TOPOLOGY SHORT NOTICES

(86) Closed Mapping Def:

A map is called a closed map iff the image
of each closed subset of X is closed in Y.
( 87) Projection Mapping
Projection mapping is an example of mapping that is
not closed in general. But let us see first "What is
projection map?" Projection Map: Let (X, ) and (Y, )

be two topological spaces. The maps

are called projection maps, where is product

topology on X x Y., is first projection and is second
projection. Fact: The projection map may or may not
be closed. Justification: Consider the first projection
.) The set A = {(x, y)| y =tanx , }
is closed in R x R but not closed
(88) Continuity and Open Mapping:
We have studied 1- Continuous Mapping 2-Open
Mapping 3- Closed Mapping Questions: 1. Is a
continuous map an open map? 2. Is an open map a
continuous map? Example 1: Let X = {a, b, c, d} with
= { , {b, c}, {a, b, c}, X} and Y = {1, 2, 3} with = { ,
{1}, {1, 2}, Y}. Consider the following map
(continuous) ( [f({b, c})]={2} not open ) defined as
f(x) = 2 for all x X. Example 2: Let X = R with usual
topology and Y = R with lower limit topology. Consider
the identity map f is not continuous
Answers: 1. Continuous map may or may not be open
map. 2. Open map may or may not be continuous map
(89) Openness and Restriction Mapping
Recall the restriction mapping and the fact about the
continuity of restriction mapping. Now the question is
"Can we prove the same kind of result for restriction of
an open mapping?". Example: Let X = {a, b, c, d} with
= { , {a}, {a, b}, {a, b,c}, X} and Y = {1,2,3} with
= { ,{1}, {1,2}, Y}. Consider the map defined as
f(a) =1, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 3, F(d) =2 "4> Let A = {b,c,d} C X
with relative topology Ta ={ , {b}, {b, c}, A}. Now the
restriction map is defined as
Now f is an open map but fA is not an open map.
Because {b} is an open subset of A but fA({b})= {2} Y
Remark: Restriction of an open map may or may not
be an open map.
(90) Homeomorphism and Homeomorphic Spaces
Homeomorphism:
A map is called a homeomorphism between
two topological spaces (X , ) and (Y, ) iff 1. f is
bijective(f is one-one and onto) 2. f is continuous.3-
is continuous Homeomorphic Spaces: Two
topological spaces (X , ) and (Y, ) are called
homeomorphic iff there exists a homeomorphism
. We also say such spaces are topologically
equivalent spaces.
(91) Examples: Homeomorphism
Example 1: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with = { , {a, b},
{c, d}, X} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} with = { , {2, 3}, {1, 4}, Y }
and the map defined as f(a) = 2, f(b) =3, f(c)
=4, F(d) =1 , ,
Now f-1: now
ic continuous (bijective,
continuous, f-1 continuous) Example 2: Consider X =
[0,1] ,Y = [0,2] as subspaces of (R , ) and the map
defined as f(x)= 2x f is bijective, f is
continuous, so f-1 is continuous X = [0,1] Y =
[0,2] Example 3: Consider X= ( ) as subspace of (R,
) and Y = R with usual topology and the map
defined as x Y f(x) =tanx f is bijective, f is
continuous, f-1 is continuous X= ( ) Y=R
(92) Bicontinuity and Open Mapping
Recall homeomorphism. A bijective map such
that f and f-1 both continuous or in other words f is
bicontinuous A map is a homeomorphism
between two topological spaces (X, ) and (Y, ) iff 1. f
is bijective. 2. f is continuous. 3. f is an open map
(93) Bicontinuity and Bijection
 Question: Is there any relation between bicontinuity
and bijection? More specifically. 1- Does bijection
imply bicontinuity? 2- Does bicontinuity imply
bijection? Example 1: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with Tx = {
, {a}, {c, d}. {,a, c, d},X} Y = {1,2,3,4} with Ty = { ,{1},
{2},{{1, 2}, Y} and the map defined as f(a) =1,
f(b) = 2, f(c) = 3, f(d) =4 f is bijectice but f is
not continuous bijection
bicontinuous Example 2: Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with
TX = { , X} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} with Ty = { , {1}}. and the map
defined as f(a) =1, f(b) = 1, f(e) =1, f(d) =1 , f is
continuous f is open bijectice
(94) Homeomorphism as Equivalence Relation
Equivalence Relation:
A binary relation on a set X is said to be an
equivalence relation iff satisfies the following three
properties for all a, b, c X 1. Reflexive: a a 2.
Symmetric: a b iff b a 3. Transitive: If a b and b
c then a c Proposition: Homeomorphism of
topological spaces is an equivalence relation ( )
(95) Topological Properties :
A property "P" of a topological space (X, ) is called
"Topological Property" if every space homeomorphic
to X has property . i.e. A property that is unchanged
under homeomorphism. Topological property is also
called topological invariant. Some Topological
Properties: 1- Cardinality of set X. 2-Cardinality of T. 3-
Connectedness of space x. 4-Being Discrete. Some Non
Topological Properties: 1-LengthLy 2- Area 3-
Boundedness
(96) Metric on a Set
A metric is a distance function ice. A function that
defines a distance between each pair of elements of a
set Metric: A metric on a non empty set X is a real
valued function d defines on X x X , i.e such
that for all x, y, z X, the following conditions are
satisfied: 1. d(x, y) 0, equality holds iff x = y 2. d(x, y) =
d(y, x) (Symmetry) 3. d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) (Triangle
Inequality)
Metric Space: A set X with a metric d defined on it is
called a metric space.
(97) Examples of Metric
Example 1: Let X = R andd is defined as d(x, y) = |x —
y| where .Example 2: Let X = C[0 , 1] the set of all
real valued continuous functions on [0, 1]) and d is

defined as where f, g C[0, 1].

(98) More Examples of Metric:
Example 3: Let X be any nonempty set and d is defined

as where x, y R. Example 4: Let X = C[0,

1] (the set of all real valued continuous functions on
[0,1]) and d’ is defined as d'(f, g) = sup{|f(x) — g(x)| : x
[0,1)} — where f, g C(0.1].
(99) Usual Metric on Rn
Recall the metric defined on R in "Example 1." d(x, y)
=|x-y| where x, y R. This is the usual metric in R.We
can also write it in the following way d(x, y) =
Consider R2 and d is defined as d (x, y)= -
2
ii wher . Consider Rn and d is defined
as d (x, y)=
) where
.
(100) Unusual Metrics on Rn .
Let us see some unusual metrics defined on Rn. These
definitions can be generalized for Rn with n > 2.
Example 1: Consider Rn and d; is defined as
where Example
2: Consider R2 and d, is defined as d2(x.y) =
where .
(101) Open Ball
Def: Consider X with a metric d. For any x X and any
real number r > 0, the set of all points y X whose
distance from x is less than r is called the open ball of
radius r centered at x. i.e. B(x, r)={y X| d(x, y) < r}
Example: Recall R with usual metric d(x, y)= |x — y|.
Consider x = 2 and r=1. Let us see what is B (2,1)?
Solution B (2,1)={y R| d(x, y)= |x — y|
<1}=(1,3)
(102) Examples: Open Ball:
Example 1: Recall R2 with usual metric d (x, y)=
2
B(x, 1)={y R2|d(x,
y)<1} , B(x, r)={y R2|d(x, y)<r} Example 2: Recall trivial

metric on a set X. i.e. where x, y R ,(r 1)

B(x, r)={y X|d(x, y)<r}={x} (r>1) B(x, r)={y X|d(x,
y)<r}=X Example 3: Recall R2 with
x=(0,0) , B(x, r)Example 4: Recall

where f, g C[0, 1].(r=3, B(f, r)

(103) Open Ball as Open Set: Lemma:
Let d be a metric defined on a nonempty set X. For
x X and a positive real number r, consider open ball
B(x, r). Then for every point y B(x, r) there exists an
open ball B’(y, r’) such that (y, r') B(x. r).
(104) Open Balls Centered at One Point
Fact: Let B1(x, r1) and B2(x, r2) be two open balls
centered at x with radius r1and r2 respectively. Then
either B1(x, r1) B2(x, r2) or B2(x.r2) B1(x, r1).
(105) Properties of Collection of Open Balls
Theorem: Consider X with a metric d. Let  be the
collection of all open balls in X. Then  satisfies the
following properties. 1. For all x X there exists B(x, r)
 2. For all z B1(x, r1)M B2(y, r2). there exists B(z, r)
such that z B(z, r) B1(x, r1) B2(y,r2).
(106) Metric Topology
For a non empty set X we defined a metric d. ; With
respect to this metric we defined open balls. And
considered  "Collection of all open balls in X." This
collection satisfies the properties of "Basis." Metric
Topology: Let X be a nonempty set with metric d. The
topology on X generated by the set of all open balls in
X with respect to d is called the "Metric Topology." We
also say that a topology on X induced by the metric d.
Metric Space: Consider X with a metric d, this d
induces a topology the "metric topology." (X, d) is
called a metric space.
(107) Examples: Metric Topology
Let us see some examples of metric topologies. In
these examples we will generate the topologies
induced by already defined metrics. Example 1: Recall
R with usual metric d(x, y) = |x — y| where x yeR. Her
 = {B(x, r)|x X r > 0} is the set of all open intervals.
And we know that the topology generated by the set of
all open intervals is usual topology. So the metric
topology induced by d(x, y) = |x — y| on R is usual
topology on R. Example 2 Recall R2 with usual metric
d(x, y) = where . Her 
= {B(x, r)|x X r > 0} is the set of all open disks. And we
know that the topology generated by the set of all
open disks is usual topology on R2. So the metric
topology induced by d(x, y)= on R2 is the
usual topology on R2. Example 3: Recall trivial metric
on a set X. i.e. where x, y X. Here =
{B(x, r)|x X r>0}= {{x}.X I x X}. And we know that the
topology generated by the set of alll single tons is
discrete topology. So the metric topology induced by
the above metric is the discrete topology on X.
(108) Metrizable Spaces
Consider a nonempty set X with a metric d defined on
X. Now this metric induces a topology on X. Let's
reverse this process, i.e. We have a set X with a
topology , now the question Is "Dose there exist a
metric d such that d on X induces the topology ?" The
answer depends on the selection of .
Metrizable Space: A topological space (X, ) is called
metrizable space if there exists a metric d on X that
induces the topology . Remark: Not all spaces are
metrizable.
(109)Examples: Metrizable Spaces
Example 1: Consider R with the usual topology. Recall
usual metric d( x ,y) = |x —y| on R. Now the topology
induced by d(x. y) = |x — y| on R is the usual topology
on R. So (R , U) is metrizable space. Example 2:
Consider R2 with usual topology. Recall usual metric
on R2 Now the topology induced by
d on R2 is the usual topology on R?. So (R2 , u) is
metrizable space. Example 3: Consider X with discrete

topology. Recall trivial metric.

where x,y X. The topology induced by the above
metric is the discrete topology on X. So discrete space
is metrizable space.
(110) Examples: Non-Metrizable Spaces
Let us see some examples of non-metrizable spaces,
i.e. the topological space (X, )such that there exists no
metric which induces .Example 1: Consider X {x}
with indiscrete topology i.e. = { ,X}. Then it is not a
metrizable space. Reason: It is because of the fact that
in a metric space all the finite set are closed. But here
only closed sects are and X. So Ting Can not be
induced by any metric. Caution: It does not mean that
if in some topological space all finite sets are closed
then that space is metrizable. Example 2: Let X be an
infinite set. Consider cofinite topology on X. Then it is
not metrizable space. Reason: There is a topological
property called "Hausdorffness" which should exist in a
metric space. So if there exists some metric
corresponds to (X , ) then (X , v )Should be
Hausdorff but it is not true. So (X , ) is not metrizable
space. Caution: It does not mean that if some
topological space is Hausdorff then that space is
metrizable. Example 3: IR with lower limit topology is
not metrizable space. Reason: There are topological
spaces called "Second Countable Spaces" and
separable metric spaces are second countable. So if
there exists some metric corresponds to (IR , )then
(IR , )should be second countable but it is not true. So
(IR. (IR , )) is not metrizable space.
(111) First Countable Spaces
Def:
A topological space (X, ) is called a "First Countable
Space" if for each p X there exists a countable class B,
of open subsets of X containing p such that for every
UP (open set containing p) there exists BP BP, such
that p BP UP. Def: A topological space (X, ) is called
a "First Countable Space" if for each there exists a
countable local base at p. Remark: Every subspace of a
first countable space is first countable. (112) Examples:
First Countable Spaces
Example 1: Discrete space is first countable.
Remember a local base at a point p in discrete space,
i.e. BP = {{p}} and it is finite Remarks: every finite set
with any topology is first countable. Example 3: R with
usual topology is first countable. For any real number x
one may consider the following countable local base at

x. Bx is countable and (R, ) is first

countable . Example 4: Every metric space is first
countable

(113) Second Countable Space

 Def: A topological space (X, ) is called a "Second
Countable Space" if there exists a countable class B of
open subsets of X such that for every U and for all
x U there exists Be B such that x B U. Def: A
topological space (X, ) is called a "Second Countable
Space" if there exists a countable basis for .Remark:
Every subspace of a second countable space is second
countable.
(114) Examples: Second Countable
Example 1: Let X be a countable set with discrete
topology. Then (X, ) is second countable. Recall basis
for discrete space, i.e. B= {{x}|x X}Example 2: Let
X = {a, b, c, d} and = { ,{a}, {b}, {a, b},{c, d}, {a, c, d},
{b, c, d},x} be a topology defined on X. A basis for is
B(basis)= {{a},{b}{c, d}}{finite } (X, )is second
countable. Remarks: Any finite set with any topology is
second countable. Example 3: R with usual topology is
second countable. Consider the following basis for
usual topology on R. B(countable base)= {(a,b)|a,b Q}
Example 4: (R, ) is not second countable
Example 5: R2 with usual topology is second countable.
Consider a basis B for usual topology on R2 consists of
collection of open disks with rational radii and centers
with rational coordinates. Such collection is countable.
(115) Second Countability implies First Countability
First Countability Axiom (local)>Second Countability
Axiom (global)Theorem: Let a topological space (X,T) is
second countable space. Then it also first countable
space.
(116) First Countability Second Countability
Example 1: Let X be an infinite set with discrete
topology. Then it is first countable space. Since for any
point p X. Bp = {{p}} is a local base at p. And it is finite
so it is first countable. But it is not second countable.
B= {{x}|x X} is the smallest basis of discrete space.
Since X is infinite so B is infinite. Example 2: Consider R
with usual topology. It is both first countable and
second countable. Example 3: Consider R with lower
limit topology. It is first countable but not second
countable. Remark: A first countable space may or may
not be second countable.
(117) Open Cover A cover of a set X is a collection of
sets : where / is index set, such that
Cover:(In Topology) Let (X, ) be topological space. A
cover of a X is a collection of subsets of X, i.e.
where/ is index set, such that Open
Cover: Let (X, ) be topological space. An open cover of
a X is a collection of open subsets of X. i.e.
where / is index set, such that Open
Cover of Subset: Let (X, ) be topological space and Y €
X. An open cover of a Y is a collection of open subsets
of X. i.e. where/ is index set, such that
(118) Examples: Open Cover
Example 1: Let X = {a. b,c, d} with topology T= { , {a},
{a,b}. {a,c,d},X} open cover of X. Example
2: Let X = R with usual topology and consider the
following collections of subset of R u = {(-n,n)|n N}
open cover v= {(n,n+2)|n Z} open cover
W = {(n,n+1)|n Z} not a cover of R Y={[n,.n +
1]|n Z} is a cover Example 3: Let X = R with usual
topology and consider (0.1) R and (0,1) R. The
following collections of subset of R. U = {(1/n,1)\n N*}
Is an open cover of (0,1) it is not an open cover of [0,1)
V= {(n,n+2)|n Z} Is an open cover of (0,1) and open
cover of [0,1)
(119) Open Subcover Sub cover:
Let (X, ) be topological space. Consider C covers X, i.e.
C = {Ci| Ci X} such that subclass D of C that
also covers X is called an open sub cover of C. Open
Sub cover: Let (X, ) be topological space. Consider C be
an open cover of X. i.e. C = {Ci| Ci } such that .
A subclass D of C that also covers X is called an open
sub cover of C. Example 1: Let X = {a. b,c. d} with
topology T={ , {a}. {a, b}, {c,d}. {a.c,d},X}
is an open cover of X It is an
cover of X so D is sub cover of C
Example 2: Let X = R with usual topology and consider
u = {(-n, n)|n N}
(120) Lindelof Space A topological space (X, ) is called
a Lindelof space if and only if every open cover of X
Example 1: Let X be a finite set with any topology then
it is Lindelof. Example 2: A set X with indiscrete
topology then it is Lindelof. Example 3: X = R with usual
topology is Lindelof. Remark: A subspace of a Lindelof
space needs not be Lindelof.
(121) Second Countable and Lindelof Spaces Theorem:
Every second countable space is Lindelof space.
(122 ) Separable Spaces Def: A topological space (X, )
is said to be "Separable" if there exists a countable
dense subset A of X. i.e.there exist A X such that 1. A
is countable. 2, =X. Def: A topological space (X,T) is
said to be "Separable" if there exists a sequence of
points in X such that every nonempty subset of X
contains at least one point of the sequence. Remark:
Every second countable space is separable. The
converse of this is not true in general. Counter
Example: R with lower limit topology is separable but
not second countable.
(123) Subspace Separable Spaces
Example 1: Let X be a finite set. Then X with any
topology is separable. Example 2: Consider a set X with
indiscrete topology. Then separable Example 3: R with
usual topology is separable. Reason: Since there exists
Q in R that is countable and =R. Example 4: R with
discrete topology is not separable. Reason: Since there
exists no countable subset in R that is dense in R.
(124) Proposition 1: A discrete space is separable if
and only if it is countable Proposition 2: (X,Tcof)is
separable.
(125) Subspace of Separable Space As we proved that
the subspace of a first countable space is first
countable and the subspace of a second countable
space is second countable. Now what about the
subspace of a separable space? i.e. Is subspace of a
separable is separable? Not in general. Example:
Consider R2 with topology generated by
Now it is separable. Consider
A= {(x.y)|x = -y} C R2 with relative topology on A
relative to the said topology on R2.
(126) Metric Spaces and Separability We have seen
that every metric space is first countable space but we
did not discuss about the second countability and
separability of metric spaces. In fact a metric space is
not second countable and not separable in general.
Example: An infinite set X with trivial metric is not
second countable and not separable. Theorem: A
separable metric space is second countable.
(127) Separation Axioms (1)To Spaces (2)T1Spaces(3) T2
(Hausdorff) Spaces (4) Regular Spaces (5)T3 Spaces(6)
Normal Spaces (7)T4 Spaces
(128) To SpaceDef: A topological space (X, ) is said to
be "T0 Space" iff for each x, y X such that x y there
exists an open set Ux X containing x such that y Ux
OR there exists an open set Vy X containing y such
that x Vy. Remark: To property is a topological
property.
(129) Examples:To Space Example 1: Every discrete
space is To Example 2:Let X {a} consider then
is not T0. Example 3: Consider X = {a. b ,c ,d} with
T= { . {a }. {a, b}. {a, c},{a,b,c}, X} then is T0.
Example 4: Consider X = {a. 6, c,d} with T={ .
{a , c}. {b . d}.X} is not T0.
(130) T1 Spacea Def: A topological space (X, ) is said to
be " T1 Space" iff for each x,y X such that x y there
exist open subsets Ux , Uy of X containing x, y
respectively such that y Uxand x Uy. Remark: T1
property is a topological property
(131) Examples: T1 Space Example 1: Every discrete
space is T1. Example 2 Every metric space isT1. Example
3: Every cofinite space is T1. Example 4: Consider X =
{a.b.c.d} with T = {o. {a}. {b}. {a,b}. X} is not T1.
(132) T0 T1 T1 property is much stronger property
than T0 property.1.e. Every T1 space is T0 but not every
T0 space is T1. Let us prove first part of the claim and
give an example for the second part. Example: A To
space that is not T1. Consider R with generated by a
{(a, )|a R} is a To space but not T1.
(133) Criteria for T1 Space Theorem: A topological
space (X, ) is T1 iff every singleton subset {x} X is
closed.
(134) Subspace of T1 Space Theorem: Every subspace
of a T1space is also a T1 space
(135) Properties of T1 Spaces I: Property 1 : Every finite
subset of T1space is closed. Property II: Let X be a finite
set. Then is a T1 space if and only if is discrete
space.
(136) Properties of T1 Spaces: II Property III: Let A be a
finite subset of a T1 space X then A’ is empty.
(137) T2/Hausdorff Spaces Def: A topological space
is said to be "T2 Space" iff for every distinct pair of
elements x,y X there exist open subsets Ux ,Uy of X
containing x, y respectively such that Ux Uy = .
T2spaces are also called Hausdorff Spaces. Felix
Hausdorff (1868 - 1942) Remark: T2 property is
topological property.
(138) Examples: Hausdorff Spaces Example 1: Every
discrete space is Hausdorff. Example 2: A nonempty
set X {x} with indiscrete topology is not Hausdorff.
Example 3: R with lower limit topology is Hausdorff.
Example 4: R with topology generated is not
Hausdorff. : An infinite set with cofinite topology is
not Hausdorff space.
(139) Theorem: Let is a Hausdorff space and A X
then (A , ) is Hausdorff.
(140) Metric Spaces are Hausdorff: Recall the topic
where we discussed some examples of "Non
Metrizable Spaces". We discussed there that an infinite
set X with cofinite topology is not metrizable. It is
because of non-Hausdorffness of X with respect to
cofinite topology. In this topic we will discuss an
important property of metric spaces called
"Hausdorffness". Theorem: Every metric space is
Hausdorff.
(141) : T2 property is a stronger property than T1,
property. 1.e. Every T2 space is T1 but not every T1
space is T2 . Example: An infinite set X with cofinite
topology is T1 space but not T2 space.
(142) Unique Limit Point: Recall the definition of
"Convergent Sequence". Let be a topological space.
A sequence of points in X is said to be converges to
a point x X if for every open subset Ux containing x. in
X there exists N N such that for all n Nx Ux. Now if we
consider convergent sequences in R” with usual
topology then our experience for such sequences is
uniqueness of the limit points. But if we critically
analyze the definition of convergent sequences, we
find no such condition on the uniqueness of the limit
point. Example: Consider X = {a.b.c} with T = { ,
{b}, {a,b}, {b,c}, X} The constant sequence (b) converges
to a, to b, and to c. Topological spaces in which
sequences converge to unique limit points are of more
importance than the topological spaces in which limit
are not unique. And the reason is, very limited results
can be stated/proved in spaces with multiple limit
points. So one should impose some extra
condition/property on the space to avoid such
multiplicity. And this condition/property brings the
class of spaces under consideration closer to which
one's geometric intuition applies. The property that
ensure the uniqueness of limit point is the Hausdorff
property.
(143) Theorem: Unique Limit Point Theorem: Let X be
a Hausdorff space then every convergent sequence of
points has a unique limit point. i.e. for (xi) in X if a,b x
are the limit points of (xi) then a= b.
(144) Regular Space Def: A topological space is said
to be "regular" iff for every closed subset F of X and for
every x Fc there exist open subsets Us and Ux
containing F and x respectively such that .
T3 Space: A topological space is said to be " T3
space" iff it is either Regular+To or Regular+ T1
or Regular+ T2 Remarks: 1. Property of being regular
is a topological property. 2. Every subspace of a regular
space is a regular space. 3. T3 property is a topological
property. 4. Every subspace of a T3 space is a T3 space.
(145) Examples: Regular Spacesa Example 1: Discrete
space is a regular space. Example 2: Indiscrete space is
a regular space. Example 3: Consider X = {a.b.c} with =
{ , {a}, {b,c},X}. is a regular space. Example 4: R
with usual topology is regular. Moreover this space is
also T3 space. Example 5: An infinite set with cofinite
topology is not regular. So it is not T3. Example 6:
Recall the K-Topology on real line. Topology k
generated by Bk = {(a,b)| a,b R}U {(a,b)\Kl a,b R}
wher K = {1,1/2,1/3.---} R (R, k) is not a regular
space.
(146) Normal Space Def: A topological space is said
to be "normal" iff for every pair of disjoint closed
subsets, F1,F2 X there exist open subsets U F1, and U F2
containing F1 and F2 respectively such that
T4 Space: A topological space is said to be " T4,
space" iff it is either Normal+ T1, or
Normal+ T2 Remarks: 1. Property of being normal is a
topological property. 2. Subspace of a normal space
needs not be a normal space. 3. T4 property is a
topological property. Completely Normal Space: A
topological space is said to be completely normal
space iff every subspace of X with subspace topology is
normal.
(147) Examples: Normal Spaces Example 1: Consider
X = {a,b,¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},X}.
Claim: is a normal space. Explanation: The closed
collection is Cr = { , {a}, {a,b}, {ac}, {a,b,c},X} Example 2:
Consider X = {a,b,¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, X}.
Claim: is not T4 space. Example 3: Consider
Y = {b,c,d} with Ty ={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},Y}. Claim:
(Y,Ty) is not a normal space. Example 4: Consider
X = {a,b,¢,d} with T={ ,{d}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {b,c,d},X}. Claim:
(Y,Ty) is not a completely normal space. Explanation:
Consider Y = {b,c,d}. So the subspace topology on Y
with respect to X is Ty ={ ,{d}, {b,d},{c,d}.Y}.Example 5:
R with usual topology is a T4 space.
(148) Metric Spaces are Normal Theorem: Every
metric space is normal Definition: Let (X,d) be a metric
space and A be a nonempty subset of X. Then a
continuous function dA:X —R defined as dA(x) = inf{d
(x,a)|a A}, provides the distance between x and A. We
denote it as dist(x, A) = dA(x)
(149) Ti Properties: An Overview An overview of Ti
properties is given in this topic through a diagram. This
diagram illustrates the relationship between the Ti
spaces we studied in previous topics
(150) Urysohn's Lemma Let X be a normal space; A
and B be two disjoint closed subsets of X. Let [a, b] be a
closed interval in IR. Then there exists a continuous
map f: X —> [a, b] such that f(x) =a x A and f(x)=b
x B. Urysohn’s Lemma: (Strong Form) X is a normal
space if and only if for every two disjoint closed
subsets A and B of X. There exists a continuous map
f(x) =a, x A and f(x) =b, x
One important application of Urysohn’s Lemma is the
partial solution of metrization problem. Here we have
this solution in the form of "Urysohn’s Metrization
Theorem". Urysohn's Metrization Theorem: Every
normal Ti space with countable basis is metrizable.
Another version of Urysohn’s Metrization Theorem is
Urysohn's Metrization Theorem: Every regular Ti space
with countable basis is metrizable.
(151) Compact Spaces Cover: Let be a topological
space. Let C = {Ci} bea class of subsets of X. such that
then C is called a cover of X. Subcover: A
subclass S of a cover C of X which is also a cover is
called a subcover. Open cover: A cover C of X is said to
be an open cover if and only if C .Compact Space: A
topological space is said to be compact if every
open cover C of X contains a finite subcover S of X.
(152) Examples: Compact Spaces Example 1: A set X
with indiscrete topology is compact. Reason: Since
there is only one open cover of X with respect to
indiscrete topology and that is {X} which is it self finite.
Example 2: A set X with topology containing finite
number subsets of X is compact. Reason: Since every
open cover C of X is a subclass of and itself finite so
C is finite too and any subcover S of C is also finite.
Example 3: A finite set X with any topology is
compact. Reason: Since every topology of a finite set X
is finite and from "Example 2" X is compact. Example 4:
An infinite set X with discrete topology is not
compact.
(153) Open Intervals in R In this topic we will discuss
the compactness of open intervals in IR with respect to
the usual topology. Fact: An open interval in R with
respect to usual topology is not compact. An
immediate consequence of this fact is (R , ) is not
compact.
(154) Cofinite Topology and Compactness In this topic
we will study the compactness of cofinite space, a set X
with cofinite topology Fact: A set X with cofinite
topology is compact
(155) Compactness and Open Collection
The aim of this topic is to show that compactness of
some space depends on the collection of open subsets
of the space. Consider R. now1 (R. ) is not compact.2
(R , ) is compact. 3 (R , ) is not compact. 4 (R , ) is
compact.
(156) Theorem Every closed subspace of a compact
space is compact.
(157) Compact Subspace of Hausdorff... Theorem: Let
(A, 74) be compact subspace of a Hausdorff space .
Then A is closed in X. i.e. A Every compact subspace of
a Hausdorff space is closed
(158) Compact Space under Continuous Map
Theorem: Let be a compact Space and f:(X , ) (Y
, ) be a continuous map. Then f(X) is compact. i.e.
Image of compact space under a continuous map is
compact.
(159) Compactness and Homeomorphism Corollary I
Let be a compact space and (Y, ) bea Hausdorff
space. Then a continuous map f:(X , ) (Y , ) is a
closed map. Corollary II: Let be a compact space
and (Y, ) be a Hausdorff space. Then a bijective
continuous map f:(X , ) (Y , ) is a homeomorphism.
(160) Application: Compactness and Homeomorphism
Exercise I: Consider (R, ) Show that there exists no
homeomorphism between an open interval of R and a
closed interval of R. Exercise II: Prove or disprove. (0;
1)
(161) Finite Union of Compact Spaces: Theorem: Let
be a topological space. And be a finite
family of compact subspaces of X. Then is compact.
(162) Compact Hausdorff Space is Normalae
Theorem: Let be a compact Hausdorff space. Then
is normal. i.e. For every pair of disjoint closed
subsets F1 , F2 of a compact Hausdorff space X there
exists a pair of disjoint open subsets of X
containing F1 , F2 respectively.
(163) Separated Sets Def I: Let A and B be two subsets
of a topological space Then A and B are said to be
separated sets if and only if
Def II: Let A and B be two subsets of a topological
space .Then A and B are said to be separated sets if
and only if Def III: Let A and B be two
subsets of a topological space . Then A and B are
said to be separated sets if and only if there exist open
subsets UA and UB of X containing A and B respectively
such that
(164) Examples: Separated Sets Example 1: Consider
(R , ) Then A = (0,1) and B = (4, 9] are separated sets.
Reason: (By Definition I) Since (0,1) (4,9] = and
(0,1)' (4,9] = and (0,1) = Let discuss "Example
1" with "Definition III" of separated sets. There exist UA
= (—0.5,2) and UB= (3.10) two open subsets of R
containing A = (0.1) and B = (4, 9] respectively such that
So A and B are separated sets of (R ,
) Example 2: Consider (IR, ) . Then A = (—1,3] and B
= [3,5) are not separated sets. Reason: By "Definition
|" both sets should be disjoint but this is not the case
here, i.e. (—1 ,3] [3,5) = {3} Example 3: Consider
(R , ). Then A = (—1.3) and B = [3,5) are not separated
sets. Reason: (By Definition 1) Both sets are disjoint,
i.e. (-1,3) [3,5) = But at the same time both sets
should not contain each others limit points. But here
(—1,3)' [3,5) = {3}
(165) Connected Spaces: Connected Set: A subset A of
a topological space is said to be connected iff there
exists no pair of nonempty open subsets U and V of X
such that are nonempty disjoint sets y and
Disconnected Set: A subset A of a
topological space is said to be disconnected if it is
not connected, i.e. if there exists a pair of nonempty
open subsets U and V of X such that are
nonempty disjoint sets and .Connected
Space: A topological space is said to be connected
if it can not be written as union of two nonempty open
disjoint subsets U and V of X. Disconnected Space: A
topological space is said to be disconnected if it
can be written as union of two nonempty open disjoint
subsets U and V of X. Connected Space: (Def. Il) A
topological space is said to be connected if
such that D1, D2 both open and implies that
either or
(166) Examples: Connected Spaces Example 1:
Consider (IR, ). Then A = (0,1) U (3, 5] is J
disconnected subset of R. Reason: Since there exists a
pair of nonempty open subsets U=(0,1) and V = (3,6) of
R such that are nonempty disjoint sets and
.Example 2: Consider X = {a,b,c,d,e} with
T = { , {a}, {a, b},{a, b, c}, {a, d, e}, {a, b, d, e}.X}. Then A
= {c. e} is disconnected subset of X. Reason: Since there
exists a pair of nonempty open subsets U = {a, b, d , e}
and V = {a, b, c} of X such that and are
nonempty disjoint sets and
.Example 3: Consider X = {a, b, ¢,d, e} with T = { ,{a, b},
{a, b,¢},X}. Then X is a connected space. Reason: Since
there exists no pair of nonempty open disjoint subsets
U and V of X such that X = U V. Example 4:
Consider X = {a, b, ¢,d, e} with T = { , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b,
c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. Then X is a disconnected space. x
Reason: Since there exist nonempty open disjoint
subsets U = {a, b, c} and V = {d, e} of X such that
(167) Connected Spaces and Open Closed Sets
A topological space is said to be connected if
 such that D1, D2 both open and implies
that either or Disconnected Space: A
topological space is said to be disconnected iff
, such that D1, D2 both open and disjoint implies
that neither D1 is empty nor D2 is empty. Consider
X = {a, b, c, d, e} and with T = { , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b,
c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. and with X w.r.t T is
disconnected.
(168) Connected Set and its Closure Theorem: Let A be
connected subset of a topological space ) and
. Then B is connected. In particular, Closure of a
connected subset is also connected.
(169) Image of Connected Space Theorem:
Let f be a continuous function from to and A
bea connected subset of ). Then f (A) is connected.
i.e. Image of a connected space under a continuous
map is connected.
(170) Application: Image of Connected Set Exercise I:
Consider (IR, ) and show that there exists no
homeomorphism between (0, 2) and (0, 1] U (3, 4).
Exercise II: Prove or disprove (0, 1) (0, 1].
( 171) Connected Subsets of Real Line Theorem:
A subset A of (R. ) is connected if and only if A is an
interval.
(172) Connectedness and Fixed Point Theorem Fixed
Point: A point x X is said to be a fixed point of a
map iff f(x) = x. Example: 1. f : R—>R. defined
as f(x) = x2. Here 0 is a fixed point of f . 1 is also a fixed
point of f. 2. g :R—-R. defined as g(x)=x+1 g has no
fixed point. Theorem: Consider R with usual topology
and I = [0, 1] be closed interval in R. Then every
continuous map f: l l has at least one fixed point.
(173) Union of Connected Subsets
Theorem: Let A and B be two connected subsets of a
topological spaces such that than
C=AUB is a connected subset of X Theorem: The union
of a collection of connected subspaces of . that
having a point common, is connected..
(174) Connected Component Def:
Consider a topological space . Let a X and C be a
connected subset of X containing a .Then is
called the connected S\ component of X containing a.
Remarks: 1. The connected component Ca is the J
largest connected subset of X containing a. 2. If b Ca
then Ca = Cb. 3. X can be written as disjoint union of its
connected components. i.e
(175) Examples: Connected Component Example 1:
Consider X = {a, b, c, d, e} with
T = { , {a, b}, {d, e},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d, e},X}. Example 2:
Consider X = {a, b, c, d} with T = { , {a, b}, {a, b, c},,X}.
(176) Connected Component is Closed Theorem:
Let C be a connected component of X then i.e. A
Connected component is a closed subset of X.
(177) Connected Component is not
Open We have discussed about the closed nature of
connected component of a topological space . Now
one may ask the following question. Question: ls a
connected component C of X open? Answer: No, not in
general.
(178) Locally Connected Spaces Def:
Let be a topological space. X is said to be locally
connected at a point x X iff for every Ux open subset of
X containing x, there exists Vx an open subset of X
containing x, such that » Vx U,x » Vx is connected.
(179) Examples: Locally Connected Spaces }.
Example1: Consider X = {a, b, c, d}
with T = { , {a, b}, {a, b, c},,X} Example 2: A discrete
space is locally connected.
(180) Questions:.
1-Does locally connectedness imply connectedness? 2.
Does connectedness imply locally connectedness?
Locally Connectedness Connectedness Example: X =
B(-2;1) U B(2;1) R2 Connectedness locally
Connectedness Example:

Y = {(x, 0)|x [0, 1]}U

(181) Path Connected Spaces Path:
Let be a topological space and x, y X. A path from
x toy in X is a continuous map such that
and .Path Connected Space: A topological
space is said to be path connected iff for every x. y
X there exists a path p from x to y in X. Examples: 1 -
(R, ) 2- (R2, )
(182) Facts: Path Connected Spaces: 1 Theorem:
Let be a path connected topological space then
is connected. i,e Path connectedness implies
connectedness.
(183) Facts: Path Connected Spaces:2 Proposition:
Let be a path connected topological space and
be a continuous map. Then f(X) is path
connected.