Environmental Science
Environmental Science
Environmental Science
Income inequality refers to the extent to which income is distributed in an uneven manner
among population. (Inequality.Org)
1) Wealth Inequality
2) Income Inequality
WEALTH INEQUALITY
INCOME INEQUALITY
Income is new earnings that are constantly being added to the pile of a country’s wealth. (Flow
Variable)
Economist usually look at income using the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all the finished
goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.
“Global wealth today estimated to be about 3.5 trillion dollars and it is not distributed equally.”
(Global Wealth Report 2016)
“While the bottom half collectively own less than 1 percent of total wealth, the wealthiest top 10
percent upon 89 percent of all global assets.”
The term applied to the liberalization in 1986 of the London
Stock Exchange (LSE) when trading was automated.
“The simplistic key to the deal here is that the stuff in the universe sometimes had to explode,
while other stars had to cool and die.”
“The triumph of globalization and market capitalism has improved living standards for billions, while
concentrating billions among the few.”
GLOBAL SOUTH
The Global South is an emerging term used by the World Bank to refer to low and middle
income countries located in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean which contrast to
the high income nations of the Global North.
GLOBAL STRATIFICATION
The communist and social nations of the worlds (France china Germany)
3RD WORLD
• MARKET INTEGRATION - The market integration hypothesis proposes that market norms
emphasizing fair treatment of anonymous others have culturally evolved to sustain mutually
beneficial exchanges in contexts demanding frequent interaction with strangers
• The social institution that has one of the biggest impacts on society is the economy
ECONOMY PRODUCTION THREE SECTORS
PRIMARY SECTORS
• RAW MATERIALS FROM NATURAL ENVIRONMENT , WORKERS LIKE FARMERS OR MINERS FIT
WELL IN THE PRIMARY SECTOR
SECONDARY SECTORS
• GAINS THE RAW MATERIALS AND TRANSFORMED THEM INTO MANUFACTURED GOODS
TERTIARY SECTOR
• The bretton woods agreement was negotiated in july 1944 to establish a new international
monetary system, the bretton woods system. The agreement was developed by delegates
from 44 countries at the united nations monetary and financial conference held in bretton
woods, new hampshire.
• These countries were brought together to help regulate and promote international trade
across borders. As with the benefits of all currency pegging regimes, currency pegs are
expected to provide currency stabilization for trade of goods and services as well as
financing.
• Under the bretton woods system, gold was the basis for the U.S. Dollar and other currencies
were pegged to the U.S. Dollar’s value. The bretton woods system effectively came to an end
in the early 1970s when president richard M. Nixon announced that the U.S. Would no
longer exchange gold for U.S. Currency.
• -First element is the expression of currency in terms of gold or gold value to establish a par
value
• Second element is that “the official monetary authority in each country ( a central bank or its
equivalent) would agree to exchange its own currency for those of other countries at
established exchange rate plus or minus a one-percent margin
• Third element is the establishment of an overseer for these exchange rates: thus the
international monetary fund (IMF) was founded
• Fourth key element eliminating restrictions on the currencies of member state in the
international trade
• Fifth key element is that the U.S dollar became global currency
• -The general agreement on tariffs and trade (GATT), signed on oct. 30, 1947, by 23 countries,
was a legal agreement minimizing barriers to international trade by eliminating or reducing
quotas, tariffs, and subsidies while preserving significant regulations. The GATT was intended
to boost economic recovery after world war II through reconstructing and liberalizing global
trade.
• The GATT was created to form rules to end or restrict the most costly and undesirable
features of the prewar protectionist period, namely quantitative trade barriers such as trade
controls and quotas. The agreement also provided a system to arbitrate commercial
disputes among nations, and the framework enabled a number of multilateral negotiations
for the reduction of tariff barriers. The GATT was regarded as a significant success in the
postwar years.
• The world trade organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with
the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and
signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is
to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
• The international monetary fund (IMF) is an organization of 189 countries, working to foster
global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade,
promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around
the world.
• Created in 1945, the IMF is governed by and accountable to the 189 countries that make up
its near-global membership.
• The imf's primary purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary system—
the system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries (and their
citizens) to transact with each other.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (oecd)
• Organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) with 35 member states as
of 2016 with latvia as its latest member. It is highly influential despite the group having little
formal power. This emanates from the member countries resources and economic power
European union
• and resulted in depressed economic growth rates like in Greece, Spain and Portugal. The
policies of European central bank are considered to be a significant contributor in these
situations
• The north american free trade agreement (NAFTA) is a treaty entered into by the united
states, canada, and mexico; it went into effect on january 1, 1994. (Free trade had existed
between the U.S. And canada since 1989; NAFTA broadened that arrangement.) On that day,
the three countries became the largest free market in the world-;the combined economies
of the three nations at that time measured $6 trillion and directly affected more than 365
million people. NAFTA was created to eliminate tariff barriers to agricultural, manufacturing,
and services; to remove investment restrictions; and to protect intellectual property rights.
This was to be done while also addressing environmental and labor concerns (although
many observers charge that the three governments have been lax in ensuring environmental
and labor safeguards since the agreement went into effect). Small businesses were among
those that were expected to benefit the most from the lowering of trade barriers since it
would make doing business in mexico and canada less expensive and would reduce the red
tape needed to import or export goods.
History of Global Market Integration
• Before the rise of today's modern economy, people only produced for their family.
Nowadays, economy demands the different sectors to work together in order to produce,
distribute, and exchange products and services. What caused this shift in the way people
produce for their needs? In order to understand this, we will be going back in time 12,000
years ago.
• The agricultural revolution and industrial revolution the first big economic change ws the
agricultural revolutin (pomeranz 2000. When people learned how to domesticate plants and
animals, they realized yhat it was much more productive than the hunter-gatherer societie.
This became a new agricultural economy. Farming helped societies build surpluses, meaning,
not everyone had to spend their time producing food this in turn, lead the major
developments like permanent settlements, trade networks and population growth. The
second major economic revolution is the industrial revolution of the 1800s. With the rise of
industry came new economic tools, like steam engines, manufacturing and mass production.
Factories popped up and changed how work functioned. Instead of working at home where
people work for their family by making things from start to finish, they bgan working as
wage labourers and becoming more specialized in their skills. Overall productivity went up,
standard of living rose, and people had to access to a wider variety of goods due to mass
production. However every economic revolution comes with economic casualties. The
workers in the factories who were mainly poor women and children worked in dangerous
conditions for low wages. Asa resul, nineteenth century industrialist were known as robber
barons with more productivity came greater wealth, but also greater economic inequality. In
the late nineteenth century labour unions began to form. These organization of workers
sought to improve wages and working conditions through collective actions, strikes,
negotiations. Inspired by marxist principles, labour unions give way for minimum wage laws,
reasonable working hours, and regulations to protect the safety of workers.
Capitalism
• Is a system in which all natural resources and means of production are privately owned. It
emphasizes profit maximization and competition as the main drivers of efficiency. This
means that when one owns a business, he needs to outperform his competitors if he is going
to succeed. He is incentivized to be more efficient by improving the quality of one's product
and reducing its prices.
• This is what economist adam smith in the 1770s called the "invisible hand" of the market.
The idea is that if ones leaves a capitalist economy alone, consumers will regulate things
themselves by selecting goods and services that provide the best value. In practice, however,
an economy does not work very well it is a left completely on autopilot.
• Socialism
• Socialism emphasizes collective goals, expecting everyone to work for the common good and
placing a higher value on meeting everyone's basic needs that on individual profit. When karl
marx first wrote about socialism, he viewed it as a stepping stone toward communism, a
political and economic system in which all members of the society are socially equal in
practice, this has not played out in the countries that have modeled their economies on
socialism like cuba, north korea, china, USSR. Why? Government would simply wither away
and disappear, but that never happened.
• Ours is the time for information revolution. Technology has reduced the role of human labor
and shifted it from a manufacturing based economy tp one that is based on service work and
the production of ideas rather than goods. This has had a lot of residual effects on our
economy. Computers and other technologies are beginnings ro replace other jobs because
of automation or outsourcing jobs offshore. We also see the decline in union membership.
Nowadays, most unions are for public sector jobs, like teachers. What do jobs in a post-
industrial society looks like? Agricultural jobs which ones a massive part of the Philippine
labor force, have fallen drastically over the last century.
• In other countries such as the United States, manufacturing jobs, which were the lifeblood of
their economy more much of the twentieth century, have decided for the last 30 years. The
US economy had began with their many workers serving in either the primary or secondary
economic sectors. But today much of their economy is centered on the teriary sector or the
service industry. The service industry includes every jobs such as administrative assistant,
nurses, teachers and lawyers.
• These is big and diverse group because the teriary sector, like all the economic sectors we
have been discussing as defined mainly by what if rather than what kinds of jobs it includes.
Sociologists have a way of distinguishing between types of jobs, which is based more on the
social status and compensation that come wih them. These are the primary labor market
and the secondary labor market
• The primary labor market includes jobs that provide many benefits to workers, like incomes,
jobs security, health insurance, and retirement packages. These are white collar professions,
like doctors, accountants, and engineers. Secondary labor market jobs provide fewer
benefits and include lower skilled jobs and lower level service sector jobs. They tend to pay
less, have more unpredictable schedules, and typically do not offer benefits like health
insurance. They also tend to have less job security. What is next for capitalism and
socialism? No one knows what the next economic revolution is going to look like. Nowadays,
a key part of both our economic and political landscape in corporation. Corporation are
defined as organisations that exist as legal entities and have liabilities that are separate from
its members. They are their own thing. More and more these days, corporations are
operating across national boundaries which means that the future of the Philippine
economy and most countries economies will play out on a global scale.
GLOBAL CORPORATIONS
• Global corporations the increase in international trade has both created and been surprised
b international regulatory groups, like WTO, and transnational trade agreements, like
NAFTA. There is not a single country that is completely independent. All are dependen to
some degree on international trade for their own prosperity. Without international trade
there will be no need for international regulatory groups and agreements regulate the flow
of goods and services between countries. They reduced tariffs, which are taxes on imports,
and make customs procedures easier.
• This makes tradings across national borders much more feasible. These international trade
agreements often benefits private industries the most. Companies can produces their goods
and services across many different countries. For instance, you cna have a backpack that was
designed in the united states but the materials came from china, and it was put together in
mexico before it was shipped back to the united states to be sold. These companies that
extend beyond the boundaries of one country are called multinational or transnational
corporations (mncs or tncs). They are also referred to as global corporations.
Introduction
The state has traditionally been the subject of most interest to scholars of global politics
because it is viewed as “The Institution that creates warfare and sets economic policies for a
country.”
Today, the globalization of politics created an atmosphere where the ideas of the nation-
state, state sovereignty, government control, and state policies are challenged from all sides.
With globalization, some scholars suggest a decrease in the power of the state and that
other actors are actually becoming more powerful. These actors include multinational corporations
and global civil society organizations, like the Red Cross, that cross national boundaries.
Is the idea of the nation-state outdated in the contemporary world? If so, what is it that we
need to think about as “replacements”?
The traditional nation-state and the idea of national autonomy comes from the non-state
actors.
The vast flows of all sorts of things that run into and often right through the borders of
nation-states.
Mass migration of people and their entry, often illegally, into various of nation-states.
Horrendous events within nation-states that the states themselves either foment and carry
out, or are unable to control (Nordstrom, 2004).
There are global problems that single nation-state cannot hope to tackle on their
own. One is the global financial crises and panic that sweep the world periodically, which
nations are often unable to deal with on their own (Strange,1996).
Nation-states have long struggled to deal with problems like these through various
interstate systems (e.g., alliances such as NATO), but the more recent trend is toward the
development of more truly global structures and methods of dealing with various sorts of
issues and problems.
The decisions, the conflict, and the resolution of that conflict are done through the
institutions of government established and codified in that particular state, whether or not through
elections. In addition, the policy is developed and implemented in the interest of the people of a
state by a specific government.
There have been several challenges to the government and ultimately, to state autonomy.
We can divide these challenges into four: traditional challenges, challenges from national or identity
movements, global economics, and global social movements.
External intervention can generally be described as invasion by other countries. These days,
we can see external intervention in the other forms.
It is important to know that a nation has cultural identity that people attached to,
while a state is a definite entity due to its specific boundaries. However, different people
with different identities can live in different states.
Global movements, such as the Al-Qaeda and ISIS, are another example of national
or identity movements. In this case, they are structured around the fundamentalist version
of Islam.
GLOBAL ECONOMIC
Global economy demands the states to conform to the rules of free-market capitalism.
Government austerity comes from developments of organizations that cooperate across
countries, such as WTO and regional agreements, such as NAFTA, the European Union (EU), and
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN).
Neoliberal Economics or Neoliberal Capitalism
Requires a state to cooperate in the global market through the free flow of capital, the
privatization of services, and fiscal austerity or constraint.
Seen as threat, in general, because a state cannot protect its own economic interest as a
sovereign state.
Global social movements are movements of the people that leads or that emerge the global
organizations. For example in human rights is part of global social movements were the person
sentenced to give a death penalty in the country where he/she commits but some of the country
are against to this death penalty there will be a challenge before the country decides what will
be the decisions of the court were the other country are in the justice of human rights.
The state is a distinctive political community with its own set of rules and practices. State has
a four elements were people, territory, government and sovereignty. These four elements
maintaining the good state of the community and if one of these elements are not belong the
state will be effectively safe, good governance and good states.
There are several international organizations that governments of countries around the
world and individuals participate in. These include the United Nations, the International Court of
Justice, NAFTA, and NATO. There are also non-governmental organizations promoting social and
economic growth.
United Nations was coined by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942 after the Second
World War.
• Military Issues
• Economic Issues
• Environmental issues
• Human protection
United Nations was coined by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942 after the Second
World War.
• Military Issues
• Economic Issues
• Environmental issues
• Human protection
Peace and security becomes the central mission of the UN after the war up to this day.
The UN has a security council that decides what to do if two or more countries waging war
or an act of fighting.
Security has 5 permanent member U.S., Britain, Russia, China, and France. And 10 additional
member for two years term.
It is responsible for providing humanitarian and development aid to children around the
word.
In 1950 UNICEF’s mandate was extended the long term needs of children and women in
developing countries.
In the terms of economic issues the main focus of UN is the reduction of Global inequality
through sustainable development. Goals and millennium development goals.
UNEP’s activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and
terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
ICJ (International Court of Justice)
This is where countries can settle disputes in a court law, as well as a place where war
criminals and rulers who have done terrible things to their people can be put to trial for their
crimes.
Department of the secretariat of the United Nations that works to promote and protect the
human rights that guaranteed.
Purpose
1. Promote universal enjoyment of all human rights by giving practical effect to the will and
resolve of the world community as expressed by the United Nation.
2. Play the leading role on human rights issues and emphasize the importance of human rights
at the international and national levels.
4. Stimulate and coordinate action for human rights throughout the United Nations system.
Under the international law and stipulated in the Universal Declaration of human rights of
1948
This aims to bolster system wide coherence, collaboration and support to resident
coordinates and United Nations country leans, so that they can better provide support to
member states to strengthen national capacity for the promotion and protection of human
rights.
Organizations that are independent of any government, they are usually non-profit and
many NGO’s are active in humanitarian or social areas or one of the major example of NGO is
the Red Cross (Red Crescent in Muslim countries)
Since they are not tied to any government bodies. They can allow to operate freely
throughout the world.
They provide emergency relief such as food, water and medical supplies for those whose
have or towns have been destroyed by disaster or war.
• The WTO deals with the regulations of trade in goods, services and intellectual property
between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements
and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants adherence to WTO
agreements.
An agreement among the United Nations, Canada and Mexico designed to remove tariff
barriers between the three countries
A tariff is a federal tax on imports or exports. NAFTA required the elimination of tariffs on
half of U.S. goods shipped to Mexico and the gradual phase out of other tariffs among the
U.S., Canada and Mexico over a 14 years period.
Globalization
• The word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economics,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross border trades in goods and
services, technology, and flows of investment, people and information.
Globalism
• seeks to describe and explains nothing more than a world which is characterized by
networks of connections that spans multi continental distances.
• It attempts to understands all the interconnection of modern world and to highlight patterns
that underline and explain them.
• Informationalism
• Global Citizenship
• It is associated with rights and obligations e.g. The right to vote and the obligation to
pay taxes
• Caecilla Johana Van Perski defined global citizenship “ as a moral and ethical
disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or groups of local and global
contexts and remind them to their relative responsibilities within various communities.
The processes of globalization and regionalization remerged during the 1980s and
heightened during the end of the cold war in the 1990s.
The regionalization of the world system and economic activity undermines the potential benefits
coming out from a liberalized global economy.
Hardwired - According to nayan chanda(2007), it is because of our basic human need to make
our lives better that made globalization possible, Therefore, one can trace the beginning of
globalization from our ancestors in Africa who walked out from the said continent in the late Ice
age
CYCLES - GLOBALIZATION IS A LONG TERM CYCLICAL PROCESS AND THUS. FINDING ITS ORIGIN
WILL BE A CLAUNTING TASK. Subscribing to this view will suggest adherence to the idea that
other global ages have appeared.
Epoch –
Globalization of religion
Intra-European wars
Events - specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of
globalization.
- These broad changes happened in the last haft of the twentieth century.
- The emergence of the united states as the global power(post world war ii)
- The emergence of multination corporation.
- The demise of the soviet union and the end of the cold war
the united states soon began to progress in different aspects like in diplomacy, media,
film (as in the Hollywood), and many more
The united states, Germany and great Britain had in their homeland great corporations
which the world knows today
Global demography –
Demographic transition is a singular historical period during which mortality and fertility rates
decline from high to low levels in a particular country or region.
High to low fertility happened 200 years in france and 100 years in the united states.
the united states soon began to progress in different aspects like in diplomacy, media, film
(as in the Hollywood), and many more
The united states, Germany and great Britain had in their homeland great corporations
which the world knows today
There was a reverse in global population shares during the twentieth century as Africa, asia,
latin America, and oceania had high levels of population growth rates
Global migration
-The nuances of the movements of people around the world can be seen through the categories of
migrants ---”vagabonds” and “tourists”
Vagabonds are on the move “ because they have to be” they are not fairing well in their
home countries and are forced to move in the hope that their circumstances will improve
Tourist, on the other hand, are on the move because they want to be and because they
afford it.
Many countries faces issues of illegal migration. The united states faces a major influx of
illegal immigrants from mexico and other center American states. A fence is being
constructed on the us-mexico border to control this flow of people. Other countries with
similar concerns about illegal immigration include great Britain, Switzerland, and Greece as
well as countries in asia
The nuances of the movements of people around the world can be seen through the
categories of migrants ---”vagabonds” and “tourists”
Vagabonds are on the move “ because they have to be” they are not fairing well in their
home countries and are forced to move in the hope that their circumstances will improve
Tourist, on the other hand, are on the move because they want to be and because they
afford it.
Narrow and exclusive definitions are better justified but can be limiting in the sense that their
application adhere to only particular definitions
Defining Globalization
The characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the
new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new
competitive state… making states into agencies of the globalizing world”(as cited in RAWOO
Netherlands Development Assistance Research Council, 2000 p. 14)
Other definitions of globalization are shown in chronological order in the Appendix. Each could
fall to either one of the two types of definitions.
Defining Globalization
The concept is complex and multifaceted as the definitions deal with either:
• Economic
• Political
• Social dimensions.
67 of them refer to economic dimension. These definitions include political and social
dimensions as well
A more recent definition was given by Ritzer (2015). “globalization is trans planetary process or
a set of processes involving increasing liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of
people, objects, place and information as well as the structures they encounter and create that
are barriers to, or expedite those flows
First, the perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes its definition. The
overview of definitions implies that globalization is many things to many different people.
• Arjun Appadurai, “ globalization is a ‘world of a things’ that have different speeds, axes,
points of origin and termination, and varied relationships to institutional structures in
different regions, nations, or societies’”
• Second, Globalization is the debate and the debate is globalization. One became part and
parcel of the other.
• Globalization is the debate about it.” (as cited in Kumar, 2003, p .95)
• Solid and Liquid - The social relationships and object remained where they were
created. Solidity also refers to barriers that prevent or make difficult the movement of
things.
• Ex. Man-made barriers include Great wall of China and the Berlin wall.
• An imaginary line such as the nine-dash line used by the People’s Republic of China is an
example of modern-made solid.
• This creates limited access of Filipino fishers to the South China Sea.
Liquid, as state of matter, takes the shape of its container. Moreover, liquids are not fixed. Liquidity,
therefore, refers to the increasing ease of movement of people, things, information, and place in the
contemporary world
• Today’s liquid phenomena change quickly and their aspect spatial and temporal, are in
continuous fluctuation. This means that space and time are crucial elements of globalization.
• Changes in the stock market are a matter of seconds. Another characteristic of liquid
phenome is that their movement is difficult to stop. Ex. Videos uploaded on Youtube or
Facebook are unstoppable once they become viral.
Flows
• -It is only logical to discuss the flows of liquid phenomena. Flows are the movement of
people, things places, and information brought by the growing “porosity” of global
limitations.
We have established the many definitions of and issues defining globalization and the
metaphors that we can use to understand easily the concept.
Homogeneity refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic
factors, and political orientations of societies and expand to create common practices, same
economies, and similar forms of government.
The political realm also suffers homogenization if one takes into account the emerging
similar models of governance in the world.
The internet could end up being less diverse and competitive. Independent Media Center,
associated with the alter-globalization movement, helps to counter this trends.
Hacktivists extend activism to the internet by hacking into computer programs to promote a
particular cause.
Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for the current revival
and the resurgence of religion.
Global communications, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of the Muslims and
the universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as never before”
Environmental degradation is the exhaustion of the world's natural resources. It occurs due to
crimes committed by humans against nature.
AIR DEGRADATION- Air Degradation means the presence of chemicals or compounds in the
air which lower the quality of the air or cause detrimental changes to the quality of life (such
as the damaging of the ozone layer or causing global warming).
Global Food Security means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population.
“When all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a
healthy and active life.“
o Rising population
o Slowing irrigation
o Climate change
o Flattening yields
- Hans Rosling (Swedish Statistician): “The 1 to 2 billion poorest in the world who
don’t have food for the day suffer from the worst disease, globalization deficiency.
The way globalization is occurring could be much better, but the worst thing is not
being part of it.”
Examples of Inequality:
Income Inequality
Wealth Inequality
Economic Globalization has helped millions of people get out of extreme poverty but the
challenge of the future is to lift up the poor while at the same time keep the planet liveable.
is the exchange of goods and services integrated into a huge single global market.
a world without borders, inhabited by marketing individuals and/or companies who have
joined the geographical world with the intent of conducting research and development and
making sales. (Encyclopedia.com)
The United Nations (UN) tried to address the different problems in the world and guided by: 8
Millennium Development Goals
Global Trade is the worldwide business that involves making and collecting payments for
transactions in good and services, and transporting them to interested markets.
(BusinessDictionary)
1) Protectionism
FAIR TRADE – as defined by the International Fair Trade Association, is the “concern for the
social, economic, and environmental well-being of marginalized small producers.” (Downie
2007)
o No poverty
o Zero hunger
o Quality education
o Gender equality
o Reduced inequalities
o Climate action
o Life on land