast cell metabolism. Such
metallic ions as potassium are constituents important
in wine quality and stability. Finally, while the
individual and combined interactions and contributions
of these grape and wine components to wine quality
are complex, they become more understandable with
study and experience.

Because climate or other factors are unreliable, it

is not always possible to obtain grapes with optimal
sugar, acid, and pH. Fortunately, home winemakers
are not hampered by both the federal and state
regulations that control amelioration in commercial
wine making. Sugar levels that exceed 25° Brix can be
lowered by adding water, to avoid difficulty with

5
 Table 2. Amounts of tartaric acid required to increase acidity
such a change would be undesirable in a must already
To obtain 6.0 To obtain 8.0 g/L
deficient in acidity. Thus, there are three options:
1. Ferment without adjustment.
Present acid content add to each gal: add to each gal:
2. Blend before fermentation with juice or must of the
same variety that has moderate sugar and high acidity. (g11-*) ( g ) (g)
3. raiseBefore
tent and fermentation
acidity add water toafter
to taste immediately lower sugar con- 3.0 11.3 18.9
3.5 9.4 17.0
4.0 7.5 15.2
fermentation.
4.5 5.6 13.2
A must seriously deficient in acidity may also require 5.0 3.8 11.4
acid addition before fermentation. Selection of the most 5.5 1.9 9.5
suitable action will vary according to each lot and the 6.0 7.5
winemaker's objectives. 6.5 5.6
Must or juice sugar and acid that fall well below 7.0 3.8
levels shown in table 1 should be adjusted. A useful rule 7.5 1.9
of thumb: To produce a wine of about 12 percent alco-
hol, the must or juice should be between 22° to 24° *Titratable acidity as tartaric acid.
Brix. Sugar is increased by adding cane or beet sugar
(sucrose). Use the following formula to calculate the Table 3. Conversion factors
amount of sugar to add to increase the °Brix: To convert from To Multiply by
B-A Acres hectares 0.4047
S = W X________
(100 - B) Cups ounces 8.0
Cups milliliters 236.6
where, S = weight of sugar to be added to increase Drams milliliters 3.7
must or juice to a desired ° Brix Gallons liters 3.79
W = weight of grape must Grams milligrams 1000
B = desired ° Brix Grams ounces 0.035
A = original ° Brix of grape must Grams/liter pounds/gal 8.345 X 10 -3
For example, if you want to raise the ° Brix of 10 pounds Hectares acres 2.47
of juice or must from 15 to 23, calculate the amount Hectoliters liters 100
of sugar required as: Kilograms grams 1000
,22 - 15 Kilograms ounces 35.27
S = 10 X ______ - 1.04 lb Kilograms pounds 2.2
(100 - 23)
Liters gallons 0.264
it should be apparent that large amounts of 15° Liters ounces 33.8
Brix juice require proportionately larger quantities of Liters pints 2.11
sugar to raise the ° Brix to the desired level. For exam- Liters quarts 1.06
ple, 10.4 and 104 pounds of sugar would be needed to Milligrams grams 0.001
increase the ° Brix from 15° to 23° with, respectively, Milligrams ounces 3.5 X 10 -5
100 and 1,000 pounds of must or juice. Considering the Milligrams pounds 2.2 X 10 -6
high cost of sugar, riper grapes are obviously preferable. Milliliters liters 0.001
A less accurate method for raising the sugar content Milliliters ounces 0.034
by 1° Brix is to add 1.25 pounds sugar to each 10 Ounces grams 28.3
gallons of juice or must. Ounces milliliters 29.57
Pints gallon 0.125
Deficiencies in total acidity can be corrected sim-
Pints ounces 16
ilarly. Table 2 gives the amounts in grams (g) of tartaric
Pounds grams 4516
acid that must be added to each gallon (gal) of must or Quarts liters 0.946
juice to increase the titratable acidity (TA) from a given Tablespoons teaspoons 3
low level to either 6 or 8 g per liter (L). A TA of 6 g/L is Tablespoons ounces 0.5
considered a minimal acid level and a TA of 8 g/L is Tablespoons milliliters 15
optimal acidity, especially for white wine. For example, Teaspoons milliliters 5
to increase the TA of a Zinfandel must from 5 to 6 g/L, Teaspoons tablespoons 3
38 g (1.33 oz) tartaric acid are required for each 10 gal of
must. Metric units, such as grams, are readily converted Following adjustments in sugar and/or acid content,
to other units of measure using the adjacent Conversion the ° Brix and/or TA should be determined again to ver-
Factors chart (table 3). ify that the desired adjustment has been achieved.

6
 3

Making Red Table Wines

F igure 1 is a schematic of the basic operations

involved in making red table wines. Each
step is discussed below. Additional information,
not depicted in the schematic drawing, is also presented.
crushed, using a hand-operated, roller-type crusher. In
either case, to collect the crushed grapes (must), the
machine is placed and supported above a container,
such as a large polyethylene plastic tub or garbage can.
If only a crusher is used, place chicken wire over the
Crushing and stemming collecting container to separate out most of the stems;
these are intermittently discarded, as necessary. Small,
This first step may be performed by hand or by fragmented pieces of stems that get into the must will
machine. For handling a ton or more of grapes, use a increase the wine's astringency or bitterness and their
mechanical crusher-stemmer. Examples of these devices inclusion should be avoided as much as possible. The
are shown in figure 2 and are detailed in Chapter 8 in important objective is to minimize bitterness by thor-
the section on equipment and supplies. Using a small oughly crushing the berries without macerating the
crusher-stemmer, two persons can crush and stem a ton seeds, and while recovering all of the skins and juice in
of grapes in about 1 hour. Smaller lots of grapes can be the must. After stemming and crushing, the fermentors

CRUSH—STEM 1 FERMENT PRESS, —41. FINISH —so- RACK, BOTTLE

MUST DISCARD FERMENT AGE
POMACE

Fig. 1. Essential steps in red wine making.

7
Fig. 2. Left, hand-operated roller-crusher; right, crusher-stemmer, fitted for motor drive.

are filled with the must to about two-thirds capacity, to more total SO 2 , the label will be required to disclose
avoid foaming-over during fermentation. Probably the that it "contains sulfites."
most practical and least expensive fermentation vessel
Judicious and moderate use of SO 2 has long been
is a 32-gallon plastic garbage can (polyethylene plastic
recommended. Recent research shows that the best qual-
is preferable). About eight or nine are needed to handle
ity wines are made when SO 2 has been used both before
a ton of crushed grapes.
and after fermentation. Some commercial winery expe-
After all of the must has been poured into the fer - rience indicates that use of 502, before alcoholic fer -
mentors and sulfur dioxide has been added (see below), mentation, can be minimized or even omitted when
the fermentors should be covered with cheesecloth or freshly harvested grapes are free of mold, mildew, rot,
plastic to keep out insects. Temperature, total soluble or any other defects (cracked or broken skins), and
solids, titratable acidity, and the free and total SO 2 (note these grapes are handled, throughout the wine making
analyses section) of the must in each fermentor should process, under strict sanitary conditions and in a tem -
be determined and the results recorded. perature-controlled environment. These practices are
more often successful in making red wines than in mak-
Adding sulfur dioxide ing whites. Furthermore, SO2 should be added after fer-
mentation when usual storage or aging is contemplated
and most certainly at bottling to prevent oxidation.
Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) is a chemical compound that
has been used in wine making for more than a century.
Because it is known that wine yeast produce small For most home winemakers, adding SO 2 is recom-
amounts of SO2 during fermentation, SO 2 can be con- mended. It has been observed that the home winemaker
sidered a natural constituent of wine. The amounts pro- is generally unable to achieve strict sanitation, and hence
duced vary widely, and to insure against deficiencies, can benefit from the judicious use of S0 2 . As stated,
commercial wineries add small amounts to inhibit de- adding a small amount inhibits development of molds,
velopment of such spoilage microorganisms as vinegar wild yeast, and undesirable bacteria, especially vinegar
bacteria and spoilage yeast, and to prevent oxidation bacteria. For grapes free of mildew, rot, or mold, usually
and browning. Although SO 2 has proved an effective from 50 to 100 parts per million (ppm) is used or about
wine preservative, its use, as with other food additives, 75 ppm is adequate. This mild antiseptic is commonly
has been brought into question. Despite 75 years of used in the form of potassium metabisulfite (K25205),
enological research, no satisfactory alternative practice and is available from home wine making suppliers. To
has been found for preventing microbial spoilage and obtain 75 ppm of S0 2 , add 1/4 ounce (slightly less than
oxidation of wine. In reaction to reports that suggested 1 level teaspoon) to each 10 gallons of juice or must.
that a very small number of asthmatics ran a potential For grapes that have appreciable amounts of moldiness,
risk if they consumed wine containing SO 2, new federal rot, or broken berries, use twice this amount of S0 2. To
regulations were adopted in 1986 for using SO 2. As of add S02, dissolve the metabisulfite in a small portion of
January 9, 1988, whenever a wine contains 10 ppm or the juice; then add this back to the bulk of the must to
be treated and mix thoroughly. Allow this mixture to
stand about 2 hours before adding the wine yeast starter
culture (see next step). To prepare and use the 10 percent stock solution of K25205, the
For the beginner, some precautions about using following supplies are needed:
and handling SO2 are in order. Adding too much 50 2, a
common mistake, can delay onset of fermentation; ex- Several sizes of graduated cylinders-10, 100, and 1,000 ml
cessive amounts can actually prevent it. Using too little (1 liter); 1-ml and 10-ml transfer pipettes (the 1-ml pipette
or no 50 2 can result in the wine turning to vinegar or must be graduated in 0.01-m1 intervals); and a 1-liter (L) glass
reagent bottle that can be tightly stoppered with a tapered
spoiling. Therefore, calculate and weigh SO 2 additions
rubber or cork stopper. The solution is made by carefully
carefully. The K 25205 will lose its strength after being weighing out 100 grams (g) (3.52 ounces [ozp of potassium
opened and during subsequent storage and openings, metabisulfite, and dissolving in 1 L of water. The purity of
especially if it gets damp. Therefore, purchase only the K25205 should be noted on the label and if it is less than 100
percent, compensate for this difference by an appropriate
enough for one season's use and store tightly closed in a adjustment to the amount weighed. For example, if the label
cool, dry place. As with other chemicals, avoid skin and on the K25205 container indicates its purity to be 96.4 percent,
eye contact, wear protective gloves, and wash hands then 103.7 g (3.65 az) K 25205 is required for a 10 percent
thoroughly after use. solution (100 g divided by 0.964 = 103.7 g). Dis solve the
K25205 in 1 L of water and place in the reagent bottle,
Finally, because wine making at home is a batch stopper tightly, label contents, and store in a cool place.
operation, it is a relatively slow process. Hence, during
crushing and stemming, small portions of juice or must
may be obtained over several hours. With this in mind,
we recommend adding SO 2 in increments during crushing Table 4 shows the various volumes in ml of the
and stemming rather than after this operation has been stock solution required for final concentrations of SO2
completed. Thus, as each 10 gallons of juice or must is at given volumes of juice or wine. Sulfur dioxide solu-
obtained, add 50 2 to insure its thorough distribution in tions volatilize readily and the vapors can seriously
the final mixture and to prevent oxidation during irritate eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Therefore, when
crushing. dispensing aliquots of the K 25205 stock solution avoid
breathing the fumes, use in a well-ventilated area, and
As mentioned, accurate measurement of SO 2 is crit-
wear a fume-type face mask if you are especially sensi-
ical. Because repeated weighings of K 25205 are tedious
tive. It may be helpful to position a fan so that the fumes
and can cause error, use a concentrated SO 2 stock solution
are blown away from your face or work with the 502
of known strength. A 10 percent solution of K2S205
solution outdoors. All measurements of small volumes
(containing about 6 percent available SO 2 ) is readily
that require use of pipettes should be done with a rubber
prepared and convenient. Remember, however: The so-
bulb to supply suction. Never use your mouth!
lution loses its strength upon repeated opening and
should be replaced with a fresh solution after 1 to 2
weeks.
Table 4. Making 502 stock solution additions
Depending upon amounts of must or wine to be Desired final SO2 concentration (ppm)*
treated, the stock solution volumes involved can be
quite small and need to be measured in metric units, Must/wine 10 20 25 30 40 50 75 100
that is, milliliters (ml). (gal) Add ml of 10% stock solution
1/10 .07 .13 .16 .20 .26 .33 .49 .65
1/5 .13 .26 .33 .39 .53 .66 .99 1.3
1/2 .33 .66 .82 .99 1.3 1.6 2.5 3.3
1 .66 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.9 6.6
2 1.3 2.6 3.3 3.9 5.3 6.6 9.9 13.1
3 2.0 3.9 4.9 5.9 7.9 9.9 14.8 19.7
4 2.6 5.3 6.6 7.9 10.5 13.1 19.7 26.3
5 3.3 6.6 8.2 9.9 13.1 16.4 24.6 32.9
10 6.6 13.1 16.4 19.7 26.3 32.9 49.3 65.7
25 16.4 32.9 41.1 49.3 65.7 82.1 123.2 164.3
50 32.9 65.7 82.1 98.6 131.4 164.3 264.4 328.6

*The volumes indicated assume 100 percent purity of the potassium

metabisulfite (K2S205) and full strength of the stock solution.

9
Adding pure wine yeast starter cultures classified according to their alcoholic content. Indeed,
the amount of alcohol formed from a given amount of
grape sugar is of considerable practical importance to
The use of pure wine yeast starter cultures to pro-
the winemaker. According to the equation above, the
mote alcoholic fermentation is practiced widely in com-
maximum theoretical yield of ethanol is 51.1 percent
mercial wine making and is recommended for the home
of the molecular weight of the sugar (92/180 x 100 =
winemaker. The active dry form of wine yeast is avail-
51.1). However, in actual practice, the alcohol yield is
able from home wine shops. Of two strains commonly
somewhat lower, since some sugar is utilized by the
used, Montrachet and Champagne, avoid Montrachet if
yeast for growth and for production of small amounts
the grapes were sulfured a few weeks before harvest, as
of other compounds. Also fermentation efficiency (abil-
this strain readily produces hydrogen sulfide when re-
ity to produce alcohol) of the yeast is not perfect or
sidual sulfur is present. Usually, two 5-gram packets of
constant, and in addition some alcohol escapes with
dry yeast pellets, sprinkled on the must surface with
the evolution of the carbon dioxide gas. Hence, on the
mixing, provide an adequate inoculum for each 10 gal-
average, actual alcohol yields are about 47 percent by
lons of must. If the must is highly sulfited, or it is
weight, instead of the 51.1 percent just shown in the
difficult to start fermentation, use twice this amount of
previous calculation.
yeast. For best results, the yeast should be rehydrated
before use. If rehydration is not followed precisely, yeast Given a known amount of sugar in grapes, it should
activity will be reduced. Therefore, we do not recom - be possible to estimate the amount of alcohol that can
mend it for very small lots. result from fermentation. Thus, a must containing 22
percent sugar by weight should yield a wine containing
10.34 percent alcohol by weight (22 x 0.47 = 10.34).
To rehydrate, add 1 kilogram of dry yeast pellets to about 2
Note, however, that the alcoholic content of wine is
gallons of water or must previously warmed to 100° to 105°F
(38° to 41°C). After 10 to 20 minutes, mix well and use 25.6 expressed as percent by volume, owing to the method
or of this mixture to inoculate each 100 gal of must. This is of its measurement. From specific gravity tables, the
approximately equivalent to an inoculation rate of 1 g yeast 10.34 percent value converts to 12.82 percent alcohol
per gal of must. Note that higher temperatures, lower temper - by volume.
atures, and prolonged soaking in water, even at the correct
temperature, can all reduce yeast activity. Unfortunately, this relatively simple method cannot
be used to calculate how much alcohol can be obtained
Some winemakers prefer to acclimatize the yeast by from a must of a certain sugar content, as determined
by the ° Brix measurement. This latter term, described
first growing it in juice or sweetened diluted wine until
about one-half of the sugar has fermented. This actively more fully later on, denotes the percent sugar of pure
solutions. Since must or grape juice contains nonsugar-
fermenting mixture of yeast cells is then used as the
inoculum. dissolved solids, the ° Brix value must be corrected to
give a more true percentage of the sugar content, when
alcohol production is estimated. The amount of non-
Alcoholic fermentation sugar solids has been estimated to average 3.0 percent.
Thus, ° Brix minus 3.0 gives the must's approximate
Grape wine is the alcoholic product of the fermen - sugar content. This value, multiplied by its specific
tation of grape juice, and the essential feature of this gravity (table 5) and then multiplied by the fermenta -
fermentation is the conversion of the grape sugars, glu- tion conversion factor of 0.59 (this term represents the
cose and fructose, to ethyl alcohol (ethanol), carbon alcohol by volume that forms from 1 gram of sugar),
dioxide (released as a gas), and flavor components. This will provide an estimate of the approximate percent
complex process is accomplished by living yeast cells alcohol by volume resulting from a given 'Brix must.
and is illustrated in the following chemical equation:
The following example illustrates this convenient
C6H1206 yeast CH3CH2OH calculation: Assume that a given must or juice is 22.5°
1 molecule glucose 2 molecules ethanol Brix. Subtracting the nonsugar correction factor of 3.0
180 g 92 g percent, the "true" sugar content is actually 19.5 percent
by weight. To convert this to percent by volume, multi -
CO2 ply 19.5 by the specific gravity of 1.0803 (obtained from
+ 2 molecules carbon dioxide gas
88 g
table 5). Then multiply by 0.59. The result is an approx-
imate alcoholic content of 12.4 percent by volume.
The alcohol produced through fermentation is a
Usually, in natural grape table wine fermentations
wine's major flavor component. It also affects the solu-
(where no sugar is added) the alcohol produced ranges
bility of many wine constituents. Some is used in form -
between 11 and 14 percent by volume, depending upon
ing other flavor compounds. It also enhances wine's
resistance to spoilage. Moreover, wines traditionally are
initial sugar levels. In dessert and appetizer wines, such Table 5. Percentage by weight (° Brix) and specific gravity
as port and sherry, alcoholic content is higher, ranging (20° C/20° C) of sugar solutions'"
from 17 to more than 20 percent. As explained pre- How does the home winemaker achieve e ff ective
corn
Specific Specific Specific
- °°Brix °Brix ° Brix
gravity gravity gravity
this higher alcoholic content is achieved co- pre-
mercially by adding wine spirits. 22.0
14.0 18.0 1.0741 1.0919
.1
1 .1 .0746 0992284
.0
Fermentation in wine making is not only fascinat- .2 .2 .0750
.2
ing but it is critical to success. Typically, there are three 3 1.0568 .3
.3 .3 .0755 .0933
distinct stages. .4 .4 .0759 .4
.0938
1. A quiescent period of 12 to 24 hours, .5 .0763 .5
.5 .0942
during which yeast cells grow and increase in .6 .0768 .6
.6 .0947
sufficient numbers to commence the fermentation. 7 .0573 .7 .0772 .7
8 .0777 .8 .0951
2. Vigorous activity of 2 to 3 days, during .8
9 .9 .0781 .9 .0956
which the yeast rapidly ferments one-half to two-
.0960
thirds of the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide
15.0 19.0 1.0785 23.0
gas-the latter development is accompanied by .0577
.1 .1 .0790 .1
frothing-and the skins rise to the surface, 1.0965
.2 .2 .0794 .2
become compact, and form the "cap." .0969
.3 .3 .0799 .3
3. A more or less quiet stage of relatively .4 .0974
.4 1.0803 .4
slow fermen- tation for 3 to 4 days after .0581 .5
.5 .0808 .5
pressing the partially fermented juice off the .6 .6 .0983
.6 .0812
skins. .7
.0816 .7 .0988
.7
.8 .0821 .8 .0992
Note: The rate or speed at which each event occurs .8 .9 .9
depends upon fermentation temperature and amount .0825 .0997
.9 . 24.0
of yeast inoculum, as well as availability of yeast nu- .0585 .1 1.1001
trients. Typically, red wine fermentations take 1 to 2 20.0
1.0830 .2 .1006
16. .0590
weeks. 16.0 20 .0834
.3
.0594
In addition to the conversion of grape sugar into .1 .1 .0839 .4
0598
alcohol and carbon dioxide, energy in the form of heat .2 .2 .0843
.5 .1015
1.0603
is produced, usually about 56 kilocalories per gram .3 .3 .0848
.0607 .6 .1024
molecular weight of glucose fermented. Lowering or .4
.0852
.4 .7
raising this heat during fermentation is essential to con- .0857 .1029
.5 .5 .8
trolling the fermentation's progress. Within limits, the 1.0611 .0861 .1033
.6 .0615 .6 .9
higher the temperature, the faster the fermentation rate. .0865 .1038
.7 0620 .7
In red wine making, it is recommended that fermenta- .0870 .1043
.8 .0624 .8
tion start at 60° to 70° F (15.6° to 21.1°C); be allowed to 25.0
.9 .0628 .9
proceed at 75° to 80° F (23.9° to 26.7° C); and just be- 1.0874 .1 .1052
fore pressing off the skins be allowed to rise for a day or . 0 6 3 3 .0879 .2
so to 85°F (29.4° C). The remainder of the fermentation 17.0 21.0 .0883 .08 .3 1.1056
should be conducted at between 68° to 70°F (20° to .1 .0637 .1 88 .0892 .4
21.1°C). Temperatures that reach 90° to 95° F (32.2° to 0641
.2 .2 .0897 .5 .11006661
35°C) or higher can lead to a "stuck" fermentation, be- .0646
.3 1.0901 .0 .6
.0650 .11007705
cause at these high temperatures yeast cells die and it can .4 .4 906 .091 .7
be very difficult to restart fermentation. Prolonged fer- .5 .5 0 .0915 .8 .1080
mentation at temperatures above 85°F (29.4° C) can create 1. 0654
.6 .9
.6 .0659 .1084
"cooked" odors and flavors. The temperatures outlined here .7
.7 .0663
allow for an even fermentation rate and the relatively warm .8 1.1010 .11009893
.8 .0667
conditions before pressing facilitate color extrac- tion. .9 .9
. 1 0 2 0
.1098
Once the cap forms, the highest temperatures in the .0672
fermentor are trapped in the juice just under it.
temperature control during fermentation? A few sample
*Adapted from tables in: Bates, F. J. and associates. 1942. Palarimetry,
measurements will quickly indicate for each home wine Sarcharimetry and the Sugars. Circular of the National Bureau of
making circumstance how much control is required. Standards 0440, U.S. Department of Commerce, Government Print-

11
Unfortunately, few methods are inexpensive. Probably ing Office, Washington, D.C.