Chapter No 1

The document provides an introduction to the field of geology. It discusses the interior and exterior of the Earth, as well as the different branches of geology. The key points are: 1) Geology is the scientific study of the Earth, including its composition and formation. It examines both the interior and exterior of our planet. 2) The Earth's interior consists of layers including the crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust and upper mantle make up the lithosphere. 3) Geology has many branches that study different aspects of the Earth like petrology, mineralogy, economic geology, hydrogeology, and engineering geology.

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Chapter No 1

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shahid ali

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Chapter-1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction of Geology

Geology is scientific study of the earth. We depend on the earth
for energy resources and the raw material we need for our survival, comfort and pleasure.
Every manufactured object relies on earth resources. By learning how the earth works and
how different kind of substances are distributed and why, we can search for metals, sources
of energy and jems. This is use of geology. Even supply of sand gravel and other material
used in construction depends upon geology.

The science of geology deals with interior and exterior of the earth. It also deals with
processes by which the rocks have been formed during geological times. The earth is not a
static body. It is changing constantly at the surface and at deeper levels. Surface changes
can be observed by engineers and geologists e.g. erosion which changes the face of earth.
This process destroys coastal cliffs, reduces the height of continents and transport the
material to sea or to the inland basins of deposition. Changes that originate below the
surface of the earth cannot be observed easily. Some of these changes are caused by slow
movements of the continents and other rapid changes are caused by volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes.

1.2 The Surface of the Earth

The earth is not a perfect sphere. It is in an elliptical form. The
radius of the earth at equator is 6370 Km. and it is shorter than 22 Km. at poles. The surface
area of the earth = 510x10
Total land area =35% , Total ocean area = 65%
6348 Km

6370 Km
It means that about two third area of the earth surface is covered with water (deep oceans).
Surface relief of the earth is varied, mountains rise from hundreds of meters to several
kilometers above sea level, with maximum at Everest. The average height of land above sea
level is 0.86Km, and mean depth of oceans floor is about 3.8Km. Greatest known depth in
N.W. pacific reaches 11.04 Km. The oceans, sea, lakes, and rivers are collectively called as
the hydrosphere and it is surrounded by gaseous envelope called the atmosphere.

1.3 The Interior of the Earth

It is well known deep mining operation that temperature increases
downward at an average rate of 30 C per KM. It means this temperature will rise to 900 C at
the depth of 30 Km. This temperature is such that most of rocks begin to melt at this stage.
The high pressure at this depth and ability of crustal rocks to conduct heat to the surface of
earth result in the rock material to remain in relatively solid form but there will be a depth
at which it becomes a viscous flus and this defines the base of lithosphere.

Different parts of the earth in deeper horizons are as under

a) Crust
Crust is very thin part of the earth. It is similar to skin of an apple. The thickness
of crust is insignificant compared to whole earth. We have all over resources within the
crust than with the in-accessible mantle and core.

Two major type of crust are oceanic crust and continental crust. The crust oceans is thinner
than continental crust. The oceanic crust is made up of rocks slightly denser than the rocks
which underlay the continental crust.

b) Lithosphere
The crust and uppermost part of the mantle are relatively rigid.
Collectively they make up the lithosphere.
c) Asthenosphere
The uppermost mantle underlying the lithosphere is soft and therefore
flow more easily than the underlying mantle. It provides a lubricating layer over which
the lithosphere moves.
d) Mantle
Mantle is made up of solid rocks. Isolated chambers of mantle rocks may occurs
in pockets in both upper mantle and part of crust. But most of the mantle seems to be
solid.
e) Core
Core of the earth has two parts, a liquid outer core and a solid inner. Seismic,
density and meteorite composition data show that core is made up of mainly iron.
f) Tectonic Forces
Where hot mantle material pushes upward, it will uplift the lithosphere.
Where the lithosphere is coldest and densest, it will sink down through the
asthenosphere and into the deeper mantle. The effect of this internal heat engine on
the crust is of great significance to geology and engineering. The forces generated inside
the earth are called tectonic Forces and these are responsible for deformation of rocks,
vertical and horizontal movement of portion of earth's crust and building of mountain
ranges. The mechanical energy stored by tectonic forces and sudden release of this
energy causes earthquakes. If this energy is converted into heat energy then the rocks
melt and result in volcanic eruptions.

1.4 Branches of Geology

Geology being science of earth consist of following branches:

a) Petrology
The study of rocks, their components and constituents, any rocks may be
composed of pieces of other rocks and crystals.

b) Mineralogy
Identification of rock forming minerals is called mineralogy.
c) Economic Geology
The analysis, evaluation and economic assessment of ore deposits is called economic
geology.
d) Hydrogeology
The study of water in the earth i.e. in rocks and soil is termed as hydrogeology.
e) Petroleum Geology
The study of existence of natural gas and petroleum in the subsurface is called
petroleum geology.
f) Geophysics
Study of physical fields and effects of the earth is called geophysics e.g. Gravity,
magnetic, electrical, seismic methods etc. These methods are widely used in engineering
geology for geotechnical studies.
g) Geochemistry
Chemical system of the earth is studied in geochemistry.
h) Physical Geology
The processes that shape the surface of the earth e.g. action of wind, rivers,
glaciers, ocean etc. is called physical geology
i) Structural Geology
Stresses and strain developed in the crust and their effects on the surface of
earth are studied in structural geology.
j) Sedimentology
The subject of sediments transport and their deposition is dealt with
sedimentology.
k) Environmental Geology
The interface between man and geology including geologic hazards like floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc. are studied in this branch.
l) Stratigraphy
The co-relation of rocks and different strata is called stratigraphy.
m) Engineering Geology
It is concerned with the study of application of geology to civil engineering.
n) Geochronology and Paleontology
Age dating of rocks is called geochronology and study of development and
evolution of life on the earth through fossils is called paleontology.

1.5 Geologic Time Scale

Geologic time history of earth is very long. For example the crust is at least 40
million centuries old. The miscommunication between engineers and geologists is that the
engineers may think a design for about 100-200 years but the geological processes are
spread over millions of years. The earth long history is divided into time units called era and
further subdivided into periods and epochs.

Table:

Era Period Epoch Absolute Age

(Million
Years)
Cenozoic Quartenary Recent 3
Teriary Pleistocene
Pilocene
Milocene
Oligiocene
Ecocene 70
Paleocene
Mesozoic Creteious
Jurassic
Triasic 230
Paleozoic Permian Pennsyluvanian
Carboniferious Mississippian 350
Devonian,Silurian,Ordovician,Camrian 600
Precambrian Earlier