SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Definition of Terms
Science- the word came from the Latin "scientia," meaning "knowledge." It refers to the
systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the
universe behaves through observation, experimentation, or both.
According to famous American science historian, John Heilbron (2003), " Modern
science is a discovery of regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be
described by principles and laws. he also explained that science required invention to
devise techniques, abstractions, apparatuses, and organizations to describe these
natural regularities and their law-like descriptions.

Technology- it is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles to produce

services, materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world problems. it came
from the Greek word techne, meaning 'art, skill, or cunning of hand.'

Society- is composed of a group of people living together in a more or less ordered

community.

Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison between science and technology that is
helpful in the study of their interaction with society, Wolpert explained that reliable
scientific knowledge has no moral or ethical value. It is meant simply to explain
how nature and the universe work and that the obligation of the scientists, besides
studying the nature of the universe, is to explain the possible uses and applications of
such scientific knowledge. Along this line, Wolpert made it clear that science is not the
same as technology. Scientists are not responsible for the application of knowledge in
technology. He further explained that the very nature of science is that it is not possible
to predict scientific discoveries and how these discoveries may be applied. While
scientists are not responsible for the reliable conduct of the scientific inquiry and its
honest interpretation and dissemination, technological applications of science are
influenced by other sectors such as politics and governance, religion, and business.

Nowadays, advancements in science and technology have become pervasive. They are
manifested in the activities that humans pursue and the tools they use every day. The
beauty of this is that an advancement builds upon itself. As such, humans today live
more productive and more exciting lives than their predecessors.
However, the dynamism and immensity of scientific and technological progress also
pose challenges and drawbacks to the way humans live. The introduction of machines
tremendously cut the need for the human workforce and gave rise to the question of
whether machines will eventually replace humans. The invention of drugs that cured the
previously incurable diseases introduced new strains of bacteria and viruses that are
resistant to the very same drugs that once fought them-take an antibiotic-resistant strain
of gonorrhea as an example. The rise of social media drastically changed the way
humans communicate, interact, and share information; however, this tends to put
people's privacy at risk. Indeed, science and technology have served a predominantly
double-edged function.
As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable,
the need to pay attention to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g.
social, political, and economic, becomes even more necessary. How the different
aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further developments of
science and technology in the area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline
called Science, Technology, and Society.

Science and Technology and Society is a relatively young field that previously
independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science,
and sociology of science. As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University's
Kennedy School (2018) traces its roots from the interwar period and the start of the cold
war. It was during the period when historians and scientists found interest in
the interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The
rise of STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today
do not really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the
challenges posed by science and technology in the contemporary world.

Summary
In summary, we had discussed the concepts of science, technology, and society. Also,
we mentioned that STS applies methods from history, philosophy, and sociology to
study the nature of science and technology and ultimately judge their value and place in
society.
As an interdisciplinary field, the emergence of STS was a result of the question about
science and technology's dynamic interaction with various aspects of society and was
thus viewed as a socially embedded enterprise, Thus, STS seeks to bridge the gap
between traditionally exclusive cultures-humanities and natural science-so that humans
will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought about
by the continued developments in science and technology.

SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

- The division for science, Technology and Society focuses in the societal
role of science and technology in the modern and contemporary.
What is Science?
What is Technology?
What is Society?
•Science- The study of something
•Technology- Usage of tools
•Society – community of people with a common goal.
•The study of how social, political and cultural values affect society and politics, and culture.
THE BASIC THEMES
CONSTRUCTIVISM
- STS assumes scientific and technological developments to the socially constructed phenomena.
That is, science and technology are inherently human, hence value-laden, activities that are
always approached and understood cognitively.
CONTEXTUALISM
- It follows that science and technology are historically, politically, and culturally embedded
which means they can only be understood in context.
PROBLEMATIZATION
- In this view science and technology have societal implications, frequently positive, but some
negative, at least for some people. It is not only acceptable, but, indeed, necessary to query the
essence of scientific knowledge and processes with an eye toward evaluative and ethical
prescription.
DEMOCRATIZATION
- The need to be more explicit participatory mechanisms for enhancing public participation in the
shaping and control of science and technology.
History of Science, Technology and Society in the Philippines
The main managing agency responsible is the Department of Science and Technology (DOST).
Represents the wide scientific and technological advances the Philippines has made.
The science department has consulting agencies for Forestry, Agriculture and Aquaculture,
Metal Industry, Nuclear Research, Food and Nutrition, Health, Meteorological and the
Volcanology and Seismology.

NATIONAL SCIENTISTS:
•Fe Del Mundo - Pediatrics
•Eduardo Quisumbing - Plant Taxonomy
•Gavino Trono - Tropical Marine Phycology
•Maria Orosa - Food Technology
Stone Age
•-Archeological findings show that modern man from Asian mainland first
came over
•land on across narrow channels to live in Batangas and Palawan about 48,000 B.C.
•-They formed settlement in Sulu, Davao, Zamboanga, Samar, Negros,
•Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, Bulacan and Cagayan.
•Made tools and weapons from Stone Flakes
•40,000 B.C. - Developed method of sawing and polishing stones
•3,000 B.C. - Produced adzes ornaments of seashells, and pottery
Learned to produce tools and ornaments made from copper, bronze, iron, and gold metal

Iron Age
The Iron Age lasted from the third century B.C. to 11th century A.D.
Filipinos were engaged in the extraction smelting and refining of iron from ores
until the importation of cast iron from Sarawak and later from China.
They learned to weave cotton, make glass ornaments, and cultivate lowland rice and diked fields
of terraced fields utilizing spring water in mountain regions.

They also learned to build boats for trading purposes.

Spanish chronicles noted refined plank-built warships called caracoa suited for inter-island trade
raids.
The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in boat-building and seamanship to fight the
raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong as well as to build and
man the galleons that sailed to Mexico.

10th CENTURY A.D.

-Filipinos from the Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam) and those from Ma-I (Mindoro)
with China.
-These archaeological findings indicated that regular trade relations between the Philippines,
China and Vietnam had been well established from the

10th century to the 15th century A.D.

-The people of Ma-I and San-Hsu (Palawan) traded bee wax, cotton, pearls, coconut heart mats,
tortoise shell and medicinal betelnuts, yu-ta cloth (probably jute or ramie?) for Chinese
porcelain, leads fishnets sinker, colored glass beads, iron pots, iron needles and tin.

PRE-SPANISH ERA (PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD)

-Filipinos were already engage in activities and practices related to science.
They were curative values of some plant on how to extract medicine from herbs.
-They had an alphabet, a system of writing, a method of counting and weights and measure.
-They had no calendar but counted the years by the period of the moon and from one harvest to
another.
-The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of
engineering by pre-Spanish era Filipinos.
E. SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD
-Contributed to growth of science and technology in the country.
-The Spanish introduced formal education and founded scientific institutions.
-Parish schools were established where religion, reading, writing, arithmeticand music were
taught.
-Sanitation and more advanced methods of agriculture were taught to the natives.
-Colleges and universities including the University of Sto. Tomas was established.
-Study of medicine was given priority in the Spanish era, especially in the later years.
-Biology is given focus.
-Trade was given more focus by the Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of big
profits.
-The opening of the Suez Canal saw the influx of European visitors to the Spanish colony and
some Filipinos were able to study in Europe influenced by the rapid development of scientific
ideals brought about by the Age of Enlightenment.

SPANISH REGIME
Later part of the 16th Century
Development of schools
Colegio de San Ildefonso-Cebu-1595
Colegio de San Ignacio-Manila-1595
Colegio De Nuestra Senora del Rosario, Manila-1597
Colegio De San Jose-Manila-1601
Development of Hospitals
San Juan Lazaro Hospital - the oldest in the Far East was founded in 1578.

17th and 18th Century

-The Real Sociedad Economica de los Amigos Del Pais de Filipinas founded by Governador Jose
Basco y Vargas in 1780 encouraged research in agriculture and industry. The society promoted
cultivation of indigo, cotton, cinnamon, and silk industry.
-In 1789 Manila was opened to Asian shipping, inaugurating an era of increase in export of rice,
hemp, tobacco, sugar, and indigo, and imports of manufacturing goods.

The 19th Century

-In 1863 the colonial authorities issued a royal degree to reform the existing
educational system.
-In 1871 the school of medicine and pharmacy were opened in UST. After 15
years it granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina to 62 graduates.
-The licentiate degree equivalent to a Master degree was granted
Bachelor’s degree in pharmacy.
•Leon Ma. Guerrero - considered was the father of Philippine Pharmacy due
to his works on Medicinal Plants of the Philippines.
-There were no school for engineering but they offered nautical four-year
course for pilot of merchant marine that includes the subjects: Arithmetic,
Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Physics, Hydrography, Meteorology,
Navigation and Pilotage
-The expanded world trade and commerce in the later part of the 19th century
led to the rapid development of Manila as cosmopolitan center.
-Modern amenities such as steam tramways, waterworks, newspaper, electric
lights, banking system were introduced in 19th century.
-Jesuits promoted meteorological studies founding Manila observatory at the
Ateneo Municipal de Manila in 1865.
American Period and Post-Commonwealth Era
December 8, 1933 - National Research Council of the Philippines was established
-Science was inclined during American Period
-Not much focus was given on the development of industrial technology due to
free trade policy with the United States
1946 – Institute of Science
Marcos Era and Martial Law
-declared that the "advancement of science and technology shall have priority
in the national development.”
Some of the Notable S&T Accomplishments of the Marcos Regime
•science courses in public high schools.
•additional funds were channeled to support projects
•a big part of the war damage fund was given to private universities
•promotion of scientific research and invention
The Fifth Republic
-Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for the years 1987-1992
-S&T development shall be one of the top three priorities of the
government
-In 1998, Aquino created the Presidential Task Force for Science and
Technology which came up with the first Science and Technology Master
Plan or STMP.
-Aquino encouraged scientists and inventors to bring the Philippines to its
former position
Under Pres. Fidel V. Ramos
- significant increase in personnel specializing in the S&T field.
-Science and Technology Scholarship Law of 1994
-modernization and update of science classrooms
Under Pres. Joseph Estrada
•launch of a full-scale program based on cost-effective irrigation
technologies
•Speed up the program for establishing one science high school in
every province
•pushed for the advancement of industries and schools into the
Internet age
Under Pres. Gloria Arroyo
Numerous laws and projects concerning the environment and science
helped push STI.
•"Filipinnovation" was coined to promote the Philippines to be an
innovation hub in Asia
•strengthening the schools and education system to focus more in
science, technology and mathematics
Paradigm shift
• Change in concepts/ practices.
•Happens when new technology is introduced.
•Changes of one paradigm from another paradigm
• American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kahn Kuhn contests that
paradigm shifts characterize a revolution to a prevailing scientific
framework.
• They arise when the dominant paradigm, under which normally
accepted science operates, is rendered incompatible or insufficient,
facilitating the adoption of a revised or completely new theory or
paradigm.
Kuhn’s Phases of science.
Phase 1: pre-paradigmatic state
•refers to a period before a scientific consensus has been reached.
Phase 2: normal science
•Developed theories that is widely accepted.
•Provides natural philosophers with a way of thinking about a concept.
Phase 3: crisis
•The scientists engaged in normal science will make observations that
cannot be easily explained.
•Modifications may be proposed to allow the observations to fit.
Phase 4: revolution
•This is where the paradigm shift occurs.
•Offer a better explanation.
•The new paradigm better explains the observations, and offers a model that
is closer to the objective, external reality.
Phase 5: return to normal science
•Once the new paradigm has been established, normal science resumes.

DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE.
1.SCIENCE IS A PROCESS
a. Concerned with discovering relationships between observable phenomena in terms
of theories.
b. Systematized theoretical inquiries
c. It seeks for truth about nature.
d. It is determined by observation, hypothesis, measurement, analysis and
experimentation
e. It is the description and explanation of the development of knowledge
f. It is the study of the beginning and end of everything that exist.
g. Conceptualization of new ideas, from the abstract to the particular.
h. Kind of human cultural activity.
2.SCIENCE IS A PRODUCT
a. Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on facts or truths observations.
b. A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for the systematic observation
of empirical phenomena.
c. Source of cognitive authority.
d. Concerned with verifiable concepts
e. A product of the mind
f. It is the variety of knowledge, people, skills, organizations, facilities, techniques,
physical resources, methods and technologies that taken together and in relation with
one another

Historical Background
In the early age, tools made by humans were made of stones, antlers, wood and bones.
Fire was also discovered by humans by rubbing two stones or woods. 25,000 to 50,000
before Christ, clothes were worn by humans.
The modern era is the so-called Information Age, Digital Age, computer Age or New
Media Age.
This era is characterized by the shifting of the traditional industry to an economy
which is based on information technology.
Although the Information age started in the 1970s where personal computers were
introduced, it was not really a boom the fact that it can transfer information quickly and
freely. In 1977, home computers which are classes of microcomputers entered the
market but became common in the 1980’s. Consumers can get these home
computers at affordable prices and these are intended for a single non-technical use.
Then, on August 6, 1991, the World Wide Web or www was introduced by Tim Berners
-Lee. Berners-Lee is dubbed as the father of the Web. There were other inventors in the
tech world such as Vint Cerf and Bob Metcalfe who are dubbed as the father of the
Internet and Ethernet, respectively.
It was on August 9, 1995 that Netscape initially offered this technology to the public.
After this, stocks of Netscape surge which give the company more than $2 billion on the
first day of its trading. It is the IPO or the so called ―Input Process Output‖ that became
the rite of passage for these technology startups.
Comparable to the industrial revolution and agricultural revolution, this digital revolution
marks the start of the Information Age. It is in this age that there is widespread use of
digital logic circuits together with its technologies such as computers, digital mobile
phones and the internet. These innovations of technology have revolutionized the
traditional productions and even business techniques.
Historical Analysis of the Interdependence of Science in Medieval and Modern Society
The degree of influence of astronomy, medicine and natural history from the different
sources such as scientific and non-scientific texts, archives or even technical literatures
have relations to scientific activities. In the field of medicine, Galenism was widespread
and popular.
This is the reason why medicine has indispensable and invaluable benefit to the society.
This is also true to other scientific disciplines such as medical history and astronomy
which disciplines are directly related to medicine. Various researches have been done
and the focus is on:
1. The political and socio-economic context of modern medicine. In the Kingdom of Valencia
during the Spanish Catholic Monarch, health care and medical practices have its presence in the
16th and 17th centuries.
2. Scientific and public activities. The Baroque presentation of medicine and even natural
history has popularized scientific ideas during the Spanish Catholic Monarchy. In addition,
Baroque representations and images especially of the disease and the sickduring the Spanish
Catholic Monarchy are made basis for knowing social attitudes.
3. Scientific ideas of doctors, cosmographers and astronomers in the Modern Age. Their
roles and spread of knowledge in the 16th and 17th centuries have made changes in the field of
science.
4. The roles of the doctors being experts in different fields especially during the medieval and
modern eras.
5. Development of complete studies of a medical historian and doctor Jose Rodrigo Pertegas
which are now found in the Catalan and Valencian archives and libraries.
6. The spread of scientific knowledge of the American land and nature and how
American plants are introduced in Europe especially on herbaria, the chronicles and medical
texts of the Indies have are part of scientific development.
Historical Analysis of the Interdependence of Science in the Philippines
In the Philippines, the acceptance of STI or Science, Technology and Innovation are the
most important elements in the Philippine development. Progressive countries in the world
make this STI as the center of the strategy for development.
According to survey, our country, positive advancement and developments in STI remain
in a low level of innovation. This is due to the weakness of human capital, low expenditures in
RD or Research and Development and its weal linkage to STI ecosystem.
According to theGII or Global Innovation Index, our country ranked 74th out of 128
economies as far as innovation is concerned. Philippines garnered a score or 31.8 out of 100.
This is slight development due to our score of 31.1 in 2015 where the Philippines ranked 83rd
out of the 141 economies.
Our country ranked fifth from the seven members of the ASEAN or Association of
Southeast Asian Nations. The Philippines was ahead of Indonesia (88th) and Cambodia (95th)
but behind Singapore which ranked 6th, Malaysia ranked 35th, Thailand ranked 52nd and
Vietnam ranked 59th.
The weak performance of the STI sector in our country is due to the weak STI culture.
This is because of limited public awareness as well as interest in science, technology and
innovation. Many sectors in our country do not appreciate, recognize and understand the use
of science-based information and technology- based information in their activities every day.
Furthermore, there are also weaknesses in the professional and social culture especially
on research culture in various universities and its commercialization from its results. There is
also lack of awareness in the research communities, the general public and even on intellectual
property rights. There is low level of adoption and application of these technologies among
MSMEs or micro, small and medium enterprises and even in other sectors such as fisheries and
agriculture. STI are key components to challenges. But our country is not prepared for this
because we are investing enough resources in science and technology, research and
development, human resource development and even physical infrastructure. Our country
even lack technologists and scientists needed for our development.
The result is our country suffers from low agricultural and industrial productivity, inefficiency,
scientific publications, innovations and patents. Although we have high trained technologists
and scientists, our government lacks local investments to hold them. Although these
professionals are trained abroad, they are denied in our country due to lack of science and
technology innovation.
Inside ( STS) Science, Technology and Society
The study of STS (Science, Technology and Society) is an integrative investigation of the
strong collaboration between scientific advancement with societal forces, and their part in the
technological innovations. Science and technology have a growing impact on society
because it can make people’s life easy. With this, science had given people the chance to go
after their concerns in the society such as education, aesthetics, ethics and justice, creating
cultures and improving human conditions.
Relationship of Science with Technology
Although the purposes and perspective of science and technology are not similar, their
relationship is complex and tense. Their impact on the society is obvious and visible. Society
can also influence science and technology especially on scientific and technological
developments.
Effect of Science and Technology to Society
Society can be influenced by science through its knowledge and views. The scientific
knowledge and the different procedures used by different scientists have great influence on the
ways individuals anticipate themselves and other people in the society as well as in the place
they live and its environment. Sciences effect on the society is not entirely detrimental or
entirely beneficial.
Science tests ideas with evidences it gets from the world of nature. Science can guide to
the advancement of technology. For individuals, science can help us learn more about health
and natural hazards to our environment.
On the other hand, technology can affect our environment, the society and its people.
This can either have positive or negative impact. The positive impact can be making people’s
way of living easy and convenient but there can be negative impact can be addiction to the
effect that it can hurt people’s communication skills or the worst is health ramifications like
eyestrain, insomnia, hearing loss, neck strain and even increase anxiety as well as depression.
Technology can also affect our brain especially the sleep cycles of those persons who use
gadgets just for gaming.
Gadgetscan Cause Radiation
There are different gadgets which are out in the market right now. Over use and wrong
use of these gadgets can cause radiation. It can result to long term effects on health such as
cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
a. Cell phone
Cell phone is a portable cordless device for creating contact list, making calls, setting up
voicemail box and texting or calling contacts. This gadget became available in the market in the
1980s.
This gadget can have good and bad effect to the users.
The different good effects can be through its applications or apps. It can be your global
positioning device (GPS), game consoles and even music players. But always remember the bad
effects for over use. Cell phone can also be our hand held health coach since there are many
apps for improving our health. How?
First, our can help us eat better. There are different websites or apps for healthy recipes.
This is more convenient in making our cell phones as our food journal. This is more convenient
and easy using paper and pen to record diet plans.
Second, cell phones can keep us moving by tracking our physical activities. Research
shows that apps step counts and distance measurement accurate. They can motivate us with
feedback and setting goals. Another thing is that we use cell phones to listen to music and even
doing this while having physical exercises. Cell phones can also lower stress especially by
downloading and listening to soothing music or even nature sounds. Trying yoga is better
because the breathing techniques and the physical movements can help us relax.
However, there are bad effects for cell phones. The bad effects are:
First, it can cause distraction especially using cell phones while walking outdoors or
driving. The result is we pay less attention to our surroundings and we don’t have quick
reaction time. So, the result is accident.
Second, cell phones can make us anxious especially heavy cell phone users. Students
who are heavy cell phone users tend to have lower grades.
Third, cell phones can disrupt our sleep especially attending to call alerts, answering calls
and text messages at night. These constant alerts can interrupt your sleep.
Healthy Compromises of Cellphones
This handy gadget is very difficult to disconnect. But too much time using this gadget can
cause users physical problems. The following are the healthy compromises of cellphones:
1. Turn off cell phones at night or turn it mute. It is necessary to limit screen time before
going to bed. Playing games (like Mobile Legends) or texting or using facebook makes users
difficult to relax.
2. Take continuing breaks. Too much use of this gadget can cause users pain especially in
fingers or wrists. Eyes became tired from the constant look at the gadgets’ screen.
3. Turn off the sound. Using earphones for listening to music from the gadget especially
if the volume is high can cause damage to our sense of hearing.
4. Make a plan for the use of cell phones. Do it only on important matters.
Radiation brought about by Cellphones
There is a possibility of causing health problems especially certain types of cancer. Cell
phones release radio waves or radiofrequency energy. This is a kind of non -ionizing radiation
derived from cell phones’ antennas. Hence, body tissues near the cp’s antennas can frequently
absorb this kind of energy.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), radiations coming cell phones have
a great possibility of human carcinogens which can greatly damage our DNA and cells and thus
can cause burns, cancer or sickness. The primary effect is on the brain where our brain blood
vessels die and can lead to seizures. The eyes are greatly affected too because there can be
possibility of cataracts due to non -ionizing radiation which can be the source of heating.
Protecting Ourselves from Cell phone Radiation
According to experts, keeping distance from cell phones is very important. It is not
necessary that we have to place it in the pockets of our blouses, polos or pants.
When calling or accepting calls, we should not hold the cell phones to our ears because it can
uncover our salivary glands to Electromagnetic Frequencies (EMFs). It is advisable that we have
to use the speaker or headsets. Another thing to remember, we have to turn off our cell phones
more often because in this cause no radiation is discharged when the gadget is off.
It is recommended by experts that when we sleep, we have to place our cell phones 3
meters away from our body or we can leave the gadget in our chair or couch. It is also
important not place the gadget under the pillow while sleeping or charging it overnight under
the pillow.
Bad Effects of Mobile Phones
Although cell phones have good effects; its overuse can give bad effects to the users. The
bad effects are:
1. Cell phones can damage our eyes. According to opticians, users who are addicted to
these gadgets have increased risks of eye damages. Other gadgets such as tablets, computers
and flat screen televisions screens can lead to long term damage.
2. Cell phones can affect user’s health. Too much exposure to these gadgets can damage
our DNA and cells to the effect that it can cause sickness, burns or even cancer at the most. This
is due to the fact that these gadgets have ionizing radiation which can cause heating—the same
with how microwave oven works.
3. Cell phones can affect our brain.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), radiations coming cell phones have a great
possibility of human carcinogens which can greatly damage our DNA and cells and thus can
cause burns, cancer or sickness. The primary effect is on the brain where our brain blood
vessels die and can lead to seizures. The eyes are greatly affected too because there can be
possibility of cataracts due to non -ionizing radiation which can be the source of heating.
4. Cell phones can cause temporary blindness especially if users check these gadgets at
night especially checking these in the dark.
b.) Laptops
Laptops are compact and portable personal computers with similar capabilities as desktop
computers.
Laptops discharge heat while in use; and this heat has disastrous effects on our health. Wrong
placement of laptops such as placing them on legs while in use can harm our skin.
According to experts, it can cause sterility. This is due to electromagnetic radiation discharged
by these gadgets. Recent studies of the Fertility and Sterility show that the heat discharged by
these gadgets can cause Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) damage.
c.) Tablets
If cell phones, laptops or tables are connected to the internet thru WiFi, its connectivity
can discharged electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation. This simply means that the users are hit
by two radiating sources—one from the gadget and the other one from WiFi.
d.) Earphones
Earphones are electrical devices which are used on the ear in order to receive telephone
or radio communications or for the purpose of listening to music etc. or answering to phone
calls without other people hearing it. These earphones can also damage our ears especially
when we used it with high volumes or using them for so long. The worst result is hearing loss
Therefore, it is a rule that we have to use these MP3 devices at a maximum level of 60%
for 60 minutes in just one day. According to Dr. Froy, using these earphones at a louder volume
the shorter would be its duration of use. If you do it in a maximum volume, it is necessary that
we have to listen from it for only five minutes in a day.
Intellectual Revolution
Intellectual revolution is time where there is a paradigm shift. It is in this period where
scientific beliefs and studies embraced in the early and medieval times were opposed
and challenged
This intellectual revolution can transform society by way of critical thinking, creating
rules and policies for equal opportunities and for purposes of evaluation. It is considered
as a continuing process for the development of the country to the end that society’s needs are
later achieved. The joint efforts of great minds and intellectuals can make the world
progressive and peaceful.
Some of the examples of this intellectual revolution are the study of the orbit of the earth
around the sun and the introduction of automobile and other creations/inventions in the
society.
But since we are in the Digital Age, digital information revolution can become powerful.
With the use of technologies, these can make our lives convenient and easy. How?
Consumers are already allowed to buy and sell online, order products online
and even allow citizens to interact with or complain to the government issues using the
internet
Copernican Intellectual Revolution
The Copernican Revolution was considered the paradigm shift from Ptolemaic model of
heavens to the heliocentric model. The Ptolemaic model describes the universe with a
stationary
Earth at the center. The heliocentric model describes the Sun at the middle of the Solar System.
This is articulated by Nicolaus Copernicus who is a Polish astronomer in the year 1543. .
This Copernican Revolution brought dramatic changes that occurred in the universe and
how the earth revolves around the Sun as what we learnt in Science. It is for a long time that
our perception of the objects in the sky is the ones that revolved everywhere on us and that the
earth is the focus of the universe.
Darwinian Intellectual Revolution
The Darwinian Intellectual Revolution was popularized by Charles Darwin in 1859. This
is a revolution centered on scientific and religious spheres. His book has changed the outlook of
the people on biology and the fundamental effects on modern religion, science and the other
characteristics of the society.
The Darwinian revolution is very important in the development of humanist and scientific
ideas. It was Charles Darwin who made people conscious that the place they live has
evolutionary process especially when the most intelligent and powerful structure of
life was discovered on how individuals evolved.
This theory as advocated by Charles Darwin as found in his book allows us to see how
the various species lived and have died for the reason that another species had succeeded
them.
Darwin’s theory is important especially in the evolution of men.
Charles Darwin has also advocated Social Darwinism which firmly believed in the ―survival of
the fittest. This is a theory where individuals became influential in the society
because of their inherently better nature. This Social Darwinism theory was used to justify
racism, imperialism, social inequality and eugenics at different times in the past one hundred
fifty years.
However, oppositions to this theory of ―survival of the fittest‖ said that this theory means
―natural selection. Further, oppositions said that this theory is avoided especially by modern
biologists because it is misleading. For them, survival is just one of the aspects of selection;
hence, not the most important.

Freudian Intellectual Revolution

Sigmund Freud has important contribution to intellectual revolution being the well
known and popular psychologist of the 20th century. He founded the psychoanalysis theory
which asserts that human behavior is the outcome of the interplay of the 3 components of the
mind which are id, ego and super ego.
Freudian psychoanalysis’ theory has influenced the growth of psychotherapy and its
different methods of treatment through the century. Freud’s influence in this field continues to
be strong even though this theory had been the subject of controversy.
Freud’s theory is mainly based on objective observations. The major problem in this
theory offers only fact explanations but failed to anticipate traits and behaviors

Information Theory as part of Intellectual Revolution

The information theory examines the storage, quantification and communication of the
information. In 1948, Claude Shannon (an American electrical engineer, mathematician, and
cryptographer) proposed this theory finding the basic limits on the processing of signals and
the operations of communication like data compression.
MesoAmerican Intellectual Revolution
The MesoAmerican intellectual revolution has greatly influenced the civilizations in
North America, Central America and South America. In these places, the 4 ancient civilizations
are the Maya, the Aztecs, the Olmec and the Inca. These 3 have gained incredible
accomplishments in the field of science and engineering for the reason that they have high
value for education.
This intellectual revolution is very important since this is where agricultural revolution
occurred independently. This has gained ground in North America prior to Columbus. The Maya
can be included since they have expanded a distinctive writing system and an advanced
calendar.
The Olmec was the most essential in the MesoAmerican culture. This is due to the
governing landowning class that built the significant MesoAmerican civilization.

Asian Intellectual Revolution

According to Needham, a famous historian, China and the entire Asia continued in the
scientific advancement however, they were slower than countries in the west like Europe. First
and foremost, there are lots of scientific revolutions that begin in Asia particularly in China. But
since Asians are too much concerned about culture and religion, this prevented them from
proceeding in the development of science. In addition, Asian countries failed to adopt industrial
civilization. In Europe, the capitalists became richer and advanced in science.
The other reason why Asia is behind other continents is because is because of scare to
face problems. Like for example in the field of shipping industry, China had developed ships but
Timur wanted to topple down the government and the government put an end to the creation
of ships in order to focus on emerging concerns at that time.
Moreover, in the 19th century, China’s economy being the biggest in the world was
divided by the European countries to the effect that there is a slow moving scientific revolution
in China and the countries in Asia

Scientific Revolution of Middle East

The scientific revolution of Middle East has great contribution for great innovations and
discoveries. Middle East is rich in innovations and culture even in the past; however, its
development faced lag. Education in the Middle East is left behind which makes young people
after graduation jobless. Because of this, the government has made great investments in quality
scientific researches for innovation and development. For example, Mesopotamia is now
advanced in chemistry, algebra, medicine, engineering and astrology.

Africa is the continent in the world that used stones as their tools.
Stones are common in East Africa as well as in the Sub Saharan Africa. From these stones they
were able to make different kinds of tools.
In the history of science and technology, Africa has made developments in mathematics,
metallurgy, architecture and other arts. In Nairobi, homegrown was developed and there are
many big companies in the world have found out that Africa has fertile lands which are
necessary for scientific and technological developments.
African leaders have promised that their governments have to fund projects on science
and technology since this is very important for the country’s economic development but they
were not able to give concern for this issue for a long time. In Summit of AU (African Union)
leaders in January 2007, they have agreed to allocate 1% of their GNP (Gross National Product)
in 2020 for this purpose.
Since there are skilled, creative and educated young Africans together with the
government’s implementation and investments on science can be of great help to the
transformation of the Africa and the improvement of the Africans’ well -being.

Filipino Inventions and Discoveries

There are many who are considered the greatest Filipino inventors in their respective
times. We have our national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, who is considered the greatest patriot in the
Philippines because of his uniqueness and ingenuity.
Even though there is the lack of support by the government of the Philippines, still these
Filipinos pursued with their inventions and they have made great contribution to our society.
These Filipino discoveries faced disputes and controversies as far as the authenticity or
Genuineness of their inventions are concerned.
Medical Incubator
Dr. Fe Del Mundo invented the medical incubator and jaundice or icterus relieving
device. This incubator as 2 laundry baskets which are native and these are of different sizes
where one basket is placed over the other. In between the two baskets are bottles containing
hot water for the purpose of providing warmth. Over the overlapping baskets, there is a
makeshift hood in order that oxygen can circulate within. Dr. Del Mundo invented this medical
incubator in order tor3egulate the temperature of new born babies in the rural areas where at
that time there is no electricity yet.
Del Mundo is a graduate of Harvard University School of Medicine.
Erythromycin
Erythromycin is an antibiotics used as a substitute to penicillin. This medicine can cure
infections without considering the side effects of many antibiotics. This is acquired from the
bacterium
Streptomyces erythreus.
It was Dr. AbelardoAguilar, an Ilonggo, who in the year 1949 discovered a strain using the soil
from Iloilo. But when he sent this strain to be separated to Eli Lilli Company, Aguilar’s employer
in the US, a drug company owned by an Indian produced it without even giving credit to Aguilar
for this outstanding discovery.
Anticancer Cream Anti-cancer cream with this brand name ―DeBCC was invented by Rolando
dela Cruz.
This cream was made of cashew nuts and local herbs. This cream can treat BSC or basal skin
carcinoma which is considered as the wide spread skin cancer worldwide. Dela Cruz entered
this invention in an International Inventor’s Forum in November, 2005 and out of the 1,500
entries, this ―DeBCC was chosen as the most significant invention.
Mole Remover
Mole Remover is another invention of Rolando dela Cruz. He developed this in 2000
from the extract of cashew nuts or Annacardium occidentale. This mole remover can
remove deeply grown warts or moles from the skin without hurting the patient or leaving any
marks.
The first Philippine micro-satellite is Diwata 1. This was designed and built by Filipino
engineers from the Department of Science and Technology/Advanced Science and Technology
Institute (DOST/ASTI) and the University of the Philippines. These engineers were dubbed as
the Magnificent 9 ( From the Tohoko team-Julian Marvick Oliveros, Ariston N. Gonzales, Brian
Paler (ASTI), John Leur Labrador, Gerwin Guba (ASTI) and Juan Paolo Espiritu and the
Hokkaido Team: Kaye Kristine Vergel, Delburg Mitchao, Benjamin Magallon.
They developed and produced Diwata 1 with the collaboration of the engineers and scientist
from Hokkaido University and Tohoko University both in Japan.
The team coming from Tohoku University was in charge of developing the Diwata 1 bus,
from mechanical to electrical aspects, vibration, thermal, off gas, fit check test and many more.
The team coming from the Hokkaido University was in charge of the payload of this micro-
satellite and this includes the selection as well as the calibration of the optical sensors in order
to conform to the missions of science. This optical sensor can measure the substantial quantity
of the light and its translation to a readable form by the instrument. This team from Hokkaido
University selects the process of raw data coming from the sensor towards the end products
which are considered high level. Teams from both universities have their involvement not only
in the design but also the operational details of the stations in the ground for controlling this
micro-satellite and the receiving of data. These teams are in charge of the continuous test of its
features, sensors and optimization of software of the satellite.
This micro-satellite is with a mass of 50 kg, with a size of 55 cm x 35 cm x55 cm and
solar panels which are face mounted for the purpose of providing power necessary for the
operation of this spacecraft. Therefore, it falls under the category of micro-satellite. As far as its
use is concerned, it is intended and considered as a satellite for observing the earth particularly
the Philippine ground underground, water and underwater
This was launched on March 23, 2016 to the International Space Station. On April 27,
2016, this micro-satellite was deployed by the ISS (International Space Station) into the orbit.
This microsatellite can get photos of the natural disasters and enables PAGASA (Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) of the DOST
in making accurate forecasts and monitoring of the weather conditions which is very crucial to
the Philippine agriculture. The data coming from this micro-satellite are used in the prediction
of the maximum weather system in the Philippines.
One of the goals of this program is to take precedence in the development of the
aerospace industries and the local electronics that would supplement the satellite building
industries. In addition, this micro-satellite can send into space weather forecasting, disaster
management programs, fisheries, agriculture, mining, forest protection as well as protection of
our historical and cultural sites.
The other objectives of this micro-satellite program are to observe the Earth, develop
human resources and monitor the climate conditions.
This micro-satellite can provide the real time, high resolution and multi color infrared
images for different applications and that includes meteorological imaging, measurement of
ocean and crop production and high-resolution imaging of the man-made and natural features
in our country. Moreover, this satellite can make an exact estimate of the Philippine agricultural
and fishery production, provides images of floodplains and watersheds to know the availability
of water needed for irrigation and domestic consumption. This satellite can also feed exact
information on the degradation and disturbances both in the upland and forest areas in the
country.
Philippines has 2 satellites before (Agila 1 and Agila 2 which was named later as ABS 3);
however, this was not Filipino owned. This means that our government gets the services of
foreign countries for taking images from the satellite. Due to the after effect of typhoon
Yolanda that hits the Philippines, this PHL-Microsat program was created.
On October 29, 2018, Diwata 2 otherwise known as Diwata 2B was launched in the outer
space. This is the second satellite after Diwata 1. Unlike Diwata 1, this Diwata 2 or 2B has an
advantageous radio communication technology since it carries an amateur radio payload
especially for disaster relief. This Diwata 2 can monitor the following: scope of disaster
damages, cultural and natural heritage and vegetation. It also helps forecast weather, observe
patterns of clouds and other weather disturbances.

Science and Technology in National Development

There is development when advancement occurs. To have a successful economy in the
country, there must be pursuit for knowing the country’s economy wherein science and
technology as well as engineering are the basic requirements. Without developing science and
technology, development of the country’s economy is slight; therefore, the country can be
classified as under developed country. Modernity and rapid development are always associated
with science and technology.
The flow of different modern gadgets, modern equipment in medicine, aviation, infrastructure,
information technology, electricity among others can be part of modernization.
Hence, these are part of the country’s development.
Countries nowadays are classified into developed, industrialized, developing and
underdeveloped countries and this classification is based on its economy and how science and
technology are applied in these countries.
With development and improvement of science and technology, it gives positive results
such as people’s living is comfortable and easy, diseases can be easily determined and analyzed,
sectors in the economy improve such as education, industry, agriculture and communication
etc. and the improvement of research, development and its implications.
With the proper development of science and technology in the country, the economy also
develops and can be considered at the advanced level as what some countries are classified
today.
Major contributions of science and technology to Philippine nation-building
From the Stone Age to Bronze Age down to the Modern Age, we can trace how science
and technology develop. Also, when there are inventions in science and technology, the
community life can be easily changed. With technological changes and innovations, the work
load of the people has been lessened and this can lead to the study of newly applied
technologies.
While in the field of medical science, its development can contribute more to the prevention
and cure of diseases more particularly on promoting cheap medicines and vaccines. Country’s
communication has drastic changes due to information technology and the introduction of
different gadgets where people even at a far distance can communicate and see each other.
Nowadays, several inventions are in the processed of research and study for the purpose of
competition.

Technological change creating a new global economy

The unprecedented and sometimes radical changes brought by the Digital Age have great
impact in the society especially in production and how people earn a living. These changes can
illustrate the growth of the economy, productivity of the manufacturing industries and
employment of the people.

Economic growth is very important since it can measure the quality of life and the standard of
living of the people. Within a growing economy, every person can get sufficient goods and
services; thus, lowering if not eliminating the poverty level in the country.
Productivity is the most essential factor in determining the country’s economic growth. But if
recession occurs in the country, the economy can be greatly affected to the effect that the
country has the inability to give a good standard of living for its citizens.
To sum it up, technological changes can improve the efficiency in the process of production
and as a result there can be more production. With technological changes, manual labor can be
replaced and there is greater possibility of new products introduced and new processed and
best practices to be adopted.
Contribution of Science to the Society
Scientific inventions are brought about by sharp technologies. The best examples are the
invention of the micro-satellite, medicines, vaccines and other laboratory equipment used by
hospitals and clinical laboratories. Through the micro-satellite, there is already accurate
information given on weather forecasting etc. Organic and inorganic/ branded medicines can
be manufactured for treating various diseases. Laboratory equipment can be introduced to help
medical practitioners easily identify the patients’ sickness and the correct prescription of
medicines.
Science actually involves the ideas of the human mind and the validity of these ideas can
be proved not only through the nature’s language but also the language of men. The GPS or the
Global Positioning System is important nowadays. This includes the space-based satellites,
receivers and computers which can provide information of locations anywhere whether within
the country or outside. Originally, this GPS was used by the US military for the purpose of
locating their troops especially in the forests and other deserted areas.
GPS has great impact to the society. It can change the way of communication of the
people. It can help parents track their children. It is also installed as a device in cars and even
cell phones to assist people not only in mapping but also directing to their locations.
Initiatives
In the Philippines, the Department of Science and Technology in cooperation with the
Higher Education Institutions and different research institutions had established different
advanced facilities to help Research and Development and provide Micro or Small Enterprises
and Medium Enterprises gain from the testing services which are needed to quality and
quantity production and for them to have competitive advantage. These are:
1.Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. Its center has advanced equipment for
quality control, identification of materials and research and development. This is closely
associated to the Electronics Products Development
Center which is used for designing, developing and testing software and hardware for
different electronic products.
2. high performance computing facility that tests as well as run computationally an in
depth application for giving numerical predictions of weather, modeling climate, and
analytics and modeling data and archiving.
3.The Genome Center is core facility for the development of therapeutics, health
diagnostics, preventive products, DNA forensics and improvement of crop varieties.
4.The drug discovery facilities direct the demand of high -quality production and
medicine which are globally acceptable.
5.The Nano technology center provides technical services and enables environment for
collaborative and interdisciplinary research and development as far as applications of
Nano technology are concerned.
6.Radiation processing facilities which are used to graft, degrade, or crosslink, monomers,
polymers and chemical compounds for medical, agricultural, industrial and environmental
applications.
7.Die and Mold Solutions Center which increases competitiveness of the local die and
tool sector through the location of currently imported molds and dies.
8.Intelligent Operation Center Platform which was established between LGU Davao
City and the IBM Philippines. This center created a dashboard allowing agencies
authorized by the government like fire, police and the anti -terrorism task force for
using analytics software to monitor operations and events in real time.

LiDAR—Light Detection and Ranging

Light Detection and Ranging or Li DAR for short is a distant sensing method that is used
for examining the earth’s surface. It is composed of a scanner, laser and a GPS receiver. The
common platforms for acquiring data from the LiDAR even in broad areas are the helicopters
and airplanes.
To collect measurement, the LiDAR uses the pulse from the laser and this can create 3D
models and maps of the environment and objects. This LiDAR works in the same way as the
Sonar and Radar. The only difference is that the LiDAR uses light waves coming from the laser
to scan the environment as compared to sound and radio waves of the Sonar and Radar. The
information from the LiDAR can those places that need more fertilizer or water so that farmers
can save money they spend for their laborers and their time of performing their tasks. This
technology can be used during daytime and even during night time.
LiDAR technology does not penetrate data that are filtered to the ground but does not
penetrate vegetation even though the light is seen from below the shade of a tree.
LiDAR is used by the PNP. This technology is considered as the police laser which is
accurate in monitoring speed of vehicles; thus, used by traffic enforcement officers. LiDAR can
operate by releasing infrared laser light and giving the beam off from the vehicle and back to
the gun.
LiDAR can detect objects with a 10% reflectivity at the range of 230 meters.
DOST Research and Development Agenda (2017-2022)
Department of Science and Technology has the annual conference where researchers
from different fields like health, industry, agriculture and those in the academic sectors attend.
In their 2nd National Research and Development Conference held in Manila Hotel on February
15, 2017 they have come up with the five year development agenda (from 2017 to 2022).
The DOST S4CP or the Science for Change Program gives emphasis on the necessity of
collaborative research among the different stakeholders from the government, academe
and industry to support the Philippine economic growth. This program or plan includes
researches with outputs solving the problems of employment, inequality, economic
competitiveness which are essential for the country’s economic growth.
Science and Technology as Key Drivers to Economic Growth Science and technology
are important agents for a growing economy. We all know that the present administration of
President Rodrigo Duterte had faced many problems and issues like drugs, insurgency and
criminality, corruption, impact of climate change and the country’s exposure to natural
disasters.
Other critical and emerging issues are the primary concern of this program or plan and
this includes concerns on healthcare, environmental integrity, fisheries, agriculture, food
security, oceanography and marine science, weather forecasting and disaster science, climate
change space technology application and development and communication and information
technology and the internet access for all.
From these different issues and concerns of the science and technology agenda of
President Duterte, five areas were the priority and these are industrialization, renewable
energy,
increased in the production of foods, cheaper and faster internet and adaption to climate
changes.

Advancing Science, Technology

Agenda: Best Option for Philippine Growth
Presently, more or less 60% of the companies in the Philippines are offering trainings for
the purpose of improving the skills of their workers/employees. In addition, the Philippine
government is making heavy investments in both science and technology developments. These
advancements are focused on medicine and health because our country is rich in medicinal
herb plantation. Moreover, the government is also concentrating on the developments of
education, disaster resiliency, energy and even climate change adaptation.
Although in the past administration, our government had been growth resistant especially
when it comes to science and technology yet under the administration of Pres. Duterte
is pushing to science and technology development. To cite as examples are his Build Build Build
Program involving infrastructure projects all over the country, the microsatellites (Diwata 1 and
2) and other related projects.
Investment
According to the study conducted by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies,
there is a weak tie between the past administration and the innovation driven companies and
there are low expenditures on R&D or Research and Development. With this, the present
administration has a drive to extend efforts reaching out the private sector because the
innovation of science and technology has a major role in the country’s social and economic
progress and thus the key drivers for the country’s long term economic growth.
With technological development, citizens and local companies are greatly benefited and
can be updated with the existing technologies. The local companies can improve their
productivity in industries, agriculture and even services. In addition, this can lead give local
companies the edge to be competitive with their rival multinational or transnational companies
doing business in our country. Moreover, new companies and new industries can be possibly
created.
On the other hand, in the science sector, potential local medicinal or herbal plants are
being studies and extracts from these to produce organic medicines had been tested and
proven and now out in the different drug stores.
Lagundi Vitex negundo or lagundiis one of the medicines that had been challenge by various
drug producers or manufacturers prior to its sale in the drug stores. The efficacy of this herbal
medicine had been subjected to stringent clinical trials for 20 long years and as a result it is
proven to be effective. This is the reason why lagundi capsule is prescribed by our medical
practitioners.
The agenda on science needs more funding and prioritization so as private drug
companies can manufacture and make available these medicines in the market.
Research
The factor behind the weak execution of the innovation in science and technology are low
spending by the government and the private sector on this. There is even low budget
and support for research and development.
Researches which are directed to industrial and agricultural production as well as
technology, care and control of the environment and improvement and protection of the
human health are currently studied. Another thing is that studies made by Research and
Development are all concentrated within Central Luzon, Calabarzon and the NCR or the
National Capital Region. Hardly, you can find studies outside of these areas.
There were also studies made on the low college students in bound mobility which refers
to the students from the different countries outside of the Philippines who are studying here in
the Philippines. This inbound mobility program is important to make students gain new
experiences to present interpretations and challenges for students to make them well rounded
individuals. The biggest impact to students is the skills and experiences they have to make them
fully developed individuals.
This inbound mobility program gives personal and long- term benefits to the individuals.
These students who study in a foreign country can have the following benefits:
1. enjoy the environments in a foreign country
2. know the culture of another country and sometimes follow them
3. easy to know the language because of practical immersion
4. aware and adopt alternative approaches to learning.
Manpower
Manpower is another indicator to measure the capacity for generating technology. The
manpower includes the people in the workforce. In short, it is the labor force or workers or
employees. Men and women are included in this term.
With manpower, there is productivity for the companies. More manpower means more
productivity. If there many in the workforce then the project/s can be easily completed. So, if
the company has limited workforce, then there is a great possibility of preventing the company
from completing its project/s.
Capital
Capital is one of the factors that drive the country to economic growth. Aside from
capital, the other two factors are the increase in the output of labor and advancement in
technology. Improved or additional capital goods can increase productivity of the
workforce. So, if labor force is more efficient, there can be increased efficiency in the national
level; thus, making the country’s economy growing to the effect that there is also higher Gross
National Product (GNP) nationwide.
Economic growth can be increased:
1.By reducing foreign borrowings and increasing investment and spending of consumers.
2.By increasing real wages of the employees so that they will have more to spend.
3.By increasing spending on exports of goods and services.
Adopting better technology and increasing productivity of the workforce are very
important for a higher growth in the country’s economy. We must not forget that investment
can help boost the country’s economy.
Patents
Patent is an intellectual property right of the owner not to copy, use or sell his invention
for a certain period of time. Patent is very important for every invention for the purpose of
safeguarding it. With patent, the originality of every product, processor design can be
protected.
In the Philippines, patented inventions are protected for 20 years from the time of the actual
date of filing of applications for non- Patent Cooperation Treaty or 20 years from the
international date of filing applications for Patent Cooperation Treaty.
With patent, national industries can grow because they can hold their patents for the
purpose of attracting investment overseas and they can develop their products for exportation.
Any profit that can be generated here can be used for research and development on industry
innovations quickens industrial and commercial growth.
With patent, the registered owner has exclusive rights over his inventions, can easily deal
with infringers and can easily commercialize the patented product/s. Patent can also
encourage economic development of the country and promote changes or innovations.

Ecosystem
The weak linkage among the players in the science and technology innovation ecosystem
is also brought by the weak cooperation and partnership among the actors----the government
and the private sector. There are many higher education institutions through their studies that
there is a need for them to collaborate with the different companies on this. However,
companies have reported their difficulties on how to convince the higher education institutions
due to the latter’s suspicion, resentment or distrust. As a result, these companies ended up
with little assistance both from the research institutions and the government.
The programs and projects of Research and Development are hampered due to restrictive
regulations and can delay the implementations of these programs and projects. Like for
example, the procurement processes adopted by the government on the equipment and
materials needed for research. With this practice, the procurement of consumables and
equipment for research is very slow and complex; thus, decreasing the productivity for
research, speed to market of the changes or innovations and the potentials for publication.
To add, the grants of the government for research do not remunerate the universities for
the faculty members’ salary on their research activities. The last factor that can contribute to
the weak performance on the innovation of science and technology is the inadequate
infrastructures such as testing and laboratory facilities as well as Research and Development
centers.
There are many hubs existing today that need to be upgraded so as to make better their
services to their stakeholders. Institutions in the public sector failed in providing the young
Filipino researchers with equipment package especially those returning to the Philippines after
finishing their Ph D studies abroad where they have learned advanced agenda on researches.
The main research institutions in our country are concentrated in the Luzon areas.
Importance of Science & Technology in our Daily Life
Now that we are in the digital age, everything we used is a gift given to us by science and
technology. Regardless of what we used whether it is a Smartphone, vehicles, wheel, fan, air
conditioner, paper, cloth, toothbrush, microwave, electricity, television, radio, laptops and
other gadgets are all the result of the development in science and technology. Hence, these
things are very significant to all of us now. In what ways?
1.It can support us saving our money and time. Science gave us the understanding and
awareness that why we baked cake or steamed foods, technology has introduced to us
the microwave ovens and the steam cookers.
2.In education, there are great contributions of science and technology in the sense that
through science we can have the understanding of important matters to study and
technology here had made our learning easy because it has provided us with online
classes through different platforms, e-libraries, multimedia e-books and many more.
3.Information technology which includes the internet is the best gift technology has
given to us. Aside from getting knowledge about science and technology, information
technology can make us connected continuously with our family, relatives and friends
from different parts of the globe.
4.Through science and technology, life becomes easy because of the different devices
for quick cooking, sleeping and fast and easy commutes.
5.Science and technology can also help us a comfortable and better life. The
contribution of science on health is accessible to everybody especially our medical
practitioners for the prescriptions of the accurate and effective medicines for different
chronic diseases. The X-ray machines, scan machines, ultrasound, pacemaker, operation
devices etc are very helpful in detecting the illness we have. Easy access online is also helpful
such the different health apps, exercises, online doctors and many more that can help us in
maintaining and healthy body and having a healthy life.

The Information Age (Gutenberg to Social Media)

In the year 1436, Johannes Gutenberg invented the Gutenberg press. This is a printing
press that has revolutionized China and later Europe. This press spreads literature to the people
in an efficient and durable way. It disseminates knowledge faster and wider that it was before
1436. With this, Gutenberg was given a credit as the ―Father of Printing.
This kind of printing press had helped Europe during the Dark Ages by accelerating
human progress for the reason that there is the launching of the global news network. The
literacy rates in the 1490s were very low because people can hardly gather paid readers to read
the latest news---most of these are from indecent scandals to reports of war. But the press has
radically changed the daily news.
The Renaissance period had leave off with high gear because the printing press has
increased sharing and rediscovery of knowledge. If prior to this, only the wealthiest elites have
access to information, with the Gutenberg press information is made available even in libraries
of medium sized towns and even in the houses of wealthy businessmen.
With the Gutenberg Press, Martin Luther became the bestselling author on his translation
into German language of the New Testament. Luther’s campaign against trading indulgences
had concurred with the boom of the printing press in the European continent.
With the ability of the press to publish as well as share experimental data and scientific
findings to wide audience, this makes science forward especially in the 16 th century as well as in
the 17th century. Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, does not only depend on his
heavenly observations but he also relied on the imprint astronomical tables of the planetary
movements. Hence, printing press empowers scientific revolution.
Books of philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire were commonly
read during the Enlightenment period. Their upgrade of the critical reasoning over
customs and traditions had inspired people from questioning religious authorities and personal
liberty. Through printing of books, public opinion had been the dominant power that cannot
withstand in Europe. People hope that these enlightened ideas of the philosophers can bring
greatest good and those tyrants can be trembled due to the people’s cry that can be heard in
public places and had awakened these tyrants from their slumbers.
Gutenberg’s Revolution of the 15th century had disturbed many aspects from the government
and the Church. The effect of the Gutenberg press has created extraordinary
government, cultural and social revolution because books, printed works, posters, tracts;
papers had given a rise to the Renaissance period in Europe.
Presently, social media is transforming the ideas of what is real news or fake news. There
are different platforms used. Most common are Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram and
many more. In the United Kingdom and even globally the most trusted are The Guardian, BBC
and The Independent.
Moving forward, Cyber Revolution has great effects on the press and other traditional
publishers. Apple, Google and the social media can now question the quality journalism and
news. With the increase readiness, new and different sources of information came out and
algorithms are used so that users and visitors can have the latest information.
This includes all kinds of information from newspapers down to blogs. Press freedom is now
subject to restrictions because of the law on defamation, the Cyber crime Law and the
copyright law.
Biodiversity and the Healthy Society
Biodiversity is the different life on earth. It measures the different species, genetic and
ecosystem level. It plays a very important role to the nutrition of the individuals through the
food production as it guarantees the long lasting productive capacity of soils and gives livestock,
crops and fisheries to be harvested as foods. By obtaining goods that biodiversity can provide to
us, the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity can give notable benefits to our health.
Hence, if the environment isunhealthy and has no capacity to support life then the human
population cannot exist.
Healthy biodiversity can offer these services:
1.Protect our water resources
2.Protect our soil
3.Recycle nutrients
4.Contribute stable climate
5.Maintain our ecosystems
6.Recover unpredicted events
7.Solve pollution.
Land use and habitat have great effect on the ecosystems’ biodiversity. On the other
hand, pollution and climate change can greatly destroy the different aspects of biodiversity. It is
necessary that we must have a healthy ecosystem because it can purify air, clean water,
maintain soil, recycle nutrients, regulate climate and provide healthy foods. This means that
biodiversity is the answer for a healthy ecosystem.
Protecting our environment can lessen destruction of our ecosystem. Man- made activities
can destroy our ecosystem such as pollution in the land, water and air, global warming,
greenhouse effect, smog, deforestation, acid rain, wildfires and other environmental issues
faced by the countries today.
So to protect biodiversity, we need the following
1.Government legislation protecting habitats within the country. Laws that can protect our
environment from man-made activities
2.Government regulation on nature preserves such as the national parks
3.Reducing invasive species. Therefore, checking of invasive species must be made before
they are offloaded in the country.
4.Restoring habitat. This restoration project can be made by the national or local
governments and by nongovernment organizations.
5.Seed banks and captive breeding. Seed banks are zones where there is greater number of
stored pant seeds. These banks can grow saved seeds and can be reintroduced again to its
habitat. On the other hand, a captive breeding is one where confined animals are bred. It can
also provide an opportunity for animals to increase its population so that they can be
introduced again to the wild.
6.Researching different species in order to reduce those animals moving with long
distances.
7.Reducing climate changes. Climate changes have disastrous effects to living things.
Fossil fuels are widely used in large amount and we know that his can cause directly climate
changes. Considering these disastrous effects, instead we have to use alternative sources of
energy and sustainable or natural products. This requires a worldwide effort to reduce effects
of climate changes.
8.Purchasing sustainable products. It is our primary responsibility to purchase and take
the products which are processed in a sustainable way.
9.We must have a sustainable living. Choosing anything to do every day is sustainable
living and this can lessen the quantity of materials we use.
10.Education. This includes learning and making us aware on the significance of conserving
biodiversity. Thus, we can influence the government for a better environmental protection to
the effect that our government can pass laws to protect our environment.
Science and technology play an important role in the conservation of biodiversity. With
science, we can understand the streaming effects of pollution in our ecosystem, the problems
brought about by toxins in food and other similar problems. On the other hand, sustainable
technology can also conserve biology such as biodegradable packaging, renewable energy and
recycle products. These can greatly influence in the reduction of environmental issues.
Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are those with DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
modified or altered by genetic engineering. These organisms have been changed with DNA
arising out of another organism such as animal or plant virus and bacterium which are called
transgenic organisms.
GMOs are essential source of medicines. Modified plants can help protecting crops
because they can resist to specific pests, insects or diseases or herbicide resistance or
environmental conditions which can ensure more production of foods. These modified plants
can also increase plants’ nutritional value as in golden rice.
Familiar GMOs are alfafa, canola, cotton, corn, potato, papaya, sugar beet and soya.
These crops can enhance and increase farm production; reduce use of insecticides or toxic
pesticides. The only disadvantage is that it can disorganize the gene flow’s natural procedure

Nano World
The Nano World is a worldwide market for giving tips especially for the SPM or the Atomic
Force Microscopy and the AFM or the Atomic Force Microscopy. The AFM or Atomic
Force Microscopy is an instrument used in nano technology and nano science. The users of this
SPM are the researchers and the high-tech industries. With the use of the SPM, the users can
make an investigation of any kind of materials in its atomic scale. The AFM or the Atomic Force
Microscopy helps the scientists in scanning the surface point to point in its atomic scale. The
uniform high-quality analysis of these scanners is very important to have productive results.
Mr. Manfred Detterbeck is the CEO of this Nano technology. He is an engineer by
profession but gained a Masters degree in Business and Engineering. He invested his capital in
2000 and founded the Nano World. This company collaborates with various agencies and
entities such as the Institute of Micro Engineering which is one of the 2 Swiss Federal Institutes
of Technology, the CSEM (Swiss Center of Electronics and Micro technology and the University
of Neuchâtel. It was in 2002, when Detterbeck had his company obtained a trademark and its
technology from the Nano sensors company. This company now is now the big producer in the
AFM industry. This company is in the top three companies engaged in Nano technology and has
gained global reputation due to these inventions---the Scanning Probe Microscopy and the
Atomic Force Microscopy. Moreover, the Nano World is confirmed by the industry and market
research experts as the leader in the global market for SPM and AFM.
The Nano World’s AFM probes can cover even the full range of the AFM and the SPM
applications. This AFM probes are now used in industries like the semi -conductor industries. It
is also used in the different researches of material science, life science, physics and biology.
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)
The scanning probe microscopy or SPM is part of the study of microscopy that
configures the image of the surfaces with the use of the physical probe that examines
the specimen. In 1981, the first scanning tunneling microscope was used through the
experiment done by Binnig and Rohrer to take an image of the surface in its atomic level. It was
successful because they have used the feedback loop for the purpose of regulating the gap in
the distance between the probe and the sample.
Although there are several scanning probe microscopy that can take an image of various
interactions simultaneously, each of this varies in the techniques which can result to an
impressive and spectacular atomic resolution. This is because of the so-called piezoelectric
actuators which can carry out motions with accuracy and precision at its atomic level or
electronic command. This technique is known as the piezoelectric technique. The other
denominator is on how the data is obtained. Some scanning probe microscopy obtained data
from the computer image which is visualize in false colors and this is possible because of the
two- dimensional grid used.
Advantages of Scanning Probe Microscopy
SPM or Scanning Probe Microscopy can give researchers a larger variation of specimen
viewing environment with the use of the same microscope and the same specimen which can
also reduce the time that is required for preparation and study of these specimens.
The SPM can produce highly magnified images in a three dimensional shape of the
specimen in the real time. It uses a delicate a fragile probe in order that the surface of the
specimen can be scanned and can eliminate the limitations found in the light microscopy as
well as in its electrons. It includes technologies to take image and measure the surfaces in its
fine scale even down to the group of atom or molecular level.
Disadvantages of Scanning Probe Microscopy
One of the disadvantages of the Scanning Probe Microscopy is that the image it produced
is not colored but in grayscale or black and white which can exaggerate the actual size and
shape of the specimen.
But to make up this disadvantage, computers are usedin order to produce the real color,
size and shape, the interaction within the structure of the cell, the harmonic responses and the
magnetic energy of the image in a real time
How a scanning probe microscopy works SPM is one of the tools popularized by the Nano
World in order to take images of the atoms in a nano scale surface and structure. This SPM uses
physical probe in order to scan from side to side, in and out or to and fro in the sample’s
surface. It is through this scanning process that data are gathered by the computer.
In scanning, the SPM works differently from the optical microscopes since the viewer
does not view directly the surface but it is the image represented by the surface’ structure. This
SPM is powerful and has a high resolution even up to its nano scale.
The SPM at the end of its cantilever has a sharp probe tip which is needed in scanning the
specimen’s surface. That tip moves to and fro but in a controlled manner and there is a
possibility of moving the probe atom by atom.
The force can divert the cantilever whenever the tip can get close the sample’s surface
and this can be evaluated by the laser shown from the cantilever towards the photodiodes.
Other forces that can make this diversion are the mechanical, magnetic, electrostatic, chemical
bonds and the capillary forces.
The data taken from the reflection of the laser which was detected by the photodiodes can
give an image in the computer. Although the image feed is without color or it is with light color,
through the computer programs they are given colors in order to assist in making the difference
in the various properties of the sample or specimen.
Technological Evolution of SPM
To improve or expand the abilities of the SPM, innovations will include better
observation and processing equipment as well as an upgraded data analysis. In addition,
technological innovation of this equipment includes the DNA, micro manipulations of the
molecules, organic and biological specimens with the use of this precision instrument in order
to help the medical profession treat diseases, manufacturing industries producing goods and
the new methods to be used in astronomy, energy and physics.
The use of this precision instrument has improved researches in many ways such as the
inventions of the various microscopeswhich could improve the world. So, these specialized
instruments can be used accurately for research and development. As a whole, this field of
Nano technology can be interesting.
AFM /Atomic force microscopy or SFM/ scanning force microscopy
The AFM or atomic force microscopy or otherwise known as the SFM or scanning probe
microscopy is a scanning probe microscopy with a very high resolution, It can even
demonstrates a resolution in fractions of a nano meter even 1000 times or more that optical
microscope. It can do precise scanning because of piezoelectric elements which can make it
easier to view tiny particles and its precise and accurate movements.
Abilities of AFM/ Atomic Force Microscope
The Atomic Force Microscope has these abilities: imaging, force measurement and
manipulation. In imaging, the reaction of what is examined to the sample’s forces can form a
image in a 3dimensional shape with high resolution. The terrain of the surface is normally
displayed as pseudo color plot.
For force measurement, the AFM can calculate the forces between the sample and the
probe for separation. It is also applicable in the measurement of the mechanical properties in
the sample to determine whether it is stiff or not or there is an adhesion strength or to measure
its electrical properties.
For manipulation, there can be change in the sample’s properties but in a controlled way.
This includes the manipulation of atoms, the cells’ local stimulation and probe lithography
scanning.
Advantages of AFM
It is more advantageous to use the AFM compared with the SEM or the scanning electron
microscope for the following reasons:
1.The AFM can give a 3 dimensional shape of an image and its surface profile while
the scanning electron microscope can only give a 2 dimensional image of the samples.
2.The samples viewed using the AFM, needs no special treatment such as carbon or
metal coating and it can even work in a liquid environment while in the SEM requires
expensive vacuum environments in order that it can operate properly.
3.AFM gives higher resolution than SEM. AFM’s resolution is, therefore, can be
comparable with the transmission electron microscope and the scanning tunneling
microscope.
Disadvantages of AFM
The disadvantages of the AFM can be focused on the maximum scanning area and its
limitations.
The AFM can get an image in a maximum height of 10-20 micrometers and its maximum
scanning area is 150x150 micrometers. This is a disadvantage because the scanning electron
microscope or the SEM can have a scanning area of square millimeters and its depth also in
millimeters.
The AFM is not as fast in scanning as the SEM. The AFM cannot scan in real time
because it takes minutes for it to do the scanning. Hence, the AFM has a very slow rate of
scanning which makes it inaccurate to measure the distances between the areas of the image.
In order to remove the malformation of the image due to thermal drift, several methods can be
used such as the video AFM.
The images scanned by the AFM can be affected by the magnetic circuit of piezoelectric
materials and this requires software filtering and enhancement. But the newer AFMs can use
closed loop scanners in order to eliminate cross talk problems
Lastly, the AFM cannot measure the overhangs or steep walls. Because of its cantilevers
which are specially made, the AFM can be utilized to modulate he probes up and down or
sideways in order to calculate sidewalls
Stem Cells or Gene therapy
Stem cells or gene therapy is an offer to cure, treat or prevent diseases by transforming
the pattern of the expressions of genes. Although there are several clinical trials that have been
made, still it is experimental. This therapy can be aimed to germ or somatic cells; the common
vectors of these are the viruses.
Gene therapy is risky because the immune system might not be responsive to the gene
copy inserted and this may cause inflammation. This is because the gene was inserted in the
wrong spot. This may cause health problems, damage of healthy cells, can cause cancer and
other diseases. .
The side effects of gene therapy include fever, drop of blood pressure, severe chills or
rigors, nausea, headache and vomiting. These symptoms can be solved in 24 to 48 hours from
insertion; otherwise, it can produce negative effects.
ADA or Adenosine deaminase deficiency is an immune disorder that can be cured by
gene therapy. Other diseases that can be cured by gene therapy are AIDS, heart disease and
cancer.
Once cured, then these persons can live a normal life.
Climate Change
Climate change is the change in the rainfall and temperature in the region. This climate
change also includes global warming which are caused by the emission of greenhouse gasses;
thus, resulting weather changes.
There is climate change when there are increases in the sea level, loss of ice mass in
Antarctica, Greenland, the Arctic as well as the mountain glaciers around the world. There is
also a maximal weather event.
It is the activities of the individuals that can cause this climate change such as the burning
of fuel fossils, forest degradation and converting forest lands to farm lands. These acts of the
individuals can bring negative effects to us because it can result to climate changes due to
wildfires, increase heat insect outbreaks and drought. Thus, it can bring negative effects in our
water supplies, food production and our health.
Global Warming
In global warming, there is an increase in the temperature of the earth’s surface because
of greenhouse gases like the emission of carbon dioxide from the fuels of burning fossil or from
the deforestation which prevent the heat supposed to get out from the earth. This is the so-
called greenhouse effect.
The climate of the earth is determined by the first 6 miles of the atmosphere. This is a
thin layer. This is as thin as the skin of an onion.

Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse effect is the procedure by which emission from the atmosphere of the planet
can warm its surface to a normal temperature of the earth. If there are radioactive gasses, they
will discharge the heat to all directions. Part of it is the earth’s surface warming it.
The natural effect of the greenhouse gases is vital to the supporting life. The activities of
men like burning fossil fuels and deforestation can cause global warming and the greenhouse
effect.
Simply, this greenhouse effect arises when sunlight passes through the glass where the
airflow is reduced and the warm is kept inside.
O-tech Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
OTEC or ocean thermal energy conversion is a kind of technology used in producing
energy by controlling the differences in the thermal gradients between the deep waters and the
surface waters in the ocean.
OTEC can also produce electricity. This is the reason why OTEC is the best alternative
source of energy. OTEC uses the warm surface water of the ocean with a 25 degrees centigrade
in order to vaporize the working fluid. The vapor can expand and spin a turbine attached to the
generator in order to produce electricity.
OTEC can produce a clean friendly environmentally renewable energy. It produces
electricity but not the coming from the greenhouse gasses emissions. Although the foregoing
are the advantages of the OTEC yet it has also disadvantages. These are: the device installation
and the power plant maintenance are costly, there are aquatic ecosystem disruptions and the
plant cannot be constructed in non -tropical locations because the plant requires a continual
supply of cold and warm water.
General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY
Scientific Revolution
How can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea
2. Science as an intellectual activity
3. Science as a body of knowledge
4. Science as a personal and social activity
Scientific revolution
It is the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine
their beliefs and their way of life;
It led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a
strong foundation for modern science.
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
Nicolaus Copernicus
His idea and model of the universe placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.
He outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the
orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay
outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the
length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun.
Charles Darwin
Famous for his theory of evolution
He published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. His book presented evidence on how
species evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.
In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human
beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking.
His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.
Sigmund Freud
Famous figure in the field of psychology
Made a significant contribution through the development of an important observational
method known as the method of psychoanalysis
His method was unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.
According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in
understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that
time.
Cradles of Early Science
Development of Science in Mesoamerica:
The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000
years.
They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other
religious structures.
They are known for their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in
planting and harvesting.
They are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems.
They developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using
ordinary machineries and tools.
They built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a
mineral called mica.
They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years
before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
They are one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics;
They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
They independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the
Romans did.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The following were scientific ideas and
tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:
roads paved with stones;
stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
the first suspension bridge; quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts
can interpret; and
Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
The Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to
the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:
Mandatory education. Their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social
class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.
Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. The Aztec valued the
cacao beans highly and made them as part of their tribute to their gods.
Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
Development of Science in Asia
India. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday
lives.
Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman
Empire.
Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is
still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to
cure various illnesses.
The Susruta Samhita describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India.
They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting
Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of
length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a
number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
Another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly
explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit.
Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).
China. It is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.
Known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the
Chinese people
Discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human
illness; an example is the practice of acupuncture
Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass,
papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools.
They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others.
They developed a design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented
the first seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).
Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were
carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to
our world (Mayall, 1939)
They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may
affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars.
The Middle East Countries. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of
Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.
Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought
experiments.
A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for
his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
Mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the
algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr.
Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the
introduction of decimal point notation.
Some scholars considered Jābir ibn Hayyān to be the “Father of Chemistry” (Derewenda, 2007;
Warren, 2005).
Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct
clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008).
Ibn Sina two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine,
were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th
century.
Development of Science in Africa
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of
the planet long before the Europeans colonized it.
Astronomy was also famous in the African region. Documents show that Africans used
three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.
North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region
that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age.
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African
continent.
The Lebombo Bone, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.
The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from
mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in
the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example:
They are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills.
They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry.
The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel
architecture of Egypt.
The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the
Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of
chemistry.
They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components
such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases.
Science is as old as the world itself; it is always interwoven with the society. Human beings have
embarked on scientific activities in order to know and understand everything around them. It
enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life.
Social and human issues led to the idea of Scientific revolution, when the developments in the
fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of
society about nature.
History of Science Timeline:
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
The Lebombo Bone is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from
35,000 BCE.
The ancient Egyptian civilization contributed immensely and made significant advances in the
fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
The Maya civilization was known for their works in astronomy.
The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization.
Ancient India, notable in the field of medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, developed various
ideas and technologies.
Chinese civilizations had contributions in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science,
mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.
In the Middle East countries, many Muslim scholars made significant contributions in the field
of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589
Freud ‘s method of psychoanalysis
LESSON SUMMARY
Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth of science as a
discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the scientific method.
It was a time in the history of science where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were
considered innovative and useful, were developed.
Some of these ideas were also controversial in the scientific community and in the political
arena.
There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during the period of
scientific revolution.
Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the universe ; he placed the Sun in the center of the
universe and all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it.
Charles Darwin made significant contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy
of science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields until now.
Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human
behavior especially neurological conditions.
Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and
Africa.
Science provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural
and physical world.
Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines
Pre-Spanish Philippines:
The early inhabitants of the archipelago had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge
system.
Science was observed in the way they interpreted the movements of heavenly bodies to predict
seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and years.
Scientific knowledge was observed in the way they planted their crops, in taking care of
animals, and for food production.
They used science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any other ancient
cultures. They also discovered the medicinal uses of plants.
They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies
during war or tribal conflicts.
They also developed technologies in creating musical instruments.
The Metal Age had a significant influence on the lives of early Filipinos.
Sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools proved that their
technological ideas helped in the development of different tools.
Spanish Era:
The Spaniards brought with them their own culture and practices.
They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and
disciplines.
It was the beginning of formal science and technology in the country, known now as school of
science and technology.
The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the technology brought by the Spaniards using
indigenous materials.
Medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established
by the Catholic orders.
The galleon trade had brought additional technology and development in the Philippines.
Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed to the advancement of
medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the country.
American Era:
The Americans established the public education system, and improved the engineering works
and the health conditions of the people.
They reorganized the learning of science and introduced it in public and private schools.
They established a modern research university, the University of the Philippines.
They created more public hospitals than the former colonial master.
The mineral resources of the country were also explored and exploited during the American
time.
Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout
the country.
The Protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought hospitals and
schools to far-flung areas.
However, World War II had destabilized the development of the country in many ways.
Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives
were destroyed.
Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation had been focusing on using its
limited resources in improving its science and technological capability.
Government Policies on Science and Technology
The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects,
and policies to boost the area of science and technology.

The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a
technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.
The National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) clustered these policies into four,
namely:
Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance
Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government through the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST).
Some of these projects are the following:
Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology
Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of
science and technology
Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System
Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work in the
Philippines
Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and
industry partnerships
The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex within
the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified several
capacity-building programs such as:
Establishment of national centers of excellence;
Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and Science
Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science and engineering
Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries;
Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures; and
Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School
system.
The current K to 12 education program includes Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM)
The Commission on Higher Education has launched its Philippine-California Advanced
Research Institutes (PICARI) Project to strengthen the STEM competitiveness of the country.
The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and
technology. These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-
related, technology-building, and supporting basic research, among others.
Some laws and policies are in line with international treaties such as:
The United Nations (UN);
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science
Ramon Cabanos Barba – for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes
Josefino Cacas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using
satellite images
Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as
officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom
Fabian Millar Dayrit – for his research on herbal medicine
Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – for his research on tilapia culture
Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for invention of the meconium drugs testing
Lilian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology
Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology
There are other outstanding Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad for their
outstanding contributions in science:
Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist
Edgardo Gomez – famous scientist in marine science
William Padolina – chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST)–Philippines
Angel Alcala – marine science
The Spaniards brought with them their own culture and practices. They established schools for
boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and disciplines. Medicine and advanced
science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by the Catholic orders.
The galleon trade brought additional technology.
The Americans established the public education system, improved the engineering
works and the health conditions of the people. They reorganized the learning of science and
introduced it in public and private schools. They established a modern research university. They
created more public hospitals than the former colonial master. Mineral resources of the
country were explored and exploited. Transportation and communication systems were
improved.
During the Spanish time, learning of science in school focused on understanding different
concepts related to the human body, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Technology focused
on using and developing house tools used in everyday life.
The Americans reorganized the learning of science. In basic education, science
education focused on nature studies and science and sanitation. Higher education had also
greatly improved and modernized. Researches were done to control malaria, cholera,
tuberculosis, and other tropical diseases.
Science and technology policies ensure that the whole country and all people will experience
the progress that science can bring. Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of
developing a scientifically advanced country.
Ramon Cabanos Barba – for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes
Josefino Cacas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using
satellite images
Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as
officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom
Fabian Millar Dayrit – for his research on herbal medicine
Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – for his research on tilapia culture
Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drugs testing
Lilian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology
Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology
Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist
Edgardo Gomez – famous scientist in marine science
William Padolina – chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST)–Philippines
Angel Alcala – marine science
LESSON SUMMARY
Even before the time of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and
communities already practiced science.
The growth of science and its development as a field in the country is a hybrid of indigenous
and foreign ideas.
Spain and the United States, being the former colonial masters of the country, played an
important role in building the foundation of science in the Philippines.
To further strengthen the science program in the Philippines, the government establishes
various science programs, policies, and projects.
Many Filipinos were able to establish themselves as scientists and science educators in various
scientific areas and fields.
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
The Concept of Science Education
Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.
Teaching science involves exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach
scientific concepts and processes effectively.
Learning science includes both pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping
students understand and love science.
Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and using science
literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts that
are related to everyday life including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking
skills, and life skills.
In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding and
appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. It also focuses on the preparation of science
teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields.
Science Schools in the Philippines
Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)
A government program for gifted students in the Philippines
A service institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Offers free scholarship basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining
to the sciences
Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project
This project started in June 2007 with 57 (or 60 since its inception) identified elementary
schools that participated or were identified as science elementary schools in the country.
The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:
provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special curriculum that
recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;
promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
foster the holistic development of the learners.
Quezon City Regional Science High School
The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for science-gifted
students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity.
The focus of its curriculum is on science and technology.
It is well-supported by the local government unit and by the Parents and Teachers Association
(PTA).
Manila Science High School
It is the first science high school in the Philippines.
It aims to produce scientists with souls.
The organization and curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and
mathematics.
The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High School Admission Test
(MSAT), for students who wish to enroll.
MSAT has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving test in
science, problem solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English.
Central Visayan Institute Foundation
It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic
Learning Program (DLP).
DLP is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest
level of learning, creativity, and productivity.
The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP).
LESSON SUMMARY
Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping the public
develop science literacy.
Science education deals with the development of people in science, which is the heart of
science, technology, and society.
To promote science education, science schools were established to develop gifted students in
science and mathematics.
Science programs and projects were organized and developed to nurture innovation in science
in the country, and to encourage individuals to pursue careers and research in science and
technology.
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
Indigenous Knowledge System
 Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the
indigenous people are:
predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animals’ behavior and
celestial bodies;

 using herbal medicine;

 preserving foods;
 classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
 preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
 using indigenous technology in daily lives;
 building local irrigation systems;
 classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
 producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
 keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

Indigenous Science
Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by
different groups of people and early civilizations.
It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and
representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with
the natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural
phenomena, and strategies for coping with changing environments.
Indigenous science helps the people in understanding the natural
environment and in coping with everyday life.
Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing,
classifying, measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.
Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the
following:
The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator;
The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth.” It is the origin of their identity as people;
All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each
other;
Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources.
They have a responsibility to preserve it; and
Nature is a friend to human beings—it needs respect and proper care.
Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by
people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous
farming methods, and folk astronomy.
1. Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by
different groups of people and early civilizations; It includes complex arrays
of knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations that guide human
societies.
2. Science is a part of culture, and how science is done largely depends on the
cultural practices of the people.
1. Filipino indigenous knowledge:
• Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing
animals’ behavior and celestial bodies
• Using herbal medicine
• Preserving foods
• Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural
properties
• Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting
• Using indigenous technology in daily lives
• Building local irrigation systems
• Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties
• Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits
• Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard
LESSON SUMMARY
 • The communities in the Philippines have maintained vast amounts of
indigenous knowledge, cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs.
• The indigenous knowledge system of the people served as the foundation
for the development of indigenous science.
• In the Philippines, various people and communities already practiced
science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal
uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather,
and used indigenous science in agriculture.
Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition
HUMAN FLOURISHING
Science, Technology, and Human Flourishing
- Eudaimonia, literally “good spirited,” a term coined by Aristotle to describe
the pinnacle of happiness that is attainable by humans; has often been
translated into “human flourishing”
- Western civilization tends to be more focused on the individual; based on
an individual’s values rather than his belief that the state is greater than
him.
- The east are more community-centric; community takes the highest regard
that the individual should sacrifice himself for the sake of the society.
- Every discovery, innovation, and success contributes to our pool of human
knowledge; human’s perpetual need to locate himself in the world by
finding proofs to trace evolution;
- the end goals of both science and technology and human flourishing are
related; in that the good is inherently related to the truth, are two concepts
about science which ventures its claim on truth.
Science as Method and Results
• The Scientific Method:
1. Observe
2. Determine the problem
 3. formulate hypothesis; reject the null hypothesis
4. Conduct experiment
5. Gather and analyze results
6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation
• Verification Theory
- The earliest criterion that distinguishes philosophy and science
- The idea proposes that a discipline is science if it can be confirmed or
interpreted in the event of an alternative hypothesis being accepted.
- Several budding theories that lack empirical results might be shot down
prematurely, causing slower innovation and punishing ingenuity of newer,
novel thoughts.
- This theory completely fails to weed out bogus arguments that explain
things coincidentally.
• Falsification Theory
- Karl Popper is the known proponent of this view.
- Asserts that as long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can best
explain a phenomenon over alternative theories
- Allowed emergence of theories otherwise rejected by verification theory
- Encourages research in order to determine which among the theories can
stand the test of falsification
Science as a Social Endeavor
- A new school of thought on the proper demarcation criterion of science
emerged.
- Explores the social dimension of science and effectively, technology
- The new view perpetuates a dimension which generally benefits the
society. Sciences cease to belong solely to gown wearing, bespectacled
scientists at laboratories.
Science and Results
People who do not understand science are won over when the discipline is able to
produce results.
- In this particular argument, however, science is not the only discipline
which is able to produce results—religion, luck, and human randomness are
some of its contemporaries in the field.
- For some communities without access to science, they can turn to
divination and superstition and still get the same results.
- Science is not entirely foolproof, such that it is correct 100% of the time.
Science as Education
In the Philippines, a large distribution of science high schools can be found,
forging competition for aspiring students to undergo rigorous science and
mathematics training based on specialized curricula.
- As students are preconditioned that the field would later land them high-
paying jobs and a lucrative career after graduation.
- Simply mastering science and technology would be inadequate if we are to,
say, socialize with people or ruminate on our inner self.
- A true eudaimon recognizes that flourishing requires one to excel in
various dimensions, such as linguistic, kinetic, artistic, and socio-civic.
Human flourishing arises as a result of different components such as phronesis,
friendship, wealth, and power. As times change, elements that comprise human
flourishing changed. People found means to live more comfortably, explore more
places, develop more products, and make more money, and then repeating the
process in full circle.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Human flourishing is defined as being “good spirited” in the classical
Aristotelian notion.
 • While it is true that science equips its knower some details about the world,
its main claim to objectivity and systematic methodology is at the very least
flawed.
• We have to rethink of our perception of a good life apart from one
presented in this regard.
TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING
The Human Condition Before Common Era
- Homo erectus have been using fire to cook, all the while without realizing
the laws of friction and heat.
- Tools from stone and flints marked the era of the Stone Age, during the
advent of our very own Homo sapiens.
- People discovered minerals and began forging metalwork.
- Fur clothing and animal skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh
winds. They begin to cover themselves up out of necessity.
- People of the time had also painstakingly wrought and hewed said figures
in honor of some deity; initial roster of primitive gods includes objects they
encounter through their day-to-day lives.
The Human Condition in the Common Era
- Driven by their primal need to survive, humans were quick to find ways to
drive off other megafaunas threatening a prospective hunting spot.
- The ongoing extinction of several species—both flora and fauna—due to
human activity
- They began to hunt, farm, and produce things with prospect of profit.
- When they could not sell products, they used their skills and got
compensated for it—bringing forth a specialized group of artisans.
- Physical strength was valued at most, although there appeared to be as
many intellectually gifted figures just the same.
The Essence of Technology
 - Modern humans are reliant on technology in their search for the good life.
Humans are reduced into the amount of productivity they are able to
render during their lifetime.
- By too much reliance on technology, humans lose track of things that
matter, reducing their surroundings to their economic value.
- Martin Heidegger argued that its essence, or purpose, and being are
different from each other.
- Technology can either be perceived as first, a means to achieve man’s end
and second, that which constitutes human activity.
- The second perspective paints technology in such a way that each period
reveals a particular character regarding man’s being.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Science and technology has been part of human activity since the beginning
of our species.
• It has aided us in survival and helped us outsmart our adversaries.
• However, it also leads us to a paradox in which we are only able to see the
world in the lenses of technological innovations.
• Advancements in the field expose us to previously unknown predicaments,
effectively helping us to reveal our own natures and enforcing one
perspective in finding the truth.
THE GOOD LIFE
Aristotle and How We All Aspire for a Good Life
Plato and Aristotle embarked on a different approach in figuring out reality.
Plato thought that things in this world are not real and are only copies of
the real in the world of forms. Change is so perplexing that it can only make sense
if there are two realities: the world of forms and the world of matter:
- In the world of matter, things are changing and impermanent;
 - In the world of forms, the entities are only copies of the ideal and the
models, and the forms are the only real entities.

Aristotle forwarded the idea that there is no reality over and above what the
senses can perceive, claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this world
is the only reality we can all access.
- Declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for
their actuality
- Every action that emanates from a human person is a function of the
purpose (telos) that the person has.
- Every human person, according to Aristotle, aspires for an end. This
end is happiness or human flourishing.
- Claims that happiness is the be all and end all of everything that we
do
- Human flourishing, a kind of contentment in knowing that one is
getting the best out of life
Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life
• Materialism
- The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece.
- Democritus and Leucippus belief is that the world is made up of and
is controlled by the tiny indivisible units in the world called atomos or
seeds.
- For Democritus and his disciples, the world, including human beings,
is made up of matter.
- Only material entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter
is what makes us attain happiness.
• Hedonism
 - The hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in acquiring
pleasure.
- Life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is
limited.
- The mantra of this school of thought is the famous, “Eat, drink, and
be merry for tomorrow we die.”
• Stoicism
- The idea that to generate happiness, one must learn to distance
oneself and be apathetic.
- For the stoics, happiness can only be attained by a careful practice of
apathy.
• Theism
- The ultimate basis of happiness for theists is the communion with
God.
- The world where we are in is only just a temporary reality where we
have to maneuver around while waiting for the ultimate return to
the hands of God.
• Humanism
- The freedom of man to carve his own destiny and to legislate his own
laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls.
- Humanists see themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but
as individuals who are in control of themselves and the world outside
them.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Every person has his perspective when it comes to what comprises the
good life;
• classical theorists thought that happiness has to do with the insides of the
human person. The soul, as the seat of our humanity, has been the focus of
attention of this end goal;
 • At present, we see multitudes of schools of thought that all promise their
own key to finding happiness;
• Science and technology has been, for the most part, at the forefront of
man’s attempts at finding this happiness.
WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS
Television Sets, Mobile Phones, Computers, and Humanity
People all over the world use these technologies every day to accomplish
different purpose;
- Television was a product of different experiments by various people;
- Paul Gottlieb Nipkow’s invention was called the "electric telescope" that
had 18 lines of resolution;
- Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton and Boris Rosing their experiment gave
rise to two types of television systems, namely, mechanical and electronic
television.
- On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a senior engineer at Motorola, made the
world’s first mobile phone call;
- In 1983, Motorola made their first commercial mobile phone available to
the public., It was known as the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X.
- Charles Babbage who designed the Analytical Engine which was used as the
basic framework of the computers even until the present time;
- The first design of computer was so big that it could occupy whole floors of
buildings;
- The first true portable computer was released in April 1981. It was called
the Osborne 1;
- The evolution of laptops continued until the present time where various
designs and models are already available.
Roles Played by These Technological Advancements
 - Television is mainly used as a platform for advertisements and information
dissemination;
- Television also is a good platform for different propagandas and
advocacies.
- Mobile phones are primarily used for communication;
- People use their mobile phones to surf the Internet and to take pictures
more than to text or to call people;
- Other applications include music player, calendar, radio, television, and
photo editor, among others.
- Personal computers and laptops can be used to surf the Internet and
communicate;
- the availability of a mouse or a touchpad made these two technological
devices easier to maneuver than mobile phones.
Ethical Dilemma Faced by These Technological Advancements
- People who are fixated on these technological advancements start and end
their day by using such devices. It causes them to become reclusive,
alienating themselves from other people.
- Children who are not capable yet of rationally deciding for themselves what
is right or wrong are freely exposed to different things on television,
mobiles phones, laptops, or computers.
Robotics and Humanity
• A robot is an actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with
a degree of autonomy, moving within its environment, to perform intended
tasks.
• A service robot is a robot that performs useful tasks for humans or
equipment excluding industrial automation application.
• A personal service robot or a service robot for personal use is a service robot
used for a noncommercial task, usually by laypersons.
 • A professional service robot or a service robot for professional use is a
service robot used for a commercial task, usually operated by a properly
trained operator.
Roles Played by Robotics
- They are primarily used to ease the workload of mankind.
- They were invented to make life more efficient and less stressful; perform
activities to entertain people; made to serve as toys.
- Robots also have their own set of rules and characteristics that define what
a good robot is:
Law One: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow
a human being to come to harm.
Law Two: A robot must obey the orders given by human beings except
where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
Law Three: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
Ethical Dilemma/s Faced by Robotics
- Safety. Who should be held accountable if someone’s safety is
compromised by a robot?
- Emotional Component. What if robots become sentient should they be
granted robot rights? Should they have their own set of rights to be upheld,
respected, and protected by humans?
LESSON SUMMARY
• In modern times, there are different technological advancements in all
forms and sizes may it be inside the home, the workplace, the learning
place, or simply on the streets.
• Simple types of machines that can perform simple task regularly can
already be considered a form of technology.
• There are still some problems faced by the different technological
advancements.
 • Ethics should still be enforced in the field of technology so as to ensure the
safety and morality of these devices to people.
THE INFORMATION AGE
The Information Age
• “Period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century when information
became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the
management of information by computers and computer networks”
• Also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was
associated with the development of computers
History
Timeline of the Information Age
Computer
• Types of Computer
1. Personal Computer (PC)
2. Desktop Computer
3. Laptop
4. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
5. Server
6. Mainframe
7. Wearable Computer
The World Wide Web (Internet)
- Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate
data transmission among innumerable computers.
 - Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other
scientists; it remained under government control until 1984.
- One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. The development of
fiber-optic cables allowed for billions of bits of information to be received
every minute.
- Electronic mail, or email, was a suitable way to send a message.
Applications of Computers in Science and Research
- Human brain cannot store all the genetic sequences of organisms and this
huge amount of data can only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently
with the use of computers.
- Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to store,
organize, and analyze vast amount of biological data.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Nowadays, information could be shared or transferred quickly.
• Various aspects of our society are also being influenced by the Information
Age especially communication, economics, industry, health, and the
environment.
• The rapid upgrade of information poses both positive and negative impacts
to our society.
BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY
Biodiversity and Ecosystem
- Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire Earth. Its
definition is in the structural and functional perspective and not as
individual species.
- Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and ecological services.
- Significant decline in biodiversity has direct human impact when ecosystem
in its insufficiency can no longer provide the physical as well as social needs
of human beings.
 - We, as human inhabitants of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve
the biodiversity of all creatures.
Threats to Biodiversity
1. Habitat loss and destruction
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition
3. Over-exploitation: over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species
4. Pollution and contamination
5. Global climate change
Health, Biology, and Biodiversity
- Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are
provided by its environment.
- Lack of basic necessities is a significant cause of human mortality.
- Environmental hazards increase the risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma,
and many other illnesses.
- The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is
considerable and complex.
Environment-Related Illnesses
• Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment
include Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, asthma, diabetes, obesity, occupational injuries,
dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and depression.
• Many of the issues at the intersection of health and the environment have
to do with managing benefits and risks:
- Pesticides play an important role in increasing crop yields, but they
can also pose hazards to human health and the environment.
- Energy production and use helps sustain human life, but it can also
pose hazards to human health and the environment.
 - Increasing taxes on fossil fuels would encourage greater fuel
efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emissions, but it would also
increase the price of transportation.
• Managing benefits and risks also raises social justice concerns:
- People with lower socio-economic status have greater exposure to
certain harmful environmental conditions.
• The natural environment has its own growth and development with or
without the touch of human beings. The issues in biodiversity are more of
human beings intruding in the natural cycles of environmental life.
• The key to promote safekeeping of biodiversity is to be responsible human
beings as members of the living organism in this complex biodiversity.
• 4 Rs is one of the ways of safekeeping of biodiversity (Recycle, Reuse,
Reduce, and Refuse).
LESSON SUMMARY
• We have to consider the entire Earth as a single unit, a loss of single-celled
species or a family of wild grass can have adverse effects in the entire
biosphere.
• Biodiversity loss will have a great negative effect especially to us humans.
• We must recognize the value of the organisms with which we share the
planet.
• A mitigating plan and a workable plan of action should be studied in order
to not compromise biodiversity, while at the same time, promote good
health among the society.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH, AND POLITICS
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
- It is the term used for an organism created through genetic
engineering.
- “…which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that
does not occur naturally by mating or natural recombination”
 - The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the
advancement of technology for the benefit of humans in different
industries.
GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries
1. Pest resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain pests
2. Virus resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses
3. Herbicide tolerance – genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide
4. Fortification – genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals
5. Cosmetic preservation – genetically modified plants resist natural
discoloration
6. Increase growth rate – a genetically modified organism that has higher
yield in growth than normal species
GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms
1. Flower production – GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color
and extended vase life of flowers.
2. Paper production – modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of
paper production
3. Pharmaceutical productions – modified plants to produce pharmaceutical
products
4. Bioremediation – use of modified plants that can assist in the
bioremediation of polluted sites
5. Enzyme and drug production – use of modified microorganisms that can
produce enzymes for food processing and medicines
6. GMOs in the medical field – It helps in the production of drugs, gene
therapy, and laboratory researches.
Benefits of GMOs
• Higher efficiency in farming
There will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and
cultivation.
• Increase in harvest
GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means increase in potential
growth and harvest.
• Control in fertility
Controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher
yields.
• Increase in food processing
Altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food processing.
• Improvement of desirable characteristics
GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced color and taste, enhanced
production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified characteristics of
plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement
GMO crops like maize are fortified with lysine and Golden Rice fortified
with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible vaccines for viral and diarrheal
diseases.
• Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides
Potential Risks of GMOs
• Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are
inadequate studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the
environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long
term effect is still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 - More allergic reactions
- Gene mutation
- Antibiotic resistance
- Nutritional value
• Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs
1. Consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not
naturally or organically produced.
2. Consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing
microorganisms in the human digestive system.
3. Production of toxins may be detrimental to human health.
4. Production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.
• Other potential risks that raise major concern are:
1. Human Genome Project (HGP);
2. Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms; and
3. Cloning.
Biosafety on GMOs
International organizations developed principles and treaties that somehow
ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as follows:
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex)
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
• International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food
products
GMOs in the Philippine Context
• In 1998, National Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines developed the
guidelines on the planned release of GMOs and potentially harmful exotic
species.
 • In 2002, the Department of Agriculture released the guideline for the
importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant
products.
• In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for
acquisition of agri-biotech applications as one of the 14 biotech mega
countries.
• In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety.
• In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic
agriculture than GMO-related agriculture.
• In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with other congressmen,
filed a bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food
products.
• In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field
testing of GMO Bt eggplant.
• On March 7, 2016, five government agencies passed a Joint Department
Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and
development, handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the
environment, and management of the genetically modified plant and plant
products derived from the use of modern biotechnology.
• As researches continue about the advantages and disadvantages of GMOs,
people should be alert in the update research findings about GMOs. People
should guard themselves cautiously.
• GMOs research should stop if it starts to harm human and the
environment.
• There are ethical issues involved in genetic engineering which, up to this
day, are not yet resolved. It needs more discussions and researches.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. Its quests are to
preserve and prolong life.
 • Some are approved by experts and government authorities for human use
and consumption while others are kept in institutional research
laboratories subject for more experiments.
• There are advantages and disadvantages in using genetic engineering in
both fields of medicine and food and agriculture.
• The major concern of the opponents is the long-term effect of GMOs to
humans while the proponents’ flagship is the success stories of the GMO
recipients.
THE NANO WORLD
How to View Nanomaterials
A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter
Scientists use special types of microscopes to view minute nanomaterials:
- Electron microscope. Utilizes a particle beam of electrons to light up
a specimen and develop a well-magnified image.
- Atomic force microscope. It makes use of a mechanical probe that
gathers information from the surface of a material.
- Scanning tunneling microscope. It enables scientists to view and
manipulate nanoscale particles, atoms, and small molecules.
Nanomanufacturing
- It refers to scaled-up, reliable, and cost-effective manufacturing of
nanoscale materials, structures, devices, and systems; nanomanufacturing
leads to the development of new products and improved materials.
- There are two fundamental approaches to nanomanufacturing:
1. Bottom-up fabrication. It manufactures products by building them
up from atomic- and molecular-scale components.
2. Top-down fabrication. It trims down large pieces of materials into
nanoscale.
There are new approaches to the assembly of nanomaterials:
 • Dip pen lithography. The tip of an atomic force microscope is "dipped" into
a chemical fluid and then utilized to "write" on a surface.
• Self-assembly. A set of components joins together to mold an organized
structure in the absence of an outside direction.
• Chemical vapor deposition. Chemicals act in response to form very pure,
high-performance films.
• Nanoimprint lithography. Generating nanoscale attributes by "stamping"
or "printing" them onto a surface.
• Molecular beam epitaxy. Depositing extremely controlled thin films.
• Roll-to-roll processing. Constructing nanoscale devices on a roll of ultrathin
plastic or metal.
• Atomic layer epitaxy. Laying down one-atom-thick layers on a surface.
Distinct Features of Nanoscale
Nanotechnology involves operating at a very small dimension and it allows
scientists to make use of the exceptional optical, chemical, physical, mechanical,
and biological qualities of materials of that small scale
1. Scale at which much biology occurs
2. Scale at which quantum effects dominate properties of materials
3. Nanoscale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of
larger-scale materials.
Benefits and Concerns of Using Nanotechnology
There are concerns that need to be addressed before using and promoting
materials derived from nanotechnology:
• Nanotechnology is not a single technology; it may become pervasive.
• Nanotechnology seeks to develop new materials with specific properties.
• Nanotechnology may introduce new efficiencies and paradigms which may
make some natural resources and current practices uncompetitive or
obsolete.
It may be complicated to detect its presence unless one has the specialist tools of
nanotechnology

LESSON SUMMARY
• Nanotechnology is an advanced interdisciplinary field that encompasses
science and technology that manufactures materials of great help to the
improvement of various areas of society.
• It is a field that needs to be explored, not only by known experts but also
neophytes, in order to advance our knowledge of science and technology.
• Before we engage in nanotechnology, we need to take into account the
social, ethical, and environmental concerns of using such nanomaterials.
THE ASPECTS OF GENE THERAPY
The Basic Process
There are several approaches to gene therapy. These are the following (Fliesler,
2017):
 • Replacement of mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy
copy of the gene
• Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
• Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease
A gene cannot be directly inserted into a human gene or cell. It is inserted into
another gene using a carrier or vector.
Two Types of Gene Therapy
• Somatic gene therapy involves the manipulation of genes in cells that will
be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next generation.
• Germ-line gene therapy involves the genetic modification of germ cells or
the origin cells that will pass the change on to the next generation.
Stem Cell Gene Therapy
Stem Cells
• Are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of cell in the
body
• Have the ability to self-renew or multiply while maintaining the potential to
develop into other types of cells
• Can become cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, brain, among
others
• Are derived from different sources, two of which are:
- The embryonic stem cells, derived from a four- or five-day-old human
embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development
- The somatic stem cells, cells that exist throughout the body after
embryonic development and are found inside of different types of
tissue
The Bioethics of Gene Therapy
There are ethical issues involved in gene therapy. Some of the inquiries cited are
(Genetics Home Reference, 2017):
 1. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?
2. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or
disorder?
3. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy?
4. Could the widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of
people who are different?
5. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human
traits such as height, intelligence, or athletic ability?
• Subjecting oneself to gene therapy depends on personal views and beliefs.
• Recent studies show that gene therapy now is being used for aesthetic
purposes like anti-aging therapy.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Gene therapy is a method that may treat or cure genetic-related human
illnesses.
• There are two forms of gene therapy: somatic gene therapy and germline
gene therapy.
• There are many ethical issues on gene therapy. Some of these issues are
about questions on whose authority or power to decide which human traits
should be altered.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Causes of Climate Change
• The causes of climate change could be natural or by human activities:
Volcanic Eruptions
- When volcanoes erupt, it emits different natural aerosols like carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxides, salt crystals, volcanic ashes or dust, and even
microorganisms like bacteria and viruses;
- Can cause a cooling effect to the lithosphere because its emitted aerosol
can block a certain percentage of solar radiation;
 - Volcanoes located near the equator are more likely to cause global cooling
because of the wind pattern
- Volcanoes located near to north or south poles are less likely to cause
cooling
Orbital Changes
- Earth’s orbit can also cause climate change, this was proposed by the
Milankovitch theory
- As the Earth travels through space around the Sun, cyclical variations in
three elements of Earth-Sun geometry combine to produce variations in
the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth
- The three elements that have cyclic variations are:
• Eccentricity is a term used to describe the shape of Earth's orbit around the
Sun.
• Obliquity is the variation of the tilt of Earth's axis away from the orbital
plane.
• Precession is the change in orientation of Earth's rotational axis.
Human Activities
- The largest known contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels,
which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere;
- Human activities result in emissions of four principal greenhouse gases:
• Deforestation releases carbon dioxide and reduces its uptake by plants;
• High methane emission is related to agriculture, natural gas distribution,
and landfills;
• High nitrous oxide is also emitted by human activities such as fertilizer use
and fossil fuel burning;
• Halocarbons released by human activities destroy ozone in the
stratosphere and have caused the ozone hole over Antarctica.
Effects of Climate Change on Society
 - It directly affects the basic elements of people’s lives like water, food,
health, use of land, and the environment.
- Declining crop yields due to drought, especially in Africa, are likely to leave
hundreds of millions without the ability to produce or purchase sufficient
food.
- It will increase worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat stress.
- Ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable to climate change.
- Ocean edification will have major effects on marine ecosystems, with
possible adverse consequences on fish stocks.
- Melting or collapse of ice sheets would raise sea levels
- It will increase flood risks during the wet season and it will strongly reduce
dry-season water supplies.
- Individual efforts to address climate change can make an impact if these
individual efforts are done consistently.
- In the event of continuous exploitation of the environment, climate change
cant be prevented.
- Making policies that are practical, and consistent and correct
implementation of environmental laws and policies will be the significant
contribution of government to address climate change.
LESSON SUMMARY
• Climate change is referred to as statistically significant climate variation
persisting for an extended period of time.
• The continuous climate change could bring drastic effects to living and
nonliving forms on Earth.
• Climate change is brought by several factors like natural processes and
persistent human activities.
• Global warming threatens all life forms on Earth. It has drastic effects on
water availability, food source, health issues, land use, and ecosystem.
FURTHER READINGS
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/SED%20413.pdf