Smartcities 02 00033
Smartcities 02 00033
Smartcities 02 00033
Article
Smart Cities—A View of Societal Aspects
Vasile Baltac
Faculty of Public Administration, National School for Political Study and Public Administration,
Bucharest 012104, Romania; [email protected]
Received: 23 September 2019; Accepted: 2 December 2019; Published: 9 December 2019
Abstract: Smart city projects are considered real challenges to the development of cities everywhere.
The concept itself has many definitions, but a smart city should be defined less based on implemented
IT solutions, and more based on optimization of its basic functions using new technologies. There
are societal aspects of smart city implementations, similar to eGovernment early projects, and
aspects of the use of digital technology that raise concerns. In most cities, the digital divide is still a
problem. Smart city projects are the result of the fourth industrial revolution, but cities still lack a
full implementation of solutions derived from previous industrial revolutions. Despite that, cities
report a lot of smart city projects. Money still gets spent, as being a smart city is, in many cases, an
artificial priority and a fashionable topic. Moreover, non-Internet technologies and their relations to a
good smart city solution are also not considered. Digital divide bridging is one requirement for a
full implementation of a smart city concept. A review of acceleration and deceleration factors shows
the obstacles faced by smart city projects. Rankings of cities based on several smart city criteria are
published frequently. Various approaches lead to contradictory rankings. A new set of comprehensive
rankings developed by an international organization and based on reputable reports and statistics
would be useful. The study is based on several smart city and eGovernment projects in Romania.
Keywords: smart city; digital access; digital affordability; digital content; user eSkills; smart
city rankings
1. Introduction
Cities play a paramount role in social life. This role determines the actions to create smart cities.
The smart city is a concept that may be defined in many ways; one of them is related to the use of
digital technologies and all its functions. Despite numerous opinions defining smart cities based on the
degree of IT implementation, this paper considers a smart city defined less based on these implemented
IT solutions and more on the optimization of its functions through IT.
The smart city concept is a subset of the eGovernment concept and should inherit from it the
citizen-centric principle. It also inherits one of the challenges of eGovernment early implementations—the
lack of enough planning and resource wastage when smart city projects are approached more for their
fashionable nature and less for their real needs. This is frequently a case in areas where the digital divide
is present, both from the citizen’s side and the side of the city administration staff.
The smart city projects are results of the fourth industrial revolution or the cyber physical
revolution. However, many cities still lack full implementation of solutions of the previous industrial
revolutions, mainly regarding city planning and transportation networks. What Schwab [1] fears
may apply to smart city implementations as well—organizations that are unable to adapt, and city
governments that could fail to employ and regulate new technologies to capture their benefits, resulting
in growth of inequality.
Figure 2. Searches for Smart City between 2009 and 2019 (Google Trends).
Trends).
Of all the digital technologies, the mobile phone has had the biggest impact. Citizens already
possess more mobiles than desktops. The number of mobiles (smartphones and tablets) is bigger than
the number of inhabitants in most cities. It is therefore important to implement smart city applications,
while keeping in mind that citizens will access them mainly on mobile devices. However, this is not
always the case.
Other factors to be considered are the volatility of solutions and the speed of implementation.
The high rate of innovation in the digital world is a fact. Many devices and applications have been put
on the market in the last 10–15 years. This is too short a time for city planning. A relevant example
is communications. 3G technology was introduced in 2001 and 4G in 2009, but now, 5G is being
deployed. Every investment has a certain lifecycle before it is fully amortized. If a new technology
appears sooner than the end of this lifecycle, it becomes hard to justify the economic ground of various
projects. An example of this is access control in parking lots. Car identification plate recognition and
online payments create easy-to-use car parking access systems. However, old token-based in/out
barrier lifting devices and cash payments systems are still available many places, as their life cycle is
not over yet.
The design of smart cities is, in this way, related to the designers’ bet on future technology development.
Noninternet Technologies
Non-Internet technologies coexist in smart cities with Internet technologies. Most people still use
telephones, short messages (called texts or SMS), faxes, letters, etc. To fully reach all citizens, smart
cities should include all non-Internet technologies, along with many other technologies such as CCTV,
RFID, biometric identification, access cards, etc.
One such device is of particular interest—the public kiosk. A kiosk allows citizens with less
digital training to access information regardless of their access to Internet or mobile communications.
A surprising number of smart city projects lack kiosks, based on the assumption that all citizens have
access to the internet.
Noninteractive street panels also have a role in smart cities. The new technologies allow them
to be read in all atmospheric conditions. In too many cities, including smart cities, these are used
exclusively for the marketing purposes of the private sector.
Due to the digital divide, many people do not yet have access to digital technologies. A good
smart city solution will not avoid this category, and the use of letters (printed and mailed) is considered
along with emails and possibly texts (SMS).
sections of the population is severe, both in the design of new applications, and in the use of existing
ones. As shown elsewhere [11,12], bridging the digital divide should be based on four pillars (Figure
ones. As shown elsewhere [11,12], bridging the digital divide should be based on four pillars (Figure 3):
3):
1. Appropriate IT
1. Appropriate ITinfrastructure
infrastructure
2. Accessible
2. Accessibleand
andaffordable
affordable internet
internetaccess
access
3. Generalized
3. Generalizedability
abilityto
touse
useIT
IT
4. Availability
Availability of
of useful
useful content
content
No real digital divide bridge can be built without considering all these four pillars, and no
successful smart city project will be successful in the long run.
run.
4.1. IT
4.1. IT Infrastructure
Infrastructure
The role
The role of
of IT
IT in
in Internet
Internet access
access is
is overwhelmingly
overwhelmingly accepted. A lot
accepted. A lot of
of money
money andand effort
effort is
is spent
spent
for infrastructure investments aimed to improve Internet access. While it is important
for infrastructure investments aimed to improve Internet access. While it is important to recognize to recognize
this effort,
this effort, one
one may
may query
queryififthe
themoney
moneyisisalways
alwaysspent
spentininan
anoptimized
optimizedmanner.
manner.The Thebenchmark
benchmarkfor fora
smart city should not be the number of PCs, servers, Wi-Fi access points, etc., but the degree
a smart city should not be the number of PCs, servers, Wi-Fi access points, etc., but the degree to to which
they reach
which theythe population.
reach the population.
4.2. Accessible and Affordable Internet Access
4.2. Accessible and Affordable Internet Access
This is probably one of the most critical challenges faced by smart cities projects. Citizens should
This is probably one of the most critical challenges faced by smart cities projects. Citizens should
not only have good smart city architecture and latest technologies but also be able to access them.
not only have good smart city architecture and latest technologies but also be able to access them. We
We mentioned above that a part of the population cannot access the Internet. The elderly are not digital
mentioned above that a part of the population cannot access the Internet. The elderly are not digital
natives and are reluctant to use something they do not understand. There are also other challenges.
natives and are reluctant to use something they do not understand. There are also other challenges.
The first challenge is affordability. The price paid for access poses a barrier in some cities in
The first challenge is affordability. The price paid for access poses a barrier in some cities in
relation to the average net earnings of people. Affordability accentuates the divide between rich
relation to the average net earnings of people. Affordability accentuates the divide between rich
countries and poorer countries, as the cost of digital services and applications are similar. Most cities
countries and poorer countries, as the cost of digital services and applications are similar. Most cities
have generalized broadband access, and applications are developed for broadband. Despite the trend
have generalized broadband access, and applications are developed for broadband. Despite the trend
to use smart devices, many people have cheap mobile devices with no broadband or Internet.
to use smart devices, many people have cheap mobile devices with no broadband or Internet.
On the other hand, it is true that technology facilitates an increase in the availability and
On the other hand, it is true that technology facilitates an increase in the availability and
affordability by the continuous price reduction of Internet access and mobile devices. Moore’s Law
affordability by the continuous price reduction of Internet access and mobile devices. Moore’s Law
will still be operational for years, and open source software makes applications cheaper.
will still be operational for years, and open source software makes applications cheaper.
A smart city has to be for all, and no successful project should be limited to its infrastructure and
A smart city has to be for all, and no successful project should be limited to its infrastructure and
applications. Provisions for inclusion of all people must be part of the project. As stated above, a smart
applications. Provisions for inclusion of all people must be part of the project. As stated above, a
smart city must be built with smart people. This means that there should not only be investment in
Smart Cities 2019, 2 543
city must be built with smart people. This means that there should not only be investment in education
and training, but also proper design considerations to make applications available to poorer, disabled,
and older persons.
Cities are, in most cases, already existent, and their development is a result of decades or centuries
of city planning or a lack of sufficient planning.
City planners can be reluctant, but citizens may also show some reservations about some of the
changes in the city landscape or installation of some equipment. This is true in the case of antennas,
street cables, cameras, etc. There is an increasing fear of radiation of Wi-Fi and mobile operators’
antennas and concerns [20,21], and about security and privacy [22–24].
An adverse effect is due to the abovementioned digital divide, especially the lack of digital
competencies and understanding of the digital world. Most managers and decision-makers are in their
50s or 60s and are not digitally savvy [11,12]. A delay of smart city projects or even opposition to them
is probable. It is not an accident that a city as large as Bucharest does not have a smart city strategy
yet [7]; such a study was commissioned only in 2018 [25].
Citizens’ lack of digital competence is a major obstacle in smart city projects based on IT. We may
also encounter a lack of project goal understanding from designers. They are attracted by the latest
technology achievements and ignore the fact that the population is not prepared to use them. The
decision-makers are not always adequately digitally competent, and often approve projects only
because they are fashionable.
performance of smart city implementation and continuous benchmarking are necessary tools, and
many such models have been proposed [3,30].
Smart Cities 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 8
Smart cities are sought by people to improve their lives and by governments to respond to these
expectations and optimize
frequently published. Most their investments.
ratings The rankings
and benchmarks are basedofon
cities
the based on various
five smart criteria are
city dimensions—
frequently published. Most ratings and benchmarks are based on the five smart city
smart governance, smart mobility, smart environment, smart people, and smart living. Figure 4 dimensions—smart
governance, smartofmobility,
shows the ratings smart environment,
three European smart people,
cities when compared to anand smartof
average living.
all theFigure 4 shows
cities in the
the study
ratings
[31]. of three European cities when compared to an average of all the cities in the study [31].
Other authors
authors go
gofurther
furthertotonine
ninemain
main dimensions,
dimensions, which
which areare human
human capital,
capital, social
social cohesion,
cohesion, the
the economy, public management, governance, the environment, mobility and transportation,
economy, public management, governance, the environment, mobility and transportation, urban
planning, international outreach, and technology [32] or even more [33]. Various approaches lead to
contradictory rankings, as seen in Table
Table 1.
1.
Ranking [32]
Ranking [32] Ranking[33]
Ranking [33]
11 London
London London
London
22 New York
New York Singapore
Singapore
33 Amsterdam
Amsterdam Barcelona
Barcelona
4 Paris Amsterdam
45 Paris
Reykjavik Amsterdam
Boston
56 Reykjavik
Tokyo Boston
New York
67 Singapore
Tokyo Hong
NewKong
York
78 Copenhagen
Singapore Chicago
Hong Kong
9 Berlin Delhi
810 Copenhagen
Vienna Chicago
Paris
9 Berlin Delhi
10 Vienna Paris
Complex criteria are not always taken into consideration. There are rankings based on the
Complex
number criteria
of projects are Projects
[34,35]. not always takenbigger
can have into consideration.
or lesser impact,There are rankings
and simply countingbased
them onhasthe
no
number
major of projects [34,35]. Projects can have bigger or lesser impact, and simply counting them has
relevance.
no major relevance.
It is difficult to accept a unified ranking mix, but the major features of a smart city are measured
It is difficult
and updated to accept
frequently, inamany
unified ranking
cases, mix, but studies.
by academic the majorThefeatures of a smart city
most convenient are measured
approach would
andtoupdated
be compilefrequently,
comprehensivein many cases,by
rankings byan academic studies.
international The most convenient
organization approachreports
based on reputable would
be tostatistics.
and compile comprehensive
The United Nation rankings
does itbyfor
aneGovernment
international [36]
organization based on Union
and the European reputablefor reports
Digital
and statistics.
Society [37]. The United Nation does it for eGovernment [36] and the European Union for Digital
Society [37].
7. Conclusions
The concept of the smart city is mostly related to the use of digital technologies in all city
functions. A smart city should be defined less based on the IT solutions implemented and the number
of digital devices used, but more on the optimization of its functions.
Smart Cities 2019, 2 546
7. Conclusions
The concept of the smart city is mostly related to the use of digital technologies in all city functions.
A smart city should be defined less based on the IT solutions implemented and the number of digital
devices used, but more on the optimization of its functions.
There are many challenging societal aspects related to this concept [38]. The smart city concept
inherits many of the challenges of early eGovernment implementations—lack of planning and wastage
of resources. This is frequently the case when the digital divide is a concern, from the perspective of both
citizens and city administration staff. Smart city projects are the result of the fourth industrial revolution,
the cyber physical revolution. However, many cities still lack a full implementation of solutions of the
previous industrial revolutions, mainly regarding city planning and transportation networks.
There is currently a lot of interest around the smart city concept. Many cities around the world
report smart city projects; however, some of them are of less importance, while others become obsolete
before their implementation. In some cases, money is spent simply because smart cities are a political
priority and are considered fashionable.
The smart city concept is closely related to digital technology. Several aspects of digital technology
use in smart cities raise concerns. One is the lack of adaptation of city structures to the potential of new
technologies. Another is the lack of general restructuring of the city before the implementation of smart
city solutions. Applying IoT and other advanced digital technology solutions to old, not updated, urban
structures reduces the efficiency of smart city implementations. Non-Internet technologies coexist with
Internet technologies in smart cities. Many people do not yet have access to digital technologies.
A good smart city solution will take onto account the real environment of the city and will not
avoid using older digital and nondigital technologies.
Many smart cities are affected by the digital divide. A full implementation of the concept of smart
city requires a bridging of the digital divide based on the four pillars mentioned above—appropriate IT
Infrastructure, accessible and affordable Internet access, generalized ability to use IT, and availability
of useful content.
The implementation of smart city projects is accelerated and decelerated by various factors. The
most important acceleration factor is the digital technology itself, as new disrupting digital technologies
appear at an accelerating rate. City planners can be reluctant, and citizens may also show some
reservations. Other deceleration factors also exist—the fear of radiation from various devices and
concerns about security and privacy. To that, we can also add low broadband and smart mobile device
penetration. Citizens’ lack of digital competence is a major obstacle in smart city projects, and a lack of
ultimate goal understanding from designers affects the projects.
Accurate evaluation smart city implementations is important. Rankings of cities based on several
criteria are frequently published. Various approaches lead to contradictory rankings. A new set of
comprehensive rankings developed by an international organization and based on reputable reports
and statistics is necessary.
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