Class X

PRESENTATION CONVENT HR. SEC.
SCHOOL
RAJBAGH, SRINAGAR-190008
STUDY MATERIAL CLASS X 2021-2022

ENGLISH
UNIT- 1 LITERATURE
1. Foot Prints without Feet (Prose) H.G Wells
George Herbert wells (1866-1946) writer, born in Bombay, Kent, son of an unsuccessful small tradesman
and professional cricketer, educated at Thomas Morley’s Commercial Academy.
1. He was apprenticed to a draper in early life, period reflected in several of

his novels
2. His literary output was vast and extremely varied. As a novelist he is
perhaps best remembered for his new genre of Science Fiction.
3. The first, Time Machine (1895), is a social allegory set in the year 802701,
describing a society divided into two classes, the subterranean workers,
called Merlocks, and the decadent Eloi.
4. This was followed by The Wonderful Visit (1897), The Island of Doctor
Moreau (1896) The Invisible Man (1897). The chapter Foot Prints Without
Feet has been taken from H.G. wells work, The Invisible Man.
SYNOPSIS
Griffin was a brilliant but eccentric and unlawful scientist. He swallowed a rear drug and
became invisible. His landlord disliked him and tried to throw him out. In revenge Griffin set fire
to the house and ran away. Griffin was wondering buck naked alone in the streets in mid-winter.
In fact the two boys were flabbergasted to see the muddy imprints of bare feet on the ground
with no human being around. When the cold became unbearable he slipped into the shop. He
broke open the boxes and got himself wrapped in warm clothes. He ate cold meat and coffee in
the kitchen. He also took sweets and wine and slept on the pile of quilts inside the shop. Griffin
was weary and tired and could not manage to wake up on time. When the assistants opened the
store and found Griffin on a pile of quilts, they chased him. Griffin on seeing them got nervous
and at once ran away. The assistants followed him but Griffin managed to escape by removing
the newly found clothes and got invisible once again.
Griffin was wondering in the streets after managing an escape from the store. He decided to enter
into the theatrical company in order to have his clothes to wrap his naked body. He wrapped
bandages around his head and wore a false nose, dark glasses, big bushy whiskers and a large
hat. He further attacked the shopkeeper and robbed him of his money. To get rid of the crowded London, he took a
train to the village inn which was an unusual event as it was not a right time to
visit such a remote area in mid-winter when no visitor was expected. Besides, the appearance of
the visitor was unusual as he was wearing dark glasses, false nose and bandages all around his
head. A curious episode took place in the clergyman’s study. Griffin entered clergyman’s home
with the intention to steal the house keeping money from there. The clergyman and his wife got
awakened by some strange sound that was coming from the study. Creeping down stairs, they
heard the chink of money being taken away from the clergyman’s desk. The clergyman entered
the room with a poker grasped firmly in his hand. But he was surprised to find the room empty.
He was convinced that the desk had been opened and the money had been stolen but the burglar
was not present.
Landlord and his wife were surprise to see the scientist’s room wide open. They took it as a rare
opportunity to peek into the scientist’s room but to their surprise they found the room empty. In
the meantime Griffin entered the room while being invisible. Mrs. Hall heard a sniff near her ear.
Suddenly the hat leapt up and dashed into her face. Then the chair rose up into the air and pushed
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PRESENTATION CONVENT HR. SEC. SCHOOL
both Mrs. Hall and her husband out of the room Mr. Jeffers, the constable of the village was
called to arrest the scientist. But the constable was surprised to find that he had to arrest a person
without head. He however decided to do his duty. As he approached to arrest the scientist, the
latter threw off his garment one after the other. Soon the constable found himself struggling with
an invisible body. Mr. Jeffers received a hard blow and was knocked down unconscious. Griffin
had managed to escape once again.
CHARACTER SKETCH
Griffin
Griffin was a brilliant scientist who had discovered a rare drug that could
make a human being
invisible. This for sure was a major breakthrough in the field of science. He
was daring and
courageous enough to perform all sorts of experiments on himself, he never
thought about the
dire consequences of his actions. In the process of experimenting on himself
he swallowed a rare
drug by which he became transparent as a glass of sheet. He never shared this
information with
anyone rather he used his discovery for his personal gains. He became a shoplifter, robbed
people of their money, scared them and flouted the law.
STORY AT A GLANCE
➢ Footprints without Feet is an interesting story written by Herbert George Wells. This story is about a brilliant
scientist named Griffin who had developed a drug that could make a man invisible. He was successful in his
experiment and developed a formula that had the power of invisibility. By consuming the drug, a man could
become transparent that could not be seen with the naked eye.
➢ Griffin carried out the experiment on himself so he gulped the drug and his body became transparent like a
sheet of glass. Inadvertently, he stepped in mud and the fresh muddy imprints of his feet were all over the
place. It was first seen by two young boys who followed his footprints until they became fainter and
disappeared altogether. Although Griffin was an outstanding scientist, he was a lawless man. His landlord
disliked him and had asked him to eject the house. In vengeance, Griffin set the house on fire and soon
wandered around the streets without food, money and clothes.
➢ Owing to his invisibility, no one could see him and as he was walking down the streets, he started feeling cold
and entered a big London shopping centre to warm himself. After the stores were shut down, he picked up
some comfortable clothes to warm himself and fed himself with cold meat and some expresso from a nearby
restaurant. Later he slept on a pile of quilts in the store. The following morning some associates started
approaching him and he removed all his clothes immediately and became invisible again.
➢ As Griffin wandered without clothes in the chilly weather, he could feel the biting cold and decided to take
some clothes from a theatre company. Soon, he found an appropriate shop and wore bandages around his
forehead, a false nose, dark glasses, big bushy side-whiskers and a huge hat. Then, he went to a shopkeeper’s
store and stole all his money. He realised that staying in a crowded city like London could be difficult for him,
so he thought of moving to the Iping village.
➢ He had booked two rooms at the local inn in the village and reached there by boarding a train from London. It
was quite an unusual experience for the villagers to expect an outsider with a strange appearance who had
come to stay at the hotel during winter. Mrs Hall, the wife of the landlord of the inn tried to be friendly with
him, but Griffin did not want to talk to her. Soon enough, his money was exhausted and he started stealing to
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sustain himself. Due to his suspicious appearance, the inn owner and his wife attempted to check his room
while he was away.
➢ Out of anger, Griffin damaged the furniture of the inn and threw it across the room towards them. The owner
and his wife got scared thinking that there were spirits around and their unusual guest was responsible for all
the chaos. Meanwhile, Mrs Hall requested the town constable, Mr Jaffers to inquire about the identity of this
peculiar individual and arrest him for damaging her furnishings. This annoyed Griffin further and he decided
to reveal his identity as he started unwrapping his bandages, whiskers, spectacles and nose. Everyone was
shocked to see this as there was no normal human being hidden behind the bandages. The constable could not
catch hold of Griffin as he took off all his garments, became invisible and disappeared in thin air.
Conclusion of Footprints without Feet

In the chapter – Footprints without Feet describes the tendency of human nature to misuse creative discoveries
meant for common good but end up creating menace by misappropriating it.
2. An Excellent Father (Prose)

Jane Austen (1775-1817)
The greatest of all the novelists of manners of this or any other period and one who
raised the whole genre to a new level of art, was Jane Austen. She was the daughter
of the Hampshire rector, with quietly penetrating visions of man as a social animal,
her ironic awareness of the tensions between spontaneity and convention and
between the claims of personal morality and those of social and economic
propriety, her polished controlled wit, and beneath all her steady moral
apprehension of the nature of human relationships, produced some of greatest
novels in the history of England.
Pride and Prejudice

By far ‘Pride and Prejudice’ is the most popular of all Jane Austen’s novels. The
precision and
vivacity of style carry the reader through the novel with ease and spirit; there is a
sparkling life
about the characters and a rain washed freshness about the scenery which combines to
make this
the gayest of Jane Austin’s novels.
Synopsis
Mr. Bingley is a young man from North England. He is the man of large fortunes. He
has taken
over the Netherfield Park. The good news about him is that he is unmarried. Mr.
Bingley’s
arrival to the site creates stir in many hearts, Mrs. Long spreads this news far and wide.
Mrs.
Bennet takes this news as a welcome affair. She starts thinking of Bingley’s acquaintance so that
one of her daughters is proposed by him for marriage.
Mr. Bingley is the cardinal point of the story. His arrival from North England makes the plot of
the novel ‘Pride and Prejudice”. Compassionate mothers start weaving dreams around him. They
think that his being a wealthy person is a guarantee of a happy married life of their daughters,
provided he chooses to marry someone. Mrs. Bennet wants no opportunity be left unveiled to
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allure Bingley towards her daughters. She continuously asks her husband Mr. Bennet to visit
Netherfield Park and make acquaintances with Mr. Bingley. She wants Mr. Bingley to know her
daughters (Jane, Elizabeth, Catherine, Mary and Lydia) and propose anyone of them for
marriage. Mr. Bennet seems to be reserved and assumes a laid back attitude. He neither indulges
in making schemes nor plot marriage alliances like his wife. When he shows indifference to her
plans, she becomes angry and throws temper tantrums. He seems to enjoy and take pleasure in
tormenting her. But, after all he is a loving and a caring father; he finally visits Mr. Bingley and
makes acquaintances with him.
In the end it is said that Mr. Bingley falls in love with Jane the eldest daughter of Mrs. Bennet. He courts
her, loves her and ultimately marries her to the utmost satisfaction of Mrs. Bennet. Elizabeth Bennet, who is
the mouth piece of the novel, marries Mr. Darcy, Mr. Bingley’s friend. Thus the dreams of Mrs. Bennet are
seen getting the touch of reality.
Character Sketch Mrs. Bennet is has five daughters, she has a burning desire to see her daughters married to men
of large fortune. When Mr. Bingley sets to take Netherfield Park, Mrs. Bennet finds an opportunity. She collects
the whereabouts of Mr. Bingley from her neighbor, Mrs. Long. It appears to her a welcome opportunity to develop
friendly ties with Mr. Bingley who proves to be a man of large fortune. Mrs. Bennet feels very much vexed to see
the indifference shown by her husband on the point of marriage of their daughters. She finds her husband being so
serious on the point of marriage of their daughter. To her dismay, the patience of a compassionate mother is
virtually exhausted by her indifferent husband. Mrs. Bennet, however, rewarded in the end when Mr. Bennet
breaks the news that he has already visited Mr. Bingley and that he also expects Mr. Bingley may like to propose
one of the daughters, Mrs. Bennet is taken to surprise. She exclaims and says her girls that they have an excellent
father.
3. Prayer (Poem)
Ghulam Ahmad Mehjoor
Mahjoor has a place of honor among the poets of Kashmir. He is especially noted
for two things. First, he introduced a new style into Kashmiri poetry. Second, he
introduced a new thought into Kashmiri poetry.
➢ Mahjoor wrote poems of freedom and progress in Kashmiri. These songs awakened
the sleeping Kashmiris. He came with a new voice and a new (literary)
form. Mahjoor was a poet of love and communal harmony. In his earlier days, he
used to write only love poetry, but (later) he also wrote forceful poems about
freedom.
➢ Mahjoor's real name was Ghulam Ahmad. But as a poet, he adopted the pen name 'Mahjoor'. He was born in
eighteen hundred and eighty-five in Metragam. He has written poetry in Persian and Urdu as well.
➢ Mahjoor worked as a patwa:ri: (pathva:r') in Kashmir. Along with his official duties, he used to write poetry in
Kashmiri. Mahjoor had his first Kashmiri poem published in 1918. After this, he composed poetry only in
Kashmiri. His songs became very popular. He wrote on such topics as love, communal harmony, and social
reform, and also wrote on the plight of the Kashmiris. He wrote about youth, the flowers of Nishat Garden, a
peasant girl, a gardener, the golden oriole, and a Free Kashmir. At that time, such songs were unknown in
Kashmiri poetry. It was Mahjoor who gave these to us.
➢ Mahjoor was sixty-seven years old when he passed away in 1952. The death of Mahjoor was a great loss to
both the Kashmiri language and (Kashmiri) poetry. But, Mahjoor's songs are still on the lips of every
Kashmiri. Through these songs, his name will live forever.
Synopsis
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The poet asks for the blessings of the most merciful and benevolent. He passionately hopes that
God will keep him under his umbrage and will never desert him. The poet is a firm believer in the mercy of God,
he begs him to show him the way to achieve the enlightenment. He says that he is ready to receive the nectar of
knowledge within him from God. The poet is completely moved to tears, he continuously implores God to never
turn a deaf ear to his wails and cries of despair and frustration. He begs God Almighty to cure him of all evils and
pains that may cause immense suffering to his mind, body and soul. He does not wish to be subjugated to shame in
his human form; he wants Almighty to shower His blessing on his human form, so that he will fervently serve
humanity.
Prayer
(Poem)
Lord! You are my hope and trust, lead me to the way of truth
How long shall I dwell in ignorance! Pour me the nectar of knowledge
.
Lend ear to my wailing and pleas, cure me of ills and pains;
Be kind each moment to me; let me never feel in want.
Save me from sloth, infirmity and doubt,Surcharging my heart with passion, zest and hope.
Let me never chant the sleep – inducing tales;
Let me sing the songs which infuse life into the dead.
Let me sing of that, which inspires people with love,
And causes all bitterness and hatred to vanish.
You brought me to bloom with the earliest vernal breeze;
Let not the burning heat of summer wither me grey.
Like dew, how long shall I wait for the first flash of the sun?
Awaken me with the flowers in the first flash of the sun?
In form I am a man, in substance far from humanity,
Subject me not to trails, shame not my human form.
Forsaken by men am I, and so they call me Mehjoor,
People may desert me thus but you don’t abandon me Lord!
This poem is originally written in Kashmiri language by Mehjoor, who is popularly

known as Shair -e- Kashmir (the poet of Kashmir).
Literary Devices
1. Simile: an explicit likening of the one object, scene, or action with another, e.g. ‘as
weak as a kitten,’ inviting imagination comparison between the two terms rather than
the more powerful identification suggested by metaphor.
2. Metaphor: description of one thing (or person, idea, feeling, action etc.) in terms of
properly belonging to another, with the suggestion rather than explicit liking as in
simile.
5. The Tale of Custard the Dragon( Poem)
Ogden Nash: (1902-71) American writer of sophisticated light verse, born in Rye
York,
renowned for his puns, epigrams, elaborate rhymes, elaborate lack of rhymes, widely
asymmetrical lines, and other verbal fancies. His verse appeared in many collections
from 1931
onwards.
During his lifetime, Ogden Nash was the most widely known, appreciated, and imitated American creator of light
verse, a reputation that has continued after his death. Few writers of light or serious verse can claim the same
extensive dissemination of their poems that Nash’s works enjoy, both with and without citation of the author.
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Certain Nash lines, such as “If called by a panther, / Don’t anther,” and “In the vanities / No one wears panities,”
and “Candy / Is dandy, / But liquor / Is quicker” have become bits of popular American folklore. As Nash
remarked in a late verse, the turbulent modern world has much need for the relief his whimsy offers: “In chaos
sublunary / What remains constant but buffoonery?” Nash’s peculiar variety of poetic buffoonery combines wit and
imagination with eminently memorable rhymes.
Frederick Ogden Nash was born in Rye, New York, to Edmund Strudwick and Mattie Chenault Nash, both of
Southern stock. Nash’s great-great-grandfather was governor of North Carolina during the Revolution, and that
ancestor’s brother was General Francis Nash, for whom Nashville, Tennessee, was named. This pedigree did not in
the least restrain the poet-inheritor of the Nash name from gently but thoroughly deflating genealogical pretensions,
along with other pomposities, in his verses. He was raised in Savannah, Georgia, and several other East Coast
cities, as his father’s import-export business necessitated that the Nashes make frequent moves. Nash described his
unique accent as “Clam chowder of the East Coast—New England with a little Savannah at odd moments” and
attributed it to the influence of his family’s peripatetic existence during his formative years. Following his
secondary education from 1917 to 1920 at St. George’s School in Newport, Rhode Island, Nash attended Harvard
for the 1920–1921 academic year, and then, as he put it, he “had to drop out to earn a living.” He first tried
teaching at his alma mater, but after a year he fled from St. George’s, “because I lost my entire nervous system
carving lamb for a table of fourteen-year-olds.” Throughout his life Nash was a bit of a hypochondriac—one who,
a friend recalled, “seemed to enjoy poor health.”
After St. George’s Nash tried working as a bond salesman on Wall Street. The results left something to be desired;
he sold one bond—“to my godmother”—but had the chance to “see lots of good movies.” Following his failure at
high finance, Nash took a job writing streetcar advertising for Barron Collier. He moved on in 1925 to the
advertising department at the Doubleday, Page publishing house, which was to become Doubleday, Doran in 1927.
Nash had considerable aptitude for advertising, according to George Stevens, a colleague at Doubleday, Doran,
who felt that Nash could have made quite a success at the business. Stevens later recalled Nash’s ad copy for Booth
Tarkington’s The Plutocrat (1927), one of the house’s titles then high on the bestseller lists. Nash’s slogan, “First in
New York, First in Chicago, and First in the Hearts of his Countrymen,” was effective and catchy but, much to
Stevens’s delight, Nash’s paraphrase of the epithet commonly applied to George Washington scandalized an
elderly vice president at the company. (In the 1940s Nash was to suggest a new slogan to Western Union: “Don’t
write, telegraph. We’ll mail it for you.”)
Nash’s humorous advertising sallies were by no means his sole writings during this period. In off hours, he tried to
write serious poetry. “I wrote sonnets about beauty and truth, eternity, poignant pain,” he remembered. “That was
what the people I read wrote about, too—Keats, Shelley, Byron, the classical English poets.” Yet Nash’s final
judgment on his serious literary efforts was that he had better “laugh at myself before anyone laughed at me,” and
he restricted himself increasingly to writing the whimsical verse that was to make him famous. Nash began to
refine his focus upon what he called “my field—the minor idiocies of humanity.”
Early in his stay at Doubleday, Page, Nash made his first attempt at writing a children’s book, collaborating with
his friend Joseph Alger on The Cricket of Carador (1925). This slight but imaginative fantasy forecast his lifelong
fascination with animals. Yet the majority of Nash’s spare time was not devoted to literary production. As George
Stevens reminisced on his and Nash’s life during Prohibition, “It was the era of the ignoble experiment, and we
ignored the law in each other’s society more than once. We used to go to Yankee Stadium to see Babe Ruth in his
greatest year and the Yankees in theirs. In May we drove to Mineola and saw The Spirit of St. Louis a few days
before her pilot took off for Paris. During the presidential campaign of 1928 both of us were enthusiastically for Al
Smith, and, as I recall it, we were as much surprised as disappointed when Hoover swamped him.”
While working at Doubleday, Doran, Nash collaborated with Christopher Morley and another colleague to create
his first published piece of comic writing, an effusion of youthful good spirits that parodies various forms of
serious literature: Born in a Beer Garden or, She Troupes to Conquer: Sundry Ejaculations by Christopher Morley,
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Cleon Throckmorton, and Ogden Nash, and Certain of the Hoboken Ads, with a Commentary by Earnest Elmo
Calkins (1930). It was at Doubleday, Doran, as he faced Stevens across their desks, that Nash began scrawling brief
verses on pieces of yellow paper and pitching them over to his friend. Some of these bits of poetry appeared in
Nash’s first book of humorous verse, Hard Lines (1931), and Stevens later wondered why he had been unable to
recognize the poetic squibs and one-liners for more than trifles. Nash’s first published humorous poem occurred to
him one summer afternoon in 1930 as he gazed out his office window at an urban prominence, a mound covered by
high-rise buildings, but still euphemistically called a “hill.” Nash, casting about for thoughts to keep his mind off
the business of writing advertising copy, idly jotted down some lines of verse, which he soon threw into a trash bin.
Later he retrieved the paper, titled the verse “Spring Comes to Murray Hill,” and mailed the poem to the New
Yorker, which accepted it.
Light Verse:
uses the ordinary speaking voice and a relaxed manner to treat its subjects gaily, or
comically or whimsically, or with good-mannered satire. Its subjects may be serious
as well as
trivial; the defining quality is the attitude of the lyric or narrative speaker towards the
subject.
The Tale of Custard the Dragon is written in the form of light verse.
Synopsis
There lived a girl named Belinda in a little white house. She had various pets, a kitten, a mouse, a dog, a wagon and
a little dragon. All the pets had their names. The kitten was called ink, mouse was called Blink, dog was called
Mustard and the dragon was called Mustard. The custard had big sharp teeth. There were spikes on top of him and
scales underneath his mouth were like a fire place and nose like chimney. He had draggers on his toes. Belinda was
a very brave girl. Her pets were always in search of an occasion to show the braveness. The custard, on the other
hand was in search of peaceful cage to hide. Belinda used to tickle custard unmercifully. The other pets used to
make fun of him and called him Percival. Belinda used to laugh at the hapless situation of custard. The other pets
joined Belinda. The custard was not affected by all this and was still looking for a nice safe cage. Suddenly a loud
noise was heard. Belinda and her pets got frightened. They all called for help. There was a pirate climbing the
windows. He had a pistol in his right hand and a bright sword in his teeth. He had black beard indicating he had
come with bad intentions. Belinda got frightened and went pale. She cried for help. But none of her pet animals
came for her rescue. They all fled away leaving behind Belinda all alone. It was Custard that came for her rescue.
He snorted like an engine and faced the pirate bravely. The pirate stared back at custard and fired two bullets on
him but both missed. The custard swallowed the pirate and thus killed him. Belinda praised custard for his
braveness. The other pets also came out of their cages and danced around custard in joy. Belinda still lives in her
little white house with her pet. They are still having the same fun as they were before. Despite his braveness, the
dragon is still not interested to be in lime light and searches for a nice cage.
4. The Necklace (Short Story)
Guy de Maupassant (1850-93) French short story writer and novelist, his
numerous stories
typically deal with folk or urban employees and civil servants, though other social
groups
(aristocrats, prostitutes, soldiers) also appear; many of these were reworked and
appear in
collections such ad in The Tellier House 1881, Miss Harriet 1884, useless Beauty
1890 and they earned for him a reputation in the English – Speaking world as ‘French Chekhov’, with
translations appearing as early as 1887.
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Maupassant was the elder of the two children of Gustave and Laure de Maupassant. His mother’s claim that
he was born at the Château de Miromesnil has been disputed. The couple’s second son, Hervé, was born in
1856.
Both parents came of Norman families, the father’s of the minor aristocracy, but the marriage was a failure,
and the couple separated permanently when Guy was 11 years old. Although the Maupassants were a free-
thinking family, Guy received his first education from the church and at age 13 was sent to a small seminary
at Yvetot that took both lay and clerical pupils. He felt a decided antipathy for this form of life and
deliberately engineered his own expulsion for some trivial offense in 1868. He moved to the lycée at Le
Havre and passed his baccalaureate the following year. In the autumn of 1869 he began law studies in Paris,
which were interrupted by the outbreak of the Franco-German War. Maupassant volunteered, served first as
a private in the field, and was later transferred through his father’s intervention to the quartermaster corps.
His firsthand experience of war was to provide him with the material for some of his finest stories.
Synopsis
Matilda was a pretty young girl who always who always wished to marry a man either rich or distinguished. She
would always think herself born for all delicacies and luxuries. The irony of fate, however, was always with this
girl. Born to a family of clerks she was also married to a clerk of education department. This ruined all her
prospects of her happy married life. Matilda could not help but dream for elegant dinners, jewels, ornaments and
other luxuries. She always wanted to impress people with her but could hardly find such opportunities. It was the
invitation from the minister of Public instructions to a dinner party that Matilda stole pretence to showcase her
beauty. She borrowed a beautiful necklace from one friend Mme Forester for the party. Intoxicated with pride and
pleasure, the beautiful lady in ornaments won all the praises of men. All the men at the party noticed her, asked her
name, and wanted to be presented. It was the most fulfilling thing for her heart. After the party was over, Matilda
returned home, she stood in front of the mirror in order to have a final look of her elegance. To her utter surprise
she found the necklace missing. She staggered and cried out to her husband. Both went out searching for it. After a
rigorous search for a week they lost every hope of finding it. The couple then went to the jeweler to procure a
similar necklace to be returned to Mme Forester. It cost them thirty-six thousand rubles. They were somehow able
to raise the money but they were completely drowned in debt. To pay the debt Matilda and her husband did
everything that lay in their domain. They sent away the maid, changed their lodging and rented some rooms at the
attic. Loisel worked double shift and Matilda learnt odious work of the kitchen, washed dishes and soiled linen in
other houses. She would now take house refuse to the street, go shopping and haggled with the grocers. She was
now turned into crude woman of poor household with virtually no charm to her share. This lasted for ten long years
and at the end of ten bitter years everything was restored but Matilda had turned into crude women of the poor
household something she despised all her life. Then one day while taking a walk in Champs Elysees she saw her
friend Mme Forester who at first couldn’t recognize Matilda because of her condition. When Mme Forested asked
her why she had changed drastically, Matilda accused her of being the reason behind all her miseries and told her
everything about the necklace, on hearing this Mme Forester reveals to Matilda that the necklace she had given to
her was a fake it wasn’t made of real diamonds they were not worth over five hundred francs.
Answer the following questions.

Q1. ‘Griffin was an eccentric scientist.’ Explain.Q2. Write the character sketch of Mr. Bennet.
Q3. Explain the usage of similes and metaphors in the poem Prayer
.
Q4. Do you think Custard the Dragon was brave? Why?
Q5. How did Matilda ruin her own life?
______________________________________________________________________________
Grammar
A. Punctuations
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When we speak, we do not go on speaking continuously and in the same tone. We pause while speaking. Even our
pauses are not of the same duration. Some of them are short while some of them are pretty long. And sometimes
we raise our voice while at others we lower it. We lend a particular quality of voice to the same words to convey a
particular meaning. Marks of punctuation perform the same function as pauses and stresses perform in speech.
Look at these four words: he has gone away Try speaking these words in different ways. Try to make a simple
statement. Next try to ask a question. Still next, try to turn them into an examination, that is, try to give them a
strong feeling, that of regret or surprise. You will notice that you have spoken these words in different ways.
How do we convey this in writing? We use different punctuation marks:
He has gone away.

[Full stop, for a simple statement]
He has gone away?
[Question mark, for a question]
He has gone away!
[Mark of exclamation, for an exclamation- for
regret and surprise]The example taken above taken should also suggest that a wrong mark of punctuation or the
absence of a punctuation mark where there should have been one would convey a wrong
meaning. Take these examples:
1. When are we going to eat Catherine?
2. I hope you like her father because she is my best friend.
Do these sentences convey any meaning? Are we going to eat Catherine? In sentence 2, have we
used she for her father? Let us put some commas:
1. When are we going to eat, Catherine?
2. I hope you like her, father, because she is my best friend.
The main marks of punctuation are:
1. Full Stop (.)
2. Apostrophe (’)
3. Comma (,)
4. Quotation marks or Inverted commas (“ ”)
5. Semicolon (;)
6. Colon (:)
7. Mark of interrogation (?)
8. Mark of exclamation (!)
a. Full stop
1.We use full stop to close a statement or a command:

Eggs are rich in protein. (Statement)
Bring a dozen eggs from the market. (Command)
2. We use a full stop after initials or abbreviations:
Mr. G. N. Shah: Mister Ghulam Nabi Shah
P. M.: Prime Minister
Note:
In modern English, full stops are often omitted in abbreviations.
U.S.A. and USA are both acceptable. Similarly, U.N.O and UNO are both acceptable.
3. We use full stop to indicate a decimal fraction:
56.2, 22.8
b. Comma
The comma is the shortest pause. It is used in the following ways:
1. To separate words in series:
Our new CEO is competent, experienced and sincere.
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The food they served was delicious, nourishing and cheap.

Note: Before the last word, which is preceded by and, we have not used comma.
2. To separate short clauses in series:
Standing or sitting, eating or drinking, sleeping or walking, he is always thinking
of his past.
3. To separate short clauses in series:
I do not know who he is, how he got in or why he is here.
4. To set off a noun of address:
Mother, may I have something to eat?
May I have something to eat, Mother?
5. To separate the parts of a date from one another or any words following the date:
October 19, 2006
On October 19, 2006, we shifted to our new house.
6. To separate the parts of an address:
Sultan Chand & Sons,
24, Darya Ganj, New Delhi
7. In the letter after the salutation and after the complimentary:
Dear Mega,
Yours sincerely,
8. To separate expressions like ‘yes’ ,’no’ , ‘oh’ and ‘well’ :
Yes, I will certainly come.
Oh, I haven’t got that letter.
Well, I’ll see what I can do for you.
9. To separate expressions that are in apposition:
Mr. Gull Khan, the Chief Secretary, was the chief guest.
Mrs. Galaxy, the new manager, is a very gentle lady.
10. To separate a question tag from a statement:
This news is rue, isn’t it?
You weren’t absent, were you?
11. To separate a reported speech from the rest of the sentences:
He said, “We should learn from our mistakes.”
Jenny said, “I will be there tomorrow.”
12. Whenever a brief pause is needed to give greater clarity to our writing:
To prove my point, I produced a certificate.
The day after, her grandmother expired.
She is, as far as I know, a very reliable person.
c. Semicolon
The semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than a full stop.
1. It is used between independent clauses not connected by a conjunction:
Rosy is quiet and hardworking; Ruby is jovial and active.
2. It is used before such expressions as ‘however’ ,’then’, ‘moreover’, ‘nevertheless’,
‘hence’, ‘thus’, ‘for instance’, ‘consequently’, ‘that is’, ‘therefore’, if the come between
the independent clauses not connected by a conjunction:
Our Principal insists on strict discipline; therefore, I try to be very punctual.
You have already taken three days’ leave; hence, you cannot be on leave
tomorrow.
3. It is used to separate clauses, particularly if the clauses have internal commas:
The family is going on a picnic; father carries the rugs; mother, the food; and the
children, the rest of the things.
d. Colon
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The colon is used after a statement which introduces examples:

India has several large cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai.
My subjects this year are the following: English, Hindi, Mathematics, General
Science and Social studies.
e. The mark of interrogation

The mark of interrogation is placed at the end of an interrogative sentence:
Are you sure this news is true?
How old is she?
f. The mark of exclamation

The mark of exclamation is placed at the end of an exclamatory sentence:
How stupid!
What an excellent idea!
Alas! Gambling has ruined him.
g. Apostrophe
1. To form the possessive of any singular noun, we add an apostrophe and ‘s’ to the
noun:
the girl’s dress, Ronny’s books, Shad’s bat
2. To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in ‘S’ , we add only an apostrophe;
The boys’ school, her teachers’ influence, a ladies’ tailor
3. To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in ‘s’, we add an
apostrophe and ‘s’
Children’s programs, men’s clothes, women’s collages
4. We use an apostrophe to make short form:
I’ll (I will), it’s (it is), he doesn’t (does not)
5. We use an apostrophe to form the plurals of letters, figures, etc.:
Two 5’s, three M.A.’s, two a’s
6. We use an apostrophe with expressions of time, space and money:
Two weeks’ holiday, a stone’s throw, a rupee’s worth
7. We don’t use the apostrophe with these words:
Ours,yours,its,hers,theirs,whose
h. The quotation marks or inverted commas

The quotation marks are used to set off the actual words used by a speaker.
Lily said, “I want to become a lawyer when I grow up.”
The speaker said, “It is our duty to defend our country.”
i. Capital letters
Capital letters with proper nouns
a. Capitalize the names of persons:
Emmy Rose, Gabby Albert
b. Capitalize the names of the days of the week and of the months (but not the names of the
seasons)
Monday, the third Tuesday in June
c. Capitalize the words of religion and other words used with them:
Islam, the Bible, Diwali, the Buddhist
d. Capitalize the names of countries, nationalities, races, languages, and all adjectives
derived from them
India, Indian, Union Territory of Kashmir, Tamil, the Germans
e. Capitalize the names of schools, colleges, business houses, political parties:
Delhi public school, Hans Raj College, Kashmir silk mills, BJP
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f. Capitalize the names of buildings, the names of trains and ships, brand names:
The Red Fort, the Indian Express, Hero Honda
g. Capitalize the names of special days, special events, etc.:
The Republic Day, Quit India Movement,
Now look at these examples of unpunctuated and punctuated sentences:
1. Unpunctuated
thehindus regard the gita as one of their greatest books it is discourse on the eve of war
but it is more useful for teaching the art of living said she
Punctuated
“The Hindus regard the Gita as one of their greatest books it is a discourse on the eve of
war but it is more useful for teaching the art of living,” said she.
2. Unpunctuatedi feel ill may i go home i don’t think i can do any work today said sandy why did you come to the
school if you were not feeling well said the teacher in the morning I was all right sir said sandy
Punctuated
“I feel ill. May I go home?I don’t think I can do any work today,” said Sandy
“Why did you come to the school if you were not feeling well” said the teacher.
“In the morning I was all right, sir,” said sandy.
Punctuate the following sentences:
1. who is this man you speak of asked arthur leaving his seat buttoning up his coat and
moving towards the door
2. my craft teacher doesn’t like what Im making said kathy what are you making dear
asked his father mr bison robin mistakes said kathy
3. how can one remain happy a student wanted to know learn to laugh and be cheerful
said the teacher it is a great tonic for healthy living itll make you popular among
friends but remember its important to laugh with others and not at others
4. the rats were all gone not one was left in hemlin and when the people realized it they
went mad with joy they cheered and embraced they shouted and danced they laughed
and cried all the church bells were set ringing
5. as he appeoached the dog dorathy held her hand out palm upwords and said softly
rebim going to untie you and taked you home with me no one is going to hurt you I
promise you that you will be my own dog and never never again will anyone hurt you
you and I will be together always
B. Agreement of the Subject with Verb

A verb must agree with its subject in Number and Person, i.e. the verb should be of the
same Number and Person as the Subject.
1. Two or more singular subjects joined by and take a Plural Verb: as,
Vega and Conrad have passed.
She and her brother were absent.
He and I are great friends
Note: sometimes two subjects are regarded as representing one idea and then the
verb is singular, as,
Slow and steady wins the race.
Bread and butter is a wholesome food.
2. If two Singular Nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Verb must be Singular:
The poet and the philosopher is dead. [Here poet and philosopher refer to the
same person.]
The orator and statesman has arrived.
Note: if the Article is used only once, then the two Nouns refer to the same person,
and the verb used is Singular. But if the Article is mentioned twice, then two distinct
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persons are intended, and the verb following must be in the Plural Number; as,
The poet and the philosopher are dead
The orator and the statesman have arrived.
3. If two Singular Nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, Verb is Singular;
as,
Each day and each hour brings us a fresh anxiety.
Every woman and every man in the village was terrified.
4. Two or more singular subjects connected by or ,nor, either …or, neither …nor, take a
singular Verb; as,
Either Mable or Sherlock is in the wrong.

Neither Mable nor her brother was present there.
Neither praise nor blame seems to affect her.
Neither he nor I was mistaken.
Any girl or boy sees it at once.
Note: (1) when one of the Nouns or pronouns joined by or, nor, is in the singular and the
other in the Plural, the Verb should be Plural and the Plural Subject should be placed near
the Verb; as,
Sherlock or his brothers are to blame.
Neither Albert nor his friends were to present in the school.
Note: (2) If two subjects joined by or, nor are of different persons, the verb agrees in
person with the subject nearest to it; as,
Either you are telling a lie or he is.
Neither is my brother happy nor am I.
5. If two Nouns are joined with or as well as, the verb agrees with the first Noun, i.e. if
the first Noun is singular, the Verb must be singular, even if the second Noun is
plural; as,
Ronny, as well as his friend, has won the prize.
Iron as well as gold is found in India.
Kindness as well as mercy allows it.
6. A Collective Noun takes a Singular or Plural Verb according to the sense. If the idea
of oneness is expressed, the verb must be singular; if the individuals of the
collocation are thought of, the verb must be plural.
The jury [= men of the jury] were divided in their opinion.
The jury [= one body] has elected its President.
The council meets today in the town hall
The council that met in the town hall were divided.
7. Either, nether, each, every one, many a must be followed by a verb in the singular.
Either of the two applicants is suitable.
Every one of the boat’s crew was drowned.
Neither of the two applicants is suitable.
Many a man is tempted by gold.
Subject- Verb Agreement – Practice exercise

1. Everybody (was-were) asked to be quiet.
2. In a marathon, few of the starters (finishes-finish) the race.
3. Sixty days (is-are) not enough time to complete the project.
4. All of the workers (is-are) not enough time ti complete the project.
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5. On our street (is –are) many tall trees.

6. It (don’t –doesn’t) make any difference.
7. The value of cars and motorcycles (has –have) increased.
8. The principal and her husband (is-are) honored guests.
9. Either the pitcher or the base runners (was-were) guests.
10. One of my friends (believe- believes) in E.S.P.
11. Beyond the mountains (is –are) a fertile valley.
12. Neither of us (is –are) going to work.
13. Here (comes- come) the family now.
14. Either Luis or Horace (pay-pays) the bills in our house.
15. There (was –were) several dents in the car.
Errors due to Proximity

Often the verb is made to agree in Number with a noun near it instead of its proper
subject. This should be avoided.
1. The behavior of our children was (not were) excellent.
2. A verity of pleasing objects charms (not charm) the eye.
3. A series of lectures has (not have) been arranged on the subject.
4. The cost of all these articles has (not have) risen.
When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a
whole, the verb is generally singular; as,
✔ Two-thirds of the city is in ruins (not are)
✔ A thousand rupee is a good sum (not are)
Similarly with titles of books and names of sciences:

The Arabian Nights is an interesting book (not are)
The United States has a big army (not have).
Physics is an interesting science (not are)
MESSAGE WRITING
A message is an informal means of communication. The receiver of the message has to sift through the given
message and pick out the most vital bits of information. Then, he/she should be able to reproduce that
information in order to convey it to the person for whom it is intended. Format:
1. Date
2. Time
3. Name of person to whom the message is directed
4. Body of the message
5. Name of the writer
Points To Remember
While writing the body of the message, the following points have to be kept in mind:
⚫ Only the most important details should be written.

⚫ No new information should be added.
⚫ Grammatically correct sentences should be used.
⚫ Indirect or reported speech should be used.
⚫ The message should be presented within a box.
⚫ The word limit for a message is 50 words (only the words in the body of the notice are counted).
Here are the key elements you must include in message writing:
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• Heading
You should begin with writing the heading as ‘MESSAGE’ in capital letters. It is supposed to be written in
the centre at the top.
• Date
On the left-hand side of the page, you have to write the date in expanded form.
• Time
Though it is mandatory to mention the time in a message, there is no specification for its placement as it
can either be mentioned on the left under the date or on the right side adjacent to it.
• Body
It is the main passage, wherein you need to mention all the essential information. Do not use lengthy
sentences, keep it short, precise and within 150 words.
• Sender
After writing the necessary information, the sender’s name comes at the end on the left side.
MESSAGE
1 March 20XX
11:11 AM
Mr/Mrs. Abc
BODY
Xyz
EXAMPLE: Madhuri called Mrs. Mehta a garments shop owner. Since she was not available, her assistant, Mani
answered. The following is a conversation between Madhuri and Mani. As Mani has to go out immediately
afterward, therefore she leaves a message for Mrs.Mehta. Below is the conversation given, write the message in
your own words.
Madhuri: Hello, is that Angels Garments?
Mani: Yes.
Madhuri: Could I speak to Mrs.Smita?
Mani: I am sorry, Ma’am, she’s not here at the moment.
Madhuri: When will she return?
Mani: Not before 5 in the evening. Can I take a message for her?
Madhuri: Yes. Could you please tell her to deliver the Dresses ordered by me, only on the 15th January and not on
10th January, which I have selected from the catalog? Ask her to keep it ready by 10.00 am on the 15th January. I
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will be sending one of the person from home for the pick up of the dresses and she does not have to arrange for the
same.
Mani: Ok Mam, I will inform her.
Madhuri: Thank you!
MESSAGE
9TH January, 2021
2PM
Mrs. Smita,
Ms.Madhuri called today and have informed me to deliver the dresses only on 15th January and not on 10th
January. She wants to get the dresses ready by 10.00 AM on 15th January. She will be sending a person
from her home to pick up the dresses.
Mani
PRACTICE WORK
Question 1.
You are Fatima, you receive a phone call from your father’s office Mr. Rehman, in his absence. Draft the message
not more than 50 words following this conversation when you will going to the library.
Mr. Rehman: Hello, is this 98417854XX?
Fatima: Yes. May I know who’s calling?
Mr. Rehman: I am Rahul Singha. Can I talk to Mr. Ajaz?
Fatima: Father is not at home. Do you have any messages for them?
Mr. Rehman: Yes, please tell him to come to the office tomorrow at 11 am, there is an urgent meeting with the
manager. Could you please give him this message?
Fatima: Okay, I’ll give him this message.
Mr. Rehman: Thank you.
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Question 2.
You are Mehar. You received a phone call from Sadaf today. You had the following telephonic
conversation with Sadaf, a school friends of your elder sister. Write a brief message for your sister before leaving
for your tuition's.
Sadaf: Hello, is this 87689546XX?
Mehar: Yes. May I know who’s calling?
Sadaf: I am Sumit, a friend of Karan. Where is she?
Mehar: she has gone to father’s office. Can I help you?
Sadaf: Oh, sure. Please tell him that he will be taking math notes and geometry box intuition class because
tomorrow will be a math test. Could you please give her this message?
Mehar: Okay, I’ll give her this message.
Sadaf: Thank you.
MATHEMATICS
Chapter Real Numbers

In class 9 we have studied about real numbers , which are collection of rational and irrational numbers. Recall that
N represents the natural numbers which are 1 , 2 , 3, 4 ,……………..
W represents the whole numbers which are 0 , 1 , 2 , 3, 4,…………..
Z represents the integers which are -3 , -2 , - 1, 0 , 1 , 2, 3, …………
Q represents the rational numbers which are in the form of p/q where p,q are integers and q ≠ 0.
S represents the irrational numbers which are 2 , 3,5 , …….
R represents the real numbers , which are collection of all rational and irrational numbers . Real number is either
rational or irrational .
LEMMA
A lemma is a proven statement which is used to prove other statement
EUCLIDS DIVISION LEMMA
Consider division of a positive integer by another positive integer, say 26 by 4 we get
26 = 4 × 6 + 2 ( because Dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder ) where remainder 2 is less than 4 and more
than zero .i,e 0 ≤ 2 < 4
Let us divide another pair of +ve integers i,e 30 and 5 , we get
30 = 5 × 6 + 0 ; 0 ≤ 0 < 5
So we observe that when we divide two +ve integers a & b , we can find unique integers q & r satisfying the
relation a = bq + r ; 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏
This is known as Euclid’s division lemma.
THEOREM ( EUCLID’S DIVISION LEMMA )
Given positive integers a & b , there exists unique integers q & r satisfying
a = bq + r ; 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏
Euclid’s division algorithm is used to find the HCF of two given positive integers .
ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a series of well defined steps which gives a procedure for solving a type of problem
EUCLID’S DIVISION ALGORITHM
To obtain the HCF of two +ve integers a & b , a > b , steps are as follows
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1. Apply Euclid’s division lemma to a > b and find whole numbers q & r such that
a = bq + r , 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏
2. If r = 0 then HCF of a & b is b . If r ≠ 0 , then apply Euclid’s division lemma to b & r
3. Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be the required HCF.
EXAMPLE
Use Euclid’s division algorithm to find the HCF of 740 and 45
Solution Apply Euclid’s division lemma to 740 and 45 , we get
740 = 45 × 16 + 20 , 0 ≤ 20 < 45
As remainder 20 ≠0, Apply Euclid’s division lemma to 45 and 20
45 = 20 × 2 + 5 , 0 ≤ 5 < 20
As remainder 5 ≠0, apply Euclid’s division lemma to 20 and 5
20 = 5 × 4 + 0
Here r=0
 HCF of 740 and 45 = 5
FUNDAMENTAL TEOREM OF ARITHMETIC
A natural number, except 1, is either prime or composite. A prime number is that number which has exactly
two factors i,e 1 and the number itself . A composite number is that number which can be factorized into prime
numbers. For example
5 × 1 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 × 1 = 7 are prime numbers
Whereas 14 = 2 × 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 28 = 2 × 2 × 7 are composite numbers
Theorem ( Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic )
Every composite number can be factorized (expressed) as a product of primes, this factorization is unique apart
from the order in which the prime factors occur.
A composite number can be factorized in one and only one way i,e unique way. So every composite number
can be expressed as the products of powers of distinct primes in a unique way.
For example, prime factorization of 48 and 27 are
Composite number 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24 × 3
So the composite number can be expressed as the products of power of primes in unique way
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic can be used to find the HCF and LCM of positive integers . The
following steps are followed to find the HCF and LCM of two or more positive integers
STEPS
(i) Factorize the given positive integers in prime factors and express them as a product of powers of
primes in ascending order.
(ii) For HCF identify common prme factors and find the smallest exponent of these common factors .
Multiply these common factors to get the HCF
(iii) For LCM find, the greatest exponent of all prime factors and multiply them to get the LCM
HCF = Product of the smallest power of each common prime factor in the numbers.
LCM = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor involved in the numbers .
For any two positive integers a & b
HCF ( a , b ) × LCM ( a , b ) = a × 𝑏
This relation can be used to find the LCM of two positive integers, if HCF of two integers is known
SCIENCE
PHYSICS
Coverage: Portion related to Reflection of light.( First phase)
This is the first chapter that we have to study, comprehend, imbibe & understand more ahead to what we have
studied in class VIII.
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The sun is natural & ultimate source of energy and this solar energy in the form of visible light illuminates every
nook & corner of the landscape that we discern at the time of sunrise. Thus, it is the light that makes things visible
and at the same time triggers various bio chemical phenomena’s around like photosynthesis thus it pools energy to
make the survival of living organisms possible. As such sun is a source of energy and the light it gives is a form of
energy.
Light is a form of energy that produces in us the sensation of sight. This vision or sight enables us to see the
object from where it comes (like the Sun} or from the object where it is reflected {like moon}. This makes us to
call sun as luminous object and moon as non-luminous object. All the opaque objects are non-luminous (unlike
sun, lamp, candle) as they reflect the light of the sun and this reflected light enters our eyes and project image on
our retina & we see them.
Light has a rectilinear propagation which means it travels in straight line & results in the formation of shadows.
Nature of light.
Different theories have been put forward to explain the nature of light, but two main theories have been taken
into account to explain the nature of the light. These two theories are wave theory and particle theory. These are
like the two sides of the same coin & all depends what phenomena of light is to be studied. According to wave
theory light consists of electromagnetic waves which do not require any material medium {like solid, liquid or gas}
for their propagation. The speed of light is 3x108m/sec in vacuum. The wavelength ranges from 4x10-7m to 8x10-
7m. But according to particle theory light is composed of particles which travel in straight line at an immense
speed. These elementary particles are called as photons. Some of the phenomena of light can be explained only if
light is considered to be made up of waves whereas others can be explained only if it is thought to be made up of
particles. For example, the phenomenon of diffraction, interference & polarization can be explained on the basis of
wave nature of light while as reflection, refraction & photo electric effect and casting of shadows can be explained
on the particle theory of light. Thus, there is evidence for wave theory and particle theory of light.
Physicists over the past hundred years after consistent experimentation have shown that light has Dual nature or
what we call as double nature. The modern theory of light called as ‘Quantum Theory of Light ‘combines both
wave and particle modals of light.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
It can be a matter of common observation that when light falls on the surface of an object it may
be absorbed, transmitted or reflected. Now if the object on which the light falls absorbs all the light falling on it
will appear black or dark because most of the light falling on it gets absorbed & very little is reflected from it or
send back and if the object transmits the light or allows the light to pass through it is said to be transparent, e;g
when light passes through a transparent sheet of glass. Most of the objects, however, reflect some of the light which
falls on their surface for example a polished silver mirror sends back more than 95% of light falling on it. From this
physical phenomenon we conclude that when light falls on the surface of an object, some of it is sent back.
This process of sending back the light rays which fall on the surface of an object is called as reflection of light.
The objects having polished shinning surface s reflects lighter than objects having unpolished dull surfaces. You
see we know that an object say a wooden table kept in a room can be seen from all corners of the room because
table has a rough surface and light is reflected or scattered in all directions. This is called as irregular reflection and
whatever opaque objects we see over and around is all due to scattered reflection of light. On the other hand if there
is a polished surface like mirror it reflected light beam in one direction & we can’t see the object clearly as it
dazzles our eyes. Silver is one of the best reflectors of light as it reflects 95% of light falling on it.
Here we see that all material surfaces do not bounce back the light to the same degree or extent. This brings out an
optical term as what we call as Reflectance. It is defined as the ratio of the amount of light reflected from a surface
to the amount of light incident on it.
So reflectance is given by the relation which is : Amount of light reflected/Amount of light incident on it
multiplied by 100.Silver has reflectance of 95% while coal has 4%.We see around our surroundings by irregular
reflection or what we call as scattering of light.
Reflection from plane mirror.
When a ray of light falls on a plane mirror (or any polished plane surface) it is reflected according to some laws
called as laws of reflection of light.
The ray of light which falls on the mirror surface is called the incident ray. The ray of light which is sent back
by the mirror is called as reflected ray. There is another ray called as normal which is a ray perpendicular to the
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mirror at the point of incidence. Also, there is angle of incidence & angle of reflection. Angle of incidence is the
angle made by the incident ray with the normal, while as the angle of reflection is the angle made by the reflected
ray with the normal at the point of incidence.
Laws of reflection:
The reflection of light from a plane surface like plane mirror or from a spherical surface (like convex or concave
mirror) takes place according two laws known as laws of laws of reflection.
First Law: The incident ray, the normal & the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.
Second Law: The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
These two laws hold good in spherical mirrors also but these form both real and virtual image. The only
difference that plane mirror has focal length infinity. The optical terms are there in case of spherical mirrors and
formation of image, their position & nature will be displayed geometrically while in the classroom you need to note
it down & while drawing ray diagrams you have to adhere to some mirror optical rules which will be explained in
an explicit manner. Besides the magnification produced by mirror image formation will also be taken into account.
Diagram will be displayed after explaining through online demo.
CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

CHEMICAL CHANGE
A process in which the original substances lose their nature and identity and form new chemical substance with
different properties is called chemical change. All of them are accompanied by certain reactions known as chemical
reactions.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions are the processes in which new substances with new properties are formed. The chemical
substances taken originally are called reactants and the new chemical substances formed are called products.
During chemical reactions rearrangement of atoms take place, by breaking of old bonds between the atoms of
reactants and then formation of new bonds between the atoms of the products. However the atoms of the one
element do not change into those of another element.
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL REACT ION
i. CHANGE IN COLOUR
Some chemical reactions are characterized by change in colour.
PbNO3 + KI
Lead nitrate (colourless) Potassium iodide (colourless)
PbI(ppt) + KNO3(aq)
Lead iodide (yellow) Potassium nitrate
CuSO4(aq) + H2S(g) CuS (ppt.) + H2SO4(aq)
Copper sulphate(blue) Hydrogen sulphide Copper sulphide Sulphuric acid
ii. CHANGE IN PHYSICAL STATE
The physical state of the substance normally changes during a chemical reaction.
C + O2 CO2
Carbon(solid) Oxygen(gas) carbon dioxide (gas)
H2 + O2 H2O + 572kJ
Hydrogen (g) Oxygen (g) Water (l)
iii) EVOLUTION OF GAS
Some chemical reactions are accompanied by evolution of gas.
Zn (s) + HCl (aq) -----------------> ZnCl2 + H2
CaCO3 ----------------> CaO + CO2

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HEAT
iv) CHANGE IN PHYSICAL STATE
H2 (g) + O2 (g) ----------------> H2O (l)+ 572kJ
Wax (s) + Air (g) -------------> CO₂ (g) + H₂O (g)
v) CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
CaO + H2O ---------------> Ca(OH)₂ + Heat
Ba(OH)₂ + NH₄Cl ---------------> BaCl₂ + NH₃ + H2O
(vessel turns cold)
vi) FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
BaCl₂ + H₂SO₄ --------------> BaSO₄ (↓) + NaCl
(White ppt.)
AgNO₃ + NaCl ---------------> AgCl (↓) + NaNO₃
( White ppt.)
CHEMICAL EQUATION: Representation of chemical reaction using symbols and formulae of the substances is
called Chemical Equation.
Example: A + B → C + D
In this equation, A and B are called reactants and C and D are called the products. The arrow shows the direction of
the chemical reaction. Condition, if any, is written generally above the arrow.For example, When hydrogen reacts
with oxygen, it gives water. This reaction can be represented by the following chemical equation:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
H2 + O2 → H2O
In the first equation, words are used and in second, symbols of substances are used to write the chemical equation.
For convenience, the symbol of substance is used to represent chemical equations.
A chemical equation is a way to represent the chemical reaction in a concise and informative way.
A chemical equation can be divided into two types: Balanced Chemical Equation and Unbalanced Chemical
Equation.
(a) BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION: A balanced chemical equation has the number of atoms of each
element equal on both sides.
Example: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
In this equation, numbers of zinc, hydrogen and sulphate are equal on both sides, so it is a Balanced Chemical
Equation.
According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
To obey this law, the total mass of elements present in reactants must be equal to the total mass of elements present
in products.
(b) UNBALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION: If the number of atoms of each element in reactants is not equal to
the number of atoms of each element present in the product, then the chemical equation is called Unbalanced
Chemical Equation.
Example: Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
In this example, a number of atoms of elements are not equal on two sides of the reaction. For example; on the left-
hand side only one iron atom is present, while three iron atoms are present on the right-hand side. Therefore, it is
an unbalanced chemical equation.
BALANCING A CHEMICAL EQUATION: To balance the given or any chemical equation, follow these steps:
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Write the number of atoms of elements present in reactants and in products in a table as shown here.
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Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product
Iron 1 3
Hydrogen 2 2
Oxygen 1 4
Balance the atom which is maximum in number on either side of a chemical equation.
In this equation, the number of oxygen atom is the maximum on the RHS.
To balance the oxygen, one needs to multiply the oxygen on the LHS by 4, so that, the number of oxygen atoms
becomes equal on both sides.
Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Now, the number of hydrogen atoms becomes 8 on the LHS, which is more than that on the RHS. To balance it,
one needs to multiply the hydrogen on the RHS by 4.
Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2
After that, the number of oxygen and hydrogen atoms becomes equal on both sides. The number of iron is one on
the LHS, while it is three on the RHS. To balance it, multiply the iron on the LHS by 3.
3 × Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2
Now the number of atoms of each element becomes equal on both sides. Thus, this equation becomes a balanced
equation.
Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product
Iron 3 3
Hydrogen 8 8
Oxygen 4 4
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After balancing, the above equation can be written as follows:

3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2.
HOW TO MAKE CHEMICAL EQUATION MORE INFORMATIVE
The various Steps that can be taken to make a chemical equation more informative are:
1. Write the state symbols for the reactants and products participating in the reaction.
2. Indicate the gas evolved in the reaction by an arrow pointing upwards.(↑)
3. Represent the precipitate if formed in the reaction by an arrow pointing downwards (↓) or by using the
abbreviation ‘ppt’.
4. Mention the actual heat evolved in the exothermic reaction by plus (+) sign and heat absorbed in the
endothermic reaction by negative (—) sign on the product side.
C(s) + O2 (g) -------------> CO2 (g) + 393.5 kJ (Exothermic reaction)
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ----------------> 2NO (g) ⁻ 180 kJ (Endothermic reaction)
5. In some chemical reactions conditions of temperature, pressure, catalyst etc. are mentioned either above or
below the arrow head that separates the reactants from products. For example,
500⁰C, 200 atm
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ------------------------> 2NH3 (g)
Fe (catalyst)
Sunlight
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g) ---------------> C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2 (g)
Chlorophyll
6. Certain chemical reactions can proceed in both the directions. The reactants change into products in forward
reaction. The products are converted into reactants in the backward reaction. For example,
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ------------------> 2 NH3 (g)
2 NH3 (g) ---------------> N2 (g) + H2 (g)
Such reactions are also called reversible reactions and are indicated by the symbol (⇋).
Forward
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) --------------------------- > 2 NH3 (g)
Backward
INFORMATION CONVEYED BY A BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION

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Chemical equation also called symbol equation is the short-hand way of representing a chemical reaction. It
provides useful information about the chemical reaction. For example,
1. A chemical equation tells us about the substances (reactants and products) participating in a particular reaction.
2. A chemical equation informs us about the symbols and formulae of all the substances involved in a particular
reaction.
3. A chemical equation tells us about the number of atoms or molecules of the reactants and products that are
involved in the reaction.
4. A chemical equation gives information about the weights of the reactants consumed and of the products formed
in a chemical reaction.
5. A chemical equation tells us about the number of gram atoms or gram moles of the subscances that are
participating in the reaction.
6. In some cases, the chemical equation tells us about the physical states of the reactants and products and also
about the heat evolved or absorbed during the reaction provided these are specially mentioned.
INFORMATION NOT CONVEYED BY CHEMICAL EQUATION:
❑ It does not tell us about the feasibility of a chemical reaction.
Cu + ZnSO₄ CuSO₄ + Zn
❑ The reaction may or may not be complete. An equation does not reveal this.
❑ It does not give any information regarding the rate of the reaction.
Fe + O₂ Fe₂O₃
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H₂O(aq)
❑ It does not give the actual quantity of the reactants or products formed.
❑ It does not give any idea about colour changes involved in chemical reaction.
Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, Displacement Reaction, Double
Displacement Reaction, Neutralization Reactions, Exothermic – Endothermic Reactions and Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions.
Types of Chemical Reactions:
Chemical reactions can be classified in following types:
(i) Combination Reaction: Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form one product are called
Combination Reactions.
A general combination reaction can be represented by the chemical equation given here:
A + B → AB
Examples:
When magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen), magnesium oxide is formed. In this reaction, magnesium is
combined with oxygen.
Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide
(ii) Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more compounds or
elements are known as Decomposition Reaction. A decomposition reaction is just the opposite of combination
reaction.
A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows:
AB → A + B
Examples:
When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3(s) heat−→ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
When ferric hydroxide is heated, it decomposes into ferric oxide and water
2Fe(OH)3(s) △→ Fe2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)
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Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known as Thermal Decomposition.

Example: 2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat−→ 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Electrolytic Decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler compounds because of
passing of electricity, are known as Electrolytic Decomposition. This is also known as Electrolysis.
Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O(l) ---> 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound decomposes because of sunlight
are known as Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction.
Example: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and chlorine gas.
2AgCl(s) (white) Sunlight−→−−−−− 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl2(g)
Photographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed to sunlight. It happens
because silver chloride is colourless while silver is a grey metal.
(iii) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive
element from a compound is known as Displacement Reactions. Displacement reactions are also known as
Substitution Reaction or Single Displacement/ replacement reactions.
A general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical equation as follows:
A + BC → AC + B
Displacement reaction takes place only when ‘A’ is more reactive than B. If ‘B’ is more reactive than ‘A’, then ‘A’
will not displace ‘C’ from ‘BC’ and reaction will not be taking place.
Examples:
When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas and zinc chloride.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When zinc reacts with copper sulphate, it forms zinc sulphate and copper metal.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged between two reactants forming new
compounds are called Double Displacement Reactions.
AB + CD → AC + BD
Examples:
When the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solution of sodium sulphate, white precipitate of barium
sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq)
When sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water are formed.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: Double Displacement Reaction, in which precipitate is formed, is also known as precipitation reaction.
Neutralisation reactions are also examples of double displacement reaction.
Precipitation Reaction: The reaction in which precipitate is formed by the mixing of the aqueous solution of two
salts is called Precipitation Reaction.
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Example:
Neutralization Reaction: The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water by an exchange
of ions is called Neutralization Reaction. xample:
(v) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions:

Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of hydrogen or metallic element from a
compound is known as Oxidation.
Elements or compounds in which oxygen or non-metallic element is added or hydrogen or metallic element is
removed are called to be Oxidized.
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-metallic element from a
compound is called Reduction.
The compound or element which goes under reduction in called to be Reduced.
Oxidation and Reduction take place together.
Oxidizing agent:
• The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.
• The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.
Reducing agent:
• The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent.
• The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.
The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called Redox reaction.
When copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, then copper metal and hydrogen are formed.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(i) In this reaction, CuO is changing into Cu. Oxygen is being removed from copper oxide. Removal of oxygen
from a substance is called Reduction, so copper oxide is being reduced to copper.
(ii) In this reaction, H2 is changing to H2O. Oxygen is being added to hydrogen. Addition of oxygen to a substance
is called Oxidation, so hydrogen is being oxidised to water.
• The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent.

• The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.
(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:

Exothermic Reaction: Reaction which produces energy is called Exothermic Reaction. Most of the decomposition
reactions are exothermic.
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Example:
Respiration is a decomposition reaction in which energy is released.
When quick lime (CaO) is added to water, it releases energy.
Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called Endothermic Reaction.
Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate.
Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday life: Corrosion and Rancidity.

Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable compounds due to their reaction with
oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the atmosphere is called Corrosion.
Example: Rusting of iron.
Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is called Rust.
The rusting of iron is a redox reaction.

Corrosion (rusting) weakens the iron and steel objects and structures such as railings, car bodies, bridges and ships
etc. and cuts short their life.
Methods to Prevent Rusting
• By painting.
• By greasing and oiling.
• By galvanisation.
Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when they are left exposed to air
for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to the oxidation of fat and oil present in food materials.
Methods to prevent rancidity:
• By adding anti-oxidant.
• Vacuum packing.
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• Replacing air by nitrogen.

• Refrigeration of foodstuff.
WORK SHEET
Answer the following questions
Question 1. Write a chemical equation when magnesium metal reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to produce a
solution of magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Question 2. Can a combination reaction be redox reaction.
Question 3. Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
Question 4. What are the different types of reactions?
Question 5. What is a decomposition rection ? Give example.
Question 6. Define displacement reaction.
Question 7. What happens when sodium reacts with water?
Question 8. Write the chemical equation and name the reaction when a solution of sodium chloride is mixed with a
solution of silver nitrate and a white precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
Question 9. Why does the color of copper sulphate solution change, when an iron nail is dipped in it?
Question 10. Why is photosynthesis considered as an endothermic reaction?
Question 11. Potassium chlorate (KCIO3) on heating forms potassium chloride and oxygen. Write a balanced
equation for this reaction.
Question 12. Give an example of a chemical reaction characterized the change in temperature.
Question 13. What type of chemical reactions take place when:
a)Limestone is heating?
b)A magnesium wire is burnt in air?
c)Electricity is passed through water?
d)Ammonia and hydrogen chloride are mixed?
e)Silver bromide is exposed to sunlight?
Question 14. To balance a chemical equation, can we change the formula of either reactants or products?
Question 15. Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?
Question 16. If an of the following reactions occurs spontaneously, write the balanced net ionic equation. If not,
write no reaction&
a)Pb + Zn2+ ---------> Pb2+ + Zn
b)Fe + H+ --------->Fe2+ + H2
c)Cu + Ag+ ----------->Cu2+ + Ag
d)Cr + Zn2+ ------------>Cr3+ + Zn
Question 17. Nickel (II) nitrate is prepared by heating nickel metal with liquid dinitrogen tetroxide. In addition to
the nitrate, gaseous nitrogen monoxide is formed. Write the balanced equation.
Question 18. Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes in electrolysis of water double of the
amount collected in the other? Name this gas.
Question 19. Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following reactions:-
i.Solution of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble barium sulphate and the solution
of sodium chloride.
ii.Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to produce sodium
chloride solution and water.
BALANCE THE FOLLOWING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• Example 1. C5H12 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O. ...

• Example 2. Zn + HCl ---> ZnCl2 + H2 ...
• Example 3. Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 ---> Ca3(PO4)2 + H2O. ...
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• Example 4. FeCl3 + NH4OH ---> Fe(OH)3 + NH4Cl. ...

• Example 5. S8 + F2 ---> SF6 ...
• Example 6. C2H6 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O. ...
• Example 7. Al2(CO3)3 + H3PO4 ---> AlPO4 + CO2 + H2O.
BIOLOGY
LIFE PROCESSES
• NOTE: Dear students please go through the text book thoroughly and consult diagrams in the text
book.
To prove the necessity of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis following steps need to do
Experiment
• Destarch two potted plants and cover them with bell jars.
• Put them in sunlight.
• Inside the bell jar or polythene of one plant, put some KOH in a bowl.
• Potassium hydroxide solution absorbs the carbon dioxide gas from the air present in the glass bottle.
• After few hours, perform a starch test to this and another leaf of the same plant.
Observation-
• Leaf of the plant which has no KOH turns bluish black.

• Leaf exposed to KOH does not change to blue-black colour
Result- Starch is present in the green part of the leaf.
Conclusion- Presence of starch proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis as it traps-sunlight.
To prove that chlorophyll pigment in green leaves is necessary for the plants to prepare their carbohydrate
(starch) food.
Materials required
A variegated leaf plant, beaker, water, Bunsen burner, mentholated spirit or rectified spirit or ethanol, iodine
solution, a white porcelain tile.
Procedure
A variegated leaf plant is taken for this particular experiment to prove the necessity of chlorophyll for
photosynthesis. A variegated leaf is a leaf in which different patches of colours are present in a Croton or Coleus or
Geranium plant. The place where green patches are present in the leaf, chlorophyll pigment is present while at the
other colour patches present in the leaf contain other pigments but not chlorophyll. Before starting the experiment
to prove chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis an important step has to be carried out is known as De-
starching. De-starching is a step in which the starch present in the leaves of the plant will be removed by keeping
the variegated leaves plant in a dark room or closed cup-board for about 48 hours. This step is done to ensure that
previously synthesized starch in the leaves get consumed up because photosynthesis doesn't occur at that time as
the plant is kept in dark place.
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After De-starching step the variegated leaf plant is kept in bright sunlight for about 6 hours. After this one of the
variegated leaf is plucked out from the experimental plant. Then Iodine test is conducted for this experimental leaf
to find out whether the leaf prepared starch through photosynthesis or not.
Steps for Iodine test:-
• The plucked out experimental leaf is immersed in boiling water in the beaker for few minutes so that the
cells of the leaf will be killed and at the same time metabolic activities of the leaf cells will be stopped.
• Now the boiled leaf is taken out from the beaker with the help of a forceps. It is then placed in a test tube
containing rectified spirit or ethanol. Then the leaf is boiled in ethanol over a water bath by keeping it in
boiling water for about 10 minutes. The leaf dissolves its chlorophyll by boiling it in rectified spirit and
then become pale-white.
• Next the pale-white leaf is removed from the test tube by forceps and then it is washed in under warm
water to make it soft.
• Then this leaf is spread over a white porcelain tile and iodine drops were placed over at different parts of
the leaf.
Result of Iodine test: -

Iodine is a purple-coloured reagent used to test the presence or absence of starch in the leaf conducted for
photosynthesis process. In the presence of starch iodine solution will turn into blue-black colour and in the absence
of starch iodine added to leaf will turn into brown colour.
In this experimental leaf, the part of the variegated leaf which contain green patches will give a positive test for
starch i.e. iodine when added to this part of the leaf will turn into blue-black colour. The reason for this is, this part
of the experimental leaf containing green patches include chlorophyll and thus prepare starch through
photosynthesis. Thus, iodine added to this region will turn into blue-back colour. But coloured patches of
variegated leaf doesn't include chlorophyll and thus don't prepare starch through photosynthesis. So, iodine added
in this region will change into brown colour. Thus, this experiment proves chlorophyll is necessary for leaves to
prepare starch through photosynthesis.
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of taking in or consuming food. It is derived from a Greek term Nutrine which means to
nourish. It is the sum of all activities which are concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption of digested food
into blood or assimilation (oxidation of absorbed food to produce energy for growth and repair and synthesis of bio
molecules) and egestion.
Types of nutrition.
On the basis of the mode of food procurement the living organisms show two modes of nutrition: -
1. Autotrophic nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition.
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION.
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It is also called self nutrition. The organism synthesise the essential organic compounds from inorganic
compounds. Autotrophic nutrition is of two types:-
1. Photosynthesis:- In photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of sunlight
trapped by chlorophyll. It is found in all green plants.
2. Chemosynthesis:- some non-green bacteria manufacture their organic food from inorganic
substances in the presence of energy derived from the oxidation of simple compound of iron,
sulphur etc. Example iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria.
2.HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION.
This is the characteristic of all animals, fungi, many bacteria. They take ready made organic food from the other
dead or living plants or animals. It is so because they have no chlorophyll and cannot trap sunlight.
One the basis of the nature of food, heterotrophic nutrition is of the following types: -
1. Holozoic nutrition: In this case, the organisms feed exclusively on the solid organic food material. The
food may be a whole plant or a whole animal or their parts. It found in the most living organisms including
man.
Depending upon the source of food the organisms showing colonic nutrition are of the following types: -
1. Herbivores: - These are direct plant eating heterotrophs . Example cow, rabbit etc.
2. Carnivores: - These derive organic food from other animals. Example lion.
3. Omnivores: - These take both plant and animal food. Example human beings, crow,
4. Cannibals: - These eat upon the members of their own species. Example some fish, snake
5. Detritivores: - These feed upon the dead organisms in mud. Example earthworms.
6. Predators: -These are large animals that feed on small animals. Example eagles, kites.
7. Insectivores: - These feed upon the insects. Example frog, lizard
8. Scavengers: - These feed on dead and decaying matter. Example vulture, crow.
9. Piscivores: - These feed upon fish. Example crocodile.
2. SAPROZOIC NUTRITION OR SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION
Organisms like fungi and many bacteria take dissolved, decaying organic material for their environment. In this
case the organisms release some enzymes to digest the dead organic food and then the nutrients are absorbed
through the walls of their body.
3. OSMOTROTROPHIC NUTRITION
In this case, the animals take pre-digested food materials by diffusion through their body walls. Example
tapeworm.
4. PARASITIC NUTRITION
In this case an organism derives benefit from the other organism and in return harms it.
The organism that derives the benefit is called the parasite and the organism from which the benefit is drawn is
called the host.
Parasites are of two types: -
1. Ectoparasites: Which live outside the body of host. Example head louse.
2. Endoparasites: Which Live inside the body of host. Example malarial parasite.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTION
The process of breakdown of complex food materials into simple forms by the action of enzymes is called
digestion. Digestion can also be defined as the breakdown of large insoluble food particles into small soluble
particles prior to absorption and assimilation by enzyme action.
The organs involved in this process are as follows:-
1. Mouth: It includes the following organs:-

• Tongue: it lies in the floor of the mouth. Its helps in ingestion , chewing and swallowing food. It possesses
taste buds.
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• Teeth: in mouth there are also present teeth. An adult human being has 16 teeth on each jaw. Starting from
the middle going backwards there are two incisors, one canine, two pre-molars and three molars.
2. Pharynx: Mouth leads to a funnel shaped structure measuring about 12cm-14cm in length called pharynx. It
communicates with the food pipe. It is comical part where the food and the ear passages cross each other.
3. Oesophagus: It is a narrow, muscular, collapsible tube measuring about 25cm in length that passes through
the neck, thorax, pierces through the diaphragm, takes a sharp bend and finally opens into the stomach. It
helps in the passage of food from buccal cavity (mouth) to the stomach.
4. Stomach: It is a muscular sac. It has many glands on its inner wall, the cells of which secrete gastric juices
and Hydrochloric acid. Some of the proteins and fats are digested here. This semi -digested food is called
chyme, it is passed into the duodenum.
5. Small intestines: The walls of the small intestines secrete intestinal juices. The inner lining of the small
intestines are lined with hair like structures called villi, which increase the surface area of absorption. The
digestion of food is completed in the small intestine. Absorption of digested food also takes place through
the internal lining of small intestine.
Small intestine is differentiated into three parts:-

1. Duodenum: The stomach opens into a C- shaped narrow tube measuring about 25cm long. In the duodenum
open the bile duct and a pancreatic duct, through a common passage called bile duct or hepatopancreatic
duct.
2. Jejunum: It is the middle part of small intestines that measures about 2m long.
3. Ileum: It is the last part of the small intestine that measures about 3-3.5m long.
6. LARGE INTESTINE: The ileum opens into a wider tube called the large intestine that is about 1.5m long.
It is differentiated into three parts:
I) Caecum: It is a small round sac measuring about 6cm in length. From the caecum arises a blind worm like
structure called vermiform appendix which is3-8cm in length and is a vestigial organ.
II) Colon: It is the largest part of large intestine and is sacculated in appearance. The function of colon is
absorption of large amounts of water, preparation and storage of faeces.
III) Rectum: It is about 12cm long, S-shaped tube that opens to outside as anus. The rectum is meant fir
accumulation and evacuation of faecal matter.
7. ANUS: The opening of alimentary canal at the lower end is called anus. It is meant for passing out faeces.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS
I) Salivary glands: In the mouth of man open three pairs of salivary glands that secrete saliva. These glands are:
a. Parotids: lie below external ear.
b. Sub-maxillary or sub-mandibular: lie below the mandibles.
c. Sub-lingual: lie below the tongue.
II) Gastric glands: In the inner lining of the stomach lie glands called gastric glands. They secrete gastric
juices.
III) Pancreas: It is pinkish, lobed, triangular and lobed present in the duodenal loop and secretes pancreatic
juices.
IV) Liver: It is largest the gland in the human body. It is bi- lobed, reddish brown and secretes bile which
is stored in the gall bladder when there is no food in the duodenum. When
V) the food reaches the duodenum the gallbladder squeezes itself to release the stored bile
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN MAN

All the body organs which help the in excretion (removal of water soluble nitrogenous waste products, excess of
salts, excess of water and other metabolic wastes), collectively constitute the excretory system.
The excretory system of man consists of – (1) A pair of kidneys, (2) a pair of ureters, (3) a urinary bladder and
(4) Urethra.
KIDNEYS
The kidneys of man are reddish brown, bean shaped, slightly flattened organs present just below the stomach,
one on either side of the vertebral column. They are asymmetrical in position present at different levels. The right
kidney is about 1-1.5cm lower than the left kidney, because the right kidney is pushed downward by the large right
liver lobe.
Each kidney is about 10 cm long, 6cm wide and 3.5 cm thick .It is a bean – shaped structure, outer margin of which
is convex and inner margin is concave. In the middle of inner concavity is present a notch called hilus or hilum
which leads to a space called renal sinus. The renal artery, renal vein, nerve fibre, lymph vessels and ureters enter
or leave the kidney through hilus.
URETERS
The ureters are a pair of long tubes measuring about 10-12 inches in length and less than half an inch in diameter at
the widest point. They extend from the kidney posterior surface of urinary bladder.
URINARY BLADDER
It is like an inverted pear in shaped highly distensible saclike reservoir present in the pelvic region. In the
urinary bladder are present three opening, two of ureters and one of urethra. The urinary bladder serves as
reservoir for urine, before it leaves the body. It can hold about 0.5-1 litre of urine.
URETHRA
The urethra is a small tube leading from the floor of the bladder to the exterior. In female it opens directly to
outside.
The male urethra follows a long path for a distance of 20 cm from the bladder through the penis. It opens to
outside as an orifice at the tip of the penis.
The female urethra serves as passageway for urine only, whereas in males it serves as a passageway of semen as
well as urine.
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Excretory system of man
L.S OF KIDNEY
The L.S of a kidney shows an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex seems granular to the naked eyes.
The medulla is made up of 10-15 pyramid shaped masses called renal pyramids.
Each kidney is made up of 1.25 million nephrons.
The open ends of many nephrons open into wider tube called collecting tubule that extends from the cortex to
the medulla. The collecting tubules converge to form groups called pyramids. In between the pyramids extend
cortical tissue as cortical columns or columns of Bertini. The broad base of each pyramids lies against the
cortex whereas narrow apex called renal papilla or papillary duct of Bellini opens into a small funnel-like
structure, the small calyx. There are 8-10 smaller calyces which are formed by the division of 2-3 large
calyces. The large calyces are formed from the pelvis which is the expanded part of ureter into the kidney.
L.S OF KIDNEY
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STRUCTURE OF A NEPHRON
Each nephron has two parts:
1. Malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
2. Renal tubule.
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Malpighian body or renal corpuscle: it lies in the cortex of the kidney and is divided into two parts:
a. Bowman’ capsule: it is a double walled cup like structure
b. Glomerulus: it is not of capillaries present in the cup in the Bowman’s capsule. It is formed by the capillaries
of incoming
blood vessel (afferent arteriole) and that of out-going blood vessel (efferent arteriole).
Renal tubule: Bowman’s capsule leads into the coiled part of
nephron called renal tubule. It has three parts:
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): It is highly coiled tubular part that lies in the cortex. The cells lining this
part have a brush border which is capable of absorption.
Loop of Henle: It is shaped part of the renal tubule which consists of descending limb, hair pin loop and
ascending limb. It is found in medulla of the kidney.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): It is again highly coiled part found in cortex of the kidney. It opens into
collecting tubule.
STRUCTURE OF A NEPHRON
FORMATION OF URINE
The formation of urine is completed by three processes:
A. Ultrafiltration or Glomerular filtration
B. Tubular resorption or Reabsorption
C. Tubular secretion
Ultrafiltration:
Filtration of any liquid under tremendous pressure is called Ultrafiltration. When the blood passes from afferent
arteriole having large diameter to an efferent arteriole having smaller diameter, a pressure is built up in the
glomerular capillaries. Under the influence of this hydrostatic pressure all the substance in the blood that can pass
through the capillary walls get filtered out in the form of a liquid called glomerular filtrate or nephric filtrate or
ultrafiltrate. The rate of glomerular filtration in a normal man is about 125 ml. per minute or 172-180 litre/day.
The glomerular filtrate contains excess of water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, inorganic salts and other
substances like pigments. The blood that passes into the efferent arteriole is left with only blood proteins,
corpuscles and fats that cannot pass through the walls of capillaries.
Tubular Reabsorption: - Tubular Reabsorption also called tubular resorption is the process of absorption of all
the useful substances from nephric filtrate into the blood running through peritubular network of capillaries.
Nephric filtrate passes from Bowman’s capsule to the proximal convoluted part where entire glucose, all amino
acids, some inorganic salts (Na+, K+, CI+), some urea, uric acid and water are reabsorbed into the peritubular
capillaries. Water and salts are also reabsorbed in the loop of Henle, distal convoluted part. Collecting tubules
also reabsorb a large amount of water.
The process of reabsorption is bought about by two processes: simple diffusion and active transport.
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TUBULAR SECRETION: The secretion of harmful substances from the blood into the nephric filtrate through
the walls of distal convoluted part is called tubular secretion. Some substances such as creatinine, hippuric acid,
potassium, hydrogen ions, ammonia and a little uric acid are added to the nephric filtrate by the cells of distal
convoluted part either by simple diffusion or active transport.
Selective reabsorption and tubular secretion help to maintain proper acid-base balance of the body. The filtrate
left after reabsorption and tubular secretion is called urine.
In a normal man 1-1.5 litre of urine is produced daily.
STRUCTURE OF A DICOT LEAF
Leaves are the main organ of the plant concerned with photosynthesis. The young leaves are dark green due to
the presence of chlorophyll in them.
The leaves are generally dorso-ventrally flattened structures with a dark green upper surface. A dicotyledonous
leaf is covered on both surfaces by a single layer of parenchymatous cells. These are achlorophyllous, thin
walled and closely packed without any inter cellular space between them. These layers are called upper
epidermis on upper surface and lower epidermis on lower surface. Small microscopic pores called stomata are
present on the lower epidermis. These stomata are guarded by kidney shaped chlorophyllous cells called guard
cells. The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by guard cells, by their alternate turgidity and flaccidity.
Exchange of gases that is oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place through stomata. In between upper and lower
epidermis is the mesophyll tissue. It contains palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma. Palisade
parenchyma consists of barrel shaped chlorenchymatous cells lying just inner to upper epidermis, in one or two
layers cells and are closely arranged.
Spongy paraenchyma also consists of oval shaped chlorenchymatous cells but they are loosely
arranged with large inter-cellular spaces between them. Photosynthesis occurs in both spongy and
phloem occurs at sides of veins and veinlets for the conduction of water, mineral, food, etc.
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Transportation in plants takes place with the

help of a transport system made up of tube-
like structures called xylem and phloem.
Upward movement of water and minerals
from the roots up to the leaves takes place
through xylem. It is called ascent of sap.
The organic compounds are transported from
the leaves to all the cells of the plant through
phloem. It is called translocation.
ASCENT OF SAP
It occurs by the transpiration pull. Water
absorbed by the roots of a plant moves
upwards through xylem vessels of roots,
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stems and reaches up to the leaves. In the leaves are present a large number of spongy mesophyll cells. They are
exposed to numerous intercellular spaces present between them. The turgidity of the mesophyll cells is
maintained by osmotic diffusion of water from the xylem vessels of the leaves. The water from these cells keep
on evaporating through their cell walls. The air inside the intercellular spaces gets saturated. Water potential of
the air in the intercellular spaces of the leaf is higher than that of the air present outside the leaf. As a result, water
vapours from the sub-stomatal spaces move to outside through open stomata. The entire movement of water
vapours from the surface of mesophyll cells into the atmosphere is the result of diffusion to outside.
Movement of water through a leaf during transpiration.
TRANSLOCATION
Green cells in the plants incorporate inorganic substances into organic materials with the help of solar energy and
chlorophyll by the process called photosynthesis. This organic food is transported from the green cells mainly of
leaves to all the non-green cells of the plant for utilization. The transport of organic solutes from one place to
another in higher plants is known as translocation
An overview of the
Transportation in plants
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The human heart is situated in the thorax between the lungs with its apex resting on the diaphragm. It is a hollow
conical organ with its narrow apex directed downwards to the left. The heart consists of four chambers that is the
two auricles and the two ventricles
The two large veins- superior venacava and inferior venacava collect venous (impure) blood from the upper and
lower part of the body respectively and pour it into the right auricle. The right and the left auricles are totally
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separated from each other by the inter-atrial septum. The left auricle receives oxygenated blood, returned from the
lungs through the pulmonary vein. The two auricles open into the ventricles, each opening being guarded by an
atrio-ventricular valve or AV valve. The right AV valve is called the tricuspid valve (made up of three flap like
cusps), while the left AV valve is called the bicuspid valve (made up of two flap like cusps). The AV valves allows
blood to flow from the auricles to the respective ventricles, but prevent blood from flowing in the reverse direction.
The ventricles have thicker muscular walls than the auricles. The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from
the right auricle. The right ventricle has a wall thinner than that of the ventricle which receives oxygenated blood
from the left auricle. This is because the right ventricle needs to pump the oxygenated blood to the nearby lungs
only, while the left ventricle is required to pump oxygenated blood all over the body. The two ventricles are totally
separated from each other by an inter- ventricular septum. So there is no mixing of the deoxygenated and
oxygenated blood in the ventricles. The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary artery going to the lungs; the left
ventricle opens into the aorta, supplying blood to all other tissues and organs. Semi-lunar valves guard the opening
of the pulmonary artery and the aorta into the ventricles. Each semi-lunar valve allows blood to enter into the
pulmonary artery and the aorta from their respective ventricles, and prevent blood flow in the reverse direction.
CIRCULATION OF BLOOD IN HEART
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY
RESPIRATORY TRACT ORGANS
RESPIRATORY TRACT
The path through which O2 reaches up to the lungs and CO2 is removed from the lungs is called respiratory tract.
The parts included in the human respiratory tract are as follows:
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1. NOSE: The respiratory tract starts as a pair of nostrils (external nares) present at the lower end of the
nose. Each nostril leads into a vertical tube like structure called nasal chamber. The two nasal chambers are
separated by a vertical partition called nasal septum. Each nasal chamber on the other side opens into
pharynx by an aperture called internal nares. In the beginning of the nasal chambers are present hairs that
act as strainers. They filter the air and do not allow the dust and other large particles to enter in the
respiratory tract.
2. PHARYNX: The nose opens into the pharynx by a pair of apertures called internal nares. The pharynx is
differentiated into upper nasopharynx where open the internal nares and lower oropharynx. The
oropharynx leads into two tubes- larynx and oesophagus through glottis and gullet respectively. The glottis
is guarded by a flap-like epiglottis that does not allow anything other than air to enter into the larynx.
Pharynx serves as a common path both for air and food.
3. LARYNX (VOICE BOX): It is the upper slightly swollen part of trachea or wind pipe. It is more
prominent in men as compared to women and is called Adam’s apple. It is always kept stretched and its
wall is supported by cartilages. During swallowing of food or liquid the larynx moves upwards so that its
opening-glottis is closed by epiglottis and food does not enter into the larynx.
4. TRACHEA: The trachea or windpipe is a long, narrow, whitish tube that extends through the neck, enters
the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches called primary bronchi. The walls of trachea are
supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings that keep it always distended. It is lined internally by ciliated
epithelium that also filters the air that passes into the lungs.
5. THE PRIMARY BRONCHI: These are a pair of tubular structures formed as a result of bifurcation of the
trachea. These are right and left primary bronchi that enter into the corresponding lung .These are also
supported by C - shaped cartilaginous rings.
RESPIRATORY ORANGS (THE LUNGS): The respiration orangs in man are a pair of thin walled, elastic,
spongy, pinkish, triangular and highly distensible lungs known as left and right lungs. The lungs occupy most of
the thoracic cavity and are well protected by the bony thoracic cage.
Each lung is a conical triangular structure. The upper pointed side is called apex and the lower broad side is
called base.
Each primary bronchus after entering into the corresponding lung, divides repeatedly to form a network of very
fine tubes. The primary bronchus divides into secondary bronchi that give rise to tertiary bronchi. The tertiary
bronchi divides into bronchioles which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind ended sacs called alveoli.
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TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Degradation of organic food for the purpose of releasing chemical energy can occur with or without the
participation of oxygen. The former is called aerobic respiration and the latter is called anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration: It is oxygen dependent, enzymatically controlled, complete energy.
C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Anaerobic respiration: It is an oxygen independent, enzymatically controlled, incomplete breakdown of respiratory
substrates to CO2 and alcohol or lactic acid. It is also called fermentation.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH +2CO2 + Energy
Ethyl alcohol
OR
C6H12O6 2CH3CH(OH)COOH
Lactic acid
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. Presence of O2. Occurs without O2

2. Complete oxidation of substrates Incomplete breakdown of substrates to CO2 and H2O.
CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol.
3. Common method of respiration. Rare method.
4. End products are non-toxic. End products are toxic.
5. Continues throughout the life of an Temporary mode of respiration organism
for a limited period Anaerobic bacteria
6. Involves glycolysis, Kreb cycle and Involves glycolysis followed by terminal oxidation. incomplete
breakdown of pyruvic acid.
7. Takes place in cytoplasm and Takes place in cytoplasm only. Mitochondria.

8. 38 ATP molecules are produced 2ATP molecules are produced perper glucose molecule.glucose
molecule.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract and foul air in the opposite
direction is called breathing.
The mechanism of breathing involves two steps:
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a) Inspiration b) Expiration
INSPIRATION (INHALATION): Movement of fresh air into the lungs is called inspiration.
During inspiration the thoracic cavity increases in size by the movement of ribs, diaphragm and sternum. The
sternum and ribs move upwards, forwards and outwards. The diaphragm becomes flat. Increase in the volume of
thoracic cavity results in the expansion of lungs. Due to the increase in the volume of the lungs, pressure of the
air inside the lungs decreases as compared to the atmospheric pressure. Hence, fresh atmospheric air, which is at
higher pressure, rushes into the lungs through the respiratory tract to equalize the pressure. Exchange of O2 and
CO2 takes place through alveoli and blood. The lungs are now filled with foul air.
EXPIRATION (EXHALATION): The movement of foul air from the lungs to outside is called expiration. It
involves the reversal of all the activities that take place during inspiration. The volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases by the inward and downward movements of the ribs and sternum and by upward bulging of the
diaphragm. The volume of the lungs decreases resulting in high pressure inside the lungs as compared to outside.
Hence, foul air inside the lungs is exhaled out.
A man breathes 12-14 times per minute at rest.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Incorporation of inert inorganic materials (CO2 and H2O) into organic materials (carbohydrates) in the
presence of chlorophyll and solar energy by the green plants is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is evolved and
released in the atmosphere as a byproduct of photosynthesis.
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It involves two phases:
1. LIGHT OR HILL REACTION OR PHOTOCHEMICAL PHASE.
2. DARK OR BLACKMAN’S REACTION OR BIOSYNTHETIC PHASE
1. LIGHT REACTION:
The process occurs in the grana of thylakoids of the chloroplast, in the presence of sunlight, hence its name
light reaction. It involves the following steps:
a. PHOTOLYSIS OF WATER:
Splitting of water into H+ and OH- with the help of light energy is called photolysis of water.
b. PRODUCTION OF REDUCING AGENT:
Photolysis of water produces H+. It is immediately picked up by NADP activated by electrons. It results in
the formation of a reducing power NADPH2.
c. PRODUCTION OF MOLECULAR O2:
The OH- produced as a result of photolysis of water is oxidized to H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). H2O2 in turn
decomposes to H2O and O2.
d. PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION:
Production of energy rich ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules from ADP molecules with the help of
energy from e- (released in photolysis of water) is called photophosphorylation.
ADP + iP→ATP
2.DARK PHASE:
In this phase CO2 is reduced to glucose by means of energy (ATP) and reducing power (NADPH2) produced
during light reaction. Dark reaction needs no light, hence is called dark reaction.
In this process CO2 is reduced or fixed to C6H1206 with the help of H from NADPH2 produced in light reaction.
The energy required for this process is provided by ATP, produced in light reaction.
The fixation of CO2 to glucose takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.
===============================================
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba is a unicellular animal. The mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic. Amoeba is omnivorous and feeds
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on algae, diatoms and some bacteria. Amoeba obtains food by PHAGOCYTOSIS (cell eating).
The various steps involved in the nutrition of amoeba are as follows:
1. Ingestion: The outer membrane of amoeba is called plasmalemma. The food particle comes in contact with
the plasmalemma. The plasmalemma invaginates and engulfs the food particle forming a food vacuole.
2. Digestion: The food vacuole starts circulating in the cytoplasm. This process is called cyclosis. The food
particle is digested by the digestive enzymes in the cytoplasm.
3. Absorption: The digested food particle is absorbed in the cytoplasm by diffusion.
4. Assimilation: The absorbed food is used by amoeba to obtain energy used to carry out its life processes.
5. Egestion: Since amoeba does not have an opening to remove wastes, hence the plasmalemma ruptures to
eject the waste which remains stationary in the body. The amoeba itself moves on after ejecting the waste.
NUTRITION IN PARAMOECIUM
It involves the following steps:
1. Ingestion: Paramoecium has hair like structures called cilia which grab the food particle and push it into the
cytosome (mouth).
2. Digestion: The food particle starts circulating in the cytoplasm. This process is called cyclosis. The food
particle is digested by the digestive enzymes in the cytoplasm.
3. Absorption: The digested food particle is absorbed in the cytoplasm by diffusion.
4. Assimilation: The absorbed food is used by paramoecium to obtain energy used to carry out its life
processes.
5. Egestion: The waste produced is removed through a cytopyge (anus).
ASSIGNMENT
Q1. Define nutrition. Explain the four types of nutrition.
Q2. Name the various glands involved in the process of digestion. Write their
functions.
Q3. Draw the diagram of the respiratory system. Explain respiratory tract and the respiratory organs.
Q4. Describe the steps involved in the formation of urine.
Q5. Draw the diagram of the nephron
Q6. Draw the L.S of the kidney.
Q7. Describe the two parts of the nephron.
Q8. Draw the digestive system and explain the organs involved in the process of digestion.
Q9. Write the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Q10. Write the steps involved in the process of photosynthesis
SOCIAL STUDIES
HISTORY THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

French Revolution
•French revolution in 1789, was the start of nationalism.
•French revolutionaries took many steps to create a feeling of collective identity:
•Innovative ideas such as Le citoyen and La Partie
•Creation of a new French flag.
• of National Assembly, also renaming from estate general to National Assembly.
•The administrative system which is consolidated.
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•Abolishing of customs and internal duties.

•Uniform weights and measures were introduced.
• It was getting a common language.
Napoleonic Code
•Napoleon destroyed France democracy.
•Introduction of Civil code 1804, which was called Napoleonic code.
•Features of this code are:
•Abolishing of all birth rights and privileges.
•Establishment of equality before the law.
•Security of right to property.
•Guild restrictions were removed.
New Middle Class

•Politically as well as socially, aristocrats were dominant as far as population is concerned.
•Peasants were the majority in the population.
•Since industrialization in England, a new social class known as working class was emerged.
•It included artisans, industrialists, businessmen and so on.
Liberalism
•Property owning men were only given the right to vote or getting elected.
•Each and every women and property-less men were restricted from all political rights.
•It is derived from Latin word ‘root liber’, it means to be free.
•For the end of clerical privilege, autocracy the liberal nationalism was stood alive.
A New Conservatism After 1815

•Major European powers in 1815: Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria had defeated Napoleon.
•They use to meet in Vienna to draw up a European settlement called as treaty of Vienna.
•As per this treaty:
~Power was restored by the Bourbon dynasty.
~During the Napoleonic wars, France lost all its territories.
~39 states of the German Confederation were formed by Napoleon, left untouched.
~On the French boundary, borders were made to prevent France from expanding.
The Revolutionaries
~Guiseppe Mazzini
•Born in Genoa in 1807.
•Was a member of secret society of carbonate.
•He established 2 secret societies: Young Europe in Berne and Young Italy in Marseilles.
•The main aim was to unify Italy in a republic.
The Age of Revolution: 1830-1848

•Bourbon kings have overthrown to set up a constitutional monarchy in July 1830.
•Greece was struggling for independence which was a part of the Ottoman Empire.
•It was declared as an independent nation in Treaty of Constantinople signed in 1832.
•National feeling was the main focused area.
•German philosopher, Johan Gottfried discovered the culture in common people through music, dance and folk
poetry.
•There were fewer jobs and more people.
• The rise in food costs and bad harvesting, widespread pauperism in the country.
•Silesia weavers in 1845, revolt against contractors.
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• Frankfurt parliament was elected in 1848. 831 elected representatives were conveyed in St. Paul Church.
Making of German
• Von Bismarck took a leadership role with the support of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
•Kaiser William 1 was the new head of the German empire.
Making of Italy
•Giuseppe Mazzini headed the unification program which got failed.
•Victor Emmanuel II became the new king of unified Italy in 1861.
Britain
•English Parliament seized power from the ruling monarchy.
•British force took Ireland, in 1801 after the revolution failed.
•British Nation was formed and it was facilitated through the mass propagation of English culture.
Nationalism and Imperialism
Modern Balkans included Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia,
Montenegro and Slovenia.
This area was made explosive by Romantic nationalism, hence, major European wanted to have control over this
area.
So, this led to a series of war called as First World War.
Important Questions and Answers
1. What was the aim of the French Revolution?
Ans: Following was the aim of French Revolution:
It was the starting of nationalism in France and the main objective was to build a collective identity in French
people.
Ideas like Le Citoyen and La Patrie promoted the belief of united community that enjoy equal rights in the
constitution.
2. Who was the ‘Hero of two Worlds’ and what was his role in the unification of Italy?
Ans: Giuseppe Garibaldi was the ‘Hero of two Worlds’. He was born in 1807 and played important role in the
unification of Italy. Two secret societies were formed: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.
According to his belief, Italy wouldn’t have survived as smaller states and it needed to be unified.
3. Write about the two female allegories in the 19th century.
Ans: The two female allegories in the 19th century are:
Marianne – She was named Marianne in France which was a Christian name, useful to promote the idea of people’s
nation. An important feature was inspired by liberty and republic. Soon statues of Marianne became symbol of
unity.
Germania – She was an allegory of Germany. She wore a beautiful crown made up of oak leaves. It was
distinctively hung from St. Paul Church ceiling to represent the liberal revolution.
4. Name some of the characteristic features of conservative regimes.
Ans: Characteristic feature of conservative regimes are:
•Intolerant to criticism and dissent.
•Autocratic
•Censored press
•Suppressed questions that challenged their legitimacy.
5. Explain the importance of National feeling and Imagination.
Ans: The culture was important for the development of national feelings. It was through arts, poetry, music, stories
which created nationalist feelings. Glorification of science was criticized openly and it was replaced by intuitions,
sentiments and emotions. This was known as romanticism aimed to create national sentiments. Language also
played important role in developing national feelings.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The French revolution during 1789 gave a clear image of nationalism in the minds of people all over. The idea of
nationalism grew further with ideas like la Patrie and le Citoyen.
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Nationalism as an idea and spirit spread to many parts of Europe and Jacobin clubs started popping up everywhere
in Europe.
The French army invaded many other countries like Holland, Belgium and Switzerland by the 1790s. Napoleon
destroyed democracy in France and established monarchy.Napoleon did away with birth based privileges and
implemented a codified system known asthe Napoleonic Code in 1804
The Making of Nationalism in Europe

Europe was divided into various dutchies and empires instead of countries like present day. The idea of nation-
states was non-existent then.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
The late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century was dominated by the aristocracy. They were not only
connected to each other by business but also marriage on many occasions.
The Industrial Revolution paved the way for industries to set up in cities and a new class emerged. They started
dominating the city spaces and came to be known as the middle class.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
Socially, liberalism stood for the idea of freedom for the individual and equality before the law.Politically, it was
implied for a government by people’s choice.Economically, liberalism meant that merchants could freely trade
their wares and move around in various regions for business purposes.As economic liberalism grew, the feeling of
nationalism also grew to greater heights.
A New Conservatism After 1815
A lot of people felt that traditional institutions and systems needed to be brought back. Even though many
understood that they do not need to go to pre-revolutionary days, they felt modernisation might strengthen their
traditional institutes.
The Treaty of Vienna was responsible for undoing most
of the changes done by Napoleon. Monarchies
overthrown by Napoleon were tried to be brought back
through these measures.
Conservatives of 1815 did not tolerate any kind of
dissent, criticism and controlled the speech of the public
by censorship. Freedom of speech was curbed as much
as possible. Although the liberal-nationalist were still
working actively despite all this.
The Revolutionaries
The Conservatives tried curbing the freedom of speech
but they were unable to do so. Liberal nationalists found
ways and set up secret societies to spread the message
of nationalism.
One such liberal-nationalist was Giuseppe Mazzini. He
founded Young Italy and Young Europe.
Many secret societies were set up in Germany, France,
Switzerland, and Poland. Mazzini and his activities had
now started to terrorize the conservatives.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
Liberal-nationalist started to be associated with various revolutions in many European regions. The primary belong
to the educated middle-class elite. The first set of shocks was felt by the Bourbon Kings who were overthrown by
liberal-nationalist. Another revolution due to nationalism was the Greek War of Independence.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Nationalism was not only displayed through rebellion and revolution but also through culture. Poetry, story music
and everything else also played an important role in shaping nationalism among people.
Under romanticism, established writers and poets criticized the use of science and reason and emphasized the
importance of emotions, intuition, and created a sense of shared feeling.
Folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances got popular, as they were being used as a nation-building tool by the
common people.
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The language was also used as a weapon against monarchy for any Anti-National element. In regions where
another language was imposed, removing the vernacular one, there were rebellions, and vernacular language was
re-established in institutions.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
Europe was hit with economic peril around the 1830s. There was a population boom all over Europe and food
prices rose due to bad harvest.
Poverty and unemployment rose to great heights during this time.
The Revolution of the Liberals
On one hand, poverty had created a revolution in the society on the other hand liberal-nationalist advantage of the
situation and fought for their own issues.
A parliament-like structure was demanded of the conservatives in Germany and Friedrich Wilhelm IV was selected
to be the Monarch who would lead them. Friedrich refused and joined the conservatives instead.
Women and men rebelled together and created a revolution in society. Although giving women political rights was
still a controversial issue. Women had empowered themselves by founding newspapers, taking part in political
meetings, and demonstrations.
By 1848, the conservative understood that they had to give concessions to the liberal nationalists, as they would not
stop otherwise. Many changes in the government were seen thereafter.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
After 1848, the conservatives started to use nationalism as a weapon to further their policies. This is clearly visible
in how Germany and Italy united as nation-states.
The initiative to unify Prussia was taken by the army. Under the leadership of Otto von ITLAY Bismarck, Prussia
was United using the help from the army and bureaucracy.
ITLAY UNIFIED
Italy was divided into various States just like
Germany. It was divided into seven states out of
which only one was ruled by a princely house.
Sardinia-piedmont was ruled by the princely house.
Italian unification was possible due to the Chief
Minister Cavour. On the one hand, Mazzini spread
nationalism using his Young Italy society. On the
other hand, Chief Minister Cavour lED the Italian
unification. Sardinia-piedmont defeated the
Austrians in 1859.
Further, the Italian army march to South Italy and
the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and succeeded in
driving out the Spanish. Victor Emmanuel II
became the king of Italy in 1861.
The Strange Case of Britain
Britain became a nation-state not by a Revolution or
rebellion but rather by imposing its influence on its neighbouring countries. With varied identities and ethnicities,
the European region was very diverse. The act of union between England and Scotland in the influence of Britain
over Scotland. This is how British unification took place.
Visualizing the Nation.
The nationalism was depicted by various personifications known as allegory. Germania and Marianne were two
famous allegorical figures.
Nationalism and Imperialism
Nationalism no longer retained after the last quarter of the nineteenth century. After 1871, the most tensioned area
was called the Balkans a region comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
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Ottoman Empire made the Balkans region explosive and all through the nineteenth century they strengthened
themselves through modernisation and internal reforms. Due to various conflicts the Balkan became an area of
intense conflict.
During this period, intense rivalry built among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and
military might which led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
In 1914, Europe was disastered because of Nationalism, aligned with imperialism. Anti-imperial movements were
developed but they all struggled to form independent nation-states. But the idea of ‘nation-states’ was accepted as
natural and universal
CIVICS
POWER SHARING
The success or failure of democracy depends on how power is being shared. Power sharing is the soul of
democracy and for the smooth functioning of democracy Power Sharing is very important.
Belgium
•Belgium is a small country in Europe, smaller in area than the Indian state of Haryana, and has a population of
about one crore which is again half of the population of Haryana.
•It shares its border with France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Luxembourg.
•Ethnic diversity in this country is very complicated.
•The Dutch language is spoken by 59% of the country’s total population, French is spoken by 40%, and German is
spoken by the remaining 1%.
•In Brussels, Belgium’s capital, 80% of the population speak French, while the remaining 20% speak Dutch.
•The rich and powerful minority French-speaking community benefited from economic development and
education.
•These indifferences created tensions between the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking communities during the
1950s and 1960s.
Sri Lanka
•Sri Lanka has a diverse population like Belgium. It is an island nation having a population of 2 crores, about the
same as in the Indian state of Haryana.
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•The largest social groups are the Sinhala-speakers which form 74% and the Tamil-speakers who form 18% of the
total population.
•There are two subgroups of Tamils: those who are native to the country are known as “Sri Lankan Tamils,” while
those whose forefathers during the colonial period came from India as population workers are referred to as “Indian
Tamils.”
•A vast majority of Sinhala speakers are Buddhists, while a vast majority of Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. There
are approximately 7% of Christians who are both Tamil and Sinhala.
Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

•Sri Lanka became an independent country in 1948. The Sinhala leaders sought to secure dominance over the
government through their majority.
•An Act was passed in 1956 to recognize Sinhala as the sole official language of the country.
• addition, the government used preferential policies to favor Sinhala applicants for university positions and
government jobs. The Sri Lankan Tamils began to feel alienated as a result of the government’s actions.
•A slew of political organizations had emerged by the 1980s, calling for an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in the
country’s east and north.
•The mutual distrust between the two communities escalated into widespread conflict. It rapidly devolved into civil
war.
Accommodation in Belgium
•The government of Belgium handled the community difference very well. Belgian leaders amended their
constitution four times between 1970 and 1993, resulting in a new model for government administration. The
Belgian model includes the following elements:
•According to the Constitution, the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers in the Central Government
must be equal. Some special laws necessitate the approval of most of the members from each linguistic group. As a
result, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
•The state governments are independent of the Central Government.
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•Brussels has a separate government with equal representation for both communities.
•Community government is the third type of government, in addition to the central and state governments, that is
elected by members of a particular language-speaking group. This government has authority over cultural,
educational, and language-related issues.
Why is Power Sharing Desirable?

Power-sharing is beneficial because it reduces the likelihood of conflict between social groups. Another reason is
that a democratic rule implies sharing power with those who are affected by it and who must live with its
consequences. People have the right to be consulted about how they will be governed.
MORAL AND PRUDENTIAL REASON FOR POWER SHARING

The prudential reasons for power sharing include the desired stability of political order and the reduction of the
possibility of conflict or violence between social groups. This is done to maintain civility and possibly harmony
between different social groups otherwise it results in the tyranny of the majority over the minority.
There are also moral reasons for power-sharing which embody the spirit of democracy. A democratic government
is supposed to function for the people and is elected by the people, therefore, the concept of power-sharing
legitimises citizens consent to be governed as everyone has a stake in the system. In modern democracies, there are
different forms of power-sharing such as among different organs of the government (legislature, executive and
judiciary); among governments at different levels (federal, state and local); among different social groups; and
among non-statutory bodies (political parties, pressure groups, movements, etc.)
Forms of Power Sharing
Power is shared among the various components of government, such as the executive, legislature, and judiciary,
this is referred to the as horizontal distribution of power. India is one such example.
Vertical distribution of power also known as the federal government, in which power is shared within the
government but at different levels, such as a central government for the country and a provincial government for
each state. One such example is the United States.
Different social groups, such as religious and linguistic groups, may share power. The Belgian model of
‘community government’ is a good example of this.
Power-sharing can also be seen in how political parties, pressure groups, and movements control or influence those
in power.
Important Question and Answers

1. What do you mean by a system of ‘checks and balances?
Ans: When power is distributed horizontally, it is shared among the various components of government, such as
the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Each organ validates the other organs. As a result, there seems to be a
balance of power among various institutions. This is known as a ‘checks and balances system. It ensures that none
of the organs have unrestricted power.
2. What is Majoritarianism?
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Ans: Majoritarianism is the belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whatever way it
deems appropriate, regardless of the wishes and needs of the minority.
3. What do you mean by a vertical division of power?
Ans: A vertical division of power refers to the sharing of power between different levels of government, such as the
Central and State governments. Power is divided between a higher and lower level of government in this system.
4. Which community supremacy was witnessed in post-independence Sri Lanka?
Ans: The dominant Sinhala community and the immigrant population of Sri Lanka experienced supremacy after
the country’s independence in 1948. Through government favors, the Sinhalese were able to influence the
government and spread their language and culture while demonizing the Tamil language and culture. They reduced
government employment and higher education opportunities for Tamils.
5. State the three consequences of the majoritarian policies adopted by the post-independence Sri Lankan
government.
Ans: Three consequences of the majoritarian policies adopted by the Sri Lankan Government are:
The Buddhist Sinhala leaders were insensitive to Sri Lankan Tamils’ culture and language, leaving them feeling
neglected and upset. They felt that the government was practicing religious discrimination.
Tamils experienced job and educational discrimination. They believed that the constitution denied them equal
rights and opportunities, which strained the relationship between the two communities even further.
Sri Lankan Tamils formed political parties and began campaigns for equal rights, language recognition, and
regional autonomy.
6. What are the principles of a good democracy?
Ans: One fundamental principle of democracy is that all political power lies with the people. The power of any
government should not be concentrated in the hands of a single person or group of people.
There must be equal respect for all groups, and everyone should be able to have a say in public policy.
The government in power should prioritize the fulfilment of the people’s rights and demands, and they should not
act arbitrarily.
7. How is power-sharing the true spirit of democracy?
Ans: Power-sharing embodies the spirit of democracy because it is one of the fundamental principles underlying
the concept of democratic rule.
In a democracy, citizens have the right to be consulted on how they should be governed, and all citizens generally
have the same political and legal rights.
Each individual and community has a voice in governance through their elected representatives.
Power-sharing ensures accommodation while also preventing any majority group from abusing its authority.
It strengthens the minority’s voice and makes them feel as wanted as any other majority group in the count
Various Forms of Power-Sharing
Power-sharing can be considered as the spirit of democracy as power is not concentrated in the hands of few
people. Moreover, the people in power are not only responsible for their decisions but they are also held
accountable for it. Power-sharing also gives respect to each and every social group which is rarely seen in any other
type of government except democracy. There are different ways in which power-sharing takes place in various
democracies:
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Between Different Organs of the Government

The power division of distribution is horizontal where different organs of the government at the same level exercise
different powers in their jurisdiction. This is easily seen in Indian democracy the legislature judiciary and executive
function on the same level and yet have different jurisdictions.
Between Different Levels of Government
This refers to the system where the power is distributed among various levels of government such as the central
and provincial government. This system is also known as federalism. India is a prime example of the federal
system of government. In certain matters, the power-sharing is so exclusive that certain subjects are only exclusive
to the union government or the state government.
Between Different Social Groups
In this, various weak social groups are represented in the legislatures or administration through various
reservations. This gives the various social groups a voice and power which might not have been given in other
types of government.
Between Different Political Groups
There are various political groups in the society like political parties, pressure groups and other Public Interest
groups which have a significant influence over the decision making and law-making process in a democracy.
Sometimes, political parties form an alliance and participate in direct power-sharing when they form a coalition
government.
GEOGRAPHY
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Important Terms
Resources: All the useful elements of the environment that satisfy our basic needs are
called resources.
Natural resources: A natural resource is something that is found in nature and can be used by people for
economic gain. Earth's natural resources include light, air, water, plants, animals, soil, stone, minerals,
fossil fuels, etc.
Man-made resources: Man-made resources are resources that are created by humans to transform and
use the gifts of nature, for example buildings; roads; vehicles; machinery, equipment, etc.
Non-renewable resources: Resources that once used, can't be reproduced or replenished, such as fossil
fuels, minerals like copper and iron ore.
Biotic resources: These are obtained from the biosphere and have a life, such as human beings, flora and
fauna, fisheries, livestock, etc.
Abiotic resources: Resources that comprise of non-living things, such as rocks, minerals,
etc.
Renewable resources: Resources which can be reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical
processes, such as: solar energy and wind energy.
National resources: All the resources, which are present in the political boundary of at nation up to 12
nautical miles in the ocean from the coast, such as minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, land
termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation.
International resources: The resources that do not belong to any individual country.
Potential resources: Resources which are available in a region, but have not been utilized, such as wind
and solar energy in Rajasthan and Gujarat have not been developed fully.
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Developed resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quantity and quality have been
determined for utilization.
Stock: Materials present in the environment, which have the potential to satisfy human needs, but human
beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these materials.
Reserves: They are the subsets of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing
technology but their use has not been started yet.
Sustainable development: It means that development should take place without damaging the
environment and development in the present should not compromise with needs of future generations.
Resource planning: It is the widely accepted strategy for the judicious use of resources.
Resource conservation: It refers to the sustainable utilisation of natural resources, such as soil, water,
plants, animals, minerals. It topsoil, pasture land and minerals. It also refers to the preservation of forests,
watershed areas, etc.
Gross cropped area: Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as
gross cropped area.
Fallow land: A land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year for
increasing its fertility is known as the fallow land.
Wasteland: Land which is not suitable for cultivation is known as wasteland.
Net sown area: Area sown once in a year is known as the net sown area.
Pasture: Land covered with grass and other plants that makes it suitable for grazing animals is known as
pasture.
Soil erosion: The washing away of top fertile soil by natural agents like wind, glacier and water is called
soil erosion.
Gullies: When the running water, cutting through the clayey soil creates deep channels.
These deep channels are known as gullies.
Sheet erosion: When the top soil is washed away due to heavy flow of water down the slopes, it is
known as sheet erosion.
Wind erosion: When the top fertile soil blows off due to wind, it is known as wind erosion.
Strip cropping: Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grasses are left to grow between the
crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip
cropping.
Contour ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines is known as contour ploughing. Contour
ploughing can slow down the flow of water down the slopes and prevent soil from eroding away.
Shelter belts: Sometimes, trees are planted in rows to reduce the force of wind to prevent wind erosion.
Such rows of plants are known as shelter belts.
Important Notes
Resources are the means available for economic and political development, such as mineral wealth,
labour force, livestock etc. In other words, everything available in the environment that can be used to
satisfy our needs provided it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable
can be called resource.
Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals are called natural
resources.
Even human beings are essential components of resources as they also provide services and thus
contribute to the economic and political development. They convert material available in our environment
into resources and use them.
Classification of Resources
(a) on the basis of origin, we have biotic and abiotic resources.
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility, we have renewable and non-renewable resources.
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(c) On the basis of ownership, there are four types of resources:

. Individual resources
• Community-owned resources
. National resources
. International resources.
(d) On the basis of status of development, we have again four types of resources:
. Potential resources
• Developed resources
. Stock
• Reserves
Resources are very important for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. An
equitable distribution of resources is very important for sustainable existence of all forms of life and
global peace.
Resources are compulsory for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. It was
believed that resources are free gifts of nature.
Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future
generations. For a sustained quality of life and global peace, it is essential that resources should be
distributed equally.
As human beings are using the resources unevenly it has led to the some major problems.
like
(a) depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals
(b) accumulation of resources in few hands and
(c) indiscriminate exploitation of resources which has led to global ecological crises such as,
global warming, ozone layer depletion etc.
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
In June 1992 considering the same issue more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for
the first International Earth Summit.
The summit. organised for addressing urgent problems of environmental protection and
Social economic development at the global level.
The Rio Convention endorsed the global forest principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
sustainable development in the 21st century.
Agenda 21 was the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) which aimed at achieving global sustainable development.
One major objective of the Agenda 21 was that every local government should draw its own
local Agenda 21.
Resource planning is the widely accepted strategy for cautious use of resources. In a country like India it
is very important to follow and execute such planning as India has
enormous diversity in the availability of resources. Some regions are rich in certain types of resources but
deficient in some other resources.
Some regions are self-sufficient in terms of the availability of resources while others have acute shortage
of some vital resources.
Balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels is very important. But mere
presence of resources is not enough for development. It should be accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes too.
Resource Planning in India
Resource planning is a technique of proper utilization of resources.
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Resource planning is a complex process which involves the following steps:

(a) Identification and keeping record of resources which involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and
quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
(b) Developing a planning structure with proper technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans.
(c) Comparing the resource development plans with national development plans.
Resource development and planning reduces wastage, keeps the environment pollution free
and takes care of future needs. The management of resources by humans is known as
ration of resources includes a judicious and planned use of resources.
Optimum exploitation is must, but over-exploitation should be checked.
India has a variety of relief features like mountains, plateaus and plains. 43% of the country is covered
with plains and they provide cultivable land for growing crops. 30% of the country is covered by
mountains and they provide natural resources like forests and wildlife. 27% of the country is covered by
plateaus, which contain mineral resources, forests and some arable land.
Land resources are used for the following purposes :
(1) Forests
(2) Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
(3) Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area)
(c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
(4) Fallow land
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year)
(b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years),
(5) Net sown area
The use of land is determined by
(a) Physical factors-topography, climate, soil types.
(b) Human factors-population density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc.
Several steps have been taken to create awareness about the conservation of resources:
(a) For the first time in 1968, the Club of Rome supported resource conservation at an international level.
(b) In 1974, Gandhian philosophy was presented by Schumacher in his book Small is Beautiful.
(c) The influential contribution was made by the Brundtland Commission Report in 1987. It introduced
the concept of 'Sustainable Development' which was later published in the book Our Common Future.
Land supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport and
communication systems. Thus it is very important to conserve land resources with careful planning.
Human activities that caused degradation of land in India
(1) Deforestation
2) Overgrazing
(3) Mining and quarrying
Suggestions for conservation of land
(1) Afforestation
(2) Proper control on grazing
(3) Planting of shelter belts of plants
(4) Stabilisation of sand dunes by planting thorny bushes
(5) Proper utilization of wasteland
(6) Control on mining
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(7) Discharge of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource.

(a) it is a medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth and is an
important living system. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cm
in depth.
Factors that help in the formation of soil are relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate,
vegetation and other forms of life and time.
Various natural forces like temperature, actions of running water etc, also contribute to the soil formation.
Soils of India can be classified on following basis:
(1) Factors responsible for the formation of the soil
(2) Colour of the soil
(3) Thickness of the soil
(4) Texture of the soil
(5) Age of the soil
(6) Chemical and physical properties of the soil
Different types of soil are: Alluvial soil, Black soil, Red and Yellow soils, Laterite soil, And
soil and Forest soil.
The removal of top fertile soil cover due to various reasons like wind, glacier and water is called soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and erosion go simultaneously and generally there is a balance
between the two. But sometimes, this balance is disturbed due to human activities. Natural forces like
wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion. Soil
erosion is also caused due to defective methods of farming.
Types of soil
(1) Alluvial soil
a) Widely spread in north Indian plains, alluvial soil as a whole is very fertile.
b) It is classified as: Khadar (new alluvial) and Bangar (old alluvial)
e) This soil contains adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid
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d) This soil is contains adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
e) This soil is ideal for the growth of sugarcane; paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse corps.
(2) Black soil
a) Also called regur soil, this soil is black in colour,
b) This soil is ideal for growing cotton.
c) This soil is found in the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south-east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
d) This soil is rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime,
but poor in phosphorus contents.
e)The black soils is made up of extremely fine le, dayey material. It is well-known for the capacity to
hold moisture.
(3) Red and yellow soil
a) This se develops in areas of low rainfall or crystalline igneous rocks.
b) It is found in Odisha, Chhattisgarh and the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
c) Due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks, its colour becomes reddish,
(4) Laterite soil
a) This soil develops in areas of high temperature and heavy rainfall.
b) Humus content in the soil is low.
c) It is mainly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and hilly areas of Assam and
Odisha.
d) It is good for tea, coffee, cashew nut, etc.
(5) Arid soils
a) This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
b) This soil lacks in humus and moisture.
c) This soil is found in Western Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
d) The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar.

(6) Forest soils
a) This soil is found in hilly and mountainous regions.
b) This soil is loamy and silty in valley sides, while coarse grained in the
Measures for soil conservation are Contour ploughing, Terrace farming strip cropping ,Shelter belts of
trees, Plugging of gullies, Afforestation ,Control of mining activities.
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PRESENTATION CONVENT HR. SEC.

STUDY MATERIAL CLASS X 2021-2022

1. Foot Prints without Feet (Prose) H.G Wells

1. He was apprenticed to a draper in early life, period reflected in several of

Conclusion of Footprints without Feet

2. An Excellent Father (Prose)

Pride and Prejudice

This poem is originally written in Kashmiri language by Mehjoor, who is popularly

5. The Tale of Custard the Dragon( Poem)

4. The Necklace (Short Story)

Answer the following questions.

He has gone away.

1.We use full stop to close a statement or a command:

The food they served was delicious, nourishing and cheap.

The colon is used after a statement which introduces examples:

e. The mark of interrogation

f. The mark of exclamation

h. The quotation marks or inverted commas

B. Agreement of the Subject with Verb

Either Mable or Sherlock is in the wrong.

Subject- Verb Agreement – Practice exercise

5. On our street (is –are) many tall trees.

Errors due to Proximity

Similarly with titles of books and names of sciences:

⚫ Only the most important details should be written.

Madhuri: Hello, is that Angels Garments?

Madhuri: Could I speak to Mrs.Smita?

Mani: I am sorry, Ma’am, she’s not here at the moment.

Madhuri: When will she return?

Mani: Ok Mam, I will inform her.

Madhuri: Thank you!

9TH January, 2021

Mr. Rehman: Hello, is this 98417854XX?

Fatima: Yes. May I know who’s calling?

Mr. Rehman: I am Rahul Singha. Can I talk to Mr. Ajaz?

Fatima: Okay, I’ll give him this message.

Mr. Rehman: Thank you.

Sadaf: Hello, is this 87689546XX?

Mehar: Yes. May I know who’s calling?

Sadaf: I am Sumit, a friend of Karan. Where is she?

Mehar: she has gone to father’s office. Can I help you?

Mehar: Okay, I’ll give her this message.

Sadaf: Thank you.

Chapter Real Numbers

Coverage: Portion related to Reflection of light.( First phase)

Diagram will be displayed after explaining through online demo.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

CaCO3 ----------------> CaO + CO2

After balancing, the above equation can be written as follows:

HOW TO MAKE CHEMICAL EQUATION MORE INFORMATIVE

C(s) + O2 (g) -------------> CO2 (g) + 393.5 kJ (Exothermic reaction)

N2 (g) + O2 (g) ----------------> 2NO (g) ⁻ 180 kJ (Endothermic reaction)

500⁰C, 200 atm

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ------------------------> 2NH3 (g)

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g) ---------------> C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2 (g)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ------------------> 2 NH3 (g)

2 NH3 (g) ---------------> N2 (g) + H2 (g)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) --------------------------- > 2 NH3 (g)