The Propagation Environment

The Propagation
Environment
INTRODUCTION learning objectives
• Identify the environmental fac-
Propagation can be done in the field, orchard, forest, outdoor raised
tors affecting propagation.
beds, and in protected culture environments such as greenhouses, poly-
• Describe the physical struc-
covered houses, and tissue culture laboratories. The plant propagation
tures for managing the propa-
period is generally a very narrow segment of a plant’s life, ranging from
gation environment.
several weeks for fast-growing herbaceous plants to one to two years for
• Describe the containers for
woody perennials. Following propagation, the rooted cuttings, seedlings
propagating and growing
(plugs), layers, or tissue culture produced young liner pots.
plugs Small seedling plants are transplanted as liner plants.
• Discuss the management of
plants. The liner plants are grown in small pots media and nutrients in propa-
layers Plants and then transplanted into larger contain- gation and liner production.
produced asexually ers or directly transplanted into field pro- • Discuss the management
from layering, such duction. In other production systems of microclimatic conditions
as air layering or plants may be propagated and produced in propagation and liner
stooling. in the same container or field location production.
propagule A plant without going through a liner stage. • Discuss the management of
structure used for To enhance the propagation of biotic factors—pathogens and
regenerating plants, plants, commercial producers manipu- pests—in plant propagation.
which can include late the environment of propagules (cut- • Explain the post-propagation
cuttings, seeds, grafts, tings, seeds) by managing: care of liners.
layers, tissue culture a. microclimatic conditions (light, water-
explants, and single relative humidity, temperature, and gases)
cells. b. edaphic factors (propagation medium
microclimatic or soil, mineral nutrition and water),
conditions Any and
environmental factors c. biotic factors—interaction of
(relative humidity, propagules with other
temperature, light, organisms (such as benefi-
gases, etc.) in the cial bacteria, mycorrhizal
immediate vicinity of fungi, pathogens, insect
the propagule during pests, etc.) (Fig. 1).
propagation. Unique ecological condi-
edaphic factors Any tions exist during propagation.
factors influenced by Commercial propagators may
the soil or propagation have to compromise to obtain
medium (substrate). an “average environment” in
From Chapter 3 of Hartmann & Kester's Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices, Eighth Edition, Hudson T. Hartmann,
Dale E. Kester, Fred T. Davies, Jr., Robert L. Geneve. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
53
the propagation environment
Figure 1
The propagation environment: Manipulation of
microclimatic, edaphic, and biotic factors.
Modified from Landis (69).
Shading Partial which a whole range shading and stooling to maximize rooting potential of
reduction of light to 100 of species are propa- a propagule; and post propagation—hardening-off
percent light exclusion gated by cuttings, seed, (weaning rooted cuttings from the mist system and
that can occur during and/or tissue culture changing fertility regimes) to assure growth and sur-
stock plant manipu- explants (69). The vival of tender-rooted liner plants after propagation.
lation and/or environmental condi-
propagation tions that are optimum
hardening-off The for plant propagation ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
stress adaptation process are frequently con-
ducive for pests (path-
AFFECTING PROPAGATION
or acclimation that
occurs as a propagule, ogenic fungi, viruses, In propagating and growing young nursery plants, facil-
such as a cutting, is bacteria, insect, and ities and procedures are designed to optimize the
gradually weaned from mite development). response of plants to environmental factors influencing
a high to a low relative Astute propagators their growth and development, such as light, water,
humidity environment not only manage the temperature, gases, and mineral nutrition. In addi-
during rooting; in environment during tion, young nursery plants require protection from
micropropagation (tissue propagation, but also pathogens and other pests, as well as control of salinity
culture) acclimation is manipulate the envi- levels in the growing media. The propagation structures,
referred to as ronment of stock equipment, and procedures described in this chapter, if
acclimatization. plants prior to select- handled properly, maximize the plants’ growth and
ing propagules, such as development by controlling their environment.
BOX 1 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

LINER PRODUCTION
A liner traditionally refers to lining out nursery stock in a nurseries. Seedlings and rooted cuttings can also be trans-
field row. The term has evolved to mean a small plant pro- planted into small liner pots and allowed to become
duced from a rooted cutting, seedling, plug, or tissue cul- established during liner production, before being trans-
ture plantlet. Direct sticking or direct rooting into smaller planted to larger containers (upcanned) or outplanted
liner pots is commonly done in United States propagation into the field.
54

MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Irradiance is the relative amount of light as measured by photometric sensor, which determines foot-candles or
radiant energy per unit area. Irradiance, intensity, and lux (1 foot-candle = 10.8 lux). A photometric sensor is rel-
photon flux all measure the amount of light very differ- atively insensitive to wavelengths that are important for
ently; they are not interchangeable terms. Photosynthetic plant growth; that is, it may record high light intensity
photon flux (PPF) is the best light measurement for plant from an artificial electric light source, but it does not take
propagation, since the process of photosynthesis relies into account if the light source is rich in green and yellow,
on the number of photons intercepted, not light given or poor in red and blue light—which would lead to poor
off by a point source (intensity) or energy content (irradi- plant growth. Quantum and radiometric (pyranometer)
ance). Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) is meas- sensors can be purchased from instrument companies
ured in the 400 to 700 nanometer (nm) waveband as (i.e., LI-COR Biosciences, www.licor.com; or Apogee
PPF in micromoles of photons per unit area per time Instruments, Inc., www.apogee-inst.com). For determin-
(µmol m–2 s–1 ) with a quantum sensor or as watts per ing light quality or wavelength, the spectral distribution
square meter (W/m 2 ) with a pyranometric sensor. is measured with a portable spectroradiometer, which is
Some propagators still measure light intensity with a a very expensive piece of equipment.
Light seed collected in the fall from selected woody plant

Light is important for photosynthesis as a source of radi- species, such as Larix, need long-day conditions to ger-
ant energy. Light also generates a heat load that needs to minate. Dahlia cuttings need short-day conditions to
be controlled (i.e., too high a temperature can quickly trigger tuberous root formation.
desiccate and kill cuttings). The management of light Photoperiod can be extended under short-day
can be critical for rooting cuttings, germinating seeds, conditions of late fall and early winter by lighting with
growing seedlings, or shoot multiplication of explants incandescent lights, or high intensity discharge lights
during tissue culture propagation. Light can be manipu- (HID) (Fig. 14). Conversely, photoperiod can be short-
lated by controlling irradiance (see Box 2), light duration ened under the long-day conditions of late spring and
(daylength, photoperiod), and light quality (wavelength). summer by covering stock plants and cuttings with
For a relative comparison of light units for propagation, black cloth or plastic that eliminates all light.
see Box 3.
Light Quality Light quality is perceived by the human
Irradiance While many propagators still measure eye as color, and corresponds to a specific range of wave-
light intensity, determining the photon flux of light is lengths. Red light is known to enhance seed germination
more accurate because the process of photosynthesis of selected lettuce cultivars, while far-red light inhibits
depends on the number of photons intercepted germination. Far-red light can promote bulb formation
(photosynthetic photon flux), not just the light given off on long-day plants, such as onion (Allium cepa). Blue
by a point source (intensity). light enhances in vitro bud regeneration of tomato (77).
Daylength (Photoperiod) Higher plants are classified Using greenhouse covering materials with different
as long-day, short-day, or day-neutral, based on the spectral light-transmitting characteristics, researchers at
effect of photoperiod on initiation of reproductive Clemson University (97) have been able to control the
growth. Long-day plants, which flower chiefly in the height and development of greenhouse-grown plants,
summer, will flower when the critical photoperiod of rather than relying on the chemical application of
light is equaled or exceeded; short-day plants, such as growth regulators for height control. This has applica-
chrysanthemums, flower when the critical photoperiod tion for plant propagation, liner production, and plant
is not exceeded. Reproductive growth in day-neutral tissue culture systems. Red shade cloth shifts light quality
plants, such as roses, is not triggered by photoperiod. towards the blue/green and is being used to enhance root
The discovery of photoperiodism by Garner and Allard development of cuttings (Fig. 11). Red shade cloth can
demonstrated that the dark period, not the light also be used to increase leaf surface and branching,
period, is most critical to initiation of reproductive which is important in liner development (111).
growth, even though light cycles are traditionally used
to denote a plant’s photoperiod. In propagation, fresh
55

RELATIVE COMPARISON OF LIGHT UNITS FOR SOLAR RADIATION
AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING (67, 72, 117)*
Energy
Illumination
[Photosynthetic Radiation
[Light intensity]
photon plux] [Irradiance]
Light Source (␮mol m–2s–1) (watts m–2) (lux) (ft-candles)
Solar Radiation
Full sunlight 2,000 450 108,000 10,037
Heavy overcast 60 15 3,200 297
Artificial Light Source
Metal halide (400 W)
lamp @ 2 m height 19 4 1,330 124
* Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): 400 to 700 nm. Conversions between energy, radiation, and
illumination units are complicated and will be different for each light source. The spectral distribution curve of
the radiant output must be known in order to make conversions.
Water-Humidity Control peach cuttings can be rooted under aeroponic systems,

Water management and humidity control are critical in while woody and herbaceous ornamentals can be
propagation. Water management is one of the most effec- rooted in modified, aero-hydroponic systems without
tive tools for regulating plant growth. Evaporative cooling relying on overhead mist (108). Tissue culture explants
of an intermittent mist are often grown in a liquid phase rather than on a solid
intermittent mist agar media.
system can help control
A thin film of water While leaf water potential (Ψleaf) is an impor-
the propagation house
produced through a tant parameter for measuring water status of seedlings
microenvironment and
pressurized irrigation and cuttings, and influences rooting of cuttings, turgor
reduce the heat load on
system that cools the (Ψp) is physiologically more important for growth
cuttings, thereby per-
atmosphere and leaf processes. The water status of seedlings and cuttings is a
mitting utilization of
surface of cuttings. balance between transpirational losses and uptake of
high light conditions to
increase photosynthesis and encourage subsequent root water. Later in this chapter the methods to control
development. A solid support medium, such as peat- water loss of leaves of cuttings, seedlings, and con-
perlite, is not always necessary to propagate plants; tainerized grafted plants are discussed.

PLANT WATER MEASUREMENTS IN PROPAGATION
Water potential (Ψwater) refers to the difference between Moisture Corporation (www.soilmoisture.com). A psy-
the activity of water molecules in pure distilled water and the chrometer with a microvolt meter (LiCor, www.licor.com)
activity of water molecules in any other system in the plant. can also be used. Estimation of turgor (Ψp) (or pressure
Pure water has a water potential of zero. Since the activity potential) requires measurement of water potential
of water in a cell is usually less than that of pure water, the (Ψwater) minus the osmotic potential (Ψπ), which is based
water potential in a cell is usually a negative number. The on the formula Ψwater = Ψp + Ψπ. Osmotic potential can
magnitude of water potential is expressed in megapascals also be determined by either a pressure chamber or a psy-
[1 megapascal (MPa) = 10 bars = 9.87 atmospheres]. chrometer. The matrix potential (Ψm) is generally insignificant
Propagators can determine water potential by using a in determining Ψwater but is important in seed germination.
pressure chamber (pressure bomb) manufactured by PMS
Instrument Company (www.pmsinstrument.com) or Soil
56

MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Irradiance is the relative amount of light as measured by photometric sensor, which determines foot-candles or
radiant energy per unit area. Irradiance, intensity, and lux (1 foot-candle = 10.8 lux). A photometric sensor is rel-
photon flux all measure the amount of light very differ- atively insensitive to wavelengths that are important for
ently; they are not interchangeable terms. Photosynthetic plant growth; that is, it may record high light intensity
photon flux (PPF) is the best light measurement for plant from an artificial electric light source, but it does not take
propagation, since the process of photosynthesis relies into account if the light source is rich in green and yellow,
on the number of photons intercepted, not light given or poor in red and blue light—which would lead to poor
off by a point source (intensity) or energy content (irradi- plant growth. Quantum and radiometric (pyranometer)
ance). Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) is meas- sensors can be purchased from instrument companies
ured in the 400 to 700 nanometer (nm) waveband as (i.e., LI-COR Biosciences, www.licor.com; or Apogee
PPF in micromoles of photons per unit area per time Instruments, Inc., www.apogee-inst.com). For determin-
(µmol m–2 s–1 ) with a quantum sensor or as watts per ing light quality or wavelength, the spectral distribution
square meter (W/m 2 ) with a pyranometric sensor. is measured with a portable spectroradiometer, which is
Some propagators still measure light intensity with a a very expensive piece of equipment.
Light seed collected in the fall from selected woody plant

Light is important for photosynthesis as a source of radi- species, such as Larix, need long-day conditions to ger-
ant energy. Light also generates a heat load that needs to minate. Dahlia cuttings need short-day conditions to
be controlled (i.e., too high a temperature can quickly trigger tuberous root formation.
desiccate and kill cuttings). The management of light Photoperiod can be extended under short-day
can be critical for rooting cuttings, germinating seeds, conditions of late fall and early winter by lighting with
growing seedlings, or shoot multiplication of explants incandescent lights, or high intensity discharge lights
during tissue culture propagation. Light can be manipu- (HID) (Fig. 14). Conversely, photoperiod can be short-
lated by controlling irradiance (see Box 2), light duration ened under the long-day conditions of late spring and
(daylength, photoperiod), and light quality (wavelength). summer by covering stock plants and cuttings with
For a relative comparison of light units for propagation, black cloth or plastic that eliminates all light.
see Box 3.
Light Quality Light quality is perceived by the human
Irradiance While many propagators still measure eye as color, and corresponds to a specific range of wave-
light intensity, determining the photon flux of light is lengths. Red light is known to enhance seed germination
more accurate because the process of photosynthesis of selected lettuce cultivars, while far-red light inhibits
depends on the number of photons intercepted germination. Far-red light can promote bulb formation
(photosynthetic photon flux), not just the light given off on long-day plants, such as onion (Allium cepa). Blue
by a point source (intensity). light enhances in vitro bud regeneration of tomato (77).
Daylength (Photoperiod) Higher plants are classified Using greenhouse covering materials with different
as long-day, short-day, or day-neutral, based on the spectral light-transmitting characteristics, researchers at
effect of photoperiod on initiation of reproductive Clemson University (97) have been able to control the
growth. Long-day plants, which flower chiefly in the height and development of greenhouse-grown plants,
summer, will flower when the critical photoperiod of rather than relying on the chemical application of
light is equaled or exceeded; short-day plants, such as growth regulators for height control. This has applica-
chrysanthemums, flower when the critical photoperiod tion for plant propagation, liner production, and plant
is not exceeded. Reproductive growth in day-neutral tissue culture systems. Red shade cloth shifts light quality
plants, such as roses, is not triggered by photoperiod. towards the blue/green and is being used to enhance root
The discovery of photoperiodism by Garner and Allard development of cuttings (Fig. 11). Red shade cloth can
demonstrated that the dark period, not the light also be used to increase leaf surface and branching,
period, is most critical to initiation of reproductive which is important in liner development (111).
growth, even though light cycles are traditionally used
to denote a plant’s photoperiod. In propagation, fresh
55
preincorporated into the propagation medium or ample light, such as a greenhouse, modified quonset
broadcast (top-dressed) across the medium surface. house, or hotbed—where seeds can be germinated, or
Cuttings are normally fertilized with a controlled- cuttings rooted, or tissue culture microplants rooted and
release fertilizer preincorporated into the propagation acclimatized. The second unit is a structure into which
medium (which is discussed later in this chapter or the young, tender plants (liners) can be moved for hard-
with soluble fertilizer applied after roots are initiated. ening, which is preparatory to transplanting outdoors.
The development of intermittent mist revolutionized Cold frames, low polyethylene tunnels or sun tunnels
propagation, but the mist can severely leach cuttings of covered by Saran, and lathhouses are useful for this pur-
nutrients. This is a particular problem with cuttings of pose. Any of these structures may, at certain times of the
difficult-to-root species that have long propagation year and for certain species, serve as a propagation and
periods. acclimation structure. A synopsis of how structures are
utilized in propagation is presented in Table 1.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES FOR
Greenhouses
MANAGING THE PROPAGATION Greenhouses have a long history of use by horticultur-
ENVIRONMENT ists as a means of forcing more rapid growth of plants
Propagation Structures (11, 41, 55, 75, 122). Most of the greenhouse area in
Facilities required for propagating plants by seed, cut-
tings, and grafting, and other methods include two basic
units. One is a structure with temperature control and
Table 1
U TILIZATION OF P ROPAGATION S TRUCTURES
Propagation Seedlings/ Liner production
structure Micropropagation Cuttings Plugs Grafting Layering and hardening-off
Micropropagation Yes No; except No No; except No No
facilities (indoor) microcuttings micrografting
Greenhouses Yes; during Yes Yes Yes Yes; air Yes
acclimatization layering
Closed-case No Yes Yes Yes No Yes
propagation
Hot frames
(hotbeds)
Heated sun
tunnels
Closed-case No; except Yes; hardwood and Yes Yes Yes Yes
propagation acclimatization semi-hardwood
cuttings
Cold frames
Unheated sun
tunnels
Lathhouses No; except Yes; hardwood and Yes Yes Yes Yes; used
(shade houses) acclimatization semi-hardwood extensively
cuttings for this
Miscellaneous No; except Yes; hardwood and Yes Yes; No Yes
closed-case acclimatization semi-hardwood sometimes
propagation cuttings with bench
systems in grafting and
greenhouses: acclimation
(a) Propagating
frames
(b) Contact
polyethylene
systems
58
the United States is used for the wholesale propagation greenhouse units are often attached side by side, eliminat-
and production of floricultural crops, such as pot plants, ing the cost of covering the adjoining walls with glass or
foliage plants, bedding plants, and cut flowers; fewer are polyethylene (Fig. 3). These gutter-connected houses,
used for nursery stock and vegetable crops (104). while more expensive to construct than independent
Greenhouse structures vary from elementary, ground-to-ground structures, allow easy access between
home-constructed to elaborate commercial installations. houses and decrease the square footage (meters) of land
Commercial greenhouses needed for propagation houses. Heating and cooling
gable-roof constructed are usually independent equipment is more economical to install and operate,
greenhouse A unit structures of even-span, since a large growing area can share the same equipment
that has more gable-roof construction, (62). Greenhouses with dou-
expensive, reinforced proportioned so that the ble-tiered, moveable benches retractable roof
upper support for space is well utilized for that can be rolled outside, greenhouse A unit
hanging mist systems, convenient walkways and and retractable roof green- with a roof that can
supplementary lights, propagating benches (55). houses reduce energy costs be opened during
or additional tiers of In larger propagation (Figs. 4 and 5); they are being the day and closed
potted plants. operations, several single used in cutting and at night.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3
Gutter-connected propagation greenhouses. (a) A series of gutter-connected propagation houses. (b) The basic types of gutter-
connected propagation greenhouses: bow or truss. Bows are less expensive, but offer less structural strength. Trusses make for
a stronger house, while giving propagators the ability to hang plants and equipment, such as monorails, curtain systems, and
irrigation booms. (c) Non—load-carrying bow propagation house. (d) Load-bearing, gutter-connected truss house (arrow).
59
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)

Figure 4
(a and b) Instead of a movable bench, propagation trays are placed on rollers; notice how all
trays on rollers slant toward the middle of the propagation house for easier movement of
materials. (c) Movable benches for seedling plug production. (d and e). Propagation house with
retractable benches, which can be rolled from the greenhouse structure to the outdoors, have
reduced energy costs. (d) Inside of house with double-tiered benches that can be brought in at
night and during inclement weather. Benches slide through opening of greenhouse and can be
left outside under full sun conditions.
(a) (b)
Figure 5
(a, b, and c) Retractable roof
greenhouse for reducing heat
load during propagation and
liner production, and (d) a top-
vented Dutch-style glasshouse
with thermal curtains (arrow)
for shade and trapping heat
(c) (d) during winter nights.
60
seed propagation, and seedling plug production. Since aisle space and increase the usable space by 30 percent in
the liner seedlings are partly produced under full sun con- a propagation greenhouse. The benches are pushed
ditions, they are better acclimatized for the consumer (8). together until one needs to get between them, and
Quonset-type
Quonset-type then rolled apart (Fig. 4). With rolling benches, prop-
greenhouse An
construction is very pop- agation work can be done in an ergonomically correct
inexpensive propagation
ular. Such houses are fashion, making workers more comfortable, efficient,
house made of bent
inexpensive to build, and productive (118). Besides increased propagation
tubing or PVC frame
usually consisting of a production numbers, rolling benches allow other
that is covered with
framework of piping, automation features to be added (Fig. 7). Conversely, to
polyethylene plastic.
and are easily covered reduce costs, many propagation houses are designed not
with one or two layers to use benches, but rather cutting flats or small liner con-
of polyethylene (Fig. 6). tainers are placed on the gravel or Saran-covered floor
Arrangement of benches in greenhouses varies con- (Figs. 6 and 7). It all depends on the propagation system
siderably. Some propagation installations do not have and units to be produced.
permanently attached benches, their placement varying In an floor ebb and flood system (flood floor),
according to the type of equipment, such as lift trucks or greenhouse benches are eliminated and plants are pro-
electric carts, used to move flats and plants. The correct duced with an automated floor watering and fertility
bench system can increase production efficiency and system. There are below-ground floor-heating pipes
reduce labor costs (124). Rolling benches can reduce and irrigation lines, a system of runoff-capturing tanks
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 6
Versatility of a polyethylene, saran-shaded quonset house. (a) Propagators sticking cuttings into rooting media floor
beds previously prepared and sterilized with methyl bromide. (b) Cuttings in small liner rooting pots under mist.
(c) Rooted liner crop protected under saran shade with poly sidewalls, and (d) shade removed and rooted liner crop
ready for transplanting and finishing off in larger container pots.
61
Figure 7
For more efficient use of
costly greenhouse
(a) (b) propagation space, movable
benches on rollers have been
installed to reduce aisle
space. (a and b) Hydraulic lift
system (arrow) to pick up and
move benches. (c) Movable
benches for maintaining
coleus stock plants. (d) To
eliminate bench space,
cuttings in liner pots are
placed on the cement
propagation house floor and
intermittent mist is applied
from mist nozzles suspended
(c) (d) from the ceiling.
with filters, and computer-controlled return of appro- are less expensive and offer less structural strength, or as
priate levels of irrigation water mixed with soluble fer- load-bearing truss-style houses, which give propagators
tilizer to the floor growing area (9, 89). While this has the ability to hang mist and irrigation booms, install
received limited use in the propagation of plants, it ceiling curtains for temperature and light control, and
does have application for liner stock plant production so on (Fig. 3). All-metal prefabricated greenhouses with
of seedling plugs, rooted cuttings, and tissue culture prewelded or prebolted trusses are also widely used and
produced plantlets (Fig. 8). Flood floor systems are are available from several manufacturers.
more efficient than conventional bench greenhouses. In any type of greenhouse or bench construction
They are highly automated, require less labor, and are using wood, the wood should be pressure-treated with a
environmentally friendly—since irrigation runoff, preservative such as chromatid copper arsenate (CCA),
including nutrients and pesticides, is recaptured and which will add many years to its life (5). The two most
recycled. The drawback of these benchless systems is common structural materials for greenhouses are steel and
the potential for rapid disease spread. aluminum. Most greenhouses are made from galvanized
Greenhouse construction begins with a metal steel, which is cheaper, stronger, lighter, and smaller than
framework covered with polycarbonate, acrylic, glass, an aluminum member of equal strength. Aluminum has
or poly (plastic) material. Gutter-connected green- rust and corrosion resistance, and can be painted or
houses can be constructed as bow-style houses, which anodized in various colors (62). With the high cost of

SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSES
For sources of commercial greenhouses, contact the commercial greenhouse manufacturers and suppliers that
National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association (www. include greenhouse structures, shade and heat retention
ngma.com). A number of trade journals such as GrowerTalks systems, cooling and ventilation, environmental control
(www.ballpublishing.com, choose the link for GrowerTalks) computers, bench systems, and internal transport systems in
and Greenhouse Beam Pro (www.greenbeampro.com) list greenhouses.
62
(a)
(b) (c) (d)

Figure 8
(a, b, and c) An ebb and flood or flood floor system. No benches are used and stock plants are produced with an automated
floor watering and fertility system. There are below-ground floor heating pipes and irrigation lines, a system of runoff-capturing
tanks with filters, and computer-controlled return of appropriate levels of irrigation water mixed with soluble fertilizer to the floor
growing area. (a) Schematic of ebb and flood system with liner plants. (b and c) Flood floor system for maintaining stock plants.
(d) Ebb and flood bench system.
lumber, fewer greenhouses are constructed with wood, and of pipes (some finned to increase radiation surface)
traditional wooden benches are being replaced by rigid suitably located in the greenhouse (Fig. 2). Unit
plastics, metal benches, and other synthetic materials. heaters for each house, with fans for improved air cir-
culation, are also used. If oil or gas heaters are used,
Greenhouse Heating and Cooling they must be vented to the outside because the com-
Systems bustion products are toxic to plants (and people!), and
Ventilation, to provide air movement and air exchange ethylene gas generated can adversely affect plant
with the outside, is necessary in all greenhouses to aid growth. In large greenhouses, heated air is often blown
in controlling temperature and humidity. A mecha- into large—30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in)—4-mil convec-
nism for manual opening of panels at the ridge and tion polyethylene tubes hung overhead. These extend
sides or with passive ventilation can be used in smaller the length of the greenhouse. Small—5 to 7.5 cm (2 to
greenhouses, but most larger installations use a 3 in)—holes spaced throughout the length of these
forced-air fan and pad-cooling ventilation system tubes allow the hot air to escape, thus giving uniform
either regulated by thermostats or controlled by com- heating throughout the house. These same convection
puter (42, 89). tubes can be used for forced-air ventilation and cool-
Traditionally, greenhouses have been heated by ing in summer, eliminating the need for manual side
steam or hot water from a central boiler through banks and top vents.
63
Gas-Fired Infrared Heaters Gas-fired infrared yielding substantial fuel savings. It is also excellent for
heaters are vacuum-operated radiant heaters that controlling foliage diseases. The majority of propaga-
are sometimes installed tion (seed germination, rooted cuttings, and plug
gas-fired infrared
in the ridges of green- growing) is done with some form of root zone heat
heaters Vacuum-
houses with the concept (Figs. 2 and 9) (55).
operated radiant
of heating the plants
heaters installed in the Solar Heating Conservation of energy in the green-
but not the air mass.
ridges of greenhouses house is important (83). In greenhouses, solar heating
Infrared heaters consist
with the concept of occurs naturally. The cost of fossil fuels has evoked con-
of several lines of radi-
heating the plants but siderable interest in methods of conserving daytime solar
ant tubing running the
not the air mass. heat for night heating (50, 64). Conservation methods
length of the house,
need to be developed and utilized; otherwise, high heat-
with reflective shielding above the tubes installed at
ing costs may eventually make winter use of greenhouses
a height of 1.8 to 3.7 m (6 to 12 ft) above the plants
in colder regions economically unfeasible—relegating
(Fig. 2). The principal advantage of infrared heating
greenhouse operations to areas with relatively mild
systems in greenhouses is lower energy use. Cultural
winters (89, 122).
practices may need to be changed because infrared
Most heat loss in greenhouses occurs through the
heating heats the plant but not the soil underneath.
roof. One method of reducing heat loss in winter is to
Root Zone Heating In contrast to infrared heating, install sealed polyethylene sheeting outside over the
root zone heating is done by placing pipes on or below glass or fiberglass covered structure, or to use two layers
the soil surface in the floor of the greenhouse, or on the of polyethylene sheeting, as in a quonset house. This
benches, with recirculating hot water—controlled by a double-poly method of insulation is very effective. The
thermostat—circulating through the pipes. This places two layers are kept separate by an air cushion from a low-
the heat below the plants, which hastens the germina- pressure blower. Energy savings from the use of this sys-
tion of seeds, rooting of cuttings, or growth of liner tem are substantial—more than 50 percent reduction in
plants. This popular system has been very satisfactory fuel compared to conventional glass greenhouses—but
in many installations, heating the plants’ roots and the greatly lowered light intensity with the double-layer
tops, but not the entire air mass in the greenhouse, plastic cover can lower yields of many greenhouse crops.
Figure 9
Hot water, root zone heating of
propagation flats. (a) Biotherm
(a) (b) tubing heating root zone of the
plug tray. (b) Notice the probe
(arrow) for regulating temperature.
(c) The flexible hot water tubing is
hooked into larger PVC pipes at
set distances to assure more
uniform heating. (d) Cuttings in
propagation flats placed over
white PVC hot water tubing; in
milder climates, the ground hot
water tubing may be all that is
used to control root zone
temperature and the air
temperature of the propagation
(c) (d) house.
64
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10
(a) Prop house with thermal and shade curtains (arrow) to reduce winter heating costs and reduce light irradiance and
greenhouse cooling expenses during summer months. (b) Thermal screen for energy conservation, made of woven
aluminized polyester fabric, covering for propagation house with 46 percent light transmission; (c and d) the fabric is
placed on top of polyethylene propagation house the covered house.
movable thermal Another device that photoperiod manipulation of plants. Curtains range
curtains A device reduces heat loss dramat- from 20 percent shade reduction to complete black-
that reduces heat loss ically is a movable ther- out curtains—ULS Obscura A + B (67). Curtain
at night by creating a mal curtain (Fig. 10), fibers are available in white, black, with aluminum
barrier between the which, at night, is placed coated fibers, and/or with strips of aluminum sewn
crop and greenhouse between the crop and the in. Black shade cloth reduces light to the plants,
roof and walls. propagation house roof but absorbs heat and emits heat back into the propa-
and walls (119). Winter gation house. Aluminum-coated curtain fabrics are
heating bills are reduced as much as 30 percent, since good reflectors of light, but poor absorbers of heat
the peak of the propagation house is not heated (67). (Fig. 10). Some curtain materials come with a top side
During summer, automated curtains also reduce heat for reflecting heat and reducing condensation and a
stress on propagules and workers, and less energy is bottom side for heat retention. Insulating the north
needed to run fans for wall reduces heat loss without appreciably lowering
black clothing A cooling. Modified cur- the available light. Heat reduction also occurs with
curtain that is drawn tains can be used for light red and blue shade cloth used for control of plant
over plants to exclude reduction during the day growth (Fig. 11).
light for manipulating and “black clothing” for Greenhouses can be cooled mechanically in the
photoperiod. light exclusion during summer by the use of large evaporative cooling units, as
65
(a) (b)
Figure 11
(a and b) Propagation houses covered with
red shade cloth for enhanced root initiation
and development. The red netting increases
the red, while reducing the blue and green
spectra. (c) Shading seed propagation flats to
(c) reduce light irradiance and heat load.
pad and fan system shown in Figure 12. The at one side (or end) of a greenhouse with large exhaust
A system commonly “pad and fan” system, fans at the other, has proved to be the best method of
used in greenhouse in which a wet pad of cooling greenhouses, especially in low-humidity climates
cooling to reduce the air material, such as special (6). Fog can be used to cool greenhouses, but is more
temperature by raising honeycombed cellulose, expensive than conventional pad and fan systems, and is
the relative humidity aluminum mesh, or inefficient in climates with high relative humidity (e.g.,
and circulating air. plastic fiber, is installed the Texas Gulf Coast).
(a) (b)
Figure 12
Fully automated polycarbonate-covered greenhouse. (a) Air is pulled by exhaust fans (black arrows) to vent and cool.
Components of both heating and cooling systems are electronically controlled via a weather monitoring station (white arrow)
that feeds environmental inputs to computerized controls. (b) Cool cells (wettable pads) through which cooler, moist air is pulled
across the propagation house by exhaust fans.
66

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Environmental control equipment is available from such Systems, Inc., (www.wadsworthcontrols.com), and HortiMaX
companies as Priva (www.priva.nl), Wadsworth Control USA Inc. (www.qcom-controls.com).
Greenhouses are often sprayed on the outside at Computerized Environmental Controls The advent
the onset of warm spring weather with a thin layer of of computer technology (i.e., Wadsworth EnviroSTEP)
whitewash or a white cold-water paint. This coating has replaced the amplifiers and logic circuits of an ana-
reflects much of the heat from the sun, thus preventing log control with a microprocessor “computer on a
excessively high temperatures in the greenhouse dur- chip” (Figs. 13 and 14). Computer controls are
ing summer. The whitewash is removed in the fall. Too quicker and more precise in combining information
heavy a coating of whitewash, however, can reduce the from a variety of sensors (temperature, relative humid-
light irradiance to undesirably low levels. Aluminized ity, light intensity, wind direction) to make complex
polyester fabric coverings are used for reducing heat judgments about how to control the propagation
load and can be placed on top of polyethylene-covered environment. Computers can be utilized as zone con-
propagation houses (Fig. 10). trollers or in more expensive integrated computer
systems (10, 55).
Environmental Controls Although more costly than thermostats or
analogs, computer controls offer significant energy
Controls are needed for greenhouse heating and
and labor savings and improved production efficiency
evaporative cooling systems. Although varying with
in propagation. Not only can temperature, ventila-
the plant species, a minimum night temperature of
tion, and humidity be controlled, but many other
13 to 15.5°C (55 to 60°F) is common. Thermostats
factors, such as propagating bed temperatures, appli-
for evaporative cooling are generally set to start the
cation of liquid fertilizers through the irrigation sys-
fans at about 24°C (75°F). In the early days of green-
tem, daylength lighting, light-intensity regulation
house operation, light, temperature, and humidity were
with mechanically operated shade cloth (and thermal
about the only environmental controls attempted.
sheets or curtains), operation of a mist or fog system,
Spraying the greenhouse with whitewash in summer
and CO2 enrichment—all can be varied for different
and opening and closing side and ridge vents with a
times of the day and night and for different banks of
crank to control temperatures, along with turning on
propagation units (7, 47, 56, 124). Computers can be
steam valves at night to prevent freezing, constituted
programmed so that alarms are triggered or propaga-
environmental control. Humidity was increased by
tors paged by phone if deviations from preset levels
spraying the walks and benches by hand at least once
occur—such as a heating failure on a cold winter
a day. Later, it was found that thermostats, operating
night or a mist system failure on cuttings on a hot
solenoid valves, could activate electric motors to raise
summer day. Some of these operations are shown in
and lower vents, and to open and close steam and
Figures 12, 13, 14, and 15. Most importantly, the
water valves, thus giving some degree of automatic
computer can provide data on all factors being con-
control. Most environmental controllers of green-
trolled for review to determine if changes are
house environments are now analog or computerized
needed. This makes it easier for the propagator to
systems.
make management decisions based on factual infor-
Analog Environmental Controls Analog controls (i.e., mation (42).
Wadsworth Step 500) have evolved for controlling the
greenhouse environment. They use proportioning ther- Greenhouse Covering Materials
mostats or electronic sensors to gather temperature infor- Common greenhouse covering materials include (54,
mation. This information drives amplifiers and electronic 103):
logic (i.e., decision making) circuitry (55). Essentially,
they combine functions of several thermostats into one • Glass
unit (10). Analog controls cost more than thermostats, • Flexible covering materials
but are more versatile and offer better performance. • Rigid covering materials
67
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f )
Figure 13
(a and b) Computer-controlled environmental manipulation of propagation facilities including (c) a mechanized traveling mist
boom for irrigating flats on moveable benches. (d and e) Automated shade material programmed to close along the top of the
propagation house when preset radiant energy levels are reached; this system works well with contact polyethylene propagation
systems for rooting cuttings. (f) Automated metering system for monitoring CO2 injection in propagation house.
Glass Glass-covered greenhouses are expensive, but propagation under integrated pest management, later
for a permanent long-term installation under low-light in the chapter.
winter conditions, glass may be more satisfactory than
Flexible Covering Materials are Categorized as
the popular, low-cost polyethylene (poly)-covered
Follows
houses. Due to economics and the revolution in green-
house covering materials from polyethylene to polycar- Polyethylene (Polythene, polyethylene (poly)
bonates, glass greenhouses are no longer dominant. Poly). Over half of the A plastic covering
Glass is still used, due in part to its superior light trans- greenhouse area in the United used to cover
mitting properties and less excessive relative humidity States is covered with low-cost propagation
problems. Glass “breathes” (the glass laps between polyethylene (poly), most greenhouses.
panes allow air to enter), whereas polyethylene, acrylic, with inflated double layers,
and polycarbonate-structured sheet houses are airtight, giving good insulating properties. Poly is the most pop-
which can result in excessive humidity and undesirable ular covering for propagation houses. Several types
water drip on the plants if not properly controlled. This of plastic are available, but most propagators use either
problem can be overcome, however, by maintaining single- or double-layered polyethylene. Poly materials are
adequate ventilation and heating. Some of the newer lightweight and relatively inexpensive compared with
greenhouse covering materials are designed to channel glass. Their light weight also permits a less expensive
condensation to gutters, avoiding water dripping onto supporting framework than is required for glass.
plant foliage. Control of high relative humidity is a key Polyethylene has a relatively short life. It breaks down in
cultural technique to manage plant pathogens, since sunlight and must be replaced after one or two years, gen-
water can both disseminate pathogens and encourage erally in the fall in preparation for winter. The new polys,
plant infection. See the section on cultural controls in with ultraviolet (UV) inhibitors, can last three to four
68
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Figure 14
Manipulating the propagation environment. (a) Greenhouse sensors that are connected to an analog or computer-controlled
environmental system. (b) Analog-type controller. (c) High vapor pressure sodium lighting for propagating plants during low-
light conditions. (d and e) Lighting to extend photoperiod, which encourages (e) Japanese maple cuttings to avoid dormancy.
years, but in the southern United States where UV lev- penetration than regular poly. Glass traps most infrared
els are higher, poly deteriorates more quickly and prop- radiation, whereas polyethylene is transparent to it.
agation houses need to be recovered more frequently. However, double layer poly-covered greenhouses retain
A thickness of 4 to 6 mils (1 mil = 0.001 in) is more heat than glass because the houses are more air-
recommended. For better insulation and lowered win- tight and less infrared radiation escapes.
ter heating costs, a double layer of UV-inhibited Only materials especially prepared for greenhouse
copolymer material is used with a 2.5-cm (1-in) air gap covering should be used. Many installations, especially in
between layers, kept separated by air pressure from a windy areas, use a supporting material, usually welded
small blower. wire mesh, for the polyethylene film. Occasionally, other
Single-layer polyethylene-covered greenhouses supporting materials, such as Saran cloth, are used.
lose more heat at night or in winter than a glass-covered Polyethylene transmits about 85 percent of the
house since polyethylene allows passage of heat energy sun’s light, which is low compared with glass, but it
from the soil and plants inside the greenhouse much passes all wavelengths of light required for plant
more readily than glass. There are some newer infrared growth. A tough, white, opaque film consisting of a
reflective polys, which save fuel but have lower light mixture of polyethylene and vinyl plastic is available.
69
(a) (b)
(c)
(d) (e) (f )
Figure 15
Environmental sensors for propagation. (a and b) A propagation house with a weather station for detecting light intensity,
wind speed and direction, external temperature; this helps regulate temperature control and the fog propagation system.
(c) Measurement of solar light allows for better mist control. (d, e, and f) Relative humidity sensors are needed to determine
vapor pressure deficit (VPD) for critical fog propagation control.
This film stays more flexible under low winter tem- Rigid Covering (Structured Sheet) Materials Rigid
peratures than does clear polyethylene, but is more Covering (Structured Sheet) Materials are Categorized
expensive. Because temperature fluctuates less under as Follows
opaque film than under clear plastic, it is suitable for
Acrylic (Plexiglass, Lucite, Exolite). Acrylic is highly
winter protection of field-bed or container-grown,
weather resistant, does not yellow with age, has excel-
liner plants (Fig. 16). Polyethylene permits the pas-
lent light transmission properties, retains twice the heat
sage of oxygen and carbon dioxide, necessary for the
of glass, and is very resistant to impact, but is brittle. It
growth processes of plants, while reducing the passage
is somewhat more expensive and nearly as combustible
of water vapor.
as fiberglass. It is available in twin-wall construction
For covering lath and shade structures, there are
which gives good insulation properties, and has a no-drip
a number of satisfactory plastic materials prepared for
construction that channels condensation to run down
the horticultural industry. Some commercially avail-
to the gutters, rather than dripping on plants.
able materials include UV-treated cross-woven poly-
ethylene and polypropylene fabric that resists ripping Polycarbonate (Polygal, Lexan, Cyroflex, Dynaglas).
and tearing, and knitted high-density UV polyethyl- Polycarbonate is probably the most widely used struc-
ene shade cloth and Saran cloth that is strong and has tured sheet material today (55). Similar to acrylic in
greater longevity. heat retention properties, it allows about 90 percent of
70
(a) (b)
Figure 16
Low polyethylene tunnel or sun tunnel that is covered with
polyethylene. (a) Sometimes a white poly material is used to
avoid the higher temperature buildup and temperature
fluctuation of clear poly. Propagation flats are placed on top
of hot-water tubing or electric heating cables (b) Saran
shade cloth can be used to cover the poly to reduce the
heat load. (c) Winterization of sun tunnels can be done with
white microfoam insulation covered with a clear poly or
(c) opaque poly (see arrow).
the light transmission of glass. Polycarbonate has high The economics of using these greenhouse cover-
impact strength—about 200 times that of glass. It is ing materials must be considered carefully before a
lightweight, about one-sixth that of glass, making it decision is made. New materials are continually com-
easy to install. Polycarbonate’s textured surface diffuses ing onto the market.
light and reduces condensation drip. It is available in
twin-wall construction, which gives good insulation Closed-Case Propagation Systems
properties. Polycarbonate can be cut, sawn, drilled, or
Hot Frames (Hotbeds) and Heated Sun Tunnels The
nailed, and is much more user-friendly than acrylic,
hot frame (hotbed) is a small, low structure used
which can shatter if nails or screws are driven into it. It
for many of the same hot frames (hotbeds)
is UV stabilized and will resist long outdoor exposure
purposes as a propagation Propagation structures
(some polycarbonates are guaranteed for ten years), but
house. Traditionally, the that are covered with
will eventually yellow with age (11, 90).
hotbed is a large wooden poly and heated in the
Fiberglass. Rigid panels, corrugated or flat, of polyester box or frame with a slop- winter.
resin reinforced with fiberglass have been widely used for ing, tight-fitting lid made
greenhouse construction. This material is strong, long- of window sash. Hotbeds can be used throughout the
lasting, lightweight, and easily applied, and comes in a year, except in areas with severe winters where their use
variety of dimensions (width, length, and thickness), but may be restricted to spring, summer, and fall. Another
is not as permanent as glass. Only the clear material— form of a hotbed is a heated, low polyethylene tunnel
especially made for greenhouses and in a thickness of or sun tunnel that is made from hooped metal tubing or
0.096 cm (0.038 in) or more and weighing 4 to 5 oz per bent PVC pipe, which is covered with polyethylene
square foot—should be used. New material transmits (sometimes a white poly material is used to avoid the
about 80 to 90 percent of the available light, but light higher temperature buildup and temperature fluctuations
transmission decreases over the years due to yellowing, of clear poly) (Fig. 16).
which is a serious problem. Since fiberglass burns rapidly, Traditionally, the size of the frame conforms to
an entire greenhouse may quickly be consumed by fire, so the size of the glass sash available—a standard size is 0.9
insurance costs can be higher. Fiberglass is more expensive by 1.8 m (3 by 6 ft) (Fig. 17). If polyethylene is used as
than polyethylene, and is not as widely used as it once was. the covering, any convenient dimensions can be
71
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 17
Traditional cold frames were used for propagating tender plants. Frames are opened after protection is no longer required.
(a) Older commercial use of glass-covered cold frames in propagating ground cover plants by cuttings. (b) Wood sash used for
liner production in a cold frame. Glass and lath coverings are rarely used due to the high labor costs in moving the heavy sash.
Plastic coverings are more suitable. (c and d) Today a cold frame is most commonly a very low cost, budget, unheated poly-
covered hoop or galvanized steel bow house.
used. The frame can be easily built with 3-cm (1-in) or be used. These are placed directly on a thin layer of
6-cm (2-in) lumber nailed to 4-by-4 corner posts set in sand covering the hot-water tubing.
the ground. Decay-resistant wood such as redwood, Seedlings can be started and leafy cuttings rooted
cypress, or cedar should be used, and preferably pressure- in hotbeds early in the season. As in the greenhouse,
treated with wood preservatives, such as chromated close attention must be paid to shading and ventilation,
copper arsenate (CCA). This compound retards decay as well as to temperature and humidity control. For
for many years and does not give off fumes toxic to small propagation operations, hotbed structures are
plants. Creosote must not be used on wood structures suitable for producing many thousands of nursery
in which plants will be grown, since the fumes released, plants without the higher construction expenditure for
particularly on hot days, are toxic to plants. larger, walk-in propagation houses (60).
Plastic or PVC tubing with recirculating hot
water is quite satisfactory for providing bottom heat in Cold Frames and cold frames Propagation
hotbeds. The hotbed is filled with 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) Unheated Sun Tunnels structures covered with
of a rooting or seed-germinating medium over the hot- A primary use of poly, lath, or other covering
water tubing. Alternatively, community propagation cold frames is condi- material and which are not
flats or flats with liner pots containing the medium can tioning or hardening heated in the winter.
72
rooted cuttings or young seedlings (liners) preceding used as an overwintering structure for liner plants. Snow
field, nursery-row, or container planting. Cold frames load can cause problems in higher latitude regions.
and unheated sun tunnels can be used for starting new Lathhouse construction varies widely. Aluminum
plants in late spring, summer, or fall when no external prefabricated lathhouses are available but may be more
supply of heat is necessary (129). Today, cold frames costly than wood structures. More commonly, pipe or
include not only low polyethylene-covered wood frames wood supports are used, set in concrete with the neces-
or unheated sun tunnels that people cannot walk within sary supporting cross-members. Today, most lathhouses
(Fig. 17), but also low-cost, poly-covered hoop houses are covered with high-density, woven, plastic materials,
(Fig. 17). The covered frames should fit tightly in order such as Saran, polypropylene fabric, and UV-treated
to retain heat and obtain high humidity. Cold frames polyethylene shade cloth, which come in varying shade
should be placed in locations protected from winds, with percentages and colors. These materials are available in
the sash cover sloping down from north to south (south different densities, thus allowing lower irradiance of
to north in the Southern Hemisphere). light, such as 50 percent sunlight, to the plants. They
Low-cost cold frame construction (Fig. 17) is the are lightweight and can be attached to heavy wire fas-
same as for hotbeds, except that no provision is made for tened to supporting posts. The shade cloth is resistant to
supplying bottom heat. With older-style cold frames, ripping, and has an optimum life of 10 to 15 years,
sometimes a lath covering with open spaces between the depending on climate and quality of material. For win-
lath boards is used to cover the cold frame. This does not terization in less temperate areas, producers will cover
prevent freezing temperatures from occurring, but does the shade cloth with polyethylene. Sometimes shade is
reduce high and low temperature fluctuations. provided by thin wood strips about 5 cm (2 in) wide,
In these structures, only the heat of the sun, placed to give one-third to two-thirds cover, depending
retained by the transparent or opaque white polyethyl- on the need. Both sides and the top are usually covered.
ene coverings, is utilized. Close attention to ventilation, Rolls of snow fencing attached to a supporting frame-
shading, watering, and winter protection is necessary for work can be utilized for inexpensive construction.
success with cold frames. When young, tender plants
Miscellaneous Closed-Case Systems There are a num-
are first placed in a cold frame, the covers are generally
ber of closed-case propagation systems that are used in
kept tightly closed to maintain a high humidity, but as
the rooting of cuttings, acclimatization and rooting of
the plants become acclimated, the sash frames are grad-
tissue culture microcuttings, and propagation of
ually raised or the ends of the hoop house or sun tunnels
seedlings. Besides the sun tunnels or cold frames previ-
opened to permit more ventilation and drier conditions.
ously described, closed-case propagation systems include
The installation of a mist line or frequent irriga-
nonmisted enclosures in glasshouses or polyhouses
tion of plants in a cold frame is essential to maintain
(shading, tent and contact polyethylene systems, wet
humid conditions. During sunny days temperatures
tents, inverted glass jars).
can build up to excessively high levels in closed frames
unless ventilation and shading are provided. Spaced Propagating Frames. Even in a greenhouse, humidity
lath, Saran or poly shade cloth-covered frames, or reed is not always high enough to permit satisfactory rooting
mats are useful to lay over the sash to provide protec- of certain kinds of leafy cuttings. Enclosed frames cov-
tion from the sun. In areas where extremely low tem- ered with poly or glass may be necessary for successful
peratures occur, plants being overwintered in cold rooting (see Fig. 18). There are many variations of such
frames may require additional protective coverings. devices. Small ones were called Wardian cases in earlier
days. Such enclosed frames are also useful for graft union
Lathhouses Lathhouses or shade houses (Figs. 6 and 11) formation of small potted nursery stock, since they
provide outdoor shade and protect container-grown plants retain high humidity.
from high summer temperatures and high light irradiance Sometimes in cool summer climates (as far south as
(50). They reduce moisture stress and decrease the water Virginia in the United States), when fall semi-hardwood
requirements of plants. Lathhouses have many uses in cuttings are taken, a layer of very thin (1 or 2 mils) poly-
propagation, particularly in conjunction with the harden- ethylene laid directly on top of a bed of newly prepared
ing-off and acclimation of liner plants prior to transplant- leafy cuttings in a greenhouse or lathhouse will provide
ing, and with maintenance of shade-requiring or tender a sufficient increase in relative humidity to give good
plants. At times a lathhouse is used by nurseries simply to rooting. This is sometimes referred to as a contact poly-
hold plants for sale. In mild climates, they are used for ethylene system. Good shade control to reduce light
propagation, along with a mist facility, and can also be irradiance is essential for this system.
73
(a) (b)
Figure 18
(a and b) Polyethylene-covered beds
used in a greenhouse to maintain high
humidity surrounding the cuttings
during rooting. Propagation flats can
be placed on beds or cuttings stuck
directly into the mist beds and covered
with poly. (c) Using shade (arrow) for
light/temperature control. (d) Partially
vented polycovered mist-bed under a
(c) (d) quonset house for shade.
On a more limited scale, bell jars (large inverted propagation benches containing a reservoir of water,
glass jars) can be set over a container of unrooted cut- maintained with a float valve. The system is initially
tings or freshly grafted containerized plants to speed up enclosed in a clear poly sweat tent. Once root initiation
graft union formation. Humidity is kept high in such takes place, the mist is turned off and the poly tent lifted.
devices, but some shading is necessary to control tem- Cuttings are then supplied with nutrient solution in the
perature. NFT system on the propagation bench and later trans-
In using all such structures, care is necessary to planted with the roots intact and undisturbed in the root
avoid the buildup of pathogenic organisms. The warm, cube. Stock plants are also maintained in the NFT sys-
humid conditions, combined with lack of air move- tem and supported in root cubes, thus allowing more
ment and relatively low light intensity, provide excel- precise nutritional control and reduction in environmen-
lent conditions for the growth of various pathogenic tal stress to the stock plant.
fungi and bacteria. Cleanliness of all materials placed in
such units is important; however, use of fungicides is
sometimes necessary (see the section on integrated
pest management later in the chapter).
CONTAINERS FOR PROPAGATING
AND GROWING YOUNG LINER
Enclosed Poly Sweat Tent—Hydroponic System. An
Australian producer of chrysanthemums uses a modified
PLANTS
nutrient film technique (NFT) for growing greenhouse New types of containers for propagating and growing
stock plants and propagating cuttings (58). Unrooted young liner plants are continually being developed, usu-
cuttings are stuck in Oasis root cubes and placed in mist ally with a goal of reducing handling costs. Direct sticking
74
of unrooted cuttings into small liner containers, as of cells or compartments per tray may range from 1 cell
opposed to sticking into conventional propagation for a community rooting flat or seed germination tray, to
trays, saves a production step and later avoids root 18 or more cells for a rooted liner tray, to 100 to 400 cells
disturbance of cuttings, which can lead to transplant for a seedling plug tray. Trays also can be fitted with
shock (Figs. 19, 20, and 21) (31). removable sheet inserts containing the cells. Plastic flats
will nest, and thus require relatively little storage space.
Flats The costs of producing plastic for flats and containers
Flats are shallow plastic, Styrofoam, wooden, or metal and for disposing of used plastic have led to increased
trays, with drainage holes in the bottom. They are useful plastic recycling programs in horticulture and biodegrad-
for germinating seeds or rooting cuttings, since they able paper tube liner pots (Fig. 19).
permit young plants to be moved easily. In the past,
durable kinds of wood, such as cypress, cedar, or red- Plastic Pots
wood, were preferred for flats. The most popular flats Plastic containers, round and square, have numerous
are made of rigid plastic (polyethylene, polystyrene) and advantages: they are nonporous, reusable, lightweight,
come in all shapes and sizes. The 28 × 53 cm (11 × 21 in) and use little storage space because they will nest. Some
1020 plastic flats are the industry standard. The number types are fragile, however, and require careful handling,
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 19
(a and b) A paper pot system direct sticking (direct rooting) liner plants in paper tubes filled with peat-lite media. (b) Paper
pot sleeve liner (arrow) inserted in plastic tray. (c) Rooted poinsettia in paper sleeve tube. (d) Plastic rooting tray with ribs
(arrow) to reduce root circling of poinsettias during propagation and rooted liner development.
75
Figure 20
(a) Air-root pruning system for
direct sticking (direct rooting) tree
liners to minimize root circling,
encourage more fibrous root
development, and increase root
surface area. (b) Direct rooting
poinsettia cuttings in paper
sleeves inserted in ribbed plastic
(a) liner pots.
(b)
Figure 21
Flow diagram of a
Horticulture Nursery
Production System starting
with propagation by rooted
cuttings, seedlings, graftage,
or tissue culture-produced
plantlets—followed by
transplanting into liner pots
and final transplanting into
larger containers or into
nursery field production.
Direct rooting (direct sticking)
eliminates a production step,
since both propagation and
liner production occur in the
same liner pot. A Forestry
Nursery Production System of
planting, transplanting, and
outplanting is also described.
76
(a) (b)
Figure 22
(a) Plastic (Roottainer)
container made of
preformed, hinged
sheets for propagating
seedling liners.
(b) synthetic fiber media
(Rockwool) blocks for
inserting seedling
plugs and growing in
greenhouse. (c and d)
ridged containers for
(c) (d) minimizing root circling.
although other types, made from polyethylene, are 3 minutes followed by a rinse in a dilute bleach solution
flexible and quite sturdy. Small liner pots for direct (i.e., Clorox, Purex, etc.). Ultraviolet light inhibitors are
rooting of cuttings, seedling propagation, and tissue sometimes incorporated in the plastic resin to prevent
culture plantlet acclimatization and production have UV degradation of plastic pots under full sun condi-
gained considerable popularity. tions (Fig. 24).
Many of these small containers have rib-like
structures to redirect root growth and prevent girdling
(Figs. 19, 20, and 22). In forestry seedling production, Fiber Pots
ribbed book or sleeve containers are used, which consist Containers of various sizes, round or square, are pressed
of two matched sections of molded plastic that fit into shape from peat plus wood fiber, with fertilizer
together to form a row of rectangular cells (Fig. 22). added. Dry, they will keep indefinitely. Since these pots
The inner walls of small propagation containers and are biodegradable, they are set in the soil along with the
liner pots can also be treated with chemical root prun- plants. Peat pots find their best use where plants are to
ing agents, such as copper hydroxide (CuOH2), which be held for a relatively short time and then put in a
chemically prune liner roots at the root-wall interface larger container or in the field. During outplanting in
(71). The chemically pruned lateral roots become the field, any portion of the fiber pot transplanted
suberized but will begin to grow again after transplant- above the surface of the soil will act like a wick and
ing, which results in a well-distributed root system that quickly dry out the transplant.
helps minimize transplant shock (Fig. 23) (71). During production, small peat pots with plants
Plastic pots (and flats) cannot be steam sterilized, growing in them eventually deteriorate because of con-
but some of the more common plant pathogens can stant moisture, and may fall apart when moved. On the
be controlled by a hot water dip, 70°C (158°F), for other hand, unless the pots are kept moist, roots will
fail to penetrate the walls of the pot and will grow into
77
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 23
Chemical root pruning involves treating the interior container wall with a growth-inhibiting chemical such as
copper hydroxide. This causes the lateral roots to be chemically pruned at the container wall. A well-branched
root system occurs, which enhances transplant establishment. (a) Schematic of nonpruned versus chemically
pruned seedling container roots. (b) Copper hydroxide-treated container. (c) Copper hydroxide-treated
Acalpha hispida (see arrow) without visible surface roots. Photo courtesy of M. Arnold.
an undesirable spiral pattern. Units of 6 or 12 square mechanization with pot-filling machines, automatic
peat pots fastened together are available. When large seeders, and wire benches that allow air pruning of the
numbers of plants are involved, using peat pots results root system. Typically, paper pots consist of a series of
in time and labor savings. interconnected paper cells arranged in a honeycomb
pattern that can be separated before outplanting (71).
Paper Pots An advantage of the paper pot system is that pots are
Paper pots or paper tube pots are more popular with biodegradable, and the seedling plug can be planted
seed plug and cutting propagation of ornamentals, veg- intact into a larger container or into the ground with-
etable and forestry species. They allow for greater out disturbing the root system. Some papier-mâché
78
Figure 24
(a) Colorful, labeled, rigid-
plastic containers are used
for growing and merchan-
dising landscape and
garden plants. Frequently,
inhibitors are incorporated
with the plastic resin to
prevent ultraviolet break-
down of the containers
under full sun conditions.
(b) Flexible poly container
bags are used for nursery
production in Europe,
England, and Australia,
where petroleum-based
products are more costly
(a) (b) than in the United States.
pots (paper, wax, asphalt) come treated with copper provide constant moisture, while maintaining adequate
hydroxide, which enhances root development and aeration.
retards deterioration of the pot.
In Europe and the United States, paper tube pots Plastic Growing Containers
with predictable degradation rates are produced by for Post-Liner Production
machine (39). The propagation medium is formed into
Many millions of nursery plants are grown and mar-
a continuous cylinder and wrapped with a length of
keted each year in 3.8-liter (1-gal) and—to a lesser
paper or cellulose skin that is glued and heat sealed
extent—11-liter (3-gal), 19-liter (5-gal), and larger
(Fig. 19).
containers. They are tapered for nesting and have
drainage holes. Heavy-wall, injection-molded plastic
containers are used extensively in the United States.
Peat, Fiber, Expanded Foam, Machine planters have been developed utilizing con-
and Rockwool Blocks tainers in which rooted cuttings or seedlings can be
Blocks of solid material, sometimes with a prepunched transplanted as rapidly as 10,000 or more a day. See the
hole (Fig. 22), have become popular as a germinating horticulture and forestry nursery production flow dia-
medium for seeds and as a rooting medium for cuttings, grams (Fig. 21). Plants are easily removed from tapered
especially for such plants as chrysanthemums and poin- containers by inverting and tapping. Some plastic con-
settias. Sometimes fertilizers are incorporated into the tainers are made of preformed, hinged plastic sheets
material. One type is made of highly compressed peat that can be separated for easy removal of the liner
which, when water is added, swells to its usable size and (Fig. 22).
is soft enough for the cutting or seed to be inserted. In areas with high summer temperatures, use of
Such blocks become a part of the plant unit and are set light-colored (white or silver) containers may improve
in the soil along with the plant. These blocks replace not root growth by reducing heat damage to the roots,
only the pot but also the propagating mix. which is often encountered in dark-colored containers
Synthetic rooting blocks (oasis, rockwool) are that absorb considerable heat when exposed to the
becoming more widely used in the nursery industry (and sun. However, light-colored containers show dirt
forestry industry for seed propagation), and are well marks (as opposed to black or dark green containers)
adapted to automation (Fig. 22). Other advantages are and must be cleaned prior to shipping. More and
their light weight, consistent quality, reproducibility, and more colorful, labeled containers are being used for
clean condition. Watering must be carefully controlled to growing and merchandising landscape and garden
79
plants (Fig. 24). A pot-in-pot system, in which a con- rooted cuttings or seedling liners to a salable size. They
tainerized plant is inserted into a hole in the ground are considerably less expensive than rigid plastic con-
lined with a plastic sleeve pot, helps moderate both tainers and seem to be satisfactory (Fig. 24), but some
high and low rootball temperatures (Fig. 25). types deteriorate rapidly. They are usually black, but
some are black on the inside and light-colored on the
Polyethylene Bags and Plant Rolls outside. The lighter color reflects heat and lowers the
Polyethylene bags are widely used in Europe, Australia, root temperature. Polybags do not prohibit root spiral-
New Zealand, and in less developed countries in the ing or allow air pruning, which is a drawback to their
tropics—but rarely in North America—for growing use in propagation and liner production; however,
(a) (b) (c)
(e)
(d) (f )
Figure 25
Alternatives to traditional field production. (a) In-ground fabric containers or grow bags. (b) The pot-in-pot (P&P) system with
individual pot, drip irrigation. (c) Copper-treated wall of outside sleeve containers (arrow) to prevent root penetration from the
inner pots. (d and e) P&P containers. (f) The roots of the inside containers are very susceptible to heat stress when they are
removed from the field. Here they are wrapped with an insulating packing fabric for shipping.
80
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10
(a) Prop house with thermal and shade curtains (arrow) to reduce winter heating costs and reduce light irradiance and
greenhouse cooling expenses during summer months. (b) Thermal screen for energy conservation, made of woven
aluminized polyester fabric, covering for propagation house with 46 percent light transmission; (c and d) the fabric is
placed on top of polyethylene propagation house the covered house.
movable thermal Another device that photoperiod manipulation of plants. Curtains range
curtains A device reduces heat loss dramat- from 20 percent shade reduction to complete black-
that reduces heat loss ically is a movable ther- out curtains—ULS Obscura A + B (67). Curtain
at night by creating a mal curtain (Fig. 10), fibers are available in white, black, with aluminum
barrier between the which, at night, is placed coated fibers, and/or with strips of aluminum sewn
crop and greenhouse between the crop and the in. Black shade cloth reduces light to the plants,
roof and walls. propagation house roof but absorbs heat and emits heat back into the propa-
and walls (119). Winter gation house. Aluminum-coated curtain fabrics are
heating bills are reduced as much as 30 percent, since good reflectors of light, but poor absorbers of heat
the peak of the propagation house is not heated (67). (Fig. 10). Some curtain materials come with a top side
During summer, automated curtains also reduce heat for reflecting heat and reducing condensation and a
stress on propagules and workers, and less energy is bottom side for heat retention. Insulating the north
needed to run fans for wall reduces heat loss without appreciably lowering
black clothing A cooling. Modified cur- the available light. Heat reduction also occurs with
curtain that is drawn tains can be used for light red and blue shade cloth used for control of plant
over plants to exclude reduction during the day growth (Fig. 11).
light for manipulating and “black clothing” for Greenhouses can be cooled mechanically in the
photoperiod. light exclusion during summer by the use of large evaporative cooling units, as
65
• It must be sufficiently porous so that excess water sizes. The coarser particles serve mainly as a supporting
drains away, permitting adequate penetration of oxy- framework for the remainder of the soil, whereas the
gen to the roots—all containers produce a perched colloidal clay fractions of the soil serve as storehouses
water table that creates a zone of saturated growing for nutrients that are released and absorbed by plants.
medium at the bottom of the container. The organic portion of the soil consists of both living
• It must be free from pests: weed seeds, nematodes, and dead organisms. Insects, worms, fungi, bacteria,
and various pathogens. and plant roots generally constitute the living organic
• It must have a low salinity level. matter, whereas the remains of such animal and plant
• It should be capable of being steam-pasteurized or life in various stages of decay make up the dead organic
chemically treated without harmful effects. material. The residue from such decay (termed humus)
• It should have a high cation exchange capacity is largely colloidal and assists in holding water and
(CEC) for retention of nutrients that may be applied plant nutrients.
preincorporated and/or in a supplementary soluble The liquid part of the soil, the soil solution, is
and/or controlled-release fertilizer program. made up of water that contains dissolved salts in vari-
• It should be of consistent quality from batch to ous quantities, along with dissolved oxygen and carbon
batch, and reproducible. dioxide. Mineral elements, water, and some carbon
• It should be readily available, and economical. dioxide enter the plant from the soil solution.
The gaseous portion of the soil is important to
Propagation media used in horticulture and
good plant growth. In poorly drained, waterlogged
forestry consist of a mixture of organic and inorganic
soils, water replaces the air, thus depriving plant roots
components that have different but complementary
as well as certain desirable aerobic microorganisms of
properties. The organic component generally includes
the oxygen necessary for their existence.
peat, softwood and hardwood barks, or sphagnum
The texture of a mineral soil depends upon the
moss. Sawdust and rice hulls should be avoided since
relative proportions of sand (0.05 to 2 mm particle
they oxidize readily and compact easily, which
diameter), silt (0.05 to 0.002 mm particle diameter),
decreases pore space and aeration, and they have a high
and clay (less than 0.002 mm particle diameter). In
C:N ratio, which can result in nutritional problems for
contrast to soil texture, which refers to the proportions
the propagule. A coarse mineral component is used to
of individual soil particles, soil structure refers to the
improve drainage and aeration by increasing the pro-
arrangement of those particles in the entire soil mass.
portion of large, air-filled pores. A variety of mineral
These individual soil grains are held together in aggre-
components include sand (avoid fine particle sands),
gates of various sizes and shapes.
grit, pumice, scoria, expanded shale, perlite, vermicu-
Propagation in commercial horticulture is gener-
lite, polystyrene, clay granules, and rockwool.
ally done with flats, containers, and/or pot systems
There is no single, ideal mix. An appropriate
using “soilless” media. Some exceptions to this are
propagation medium depends on the species, propag-
field budding and grafting systems, stooling and layer-
ule type, season, and propagation system (i.e., with fog,
ing systems, field propagation of hardwood cuttings
a waterlogged medium is less of a problem than with
without intermittent mist, direct seeding of crops, and
mist); cost and availability of the medium components
utilizing outdoor seedbeds. With the greater reliance on
are other considerations. The following media compo-
containerized systems for propagation, mineral soils are
nents can be used in propagation systems.
either unsuitable or must be amended with other com-
Soil A mineral soil is composed of materials in the ponents to improve aeration and prevent the com-
solid, liquid, and gaseous states. For satisfactory plant paction that occurs with the structural changes of min-
growth, these materials must exist in the proper pro- eral soils in a container.
portions. The solid portion of a soil is comprised of
both inorganic and organic components. The inorganic Sand Sand consists of small rock particles, 0.05 to
part consists of the residue from parent rock after 2.0 mm in diameter, formed as the result of the weath-
decomposition, resulting from the chemical and physi- ering of various rocks. The mineral composition of sand
cal process of weathering. Such inorganic components depends upon the type of rock. Quartz sand, consisting
vary in size from gravel down to extremely minute col- chiefly of a silica complex, is generally used for propaga-
loidal particles of clay, the texture of the soil being tion purposes. Sand is the heaviest of all rooting media
determined by the relative proportions of these particle used, with a cubic foot of dry sand weighing about
82
(a) (b)
Figure 27
Propagation medium. (a) Various
types of propagation media
components and mixes.
(b) Sphagnum peat moss—
excellent quality, but expensive.
(c) A specialized azalea propagation
mix composed of peat, bark, and
perlite. (d) Media in bins used to fill
propagation and liner flats inside
(c) (d) the propagation house.
45 kg (100 lb). Preferably, it should be fumigated or although some is produced in the northern United States.
steam-pasteurized before use, as it may contain weed Peat moss is the most commonly used peat in horticulture,
seeds and various harmful pathogens. Sand contains vir- the coarse grade being the best (Fig. 27).
tually no mineral nutrients and has no buffering capac- When peat moss is to be used in mixes, it should
ity or cation exchange capacity (CEC). It is used mostly be broken apart and moistened before being added to
in combination with organic materials. Sand collected the mix. Continued addition of coarse organic materials
near the ocean (beach sand) may be too high in salts. such as peat moss or sphagnum moss to greenhouse
Calcareous sand will raise media pH and should be media can initially cause a decrease in wettability. Water
tested prior to mixing with vinegar or a dilute acid. will not penetrate easily, and many of the peat particles
will remain dry even after watering. There is no good
Peat Peat consists of the remains of aquatic, marsh,
method for preventing this nonwettability, although the
bog, or swamp vegetation that has been preserved under
repeated use of commercial wetting agents, such as
water in a partially decomposed state. The lack of oxy-
Aqua-Gro, can improve water penetration (12). Peat is
gen in the bog slows bacterial and chemical decomposi-
not a uniform product and can be a source of weed seed,
tion of the plant material. Composition of different peat
insects, and disease inoculum. Peat moss is relatively
deposits varies widely, depending upon the vegetation
expensive so it is used less in nursery propagation and
from which it originated, state of decomposition, min-
production mixes. It is gradually being replaced by other
eral content, and degree of acidity (82).
components, such as pulverized or shredded bark.
There are three types of peat as classified by the
However, peat is still the main organic ingredient in
United States Bureau of Mines: moss peat, reed sedge,
propagation and greenhouse mixes.
and peat humus. Moss peat (usually referred to in the
market as peat or peat moss) is the least decomposed of Sphagnum Moss Peat Commercial sphagnum moss
the three types and is derived from sphagnum or other peat or sphagnum peat is the dehydrated young residue
mosses. It varies in color from light tan to dark brown. or living portions of acid-bog plants in the genus
It has a high moisture-holding capacity (15 times its dry Sphagnum, such as S. papillosum, S. capillaceum, and
weight), has a high acidity (pH of 3.2 to 4.5), and con- S. palustre. It is the most desirable peat for horticultural
tains a small amount of nitrogen (about 1 percent) but purposes, but its high cost limits its commercial use. It
little or no phosphorus or potassium. This type of peat is relatively pathogen-free, light in weight, and has a
generally comes from Canada, Ireland, or Germany, very high water-holding capacity, able to absorb 10 to
83
20 times its weight in water. This material is generally neutral with a pH of 6.0 to 8.0 but with no buffering
shredded, either mechanically or by hand, before it is capacity. Unlike vermiculite, it has no cation exchange
used in a propagating or growing media. It contains capacity and contains no mineral nutrients. Perlite pres-
small amounts of minerals, but plants grown in it for ents some problems with fluoride-sensitive plants, but
any length of time require added nutrients. Sphagnum fluoride can be leached out by watering heavily. It is
moss has a pH of about 3.5 to 4.0. It may contain spe- most useful in increasing aeration in a mix. Perlite, in
cific fungistatic substances, including a strain of combination with peat moss, is a very popular rooting
Streptomyces bacteria, which can inhibit damping-off of medium for cuttings (85). Perlite dust is a respiratory
seedlings (2, 63). irritant. Perlite should be moistened to minimize dust,
and workers should use respirators.
Vermiculite Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral that
expands markedly when heated. Extensive deposits are Calcined Clay and Other Aggregates Stable aggregates
found in Montana, North Carolina, and South Africa. can be produced when minerals such as clay, shales, and
Chemically, it is a hydrated magnesium-aluminum-iron pulverized fuel ash are heated (calcined) at high tem-
silicate. When expanded, vermiculite is very light in peratures. They have no fertilizer value, are porous, are
weight [90 to 150 kg per cubic meter (6 to 10 lbs per resistant to breakdown, and absorb water. The main
cubic foot)], neutral in reaction with good buffering purpose of these materials is to change the physical
properties, and insoluble in water. It is able to absorb characteristics of a propagation or liner potting mix.
large quantities of water—40 to 54 liters per cubic Examples of commercial materials made from clay
meter (3 to 4 gal per cubic foot). Vermiculite has a rela- include Leca, Terragreen, and Turfice. Haydite is a
tively high cation-exchange capacity and, thus, can hold combination of clay and shale, while Hortag (used in
nutrients in reserve for later release. It contains magne- the UK) is made from pulverized fuel ash (16). Clay-
sium and potassium, but supplementary amounts are type kitty litter is also a calcined clay, but contains per-
needed from other fertilizer sources. fumes that are not desirable for propagation.
In crude vermiculite ore, the particles consist of
Pumice Chemically, pumice is mostly silicon dioxide
many thin, separate layers with microscopic quantities
and aluminum oxide, with small amounts of iron, cal-
of water trapped between them. When run through
cium, magnesium, and sodium in the oxide form. It is
furnaces at temperatures near 1090°C (1994°F), the
of volcanic origin and is mined in several regions in the
water turns to steam, popping the layers apart and
western United States. Pumice is screened to different-
forming small, porous, spongelike kernels. Heating to
size grades, but is not heat-treated. It increases aeration
this temperature provides complete sterilization.
and drainage in a propagation mix and can be used
Horticultural vermiculite is graded to four sizes: No. 1
alone or mixed with peat moss.
has particles from 5 to 8 mm in diameter; No. 2, the
regular horticultural grade, from 2 to 3 mm; No. 3, Rockwool (Mineral Wool) This material is used as a
from 1 to 2 mm; No. 4, which is most useful as a seed- rooting and growing medium in Europe, Australia, and
germinating medium, from 0.75 to 1 mm. Expanded the United States (Figs. 22 and 27). It is prepared from
vermiculite should not be compacted when wet, as various rock sources, such as basalt rock, melted at a
pressing destroys its desirable porous structure. Do not temperature of about 1600°C. As it cools, a binder is
use nonhorticultural (construction grade) vermiculite, added, and it is spun into fibers and pressed into
as it is treated with chemicals toxic to plant tissues. blocks. Horticultural rockwool is available in several
forms—shredded, prills (pellets), slabs, blocks, cubes,
Perlite Perlite, a gray-white silicaceous material, is of
or combined with peat moss as a mixture. Rockwool
volcanic origin, mined from lava flows. The crude ore is
will hold a considerable amount of water, yet retains
crushed and screened, then heated in furnaces to about
good oxygen levels. With the addition of fertilizers it
760°C (1400°F), at which temperature the small
can be used in place of the Peat-Lite mixes. Before
amount of moisture in the particles changes to steam,
switching from more traditional media mixes, it is best
expanding the particles to small, spongelike kernels that
to initially conduct small-scale propagation trials with
are very light, weighing only 80 to 100 kg per cubic
rockwool and other new media components as they
meter (5 to 6.5 lbs per cubic foot). The high processing
become commercially available (51).
temperature provides a sterile product. Usually, a particle
size of 1.6 to 3.0 mm (1/16 to 1/8 in) in diameter is used Shredded Bark Shredded or pulverized softwood bark
in horticultural applications (Fig. 27). Perlite holds three from redwood, cedar, fir, pine, hemlock, or various
to four times its weight of water. It is essentially hardwood bark species, such as oaks and maples, can be
84
used as an organic component in propagation and sewage treatment plants, and so on will play a greater
growing mixes and are frequently substituted for peat role as media components in the propagation and pro-
moss at a lower cost (89, 91, 102, 112, 128). Before it is duction of small liner plants. Many nurseries recycle
used as a growing medium, pine bark is hammer-milled culled, containerized plants and shred the plant and
into smaller component pieces, stockpiled in the open, soil as compost or as a medium component to be mixed
and often composted by turning the piles and watering with fresh container medium. Composted sewage
as needed. Fresh barks may contain materials toxic to sludge not only provides organic matter, but nearly all
plants, such as phenols, resins, terpenes, and tannins. the essential trace elements, and a large percentage of
Composting for 10 to 14 weeks before using reduces major elements needed by plants in a slowly available
phenolic levels in bark and improves its wettability as form (53). Mixes should always be analyzed for heavy
media, and the higher bark pile temperatures help metals and soluble salt levels. The usual recommended
reduce insect and pathogen levels (16). Because of their rate is that compost not comprise more than 30 percent
moderate cost, light weight, and availability, barks are of the volume of the mix (16).
very popular and widely used in mixes for propagation
and container-grown plants (Fig. 27). Wetting agents
and gels increase available water content in pine bark and Suggested Mixes—Media and Preplant
may play a greater role in helping propagators reduce Granular Fertilizers for Container
irrigation frequency or the volume of water required Growing During Propagation and Liner
during each irrigation (12). Production
Following propagation, young seedlings, rooted cuttings,
Coconut Fiber/Coir Coconut fiber (coir) is an eco-
or acclimatized tissue culture plantlets (liners) are some-
nomical peat substitute that can be mixed with a min-
times planted directly in the field but frequently are
eral component as propagation media. It is derived
started in a blended, soilless mix in some type of container.
from coconut husks.
Container growing of young seedlings and rooted cuttings
Compost In some countries, compost is synonymous has become an important alternative for field growers. In
with container media for propagation and plant growth; the southern and western United States, more than
however, we define compost (composting) as the product 80 percent of nursery plants are container produced (35).
of biological decomposition of bulk organic wastes For this purpose, special growing mixes are needed
under controlled conditions, which takes place in piles (99, 128). It is sometimes more economical for a propaga-
or bins. The process occurs in three steps: tor to buy bags or bulk forms of premixed media.
Typically, they are composed of a peat or peat-vermiculite,
a. an initial stage lasting a few days in which decom-
peat-perlite, hammer-milled and composted bark, rock-
position of easily degradable soluble materials
wool, and other combinations. Preplant amendments in
occurs;
these mixes normally include dolomitic limestone, wet-
b. a second stage lasting several months, during which
ting agents (surfactants) to improve water retention
high temperatures occur and cellulose compounds
and drainage of the peat or bark, starter fertilizers, trace
are broken down; and
elements, and sometimes gypsum and a pH buffer.
c. a final stabilization stage when decomposition
In preparing container mixes, the media should
decreases, temperatures lower, and microorganisms
be screened for uniformity to eliminate excessively large
recolonize the material.
particles. If the materials are very dry, they should be
Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, and nematodes; moistened slightly; this applies particularly to peat and
larger organisms, such as millipedes, soil mites, beetles, bark, which, if mixed when dry, absorb moisture very
springtails, earthworms, earwigs, slugs, and sowbugs, can slowly. In mixing, the various ingredients may be
often be found in compost piles in great numbers. arranged in layers in a pile and turned with a shovel.
Compost prepared largely from leaves may have a high A power-driven cement mixer, soil shredder, or front-end
soluble salt content, which will inhibit plant growth, loader is used in large-scale operations. Most nurseries
but salinity can be lowered by leaching with water omit mineral soil from their mixes. The majority of
before use. container mixes for propagation and liner production
In the future, with dwindling landfill sites and use an organic component such as a bark or peat, which
environmental pressures to recycle organic scrapage solely or in combination is mixed with mineral compo-
materials, the use of composted yard wastes, chicken nents such as sand, vermiculite, or pumice, depending
and cow manure, organic sludge from municipal on their availability and cost.
85
Preparation of the mixture should preferably The Cornell Peat-Lite Mixes

take place at least a day prior to use. During the ensu- The Cornell Peat-Lite mixes, like the earlier
ing 24 hours, the moisture tends to become equalized University of California (UC) potting mixes, are soil-
throughout the mixture. The mixture should be just less media. First developed in the mid-1960s, they are
slightly moist at the time of use so that it does not crum- used primarily for seed germination and for container
ble; on the other hand, it should not be sufficiently wet to growing of bedding plants, annuals, and flowering
form a ball when squeezed in the hand (44). With barks potted plants. The components are lightweight, uni-
and other organic matter and supplementary compo- form, readily available, and have chemical and physi-
nents, particularly rice hulls and sugarcane begasse, it is cal characteristics suitable for the growth of plants.
necessary to compost the material for a period of months Excellent results have been obtained with these mixes.
before using it as a container medium component. It may be desirable, however, to pasteurize the peat
Container mixes require fertilizer supplements moss before use to eliminate any disease inoculum or
and continued feeding of the plants until they become other plant pests. Finely shredded bark is often substi-
established in their tuted for the peat moss.
preplant amendments/ permanent locations The term peat-lite refers to peat-based media
fertilizers Mineral (132). For example, containing perlite or vermiculite.
nutrients that are applied one successful mix for Peat-Lite Mix C (for germinating seeds): To
to or incorporated in the small seedlings, rooted Make 0.76 m3 (1 cubic yard):
propagation or container cuttings, and bedding
production media, prior plants consists of one • 0.035 m3 (1.2 ft3) shredded German or Canadian
to propagating propag- part each of shredded sphagnum peat moss
ules or transplanting liner fir or hammer-milled • 0.035 m3 (1.2 ft3) horticultural grade vermiculite
plants into containers or pine bark, peat moss, No. 4 (fine)
into the field. perlite, and sand. To • 42 g (1.5 oz)—4 level tbsp ammonium nitrate
postplant amendments/ this mixture is added • 42 g (1.5 oz)—2 level tbsp superphosphate (20 per-
fertilizers Mineral preplant fertilizers— cent), powdered
nutrients that are applied gypsum, dolomitic • 210 g (7.5 oz)—10 level tbsp finely ground
as a broadcast or liquid limestone, microele- dolomitic limestone
application during propa- ments and sometimes
gation or production of a controlled-release The materials should be mixed thoroughly, with
containerized or field- fertilizer. Postplant special attention to wetting the peat moss during mix-
grown plant. fertilizers—soluble ing. Adding a nonionic wetting agent, such as Aqua-
forms of nitrogen, Gro [(28 g (1 oz) per 23 liter (6 gal) of water)] usually
phosphorus, and potassium—are added later to the irri- aids in wetting the peat moss.
gation water (fertigation), or as a top dressing of Many commercial ready-mixed preparations,
controlled-release fertilizer, such as Osmocote or based on the original Cornell peat-lite mixes, are avail-
Nutricote. able in bulk or bags and are widely used by propaga-
In summary, nurseries have changed from loam- tors and producers. Some mixes are prefilled into cell
based growing media, as exemplified by the John Innes packs, seed trays, or pots that are ready to be planted.
composts developed in England in the 1900s, to soilless Some soilless proprietary mixes are very sophisticated,
mixes incorporating such materials as finely shredded containing peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite, plus a
bark, peat, sand, perlite, vermiculite, and pumice in nutrient charge of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus,
varying proportions. The trend away from loam-based dolomitic limestone, micronutrients, and a wetting
mixes is due to a lack of suitable uniform soils, the agent with the pH adjusted to about 6.5.
added costs of having to pasteurize soil mixes, and the Proprietary micronutrient materials, such as
costs of handling and shipping the heavier soils compared Esmigran, FTE 503, or Micromax, consisting of com-
with lighter media materials. Much experimentation binations of minor elements, are available for adding
takes place in trying to develop other low-cost, readily to growing media. Adding a controlled-release fertil-
available bulk material to be used as a component of izer such as Osmocote, MagAmp, Nutriform, Nutricote,
growing mixes such as spent mushroom compost, or Polyon to the basic Peat-Lite mix is useful if the
papermill sludge (21, 26), composted sewage sludge plants are to be grown in it for an extended period
(53), and other materials. of time.
86

SOME SUPPLIERS OF COMMERCIAL MIXES IN NORTH AMERICA
Sun Gro Horticulture (www.sungro.com) Scotts Professional Horticulture Solutions (www.
Premier Horticulture (www.premierhort.com) scottspro.com)
Ball Horticultural Company (www.ballhort.com)
Managing Plant Nutrition with Postplant depending on the time of the year, plant growth condi-
Fertilization During and After the tions, or plant species. It is critical to regularly monitor
Propagation Cycle soluble salt levels of the medium prior to fertigation.
Developing an efficient fertilizer program for container Supplemental micronutrients are also applied in a liq-
plants for the 21st Century depends on (a) minimizing uid form but from separate tanks and with separate
the loss of fertilizer from the production area and injectors to prevent fertilizer precipitation. It is best to
(b) increasing the amount of fertilizer utilized or taken monitor soluble salt levels of the irrigation water by
up by the plant (133, 134). Suggested levels of prein- measuring electrical conductivity (EC) with a conduc-
corporated (preplant) granular fertilizers were discussed tivity meter; that is, to apply 100 ppm N, the injector is
in the previous section on container media for propaga- set so that the conductivity of the irrigation water—
tion and small linear production. This section discusses minus the conductivity of the water before the fertilizer
some general fertilization practices for management of was injected—reads 0.55 mS/cm (millisiemens per cm
plant nutrition during propagation and liner produc- or dS per m are the same units of measure) (132–134).
tion (Fig. 21). Both soluble and slow-release fertilizers
Controlled-Release Fertilizers (CRF) Controlled-release
are utilized.
fertilizers (CRF) provide nutrients to the plants gradually
Liquid Fertilizers For large-scale greenhouse and nurs- over a long period and reduce the possibility of injury
ery operations, it is more practical to prepare a liquid from excessive applications (127). There has been a long-
concentrate and inject it into the regular watering or term trend of nurseries in the southern United States
irrigating system by the use of a proportioner— incorporating CRF in propagation, liner and production
fertigation. The most economical source of fertilizers to media, and spot-fertilizing via liquid fertilizer (fertiga-
be applied through the irrigation water is from dealers tion) or top-dressing with CRF. CRFs are some of the
who manufacture soluble liquid fertilizer for field crops. most cost-effective and ecologically friendly ways to fer-
It is no longer recommended to use superphosphate in tilize plants because fertilizer is applied directly to the
soilless mixes with outdoor container production pots. In contrast, overhead fertigation with rainbird
because of the phosphorus leaching that occurs. Hence, sprinkler-type systems is only about 30 percent effi-
more efficient, soluble forms of phosphorus are used, cient, and greater fertilizer runoff occurs from the con-
such as phosphoric acid or ammonium phosphate, in tainer production area. Examples of CRF include
liquid feed programs. Potassium is typically applied as Osmocote, Phycote, Nutricote, and Polyon, and some
potassium chloride, or potassium nitrate, and nitrogen are available with micronutrients incorporated in the
as Uran 30 (15 percent urea, 15 percent NH4NO3) or pellets. As previously described, for both cutting and
ammonium nitrate in the liquid concentrate. seed propagation, a low concentration of macro and
An example of a liquid fertilizer system for produc- micro CRF can be included in the propagation mix, so
tion of containerized plants is the Virginia Tech System the newly formed roots can have nutrients available for
(VTS). With the VTS, all nutrients are supplied to the absorption (37). This is particularly important with
container by injecting liquid fertilizers into the irrigation mist propagation where nutrients can be leached out
water (131, 132). A 10N-4P2O5-6K2O analysis liquid from both the plant and the medium.
fertilizer is applied five times per week, 1.3 cm (0.5 in) Two types of CRF include coated water-soluble
each irrigation at an application rate of 100 to 80 ppm pellets or granules and inorganic materials that are
N, 15 to 10 ppm P, and 50 to 40 ppm K. Sometimes slowly soluble, while slow-release, organic fertilizer
higher nitrogen levels are applied (200–300 ppm N), includes organic materials of low solubility that gradually
87
decompose by biological breakdown or by chemical • 0.6 kg/m3 (1 lb/yd3) Micromax or other trace ele-
hydrolysis. ment mixtures—Perk, Esmigran, or FTE 503
Examples of the resin-coated-type pellets are • For unrooted cuttings, fast-germinating seeds, and tis-
(a) Osmocote, whose release rate depends on the thick- sue culture liners, CRF are preincorporated in the prop-
ness of the coating, and (b) Nutricote (105), whose agation media. For slower rooting or seed-germinating
release rate depends on a release agent in the coating. species, use Osmocote 153 g/m2 (0.5 oz/ft2).
After a period of time the fertilizer will have completely • Nutricote and others are top-dressed on the media
diffused out of the pellets (130). Another kind of after rooting or seed germination starts to occur.
controlled-release fertilizer is the sulfur-coated urea gran- Determining optimum levels of fertilization for
ules, consisting of urea coated with a sulfur-wax mixture propagation depends on the propagule system, and
so that the final product is made up of about 82 percent needs to be determined on a species basis (30).
urea, 13 percent sulfur, 2 percent wax, 2 percent
diatomaceous earth, and 1 percent clay conditioner. Fertilizer Systems for Liner Production Soilless mixes
An example of the slowly soluble, inorganic type must have fertilizers added (107, 132). Irrigation water
CRF is MagAmp (magnesium ammonium phosphate), and the container medium should be thoroughly ana-
an inorganic material of low water solubility. Added to lyzed for soluble salts, pH, and macro- and microele-
the soilless mix, it supplies nutrients slowly for up to ments before a fertility program can be established. It is
2 years. MagAmp may be incorporated into media always wise to conduct small trials before initiating
prior to steam pasteurization without toxic effects. On large-scale fertility programs during propagation and
the other hand, steam pasteurization and sand abrasion liner production.
in the preparation of mixes containing resin-coated, A satisfactory feeding program for growing liner
slow-release fertilizers, such as Osmocote, can lead to plants is to combine a slowly available dry, granular fer-
premature breakdown of the pellets and high soluble tilizer (preplant) in the original mix, with a (postplant)
salt toxicity. liquid fertilizer applied at frequent intervals during the
An example of the slow-release, organic, low- growing season or with CRF added as top dressings, as
solubility type is urea-formaldehyde (UF), which will needed (49).
supply nitrogen slowly over a long period of time. Of the three major elements—nitrogen, phospho-
Another organic slow-release fertilizer is isobutylidene rus, and potassium—nitrogen has the most control on the
diurea (IBDU), which is a condensation product of amount of vegetative shoot growth. Phosphorus is very
urea and isobutylaldehyde, having 31 percent nitrogen. important, too, for root development, plant energy reac-
tions, and photosynthesis. Potassium is important for plant
Fertilizer Systems for Propagation Commercial
water relations and enhanced drought resistance (40).
propagators often apply moderate levels of controlled-
Nitrogen and potassium are usually supplied by
release macro and micro elements to the propagation
CRF or fertigation—100 to 80 ppm nitrogen and 50 to
media—preincorporated into the media—prior to
40 ppm potassium are optional container medium levels
sticking cuttings and starting seed germination and
when the Virginia Tech Extraction Method (VTEM) is
seedling plug production. During propagation, supple-
used (134).
mental fertilizer is added by top dressing (broadcasting)
Negatively charged ions, such as phosphorus,
with controlled-release fertilizer or by injecting gradu-
leach from soilless media, so small amounts of phos-
ally increasing concentrations of liquid fertilizer (fertiga-
phorus must be added to the media frequently. Past
tion). These supplementary nutrients do not promote
research indicates that 15 to 10 ppm phosphorus should
root initiation (30, 66) in cuttings, but rather enhance
be maintained in container medium as determined by
root development after root primordia initiation has
the saturated paste or VTEM (131, 132). Phosphorus
occurred. Hence, supplementary fertilization is gener-
from superphosphate leaches rapidly; so in order to
ally delayed until cuttings have begun to root.
maintain 10 ppm in the medium, CRF is used or small
Propagation turnover occurs more quickly and plant
amounts of phosphorus in soluble form are applied.
growth is maintained by producing rooted liners and
Calcium and magnesium are supplied as a preplant
plugs that are more nutritionally fit.
amendment in dolomitic limestone and may naturally
Some recommended levels of CRF for propaga-
be supplied by irrigation water. Limestone is primarily
tion are:
added to adjust the pH of the media. It is important to
• 3.6 kg/m3 (6 lb/yd3) 18-6-12 Osmocote (or compa- have the irrigation water checked to determine the level
rable product) of dolomitic limestone needed, if any. VTEM levels of
88
40 ppm calcium and 20 ppm magnesium in the con- tissue is generally sent off to plant laboratories for
tainer medium are adequate. nutrient analysis.
Although not itself detrimental to plant tissue,
so-called hard water contains relatively high amounts
MANAGEMENT OF of calcium and magnesium (as bicarbonates and sul-
MICROCLIMATIC CONDITIONS fates) and can be a problem in mist-propagating
IN PROPAGATION AND LINER units or in evaporative water cooling systems because
PRODUCTION deposits build up wherever evaporation occurs,
which reduces the photosynthetic levels of cuttings,
Water seedlings, and tissue culture plantlets. When hard
Quality (Salinity) of Irrigation Water Good water qual- water is run through a water softener, some types of
ity is essential for propagating quality plants (78). The exchange units replace the calcium and magnesium
salt tolerance of unrooted cuttings, germinating seeds, in the water with sodium ions. Misting and irrigat-
and tissue culture explants is much lower than that of ing with such soft, high-sodium water can injure
established plants, which can be grown under minor plant tissue.
irrigation salinity by modifying cultural conditions. A better, but more costly, method of improving
water quality The Water quality for prop- water quality is using deionization (DI). Water passes
amount of soluble salts agation is considered over an absorptive cation resin to filter positively
(salinity) in irrigation good when the electrical charged ions such as calcium and other ions in
water, which is conductivity (EC) read- exchange for hydrogen. For further deionization, the
measured with an ing is 0.75 mS (mil- water is passed through a second anion resin to filter
electrical conductivity lisiemens) per cm or dS out negatively charged ions such as carbonates, sulfates,
meter. (decisiemens) per m (less and chlorides in exchange for hydroxyl (OH) ions.
than 525 ppm total sol- Boron salts are not removed by deionization
uble salts in ppm), and the sodium absorption ratio units, and, if present in water in excess of 1 ppm, they
(SAR) is 5. Except for the most salt-tolerant plants, can cause plant injury. There is no satisfactory method
irrigation water with total soluble salts in excess of for removing excess boron from water. The best solu-
1,400 ppm (approximately 2 mS/cm) (ocean water tion is to acquire another water source and to use cus-
averages about 35,000 ppm) would be unsuitable for tomized non-boron-blended fertilizers.
propagation. Salts are combinations of such cations as Another good, but expensive, method for improv-
sodium, calcium, and magnesium with such anions as ing water quality is reverse osmosis (RO) (Fig. 28), a
sulfate, chloride, and bicarbonate. Water containing a process in which pressure applied to irrigation water
high proportion of sodium to calcium and magnesium forces it through a semipermeable membrane from a
can adversely affect the physical properties and water- more concentrated solution to a less concentrated solu-
absorption rates of propagation media and should not tion, eliminating unwanted salts from an otherwise
be used for irrigation purposes. It is prudent to have good water source. There are combination RO/DI
nursery irrigation water tested at least twice a year by a units, but they are cost-prohibitive for most propaga-
reputable laboratory that is prepared to evaluate all the tion systems.
elements in the water affecting plant growth. Most Municipal treatment of water supplies with chlo-
producers regularly monitor EC and pH of their irri- rine (0.1 to 0.6 ppm) is not sufficiently high to cause
gation water and container mix with inexpensive plant injury. However, the addition of fluoride to water
instruments. Some producers test and monitor their supplies at 1 ppm can cause leaf damage to a few tropi-
own container media nutrients, whereas plant leaf cal foliage plant species.

MEASURING SALINITY
Salinity levels from irrigation water, and from water Solubridge. Various portable meters for testing salinity, as
extracts of growing media (saturation-extract method) can well as soil and water testing kits, are available through
be measured by electrical conductivity (EC) using a commercial greenhouse supply companies.
89
(a) (b)
Figure 28
Good water quality is imperative for propagation.
(a) A reverse osmosis system is shown for removing
salts in commercial propagation. (b and c)
(c) Deionizing columns for removing salts.
When the water source is a pond, well, lake, or Practices (BMP),” is used in nursery and greenhouse
river, contamination by weed seeds, mosses, or algae production, and is being evaluated for general propaga-
can be a problem. Chemical contamination from tion in some nurseries.
drainage into the water source from herbicides applied
to adjoining fields or from excess fertilizers on crop The pH of Irrigation Water and Substrate Media The
fields can also damage nursery plants. Recycled water, pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions
which is discussed in the section “Best Management and can affect the rooting of cuttings, germination of

TREATING RECYCLED IRRIGATION WATER
Nurseries using recycled irrigation water (Fig. 29) should • Water can be treated with ultraviolet irradiation to
treat the water before use. A good procedure is to: reduce pathogens. Generally, all precipitate down to at
• Initially utilize aquatic plants in runoff catchment ponds least 20 µm is filtered out in order for UV light to be
to reduce pollutants and sediments reentering the recy- effective.
cling system (113, 133). • Recycled water is acidified (to lower the pH, if neces-
• Add chlorine or bromine to suppress algae and plant sary) and repumped into holding ponds with plastic
pathogens as water is pumped from the catchment pond. liners and weed-free perimeters.
• Use strainers to remove large debris, then run the water • Fresh well water is pumped into the holding pond and
through sand or mechanical filters with automatic back mixed with the recycled water. This allows for pumping
flushing to remove coarse particles and weed seed. from wells during the night to meet daily irrigation
needs and dilutes soluble salts of recycled water.
• Consider running the water through an activated char-
coal tank to remove soluble herbicides and other resid- • This water can then be used for field watering of con-
ual chemicals. tainer nursery plants and slow-release fertilizer incorpo-
rated into containers or soluble fertilizer injected into
• If the water has a high salt content, it can be improved
the irrigation system.
by the use of deionization or reverse osmosis, but the
processes are very expensive.
90
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (f )
(g) (h)
Figure 29
Systems for capturing, treating, and recycling irrigation water in commercial nurseries. (a and b) Irrigation water either
drains into or is (c) pumped into a holding pond. (d) Irrigation water is treated with chlorine (sodium hypochlorite solution
is one of the safest forms) as it is pumped from the holding pond into the irrigation lines system lines. (e) Filtration tanks
for removing weed seed and particulate-suspended matter down to 20 mm (this is important if irrigation water is to
be treated with ultraviolet light); some nurseries use tanks of activated charcoal to trap soluble herbicides and other
undesirable chemicals. (f) Ultraviolet treatment of irrigation water with a UVS Ultra Pure model 5000. Scoresby, Victoria,
Australia. (g) Bromination of water; some nurseries will inject acid at this point to lower water pH, if needed. (h) Monitoring
water leaving the water treatment facility for pH and soluble salts or electrical conductivity (EC).
91
seeds, and micropropagation of explants. Liner pro- Temperature Control

duction is also affected by pH influence on nutrient As indicated in earlier sections, temperature is modi-
availability and activity of beneficial microorganisms in fied by environmental controls in the propagation
the container medium. A pH range of 5.5 to 7.0 is best structure and the type of propagation system that is
for the growth of most plants (7.0 is neutral—below used. There is no environmental factor more critical
this level is acid and above is basic or alkaline). than optimal temperature control for propagation.
Nurseries may control carbonate problems by injecting Optimal seed germination, rooting of cuttings, devel-
sulfuric or phosphoric acid into the irrigation water opment of tissue culture plantlets, graft union forma-
supplies. Softwood bark and peat-based container tion, and specialized structure development are all
mixes are acid and will lower irrigation water pH. temperature-driven plant responses. Hot air convec-
Dolomitic limestone raises soil pH and is the primary tion, infrared radiation, and hot water distribution sys-
source of Ca and Mg in many propagation and liner tems are the three most viable ways to heat plants
mixes. While pH is important, alkalinity has a greater (Figs. 2 and 9). Of the three, hot water is the most
impact on water quality (133). flexible and commonly used system in propagation
houses (98). It allows efficient root zone heating in the
Water-Humidity Control form of bottom heat. Some examples include
Biotherm tubing and Delta tubes, which are used to
Good water management is important to limiting plant
maintain optimum propagation temperatures. A mist
stress. Care must be exercised to avoid overmisting and
system accelerates root development of cuttings under
overirrigation, because too much water can be just as
high light irradiance, by evaporative cooling, which
stressful as too little water. Root rots and damping-off
reduces the heat load on plant foliage. In fog systems,
organisms are favored by standing water and poor
the fog particles remain suspended and reduce the
media drainage conditions.
light intensity, while a zero-transpiration environment
Maintaining proper atmospheric humidity in the
is maintained, without the overwetting (condensation)
propagation house beds is important because low
that can occur with mist. Since only minimal conden-
humidity can increase transpiration and subject
sation occurs, leaf and media temperatures are warmer
unrooted cuttings and seedlings to water stress.
with fog than mist. In liner production, DIF systems
Adequate humidity allows optimum growth, whereas
(cooler days and warmer night temperature) produce
extreme humidity promotes fungal pathogen, moss,
more compact plants. This works well for seedling
and liverwort pests. Air always contains some
plugs, bedding plants, and greenhouse crops under
water vapor, but at any given temperature it can hold
controlled environmental conditions (55).
only a finite amount. When the physical limit is
reached, the air is saturated, and when it is exceeded,
condensation occurs (72). The unique physical prop- Light Manipulation
erties of water affect the propagation environment. The importance of light manipulation in propagation
When water is converted from a liquid to a gas (water (irradiance, photoperiod, quality) was discussed earlier
vapor), a large amount of thermal energy (540 cal/g) is in the chapter and is covered in greater detail in later
required. The cooling effect of mist irrigation results as chapters on seed and cutting propagation, micropropa-
heat is absorbed and the increased relative humidity gation, and specialized structure development and
minimizes plant transpiration. A heavy mist, which propagation. Light quality (which is commercially
condenses and forms droplets of water, should be manipulated through greenhouse spectral filters, green-
avoided because it leaches foliage of nutrients, satu- house coverings, and varying supplementary light
rates propagation media, and can promote disease sources) plays an important role in seed germination,
problems. and shoot development in macro- and micropropaga-
Current systems used to control water loss of tion (Fig. 11). Photoperiod can be manipulated to
plant leaves (74) are: delay bud dormancy and extend accelerated plant
1. Enclosure Systems: outdoor propagation under
growth. Photoperiod can be utilized not only to
low tunnels or cold frames, or nonmisted enclo-
sures in a glasshouse or polyhouse (shading, tent
and contact polyethylene systems, wet tents).
2. Intermittent Mist: open and enclosed mist systems.
3. Fogging Systems
92
enhance root initiation, but also to increase carbohy-

drate reserves of deciduous, rooted cuttings (liners) for
better winter survival and subsequent vigorous spring
growth (Fig. 14) (79).
Supplemental Photosynthetic Lighting in the Propaga-

tion House Plant growth in the winter in propagation
houses can be slow due to the lack of sufficient light for
photosynthesis, especially in the higher latitudes (19).
This is due to several reasons:
• Low number of daily light hours
• Low angle of the sun, resulting in more of the earth’s
atmosphere that the sun’s rays must penetrate
• Many cloudy and overcast days in the winter
• Shading by the greenhouse structure itself and dirt
accumulating on the poly or glass or other covering
materials
To overcome the problem of low natural winter
light and reduced plant growth, supplemental light
can be used over the plants (Fig. 14). The best light
source for greenhouse lighting is high-pressure
sodium vapor lamps. Most of the radiation from these
lamps is in the red and yellow wavelengths and is very
deficient in blue. However, when used in conjunction
with the natural daylight radiation, these lamps are
quite satisfactory.
The high-pressure sodium vapor lamps emit
more photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) for
each input watt of electricity than any other lamp that
is commercially available. Sodium vapor lamps are Figure 30
Components of accelerated growth techniques used in
long-lasting and degrade very slowly. They emit a con- speeding up vegetative and seed propagation in the
siderable amount of heat that can be a benefit in the production of marketable liners.
greenhouse in winter. They use a smaller fixture than
fluorescent lamps, thus avoiding the substantial shad-
ing effect from the fluorescent lamp fixture itself. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Enrichment
The installation should provide a minimum of about in the Propagation House
65 µmol m2 s–1 or 13 W/m2 PAR at the plant level Carbon dioxide is one of the required ingredients for the
with a 16-hour photoperiod. For large greenhouses, the basic photosynthetic process that accounts for the dry-
services of a lighting consultant should be used in weight materials produced by the plant (59, 87, 94):
designing the installation.
6H2O + 6CO2 + Light Energy>Chlorophyll :
In the future, expect to see greater use of light-
C6H12O6 + 6O2
emitting diodes (LED) (86) with spectral qualities
based on propagation needs under controlled environ- Ambient carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmos-
mental agriculture (CEA). The LED has no filament, phere is around 380 ppm. Sometimes the concen-
just a microchip, and is extremely energy-efficient. tration in winter in closed greenhouses may drop to
Photosynthetic lighting with high intensity dis- 200 ppm, or lower, during the sunlight hours, owing
charge lights (HID) in more overcast climates has to its use by plants (94). Under adequate light and tem-
greatly expanded the production window for cuttings perature, but when low CO2 concentration limits
and seed propagation. Supplementary lighting is an photosynthesis, a supplementary increase in CO2 con-
important component in accelerated growth tech- centration 1,000 to 2,400 ppm can result in a 200 per-
niques (AGT) in propagating plants (Fig. 30). cent increase in photosynthesis. To take full advantage of
93
this potential increase in dry-weight production, plant with high-pressure sodium vapor lamps and injection
spacing must avoid shading of overcrowded leaves. of CO2 gas into mist water are used to enhance seed
When supplementary CO2 is used during periods of germination, plug development, acclimation of tissue
sunny weather, the temperature in the greenhouse culture plantlets, and rooting of cuttings. The promo-
should be kept relatively high. Adding CO2 at night is of tive effects of AGT on rooting of Ilex aquifolium (holly)
no value. However, CO2 generators can be turned on cuttings has been attributed, in part, to enhanced
before dawn to increase photosynthesis early in the day. photosynthesis.
A tightly closed greenhouse is necessary to be able to
Modeling in Plant Propagation Closely linked to
increase the ambient CO2.
AGT is the modeling of propagation environments to
Sources of CO2 for greenhouses are either burners
determine optimal light, temperature, water, CO2, and
using kerosene, propane, or natural gas, or liquid CO2.
nutritional regimes (125, 126). Computer technology
Liquid CO2 is expensive but almost risk free. Kerosene
allows the propagator to monitor and program the
burners must use high-quality, low-sulfur kerosene or
propagation environment and adjust environmental
SO2 pollution can occur. With propane or natural gas,
conditions as needed through automated environmen-
incomplete combustion is possible—by-products
tal control systems (see Figs. 13, 14, and 15).
include carbon monoxide (dangerous to humans) and
ethylene (harmful to plants). The flames should be a
solid blue color. Monitoring of the CO2 level in the
greenhouse is very important. Accurate, inexpensive
BIOTIC FACTORS—PATHOGEN
sensors are available and should be used (Fig. 13). With AND PEST MANAGEMENT IN
the newer computer technology, sensors in different PLANT PROPAGATION
parts of the greenhouse can give excellent control of the
Pathogen and pest management begins prior to propa-
CO2 levels. Excessively high levels of CO2 in the green-
gation with the proper manipulation of stock plants or
house (over 5,000 ppm) can be dangerous to humans.
the container plants from which the propagules are har-
New tissue culture systems are utilizing high CO2
vested, as well as with management of propagation beds
enrichment and high light levels for autotrophic micro-
and media preparation. If pathogens and pests are not
propagation (65). The plantlets are cultured without
checked during propagation, an inferior plant is pro-
sugar in the culture medium as an energy and carbon
duced and later production phases for finishing and
source, and are stimulated by enriched atmospheric
selling the crop will be delayed, causing profit losses.
CO2 and elevated light irradiance to photosynthesize
Pests are broadly defined as all biological organ-
and become autotrophic. The CO2 is supplied either
isms (bacteria, viruses, viroids, phytoplasma, fungi,
directly to the tissue culture vessel or indirectly via
insects, mites, nematodes, weeds, parasitic higher
increased ambient CO2 to permeable culture ves-
plants, birds, and mammals) that interfere with plant
sels. Autotrophic micropropagation improves plantlet
production (57). Insect pests, such as aphids, mealy
growth and development, simplifies procedures, reduces
bugs, thrips, white flies, and fire ants, actively seek out
contamination, and lowers production costs.
the plant host by migrating (flying, walking). When an
infection can be spread from plant to plant, it is
Accelerated Growth Techniques (AGT) referred to as an infectious disease. Infectious plant dis-
The forestry industry developed accelerated growth sys- eases are caused by different pathogens (infectious
tems to speed up the production of liners from cutting agents), including pathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses,
and seed propagation. Woody perennial plants undergo viroids, and phytoplasma. Specific pathogens may
cyclic (episodic) growth, and many tree species experi- infect only certain plant species or cultivars, or specific
ence dormancy. Liners are grown in protective culture organs or tissue, which varies with the stage of develop-
facilities where photoperiod is extended and water, ment of the plant.
temperature, carbon dioxide, nutrition, mycorrhizal The pathogenic fungi most likely to cause disease
fungi, and growing media are optimized for each development during propagation are species of
woody species at different growth phases (Fig. 30). Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Cylindrocladium,
This concept is also being used in propagation Thielaviopsis, Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia, and Botrytis (27).
of horticultural crops where supplementary lighting These are all soil-borne or aerial organisms (Botrytis)
that infect plant roots, stems, crowns, or foliage. The
94
so-called damping-off commonly encountered in pest management programs with crews supervised by
seedbeds is caused by soil fungi, such as species of trained plant pathologists and entomologists (23). Such
Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium. programs involve the proactive prevention of plant dis-
Suppressing pathogens in propagation water is critical— eases and the avoidance of insects, mites, and weed
Phytophthora, Pythium, and Rhizoctonia are readily dis- problems. Serological test kits—ELISA (enzyme-linked
seminated in surface water. immunosorbent assays)—are commercially available to
Conversely, intermittent mist can wash off germi- propagators for the early detection of certain pathogens
nating fungal spores. Mist inhibits the spore germina- and viruses (88, 95). The user-friendly Alert Diagnostic
tion of powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa) on Kits can rapidly identify the damping-off organisms—
leaves of cuttings, and it may be that other disease Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora, and Botrytis (2).
organisms are held in check in the same manner.
However, mist propagation is highly conducive to dis- Integrated Pest Management
eases such as aerial Rhizoctonia blight, Cylindrocladium, in Plant Propagation
bacterial soft rots, and so on. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the most efficient,
A goal in propagation is to keep stock plants and most economical, most environmentally safe system for
propagules as clean and pest-free as possible and to sup- managing pests in propagation and liner production
press pathogenic fungi, viruses, nematodes, and weed systems. The components of IPM are divided into three
seed from the propagation media. Optimum pest man- management areas:
agement depends on a thorough knowledge of the pest
life cycle, as well as environmental conditions, cultural • Chemical
practices, and minimizing host plant stress—the root- • Biological
ing of a cutting and germination of a seed are vulnera- • Cultural
ble periods of plant growth. A stressed propagule is Total elimination of a pest is not always feasible—
much more susceptible to pest problems. The manage- nor is it biologically desirable if the process is environ-
ment of pests through integrated pest management mentally damaging or leads to new, more resistant pests
(IPM) is discussed in this section. and eliminates beneficial fungi and insects. In the pro-
duction of clean stock plants and propagules, pest-free
Preventive Measures plants may be a requirement, but this should be accom-
plished by using a variety of pest management methods
Cultivar Resistance Avoid producing crops that are
without an overdependence on just one method (i.e.,
susceptible to certain diseases and pests. A susceptible
solely using chemical control). Pest control differs from
crop means more time, chemicals, and money spent to
pest management in that an individual pest control
control the problem. In addition, the problem is passed
technique is used in isolation to eliminate a pest and all
on from the propagator to the consumer (3). By choos-
pest-related damage (57). Conversely, IPM uses as many
ing a resistant cultivar, efforts are concentrated on
management (control) methods as possible in a system-
propagating and producing the plant, rather than try-
atic program of suppressing pests (not necessarily anni-
ing to control the pest (i.e., propagate disease-resistant
hilating) to a commercially acceptable level, which is a
crab apple cultivars, rather than disease susceptible
more ecologically sound system.
Malus cultivars such as ‘Hopa’ and ‘Mary Potter’). In the
southern United States, Helleri hollies (Ilex ‘Helleri’) are Chemical Control in IPM Chemical control methods
plagued by southern red mites, root-knot nematodes, in IPM include the use of:
and black root rot—so why propagate them when
• Fumigation
other holly cultivars are more resistant (3)?
• Fungicides
Scouting System All propagators should practice pest • Insecticides
scouting. Early detection provides more effective pest IPM does not imply that no chemicals are used
and pathogen control with less reliance on pesticides. in the control of pests and pathogens. Rather, better-
Propagation houses should be scouted on a regular basis targeted control with less chemical usage occurs because
and all propagation employees trained to recognize and of the integration of additional biological and cultural
report disease and insect pests. Workers are the ones in management measures (109). IPM in propagation
daily contact with plants and are an invaluable resource means that actions must be thoughtfully considered and
for early detection. Some large nurseries have detailed
95
carried out in ways that will ensure favorable economic, moist (between 40 and 80 percent of field capacity) and
ecological, and sociological consequences (52, 93). at temperatures of 18 to 24°C (65 to 75°F) for satisfac-
In the treatment of seeds, bulbs, corms, tubers, tory results. Before using the mixture and after chemical
and roots, pesticides are sometime used in combination fumigation, allow a waiting period of 2 days to 2 weeks,
with cultural techniques, such as hot water soaks [43 to depending on the material, for dissipation of the fumes.
57°C (110 to 135°F)]. The hot water temperature and A problem with chemically sterile media is that there are
duration is dependent on the species and propagule type no competing microorganisms to limit the rapid recolo-
being treated. For many ornamental plants, to control nization of fungi and bacterium, which may create
decay and damping-off, seeds are treated with fungicidal media aeration and pest problems.
slurries or dusts of thiram, zineb, and so on. Seeds of
California poppy, and Strelitzia (bird of paradise) are Methyl Bromide (MB). MB is a highly effective fumi-
given hot water soaks to control pathogenic fungi, while gant for propagation. It is odorless, very volatile, and
Delphinium (larkspur) and Digitalis (foxglove) seeds are quite toxic to animals and humans. Because it con-
given a hot water soak and then dusted with thiram to tributes to the reduction of the earth’s ozone layer,
control anthracnose. Bulbs and corms of many species developing countries are limiting the use of MB with a
are treated for nematodes and pathogenic fungi with complete phase out in 2015. The U.S. EPA is currently
hot water soaks and/or chemical treatment. revising the reregistration of methyl bromide. The
When using pesticides, it is important that prop- USDA has a special web site on MB alternatives, includ-
agators follow the Worker Protection Standard ing methyl iodide and metam sodium (18), for agri-
(WPS) rules and regulations to reduce pesticide-related culture (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/np/mba/mebrhp.
illnesses and injuries (45). The WPS can complicate htm). It should be mixed with other materials and
many jobs in propagation. Scheduling has become applied only by those trained in its use. Most nema-
more critical so pesticide restricted entry intervals todes, insects, weed seeds, and fungi are killed by methyl
(REI) do not interfere with normal propagation assign- bromide. Methyl bromide is most often used by inject-
ments of workers. The United States Environmental ing the material from pressurized containers into an
Protection Agency (EPA) has a monthly updated bul- open vessel placed under a plastic sheet that covers the
letin that details WPS implementation information on soil to be treated (Fig. 31). The cover is sealed around
reentry rules and times; see their web site (www.epa. the edges with soil and should be kept in place for 48
gov/pesticides). hours. Penetration is very good and its effect extends to
a depth of about 30 cm (12 in).
Fumigation with Chemicals Chemical fumigation kills
organisms in the propagating mixes without disrupting Methyl Bromide and Chloropicrin Mixtures.
the physical and chemical characteristics of the mixes, to Proprietary materials are available that contain both
the extent occurring with heat treatments. (In all cases, methyl bromide and chloropicrin. Such combinations are
recommendations on pesticide labels must be followed more effective than either material alone in controlling
to conform to permitted usages.) The mixes should be weeds, insects, nematodes, and soil-borne pathogens. The

IPM IN THE CULTURAL CONTROL OF APHIDS
An example of IPM is the cultural control of aphids in small, other biorational products can be used such as
propagation by installing microscreening that covers insecticidal soap (M-Pede), horticultural oils (UltraFine
vents and doorways of a propagation house, thereby SunSpray spray oil), botanical insecticides such as neem
reducing the movement of insects and the need for (Azatin and Margosan-O), and natural pyrethrums. Insect
insecticides (48). Early detection of winged aphids with growth regulators such as kinoprene (Enstar II) and
yellow sticky cards that are hung in the propagation methoprene give safe, effective control of immature
house can alert personnel to monitor plants near cards aphids. For large populations of aphids that were not
for the presence of wingless females. The option to use detected early enough, chemical control with traditional
biological control is possible with an efficient scouting pesticides are sometimes used, such as diazinon, bendio-
system that detects controllable, low aphid levels. A ben- carb, methiocarb, acephate; or the synthetic pyrethroids,
eficial midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, has been used to such as fluvalinate (Mavrik), bifenthrin (Talstar), and fen-
biologically control aphid colonies. If the aphid colony is propathrin (Tame) (48).
96
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 31
Chemical and heat treatment of propagation mixes. (a) Methyl bromide (MB) being applied to propagation medium. (b) Methyl
bromide is injected into media covered with poly. (c) Methyl bromide is extremely toxic; during soil treatment it is important to
use warning signs and restrict the movement of personnel. (d, e, and f) Heat pasteurization with aerated steam.
addition of chloropicrin (tear gas) to methyl bromide was be applied either to media or to the plants. Preferably, a
primarily so that humans could detect gas leaks and evac- wetting agent should be added to the chemicals before
uate before being poisoned by methyl bromide. Aeration application. It is very important when using such
for 10 to 14 days is required following applications of chemicals to read and follow the manufacturer’s direc-
methyl bromide-chloropicrin mixtures. tions and prepare dilutions carefully, and to try the
chemicals on a limited number of plants before going
Fungicidal Soil Drenches. Fungicidal soil drenches to large-scale applications. As with insect pests,
can be applied to the container media in which young pathogens can build up resistance to fungicides, so it is
plants are growing or are to be grown to suppress important to rotate fungicides and use mixtures with
growth of many soil-borne fungi. These materials may good residual action (63).

MINOR-USE CHEMICALS
Chemicals used in propagation and horticulture are con- agricultural chemicals are currently at risk, and another
sidered minor use, as opposed to pesticides used for 2,600 newly sought minor uses may never come to
large commodity crops such as cotton, soybean, corn, fruition because of the 1988 Federal Insecticide,
and others. The cost for chemical companies to develop Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (38) (see http://
new or to reregister specialty or minor-use chemicals is www.epa.gov/oecaagct/lfra.html).
often prohibitive. Hence, more than 1,000 minor uses of
97
Examples of fungicidal drench materials are to increased mite and insect resistance to pesticides, the fact
Quintozene (PCNB, Terraclor), which controls that biological control can be cheaper and more effective
Rhizoctonia, Sclerotina, and Sclerotium. Etridiazole than chemical control (i.e., two-spotted mite is effectively
(Terrazole, Truban) are incorporated into the propagat- controlled by the Chilean predatory mite), increasing
ing medium, which suppresses the water molds concern for environmental issues (contamination of
Pythium and Phytophthora. Banrot is a broad-spectrum groundwater, etc.), and worker safety (i.e., reentry times
fungicide that suppresses the damping-off organisms of of workers after pesticide application, etc.). In the United
Pythium, Phytophthora, and Rhizoctonia, as well as States, there is the Association of Natural Biocontrol
Fusarium and Thielaviopsis. Subdue and Heritage are Producers (ANBP; www.anbp.org) for the production
some of the systemic fungicides used in propagation for and utilization of beneficial insects and organisms.
control of root rots and foliar pathogens (27). In propagation, the bacterium Bacillus thuringien-
Propagators are adapting IPM systems—utilizing sis (BT) infects and controls most caterpillars and fungal
disease-free propagules, clean propagation media, disin- gnat larvae but has little effect on other insects or the
festing propagation facilities and incorporating beneficial environment. Strains of this naturally occurring bac-
rhizosphere organisms such as mycorrhiza; hence fungi- terium have been formulated into the biological control
cidal sprays are applied only as needed and not as weekly insecticides Dipel, Thuricide, Bactospeine, and so on.
preventive sprays (32). Some propagators dip the bottom Biofungicides are preventive, rather than cura-
5 cm (2 in) of cuttings into Zerotol (hydrogen dioxide) to tive, and must be applied or incorporated before dis-
disinfect cuttings of potential pathogens; cuttings are ease onset to work properly. For example, the beneficial
then quick-dipped into auxin solutions for rooting (100). fungus Trichoderma virens (Soil-Gard) comes in an
easy-to-apply granular form that is added to the pro-
Insecticidal Sprays and Drenches. An example of insec-
pagation media. It has been cleared by the EPA for
ticidal spray and drench usage is in the control of fire
biological control of Rhizoctonia colani and Pythium
ants, which are a major pest in the southern United
ultimum, which are two of the principal pathogens
States. The USDA implemented the Imported Fire Ant
causing damping-off diseases (31). Mycostop, a strain
Quarantine and Imported Fire Ant Free Nursery pro-
of Streptomyces bacteria isolated from Finnish peat, is
gram in 1958 to prevent the spread of fire ants, which
used in propagation as a drench; dip for transplants,
infest twelve southern and western states and Puerto
seeds, and cuttings; or as a foliar spray. It controls
Rico. The ants are spread easily by accidentally shipping
Fusarium, Alternaria, and Phomopsis, and suppresses
them with nursery stock and small liner plants. The ants
Botrytis, Pythium, and Phytophthora (2, 63).
do not directly harm plants and propagules (they will
As higher plants have evolved, so have beneficial
tend plants with aphids, and harvest the honeydew of
below-ground organisms interacting with the plant
the aphids from the plants’ leaves)—but they do damage
root system (the plant rhizosphere The zone
land and livestock, have killed people, and are a nuisance
rhizosphere). Examples of soil immediately
to propagation workers and the public. For short-term,
of this include symbiotic adjacent to plant roots
small-container crops, such as liners, producers will
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, in which the kinds,
drench plant containers with Dursban, Talstar 10WP, and
which are important for numbers, or activities
Diazinon (in certain states). For propagation mixes and
leguminous plants, and of microorganisms
large-container crops, producers use soil-incorporated
selected nematodes that differ from that of the
granular insecticide, such as Talstar and Dursban (22).
control fungal gnats (i.e., bulk soil.
Chemical baits are also effective for long-term fire ant
X-Gnat from Biosys).
control, but are slower acting than spray/drench appli-
The nematodes come in water-dispersible granules, are
cations; see the fire ant web site for the latest recommen-
applied with overhead irrigation equipment, and attack
dations (http://fireant.tamu.edu).
gnats in the larval stage in the container medium. It is
Biological Control in IPM Biological control in IPM well known that beneficial mycorrhizal fungi (which
includes: naturally colonize the root systems of most major horti-
culture, forestry, and agronomic plants) can increase
• Predator insects and mites
plant disease resistance and help alleviate plant stress by
• Beneficial nematodes
enhancing the host plant water and nutrient uptake
• Beneficial fungi and bacteria
(32, 73). Mycorrhizae can also benefit propagation of
More and more insect pests and pathogens are cuttings, seedlings, and transplanting of liner plants
being managed by biological methods. This is due in part (25, 33, 34, 110).
98
The use of biocontrol agents (beneficial bacteria, Cultural control in IPM includes:
actinomycetes, or fungi living and functioning on or
• Stock plant management
near roots in the rhizosphere soil) to control plant
• Media pasteurization
pathogens in propagation is gradually occuring (73).
• Sanitation
These beneficial microorganisms suppress fungal root
pathogens by antibiosis (production of antibiotic Suppressing pathogens in propagation water is
chemicals), by parasitism (direct attack and killing of critical, since Phytophthora, Pythium, and Rhizoctonia
pathogen hyphae or spores), or by competing with the are readily disseminated in surface water. Checking
pathogen for space or nutrients, sometimes by pro- pathogens starts with the initial removal of suspended
ducing chemicals such as siderophores, which bind silt and solids, which can tie up chemicals being used
nutrients (such as iron) needed by the pathogen for its to treat the water supply, a task most commonly
disease-causing activities. The inhibitory capacity of accomplished by using a sand filterUltraviolet light
these biocontrol antagonists increases in the presence of irradiation is a nonchemical method of controlling
mycorrhizal fungi, and in the absence of plant pathogens pathogens, but water needs to be free of turbidity (sus-
there is a stimulation of plant growth by bacterial pended materials) that will shield some of the
antagonists; somehow these bacteria stimulate plant pathogens from the UV (Fig. 29). The most com-
growth, but the mechanism is not known. Perhaps in monly used chemical treatments of irrigation water are
the future, plant protection during propagation will be with chlorination or bromination; one Australian
done by inoculation of bacteria or combinations of nursery aims for a 4 ppm residual chlorine at the dis-
bacteria with mycorrhizal fungi, which come closest charge of the irrigation water. They use a swimming
to simulating natural conditions of the plant rhizosphere pool chlorine test kit (15), such as easy-to-use,
(73). For some commercial nurseries, incorporating myc- portable DPD color-indicator test kits (13). Current
orrhizal fungi during propagation is now standard pro- recommendations for chlorinated irrigation systems is
cedure (32). to maintain a free chlorine level of 2 ppm (2 mg/liter)
to kill Phythiaceae pathogens, and to increase the con-
Cultural Control in IPM Cultural management con-
tact time to kill Fusarium and Rhizoctonia (20). A “free
tinues to become more important in modern propaga-
chlorine” level of 2.9 ppm is generally considered safe
tion systems with the loss of minor-use chemicals. In
for most plants (106).
propagation, cultural control begins with the preplant
Selectrocide (chlorine dioxide) is also used for the
treatment of soil mixes to suppress pathogens and pests.
control of algae and other microbial pests in green-
Other cultural control techniques include:
house propagation irrrigation lines (68).
• sanitizing of propagation facilities
Preplanting Treatments of Mixes—Heat Treatment of
• suppressing pathogens and insect pests of stock blocks
Propagation and Liner Media Various Replanting
• harvesting cuttings from stock blocks or container-
Treatments of Mixes are Categorized as Follows
ized plants that are nutritionally fit and not drought
stressed Pasteurization of Propagation Media. Propagation
• providing good water drainage to reduce the poten- mixes such as bark, sand, and peat moss (14, 24) can
tial of Phytophthora root rot and other damping-off contain pathogens and, ideally, should be pasteurized.
organisms The containers (bins, flats, pots) for such pasteurized
• reducing humidity to control Botrytis mixes should, of course, have been treated to eliminate
• minimizing the spread of pathogens by quickly dispos- pathogens. Never put pasteurized mixes into dirty con-
ing of diseased plants from the propagation area, and tainers. New materials such as vermiculite, perlite,
• hardening-off established propagules (96). pumice, and rockwool, which have been heat-treated

BENEFICIAL TRICHODERMA FUNGI
Trichoderma fungal species, which have plant growth- chrysanthemum cuttings, possibly by producing growth-
enhancing effects, independent of their biocontrol of root regulating substances (76).
pathogens, have been reported to enhance the rooting of
99
during their manufacture, need not be pasteurized houses (80, 84). Ideally, sanitation strategies should be
unless they are reused. considered even in the construction phase of propaga-
Although the term soil sterilization has been com- tion structures (92).
monly used, a more desirable process is pasteurization, Harmful pathogens and other pests are best man-
since the recommended heating processes do not kill all aged by dealing with the three situations where they
organisms (Fig. 31). True sterilization would require can enter and become a problem during propagation
heating the propagation media to a minimum tempera- procedures:
ture of 100°C (212°F) for a sufficient period to kill all
• The propagation facilities: propagating room, con-
pests and pathogenic organisms; all beneficial rhizos-
tainers, pots, flats, knives, shears, working surfaces,
phere organisms are also killed by the process.
hoses, greenhouse benches, and the like
Pasteurization of propagation media at lower tempera-
• The propagation media: rooting and growing mixes
tures with aerated steam is generally preferable to fumi-
for cuttings, seedlings, and tissue culture plantlets
gation with chemicals.
• The stock plant material: seeds, cutting material,
After treatment with steam, the medium can be
scion, stock material for grafting, and tissue culture
used much sooner. Steam is nonselective for pests,
whereas chemicals may be selective. Aerated steam,
when properly used, is much less dangerous to use
than fumigant chemicals, for both plants and the oper-
ator. Chemicals do not vaporize well at low tempera-
tures, but steam pasteurization can be used for cold,
wet media.
Moist heat can be injected directly into the soil in
covered bins or benches from perforated pipes placed 15
to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) below the surface. In heating the
soil, which should be moist but not wet, a temperature
of 82°C (180°F) for 30 minutes has been a standard rec-
ommendation because this procedure kills most harm-
ful bacteria and fungi as well as nematodes, insects, and
most weed seeds, as indicated in Figure 32. However, a
lower temperature, such as 60°C (140°F) for 30 min-
utes, is more desirable since it kills pathogens but leaves
many beneficial organisms that prevent explosive
growth of harmful organisms if recontamination occurs.
The lower temperature also tends to avoid toxicity prob-
lems, such as the release of excess ammonia and nitrite,
as well as manganese injury, which can occur at high
steam temperatures.
Electric Heat Pasteurizers. are in use for amounts of
soil up to 0.4 m3 (0.5 yd3). Microwave ovens can be
used effectively for small quantities of soil. They do not
have the undesirable drying effect of conventional oven
heating and will kill insects, disease organisms, weed
seed, and nematodes.
Sanitation in Propagation In recent years, the impor-
tance of sanitation during propagation and growing has
become widely recognized as an essential part of nursery
operations. During propagation, losses of young
seedlings, rooted cuttings, tissue-cultured rooted plants,
Figure 32
and grafted nursery plants to various pathogens and Soil temperatures required to kill weed seeds, insects,
insect pests can sometimes be devastating, especially and various plant pathogens. Temperatures given are for
under the warm, humid conditions found in propagation 30 minutes under moist conditions.
100
(a) (b)
Figure 16
Low polyethylene tunnel or sun tunnel that is covered with
polyethylene. (a) Sometimes a white poly material is used to
avoid the higher temperature buildup and temperature
fluctuation of clear poly. Propagation flats are placed on top
of hot-water tubing or electric heating cables (b) Saran
shade cloth can be used to cover the poly to reduce the
heat load. (c) Winterization of sun tunnels can be done with
white microfoam insulation covered with a clear poly or
(c) opaque poly (see arrow).
the light transmission of glass. Polycarbonate has high The economics of using these greenhouse cover-
impact strength—about 200 times that of glass. It is ing materials must be considered carefully before a
lightweight, about one-sixth that of glass, making it decision is made. New materials are continually com-
easy to install. Polycarbonate’s textured surface diffuses ing onto the market.
light and reduces condensation drip. It is available in
twin-wall construction, which gives good insulation Closed-Case Propagation Systems
properties. Polycarbonate can be cut, sawn, drilled, or
Hot Frames (Hotbeds) and Heated Sun Tunnels The
nailed, and is much more user-friendly than acrylic,
hot frame (hotbed) is a small, low structure used
which can shatter if nails or screws are driven into it. It
for many of the same hot frames (hotbeds)
is UV stabilized and will resist long outdoor exposure
purposes as a propagation Propagation structures
(some polycarbonates are guaranteed for ten years), but
house. Traditionally, the that are covered with
will eventually yellow with age (11, 90).
hotbed is a large wooden poly and heated in the
Fiberglass. Rigid panels, corrugated or flat, of polyester box or frame with a slop- winter.
resin reinforced with fiberglass have been widely used for ing, tight-fitting lid made
greenhouse construction. This material is strong, long- of window sash. Hotbeds can be used throughout the
lasting, lightweight, and easily applied, and comes in a year, except in areas with severe winters where their use
variety of dimensions (width, length, and thickness), but may be restricted to spring, summer, and fall. Another
is not as permanent as glass. Only the clear material— form of a hotbed is a heated, low polyethylene tunnel
especially made for greenhouses and in a thickness of or sun tunnel that is made from hooped metal tubing or
0.096 cm (0.038 in) or more and weighing 4 to 5 oz per bent PVC pipe, which is covered with polyethylene
square foot—should be used. New material transmits (sometimes a white poly material is used to avoid the
about 80 to 90 percent of the available light, but light higher temperature buildup and temperature fluctuations
transmission decreases over the years due to yellowing, of clear poly) (Fig. 16).
which is a serious problem. Since fiberglass burns rapidly, Traditionally, the size of the frame conforms to
an entire greenhouse may quickly be consumed by fire, so the size of the glass sash available—a standard size is 0.9
insurance costs can be higher. Fiberglass is more expensive by 1.8 m (3 by 6 ft) (Fig. 17). If polyethylene is used as
than polyethylene, and is not as widely used as it once was. the covering, any convenient dimensions can be
71
other equipment used in propagation should be sterilized with a bacterium, there is no effective control other than
periodically during the day by dipping in a disinfectant rouging-outand destroying the plant propagule.
such as Physan or Zerotol.
Mist propagating and growing areas in green- Best Management Practices (BMP)
houses, cold frames, and lathhouses should be kept
To a very limited degree, through some improper pesti-
clean, and diseased and dead plant debris should be
cide usage and inefficient irrigation and fertility sys-
removed daily. Water to be used for misting should
tems, the nursery and greenhouse industries have been
be free of pathogens. Water from ponds or reservoirs to
nonpoint source polluters of the environment. As a
be used for propagation purposes should be chlorinated
whole, the horticultural industries are good stewards of
to kill algae and pathogens. Proper chlorination will
the environment. The environmentally friendly plants
control Phytophthora and Pythium in irrigation water
they produce are critical to the well-being, nutrition,
and can help reduce the cost of preventive fungicide
and welfare of people, and are vital to enhancing the
programs (13, 20, 28).
environment (reduced air and noise pollution, reduced
Maintaining Clean Plant Material. In selecting prop- heat loads around houses and urban areas, which lower
agating material, use only seed and those source plants utility cooling bills, adding O2 to the air, and con-
that are disease- and insect-free. Some nurseries main- tributing to the abatement of current high global CO2
tain stock plant blocks, which are kept meticulously conditions, etc.).
“clean.” However, stock plants of particularly disease- With the increased environmental regulations
prone plants, such as Euonymus, might well be sprayed facing plant propagators and as an offshoot of integrated
with a suitable fungicide several days before cuttings are pest management programs, the development of Best
taken. Drenches of fungicides and/or Agribrom (oxidiz- Management Practices or BMP has occurred (61, 133).
ing biocide) are sometimes applied to stock plants in the To help preserve the environment and head off addi-
greenhouse prior to selecting explants for tissue culture. tional state and federal regulation, BMP are being
It is best to select cutting material from the upper developed by the nursery industry, governmental agen-
portion of stock plants rather than from near the cies, and universities. Plans are for the nursery and
ground where the plant tissue could possibly be con- greenhouse industries to self-regulate by adapting BMP,
taminated with soil pathogens. As cutting material is which many propagators have already been practicing
being collected, it should be placed in new plastic bags. for years. The above list of the ten best management
After the cuttings have been made and before practices applies to nursery propagation and liner pro-
sticking them in flats, they can be dipped in a dilute duction systems. To date, recycled water is generally
bleach solution, or treated with Zerotol, Agribrom, not used to propagate plants (liners and container
Physan 20, or various fungicides for broad-spectrum plants are irrigated with recycled water mixed with
control of damping-off organisms—before any auxin purer well or surface collected water), but, in the future
treatment. One Oregon nursery disinfects Rhodo- with the scarcity of irrigation water and increased
dendron cuttings with Consan, followed by washing urban population pressure to use limited water sup-
in chlorinated water (46). Agri-strep (agricultural plies, more nurseries will have to develop propagation
streptomycin) helps suppress bacterial problems, and systems that utilize recycled water. Recycled water can
one biological control, Agrobacterium spp., helps present considerable challenges, since high salinity,
prevent crown gall of hardwood rose cuttings (31). trace levels of herbicides, pesticides, and pathogens
However, once a cutting or seedling becomes infected such as Phytophthora can occur (Fig. 29).

THE USE OF CHLORINE IN PROPAGATION
Chlorine can be used as a sterilant, which destroys all Chlorine, in the form of laundry bleach (Clorox, etc.), is one
organisms, and as a disinfectant, which selectively of the most affordable and readily available chemicals (36).
destroys pests (70). When chlorine is used as a pesticide, it Chlorine is used to sterilize greenhouse benches, floors,
prevents pests from entering the propagation environment and other surfaces in the propagation area. Chlorination is
and minimizes the need for more toxic pesticides. Pest being increasingly used in recycled irrigation water for con-
reduction or elimination is a cornerstone of IPM programs. trolling pathogenic fungi, algae, and other pests.
102
Chlorine is available as: propagules uses up available chlorine more rapidly than
a. a gas (Cl2), which is liquefied in pressurized metal con- a clean solution
tainers and bubbled as a gas into water, but Cl2 gas is d. water temperature
very toxic and its corrosive nature makes it very haz- e. pathogen growth stage—chlorine kills fungal mycelium
ardous to handle on contact but is not systemic so fungal spores and
b. calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2] is used for domestic pathogens embedded in roots and walls of Styrofoam
water treatment and is commercially available as granu- containers are much more difficult to kill; soaking mate-
lated powder, large tablets, or liquid solutions; and rials before treating with bleach allows spores to germi-
c. sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), the active ingredient of nate and mycelia to grow, making pathogens easier to
household bleach, which is the most common form of kill, and
chlorine used in propagation. When a continuous sup- f. a pH—around 6.5 is most effective, (70). At pH 6.0 to
ply of chlorinated water is needed, concentrated solu- 7.5 total chlorine is predominately in the form of
tions of sodium or calcium hypochlorite are injected. hypochlorous acid (strong sanitizer), whereas at pH 7.5
Chlorine injectors must be installed with an approved and above, hypoclorite is dominant, which is a weak,
check-valve arrangement to prevent back flow into the ineffective sanitizer.
fresh water system (13, 70). Bleach solutions are gener- For successful chlorination, clean the container, bed,
ally calculated as percent bleach or percent sodium and propagule materials prior to chlorinating, monitor the
hypochlorite; but these are not the same, since a 10 per- chlorine solution, and ventilate the work area. Dilute chlo-
cent bleach solution (which contains one part bleach to rine solutions irritate skin and chlorine vaporization irritates
nine parts water) is 10 percent of 5.25 percent sodium eyes, nose, and throat. It is important that propagation
hypochlorite or equivalent to 0.52 percent sodium managers know the legal exposure limits (OSHA) that
hypochlorite. Household bleach is commonly used as a workers can be exposed to chlorine.
disinfectant by diluting one part bleach to nine parts There are some environmental concerns about the use
water. of bleach as a disinfectant to surface disinfect cuttings and
Many chemicals, as well as organic residue from plants for the sterilization of tools and propagation work sur-
and propagation medium, react with chlorine and reduce faces. The hypochlorite ion from bleach attaches to
its effectiveness. Enough chlorine must be added to pro- organic compounds in the soil and forms very stable chlo-
duce an effective concentration of “free residual” chlorine rinated organic compounds. These compounds can be
(Fig. 34). Factors affecting chlorine activity include: taken up by plant roots, get into the food chain, and may
bioaccumulate in the body fat of animals and humans (80).
a. concentration—water treatment requires around 2 ppm
An alternative disinfectant for propagation is hydrogen
free residual chlorine (20), and the bleaching of propa-
peroxide (H2O2). It can be used as a sterilant for both
gation benches and containers requires a 10 percent
fungi and bacteria, has no toxic by-products (it breaks
bleach solution or 5,250 ppm
down to water and oxygen), and it has no residual effect in
b. exposure time water or soil. Hydrogen peroxide can be purchased in bulk
c. organic matter—contaminated water containing resid- form (35 percent concentration rate). A recommended
ual from soaking propagation containers or dipping rate for surface disinfestation of plant material is 1 part
Figure 34
Many substances combine with
chlorine to reduce its activity in
solution, thus enough must be
added to produce an effective
concentration of “free residual”
chlorine (70).
(Continued )
103
H2O2 (35 percent) to 100 parts water (80). Clorox (bleach) than hydrogen peroxide, and with the dilute bleach solu-
was found to be superior to hydrogen peroxide, tions typically used in propagation, there should be little if
Agrimycin 17 (agricultural streptomycin), or rubbing alco- any chlorine residual in tank solutions that are allowed to
hol (isopropyl) in preventing the transmission of fire blight sit for several days (70). To be environmentally safe before
bacteria in pear trees (116). discharging spent chlorinated water, test kits should be
Chlorine will continue to be used as an important dis- used to monitor residual chlorine levels, and local water
infectant in propagation. Bleach is considerably cheaper quality officials can also be contacted.
POST-PROPAGATION CARE Handling Container-Grown Plants

OF LINERS Irrigation Watering of container nursery stock is a
major expense and environmental concern. In most
Hardening-Off Liner Plants operations, overhead sprinklers (i.e., Rainbird-type
Hardening-off or acclimating rooted propagules, impact sprinklers) are used, although much runoff
seedlings, and tissue culture plantlets is critical for waste occurs. Watering of container plants by trickle, drip
plant survival and growth. In commercial produc- irrigation or low-volume emitters, results in less waste
tion, it assures a smooth transition and efficient (121), and is becoming more widely used, particularly
turnover of plant product from propagation to liner with plants produced in larger containers (Figs. 25 and
production (Fig. 21) to finished plants in protected 35). The development of solid-state soil tensiometers for
culture (greenhouses, etc.) or containerization and the computer control of irrigation systems of con-
field production. This smooth transition and tainerized plants may help to increase water use effi-
turnover of plant production units is essential in the ciencies and decrease off-site pollution from runoff
marketing, sales, and profitability of plant manufac- (17).
turing companies. As part of Best Management Practices (BMP),
It is important to wean rooted cuttings from the many nurseries are switching to computer-controlled
mist system as quickly as possible (29). Reduction of cyclic or interval irrigation (pulse irrigation) with
irrigation and fertility in seedlings and plugs is done impact sprinklers. Rather than manually turning on
several weeks prior to shipping and/or transplanting valves to run irrigation for 60 minutes, an environmental-
to harden-off and ensure survival of the crop. control computer is programmed to precisely run the
Likewise, with acclimation of tissue culture-produced irrigation system three times daily at 5 to 10 minutes
plantlets, light irradiance is increased and relative per cycle (123). Since most water is absorbed by the
humidity is gradually reduced to stimulate the plant- containers within the first 5 minutes, cyclic or pulse
let to increase photosynthetic rates and have better irrigation uses less water, greatly reduces water and fer-
stomatal control. All of these ensure plant survival tility runoff, and lowers the amount of fertilizer needed
and a speedy transition when the acclimatized plant is in the fertigation system.
shifted up and finished-off as a container or field Flood floor systems for producing containerized
crop. plants and stock-plants for cuttings was discussed ear-
lier in this chapter (Fig. 8).

NURSERY BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMP) (133)
• Collect runoff water when injecting fertilizer. • Monitor quantity of irrigation applied to prevent over-
• Do not broadcast fertilizer on spaced containers. watering.
• Do not top-dress fertilizer on containers prone to blow • Maintain minimal spacing between containers receiving
over. overhead irrigation.
• Water and fertilize according to plant needs. • Use low-volume irrigation for containers larger than
26 liter (7 gallon).
• Group plants in a nursery according to water and fertil-
izer needs to minimize runoff. • Recycle runoff water
104
(a) (b)
Figure 35
Automatic watering system
for container-grown plants.
(a) Overhead sprinkler
irrigation system for
container crops. (b) Trickle
irrigation can efficiently
irrigate container plants with
less water than overhead
sprinkler irrigation systems.
(c and d) Automated irrigation
triggered by electronic eye
(arrow) that turns on water as
plants pass by on overhead
(c) (d) conveyor system.
Fertilization Fertilizer solutions are usually injected which is a latex-based paint containing copper hydroxide
into the irrigation system (fertigation) in commercial and a special formulated carrier (Figs. 23 and 25) that
nurseries. Fertilizer may be supplied solely in con- enhances root absorption of copper and temporarily
trolled-release forms (Osmocote, Phycote, Nutricote, inhibits root elongation (115), or containers can have
Polyon, etc.), or used in combination with fertigation. special wall modifications as a means to reduce or pre-
After the container stock leaves the wholesale nursery, vent root circling during liner production and later con-
the retailer should maintain the stock with adequate tainer production. As shown in Figure 36, plants not
irrigation until the plants have been purchased by the properly air root-pruned or that are kept in containers
consumer. Controlled-release fertilizers added to con- too long will form an undesirable constricted root sys-
tainers leave a residual fertilizer supply (most retailers tem from which they may never recover when planted
do not add supplementary fertilizer), and help main- in their permanent location. The plants should be
tain the plants until they are purchased by the con- shifted to larger containers before such “root spiraling”
sumer and planted in the landscape. occurs.
The Ohio Production System (OPS), a system
Root Development in Containerized for rapidly producing container-grown shade trees
Plants (whips) in 1 year, compared with 3 years, also relies on
When trees and shrubs from seedlings or rooted cut- copper-treated containers to control root growth. This
tings are grown in containers, roots often begin to circle eliminates or greatly reduces the need to root-prune
on the outside of the rootball against the slick, smooth when plants are upcanned to larger containers (114).
plastic container walls. If not mechanically controlled Using bottomless propagation and liner pots to
when the trees or shrubs are transplanted, circling roots “air prune” roots, judicious root pruning, early trans-
may enlarge to the point of stressing or killing the plant planting, and careful potting during the early transplant-
by girdling (1). Internal walls of containers can be ing stages can do much to encourage the development of
coated with copper compounds such as Spin Out, a good root system by the time the young plant is ready
105
(a) (b)
Figure 36
One disadvantage of growing trees and shrubs in containers is the possibility of producing poorly shaped root systems.
(a) Here a defective, twisted root system resulted from holding the young nursery tree too long in a container before
transplanting. (b) Such spiraling roots retain this shape after planting and unacceptable tree growth occurs. This is
avoided by proper root training, beginning with air-root pruning seed flats during propagation.
for transfer to its permanent location. Plastic containers rior walls are treated with copper to reduce root cir-
with vertical grooves along the sides tend to prevent hor- cling. The in-ground container system is a single con-
izontal spiraling of the roots (Figs. 20 and 22). tainer (unlike the pot-in-pot system) with rows of
small holes along the container sides and bottom to
Alternatives to Traditional Production enhance drainage.
Systems In-ground fabric containers or grow bags are flexi-
Several in-ground alternatives to container produc- ble, synthetic bags, which are filled with mineral soil
tion in the field and conventional field production of and placed in predug holes in the field. The synthetic
bare-root and B & B (balled-in-burlap) trees and woven material of the bags limits most root penetration,
shrubs have been developed, including (a) the pot-in- and directs root growth to occur within the bag [more
pot system (43), in which a container is inserted into than 90 percent of the root system of conventional bare-
an in-ground plastic sleeve container, and (b) in- root and balled and burlapped (B & B) plants are lost
ground fabric containers (grow bags) (see Fig. 25). during digging]. Since the bag is placed in the ground,
Each of these methods can influence directional root there is greater insulation of the root system against high
development (1). The pot-in-pot, in-ground system and low temperatures (versus above-ground container-
involves sinking an outer or sleeve pot into the ized crops), and the bag can be pulled out of the field,
ground and inserting a second pot, which is the pro- potentially reducing labor cost of traditional field tech-
duction pot that is harvested with the plant. The pro- niques (101). This system does not work with all
duction container may have vertical ribs, or the inte- species, but has merits.
DISCUSSION ITEMS
1. What are some fundamental microclimatic and 5. Compare and contrast analog and computerized
edaphic factors in the propagation environment? environmental controls of greenhouse propagation
2. How is light measured, and how is light manipu- facilities.
lated in plant propagation? 6. What are some of the more popular covering
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of dif- materials for propagation houses?
ferent types of plant propagation structures. 7. What is closed-case propagation?
4. How does root zone heating save energy costs in 8. What kinds of containers are used for propagation
propagation houses and enhance the rooting of and growing young liner plants?
cuttings?
106
9. Why is mineral soil rarely used in propagation and 15. Compare the broad definition of “pests” with
production of containerized plants? insect pests.
10. Compare organic and inorganic media compo- 16. What are “damping-off ” pathogenic fungi? Give
nents used for propagation. What are peat-lite examples and indicate how they are disseminated.
mixes? 17. How can integrated pest management (IPM) be
11. How are pre-plant (preincorporated) and post- utilized in propagation? Include the different areas
plant fertilization programs used in propagation of IMP and discuss the importance of the scouting
and liner production systems? system.
12. How is salinity measured and controlled in 18. How are propagation equipment and facilities
irrigation water and container media used in sanitized?
propagation? 19. Why are best management practices (BMP) criti-
13. What are some potential problems in using recy- cal for environmental stewardship and the long-
cled irrigation water for propagation? term profitability of the nursery industry?
14. How are accelerated growth techniques (AGT) 20. What are some methods to “harden-off ” liner
used to enhance propagation? plants during propagation and liner production?
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The Propagation Environment

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The Propagation

BOX 1 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 2 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

Light seed collected in the fall from selected woody plant

BOX 3 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

Water-Humidity Control peach cuttings can be rooted under aeroponic systems,

BOX 4 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 2 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

Light seed collected in the fall from selected woody plant

(c) (d) (e)

BOX 5 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

(b) (c) (d)

BOX 6 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

Preparation of the mixture should preferably The Cornell Peat-Lite Mixes

BOX 7 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 8 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 9 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

seeds, and micropropagation of explants. Liner pro- Temperature Control

enhance root initiation, but also to increase carbohy-

Supplemental Photosynthetic Lighting in the Propaga-

BOX 10 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

BOX 11 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 12 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

BOX 13 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

POST-PROPAGATION CARE Handling Container-Grown Plants

BOX 14 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

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